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**Kaifeng** (simplified Chinese: 开封; traditional Chinese: 開封; pinyin: *Kāifēng*) is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Northern Song dynasty. As of the 2020 census, 4,824,016 people lived in Kaifeng's Prefecture, of whom 1,735,581 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of Xiangfu, Longting, Shunhe Hui, Gulou and Yuwantai Districts. Located along the Yellow River's southern bank, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and Heze of Shandong to the northeast. Kaifeng is also a major city in the world by scientific research outputs as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to a campus of Henan University, one of the national key universities in the Double First Class University Plan. Names ----- The postal romanization for the city is "Kaifeng". Its official one-character abbreviation in Chinese is 汴 (*Biàn*). Historically it has also been known as: * *Dàliáng* (Chinese: 大梁) * *Biànliáng* (汴梁) * *Biànzhōu* (汴州) * *Nánjīng* (南京), from its status as the Jurchen Jin's southern capital and not to be confused with modern-day Nanjing * *Dōngjīng* (東京) * *Biànjīng* (汴京) The area was named "Kaifeng" after the Qin's conquest of China in the second century BC. The name literally means "opening the border" and figuratively "hidden" and "vengeance". Its name was originally Qifeng (Chinese: 啓封), but the syllable *qi* (Baxter-Sagart: /\*kʰˤijʔ/) was changed to the essentially synonymous *kai* (/\*Nə-[k]ʰˤəj/, /\*[k]ʰˤəj/) to avoid the naming taboo of Liu Qi (Emperor Jing of Han). Administration -------------- The prefecture-level city of Kaifeng administers five districts and four counties: * Gulou District (鼓楼区) * Longting District (龙亭区) * Yuwangtai District (禹王台区) * Xiangfu District (祥符区) * Shunhe Hui District (顺河回族区) * Weishi County (尉氏县) * Qi County (杞县) * Tongxu County (通许县) * Lankao County (兰考县) | Map | | --- | | **Longting** **Shunhe** **Gulou** **Yuwangtai** **Xiangfu** **QiCounty** **TongxuCounty** **WeishiCounty** **LankaoCounty** | History ------- Kaifeng is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China. As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history. In 364 BC during the Warring States period, the State of Wei founded a city called Daliang (大梁) as its capital in this area. During this period, the first of many canals in the area was constructed linking a local river to the Yellow River. When the State of Qin conquered the State of Wei, Kaifeng was destroyed and abandoned except for a mid-sized market town, which remained in place. During the Han Dynasty, the city underwent some reconstruction. Kaifeng became the capital of Liu Wu (son of Han emperor Wen) when he was enfeoffed as Prince of Liang. Liu Wu restored and constructed many buildings and old city walls. Kaifeng became a center of music, art, a refuge for artists, and of splendid gardens despite the trivial political importance of the city at this period. Early in the 7th century, Kaifeng was transformed into a major commercial hub when it was connected to the Grand Canal as well as through the construction of a canal running to western Shandong. In 781 during the Tang dynasty, a new city was reconstructed and named Bian (汴). Bian was the capital of the Later Liang, Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The Song dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou (Chenqiao incident) in 960. Shortly afterwards, the city underwent further expansion. During the Song, when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng, then the largest and most prosperous city in China, was the capital, with a population of over 400,000 living both inside and outside the city wall. Typhus was an acute problem in the city. The historian Jacques Gernet provides a lively picture of life in this period in his *Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276,* which often draws on *Dongjing Meng Hua Lu*, a nostalgic memoir of the city of Kaifeng. In 1049, the Youguosi Pagoda (佑國寺塔) – or Iron Pagoda as it is called today – was constructed measuring 54.7 m (179 ft) in height. It has survived the vicissitudes of war and floods to become the oldest landmark in this ancient city. Another Song-dynasty pagoda, Po Tower [zh], dating from 974, has been partially destroyed. Another well-known sight was the astronomical clock tower of the engineer, scientist, and statesman Su Song (1020–1101 AD). It was crowned with a rotating armillary sphere that was hydraulically-powered (i.e. by water wheel and a water clock), yet it incorporated an escapement mechanism two hundred years before they were found in the clockworks of Europe and featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive. Kaifeng reached its peak importance in the 11th century as a commercial and industrial center at the intersection of four major canals. During this time, the city was surrounded by three rings of city walls and probably had a population of between 600,000 and 700,000. It is believed that Kaifeng was the largest city in the world from 1013 to 1127. This period ended in 1127 when the city fell to Jurchen invaders during the Jingkang Incident. It subsequently came under the rule of the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which had conquered most of North China during the Jin–Song Wars. While it remained an important administrative center, only the area inside the inner city wall of the early Song remained settled and the two outer rings were abandoned. As the imperial capital of the Song, Kaifeng was conveniently situated along the Grand Canal for logistics supply but militarily vulnerable due to its position on the floodplains of the Yellow River. Kaifeng served as the Jurchen "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and was reconstructed during this time. The Jurchen kept their main capital further north until 1214 when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee from the onslaught of the Mongols. In 1232 they succumbed to the combined Mongol and Song forces in the Mongol siege of Kaifeng. The Mongols captured the city and in 1279 conquered all of China. During the Yuan dynasty Bianliang became the capital of Henan Jiangbei Province, which was established in 1277. In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng, the Mongols and Han Chinese (who defected to the Mongols) slaughtered the male members of the Jin Jurchen Wanyan Imperial family and took the royal women including the Jin concubines and princesses to Mongolia as war booty. Mongols looted the city when it fell, but atypical to most sieges in the time period, they permitted trade. The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies. Male members of the Jurchen Jin Wanyan royal family residing in the city were captured and executed. All Jin imperial concubines, including the empress dowager, were captured and taken north. In 1260, Marco Polo arrived at Kaifeng, and wrote about it in his diaries. The city was briefly captured around the mid-14th century by the Red Turban rebels who made it their capital for ten years. They were crushed by the newly established Ming forces. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1368, Kaifeng was made the capital of Henan province. In 1642, Kaifeng was flooded by the Ming army with water from the Yellow River to prevent the peasant rebel Li Zicheng from taking over. After this disaster, the city was abandoned again. (262nd most destructive act of warfare in Chinese history) In 1662, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty, Kaifeng was rebuilt. Another reconstruction in 1843 followed flooding in 1841, shaping Kaifeng as it stands today. From the 8th to 9th century and up to the 19th century, Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews. As of 2016, there are 20 Jews still left in the city. On 6 June 1938, the city was occupied by the invading Japanese Imperial Army. Kaifeng remained the capital of Henan province until 1954, when it was moved to Zhengzhou. In 1969, the former President of the People's Republic of China, Liu Shaoqi, died from medical neglect while under house arrest in Kaifeng. Climate ------- Kaifeng has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen *Cwa*) that borders on a humid continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cool and mostly dry while summers are hot and humid; spring is warm and sees some, but not much rainfall, while autumn weather is crisp and drier. Precipitation mainly occurs from June to September. | Climate data for Kaifeng (1981–2010 normals, extremes 1971–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.2(66.6) | 25.5(77.9) | 29.9(85.8) | 36.0(96.8) | 39.1(102.4) | 42.5(108.5) | 40.6(105.1) | 38.0(100.4) | 37.4(99.3) | 34.1(93.4) | 26.9(80.4) | 22.2(72.0) | 42.5(108.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 5.2(41.4) | 8.8(47.8) | 14.4(57.9) | 21.6(70.9) | 26.9(80.4) | 31.3(88.3) | 31.5(88.7) | 30.4(86.7) | 26.6(79.9) | 21.5(70.7) | 13.9(57.0) | 7.2(45.0) | 19.9(67.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.3(32.5) | 3.5(38.3) | 8.7(47.7) | 15.7(60.3) | 21.1(70.0) | 25.7(78.3) | 27.0(80.6) | 25.9(78.6) | 21.4(70.5) | 15.6(60.1) | 8.3(46.9) | 2.2(36.0) | 14.6(58.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | −3.6(25.5) | −0.8(30.6) | 3.9(39.0) | 10.3(50.5) | 15.7(60.3) | 20.4(68.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 22.3(72.1) | 17.1(62.8) | 10.9(51.6) | 3.8(38.8) | −1.7(28.9) | 10.1(50.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −15.0(5.0) | −14.2(6.4) | −7.3(18.9) | −1.6(29.1) | 5.0(41.0) | 11.3(52.3) | 15.2(59.4) | 13.1(55.6) | 6.0(42.8) | −0.2(31.6) | −11.7(10.9) | −16.0(3.2) | −16.0(3.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 8.3(0.33) | 10.8(0.43) | 26.2(1.03) | 29.9(1.18) | 58.9(2.32) | 69.5(2.74) | 165.2(6.50) | 132.8(5.23) | 69.5(2.74) | 32.9(1.30) | 21.4(0.84) | 9.6(0.38) | 635(25.02) | | Average relative humidity (%) | 61 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 65 | 65 | 78 | 80 | 75 | 69 | 66 | 64 | 67 | | Source 1: China Meteorological Data Service Center | | Source 2: Weather China (precipitation days 1971–2000) | Transportation -------------- ### Air Downtown Kaifeng is about 55 km (34 mi) away from Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport (IATA: **CGO**, ICAO: **ZHCC**), which is the busiest airport in central China in terms of both passenger and cargo traffic (2017 statistics). With the completion of Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway and Zhengzhou–Xinzheng Airport intercity railway, fast train connections to Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport from Kaifeng became available. As of August 2018, there are 12 pairs of intercity trains running between Xinzheng Airport and Songchenglu every day, with a travel time of 53 min. ### Rail Kaifeng railway station is on the east–west Longhai Railway mainline and provides convenient access to many cities around China, including Beijing West, Shanghai, Shanghai Hongqiao, Tianjin, Xi'an, Jinan, Hangzhou. Services to Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Qingdao are also frequent and convenient. Direct long-distance services to Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Chongqing North, Harbin, Ürümqi, Fuzhou, Dalian and Wuhan are also available. The Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway (郑开城际铁路) started operation on 28 December 2014, connecting the provincial capital Zhengzhou and Kaifeng. The railway currently terminates at Songchenglu, and is planned to be extended to Kaifeng railway station. The designed top speed is 200 km/h (120 mph). Kaifeng North railway station of the Xuzhou–Lanzhou high-speed railway is the main high-speed railway station of the city. It started operation on 10 September 2016. ### Coach There are 4 main coach stations in Kaifeng: * Kaifeng West Coach Station (开封客运西站) * Kaifeng Long-Distance Coach Station (开封长途汽车站) * Kaifeng Jinming Coach Station (开封金明汽车站) * Kaifeng Xiangguosi Coach Station (开封相国寺汽车站) There are frequent services to many neighboring counties, other provincial cities and long-distance services to other provinces. ### Road transport * G30 Lianyungang–Khorgas Expressway * G45 Daqing–Guangzhou Expressway * S82 Zhengzhou–Minquan Expressway * S83 Lankao–Nanyang Expressway * China National Highway 106 * China National Highway 220 * China National Highway 310 Culture ------- ### Religion Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews. It also has a significant Muslim enclave and is notable for its many women's mosques (*nǚsì*), including the oldest *nǚsì* in China: Wangjia Hutong Women's Mosque, which dates to 1820. There are also some active Christian churches, like Sacred-Heart of Kaifeng cathedral (开封耶稣圣心主教座堂). ### Cuisine Kaifeng cuisine plays a dominant part in forming Henan cuisine. Kaifeng offers a wide range of food specialties such as steamed pie and dumplings. Particularly famous is Kaifeng's five-spice bread (*wǔxiāng shāobǐng*), which, like pita, can be opened and filled. In the evening, Kaifeng's streets turn into restaurants while hundreds open their stands and begin selling their food in the famous night market. People from nearby Zhengzhou often come to Kaifeng to visit family members and to enjoy the atmosphere. The Ma Yu Ching's Bucket Chicken House (马豫兴桶子鸡;; *Mǎ Yùxīng Tǒngzi Jī*), located in Kaifeng, is by some accounts the world's oldest restaurant. ### Chrysanthemums The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating varieties of chrysanthemums extends back 1600 years, and the scale of cultivation reached its height during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The festival has since taken place between 18 October and 18 November of every year. The festival reached another milestone on 18 October 2012, when it celebrated its 30th birthday. The opening ceremony was broadcast live during the evening prime slot on Henan Television (HNTV), which broadcasts to all Chinese cities at or above the prefecture level. During the festival, hundreds of chrysanthemums breeds are on show at festival venues, and the flower becomes a common features around the city. Kaifeng has been dubbed the "city of chrysanthemums". Sporting events --------------- ### Zheng-Kai International Marathon The China Zheng-Kai International Marathon [Wikidata] (中国郑开国际马拉松赛, *Zheng-Kai* stands for "Zhengzhou-Kaifeng", also abbreviated "ZK") is a sporting event hosted jointly by the Chinese Athletic Association, the general sport administration of Henan province, Zhengzhou municipal government, and the Kaifeng municipal government. It is the premier international sports competition in Henan province and one of the biggest sports competitions in the Central-West of China. ZK International Marathon is held at the end of March or beginning of April each year. The main part of the event occurs along the famous Zhengkai Express Way (郑开大道). At its launch in 2007, 5600 athletes competed. By 2012, almost 25000 athletes from 28 countries and regions have participated in the ZK International Marathon. Military -------- Kaifeng is the headquarters of the 20th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of three group armies that comprise the Jinan Military Region responsible for the defense of the Yellow River Plain. Kaifeng Air Base is a military airfield in the southern suburb of Kaifeng City. It does not provide civilian aviation service. Gallery ------- * The Iron PagodaThe Iron Pagoda * Qingming Riverside Landscape GardenQingming Riverside Landscape Garden * Entrance to the Dragon PavilionEntrance to the Dragon Pavilion * Reconstructed city gate (inner) of BianjingReconstructed city gate (inner) of Bianjing * Daxiangguo Temple's drum towerDaxiangguo Temple's drum tower * Henan UniversityHenan University * Daliang City GateDaliang City Gate * Imperial Street of the Song DynastyImperial Street of the Song Dynasty * Imperial Street of the Song DynastyImperial Street of the Song Dynasty * Imperial Street of the Song DynastyImperial Street of the Song Dynasty Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Kaifeng is twinned with: * Israel Kiryat Motzkin, Israel * Russia Omsk, Russia * Japan Toda, Japan * United States Wichita, United States * Australia Wingecarribee, Australia * South Korea Yeongcheon, South Korea Colleges and universities ------------------------- ### Public * Henan University (河南大学) (founded 1912) * Kaifeng University (开封大学) (founded 1980) * Kaifeng Institute of Education (开封教育学院) * Yellow River Conservancy Technical Institute (黄河水利职业技术学院) (founded 1929) See also -------- * Historical capitals of China * 1642 Yellow River flood Further reading --------------- * Cotterell, Arthur. (2007). *The Imperial Capitals of China: An Inside View of the Celestial Empire*. London: Pimlico. pp. 304 pages. ISBN 978-1-84595-009-5. * *The Origin of the Kaifeng Jews*, in S. Shaked, ed., *Irano-Judaica*, Jerusalem, 1982, pp. 101–11 | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Preceded byChang'an | **Capital of China (as Kaifeng)** 960−1127 | Succeeded byLin'an |

Kaifeng

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaifeng

Part of the Stele of the Vultures depicting heavy infantry marching in formationPart of the Bayeux Tapestry depicting Norman heavy cavalry charging Saxon shield wallIntense nuclear mushroom cloudPainting of Napoleon and his troops in winter retreating from MoscowSoldiers wading ashore from landing craft on D-DayBritish rhomboid tank and soldiers preparing to advanceClockwise from top-left: Ancient warfare: Stele of the Vultures, c. 2500 BCE Medieval warfare: Battle of Hastings, 1066 Early modern warfare: Retreat from Moscow, 1812 Industrial age warfare: Battle of the Somme, 1916 Modern warfare: Normandy landings, 1944 Nuclear warfare: Nuclear weapon test, 1954 **War** is an intense **armed conflict** between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular or irregular military forces. **Warfare** refers to the common activities and characteristics of types of war, or of wars in general. Total war is warfare that is not restricted to purely legitimate military targets, and can result in massive civilian or other non-combatant suffering and casualties. While some war studies scholars consider war a universal and ancestral aspect of human nature, others argue it is a result of specific socio-cultural, economic, or ecological circumstances. Etymology --------- The English word *war* derives from the 11th-century Old English words *wyrre* and *werre*, from Old French *werre* (also *guerre* as in modern French), in turn from the Frankish \**werra*, ultimately deriving from the Proto-Germanic \**werzō* 'mixture, confusion'. The word is related to the Old Saxon *werran*, Old High German *werran*, and the modern German *verwirren*, meaning 'to confuse, to perplex, to bring into confusion'. History ------- The earliest evidence of prehistoric warfare is a Mesolithic cemetery in Jebel Sahaba, which has been determined to be about 13,400 years old. About forty-five percent of the skeletons there displayed signs of violent death, specifically traumatic bone lesions. Since the rise of the state some 5,000 years ago, military activity has occurred over much of the globe. Estimates for total deaths due to war vary wildly. For the period 3000 BCE until 1991, estimates range from 145 million to 2 billion. In one estimate, primitive warfare prior to 3000 BCE has been thought to have claimed 400 million victims based on the assumption that it accounted for the 15.1% of all deaths. For comparison, an estimated 1,680,000,000 people died from infectious diseases in the 20th century. In *War Before Civilization*, Lawrence H. Keeley, a professor at the University of Illinois, says approximately 90–95% of known societies throughout history engaged in at least occasional warfare, and many fought constantly. Keeley describes several styles of primitive combat such as small raids, large raids, and massacres. All of these forms of warfare were used by primitive societies, a finding supported by other researchers. Keeley explains that early war raids were not well organized, as the participants did not have any formal training. Scarcity of resources meant defensive works were not a cost-effective way to protect the society against enemy raids. William Rubinstein wrote "Pre-literate societies, even those organized in a relatively advanced way, were renowned for their studied cruelty.'" The invention of gunpowder, and its eventual use in warfare, together with the acceleration of technological advances have fomented major changes to war itself. In Western Europe, since the late 18th century, more than 150 conflicts and about 600 battles have taken place. During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial catalyst for the growth of left-wing politics. In 1947, in view of the rapidly increasingly destructive consequences of modern warfare, and with a particular concern for the consequences and costs of the newly developed atom bomb, Albert Einstein famously stated, "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones." Mao Zedong urged the socialist camp not to fear nuclear war with the United States since, even if "half of mankind died, the other half would remain while imperialism would be razed to the ground and the whole world would become socialist." A distinctive feature of war since 1945 is that combat has largely been a matter of civil wars and insurgencies. The major exceptions were the Korean War, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, and the Russo-Ukrainian War. The Human Security Report 2005 documented a significant decline in the number and severity of armed conflicts since the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s. However, the evidence examined in the 2008 edition of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management's "Peace and Conflict" study indicated the overall decline in conflicts had stalled. Types of warfare ---------------- * Asymmetric warfare is the methods used in conflicts between belligerents of drastically different levels of military capability or size. * Biological warfare, or germ warfare, is the use of biological infectious agents or toxins such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi against people, plants, or animals. This can be conducted through sophisticated technologies, like cluster munitions, or with rudimentary techniques like catapulting an infected corpse behind enemy lines, and can include weaponized or non-weaponized pathogens. * Chemical warfare involves the use of weaponized chemicals in combat. Poison gas as a chemical weapon was principally used during World War I, and resulted in over a million estimated casualties, including more than 100,000 civilians. * Cold warfare is an intense international rivalry without direct military conflict, but with a sustained threat of it, including high levels of military preparations, expenditures, and development, and may involve active conflicts by indirect means, such as economic warfare, political warfare, covert operations, espionage, cyberwarfare, or proxy wars. * Conventional warfare is declared war between states in which nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons are not used or see limited deployment. * Cyberwarfare involves the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nation's information systems. * Insurgency is a rebellion against authority, when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents (lawful combatants). An insurgency can be fought via counterinsurgency, and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population, and by political and economic actions of various kinds aimed at undermining the insurgents' claims against the incumbent regime. * Information warfare is the application of destructive force on a large scale against information assets and systems, against the computers and networks that support the four critical infrastructures (the power grid, communications, financial, and transportation). * Nuclear warfare is warfare in which nuclear weapons are the primary, or a major, method of achieving capitulation. * Total war is warfare by any means possible, disregarding the laws of war, placing no limits on legitimate military targets, using weapons and tactics resulting in significant civilian casualties, or demanding a war effort requiring significant sacrifices by the friendly civilian population. * Unconventional warfare, the opposite of conventional warfare, is an attempt to achieve military victory through acquiescence, capitulation, or clandestine support for one side of an existing conflict. Aims ---- Entities contemplating going to war and entities considering whether to end a war may formulate *war aims* as an evaluation/propaganda tool. War aims may stand as a proxy for national-military resolve. ### Definition Fried defines war aims as "the desired territorial, economic, military or other benefits expected following successful conclusion of a war". ### Classification Tangible/intangible aims: * Tangible war aims may involve (for example) the acquisition of territory (as in the German goal of Lebensraum in the first half of the 20th century) or the recognition of economic concessions (as in the Anglo-Dutch Wars). * Intangible war aims – like the accumulation of credibility or reputation – may have more tangible expression ("conquest restores prestige, annexation increases power"). Explicit/implicit aims: * Explicit war aims may involve published policy decisions. * Implicit war aims can take the form of minutes of discussion, memoranda and instructions. Positive/negative aims: * "Positive war aims" cover tangible outcomes. * "Negative war aims" forestall or prevent undesired outcomes. War aims can change in the course of conflict and may eventually morph into "peace conditions" – the minimal conditions under which a state may cease to wage a particular war. Effects ------- ### Military and civilian casualties modern human history Throughout the course of human history, the average number of people dying from war has fluctuated relatively little, being about 1 to 10 people dying per 100,000. However, major wars over shorter periods have resulted in much higher casualty rates, with 100–200 casualties per 100,000 over a few years. While conventional wisdom holds that casualties have increased in recent times due to technological improvements in warfare, this is not generally true. For instance, the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) had about the same number of casualties per capita as World War I, although it was higher during World War II (WWII). That said, overall the number of casualties from war has not significantly increased in recent times. Quite to the contrary, on a global scale the time since WWII has been unusually peaceful. ### Largest by death toll The deadliest war in history, in terms of the cumulative number of deaths since its start, is World War II, from 1939 to 1945, with 70–85 million deaths, followed by the Mongol conquests at up to 60 million. As concerns a belligerent's losses in proportion to its prewar population, the most destructive war in modern history may have been the Paraguayan War (see Paraguayan War casualties). In 2013 war resulted in 31,000 deaths, down from 72,000 deaths in 1990. In 2003, Richard Smalley identified war as the sixth biggest problem (of ten) facing humanity for the next fifty years. War usually results in significant deterioration of infrastructure and the ecosystem, a decrease in social spending, famine, large-scale emigration from the war zone, and often the mistreatment of prisoners of war or civilians. For instance, of the nine million people who were on the territory of the Byelorussian SSR in 1941, some 1.6 million were killed by the Germans in actions away from battlefields, including about 700,000 prisoners of war, 500,000 Jews, and 320,000 people counted as partisans (the vast majority of whom were unarmed civilians). Another byproduct of some wars is the prevalence of propaganda by some or all parties in the conflict, and increased revenues by weapons manufacturers. Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese War (which is sometimes considered part of World War II, or as overlapping). Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of World War II, being over 60 million, surpasses all other war-death-tolls. | Deaths(millions) | Date | War | | --- | --- | --- | | 70–85 | 1939–1945 | World War II (see World War II casualties) | | 60 | 13th century | Mongol Conquests (see Mongol invasions and Tatar invasions) | | 40 | 1850–1864 | Taiping Rebellion (see Dungan Revolt) | | 39 | 1914–1918 | World War I (see World War I casualties) | | 36 | 755–763 | An Lushan Rebellion (death toll uncertain) | | 25 | 1616–1662 | Qing dynasty conquest of Ming dynasty | | 20 | 1937–1945 | Second Sino-Japanese War | | 20 | 1370–1405 | Conquests of Tamerlane | | 20.77 | 1862–1877 | Dungan Revolt | | 5–9 | 1917–1922 | Russian Civil War and Foreign Intervention | ### On military personnel Military personnel subject to combat in war often suffer mental and physical injuries, including depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, disease, injury, and death. > In every war in which American soldiers have fought in, the chances of becoming a psychiatric casualty – of being debilitated for some period of time as a consequence of the stresses of military life – were greater than the chances of being killed by enemy fire. > > — *No More Heroes*, Richard Gabriel Swank and Marchand's World War II study found that after sixty days of continuous combat, 98% of all surviving military personnel will become psychiatric casualties. Psychiatric casualties manifest themselves in fatigue cases, confusional states, conversion hysteria, anxiety, obsessional and compulsive states, and character disorders. > One-tenth of mobilised American men were hospitalised for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945, and after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees. > > — *14–18: Understanding the Great War*, Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, Annette Becker Additionally, it has been estimated anywhere from 18% to 54% of Vietnam war veterans suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South. The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 military personnel. United States military casualties of war since 1775 have totaled over two million. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. During Napoleon's retreat from Moscow, more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians. Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812, less than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500 to 1914 by typhus than from military action. In addition, if it were not for modern medical advances there would be thousands more dead from disease and infection. For instance, during the Seven Years' War, the Royal Navy reported it conscripted 184,899 sailors, of whom 133,708 (72%) died of disease or were 'missing'. It is estimated that between 1985 and 1994, 378,000 people per year died due to war. ### On civilians Most wars have resulted in significant loss of life, along with destruction of infrastructure and resources (which may lead to famine, disease, and death in the civilian population). During the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the population of the Holy Roman Empire was reduced by 15 to 40 percent. Civilians in war zones may also be subject to war atrocities such as genocide, while survivors may suffer the psychological aftereffects of witnessing the destruction of war. War also results in lower quality of life and worse health outcomes. A medium-sized conflict with about 2,500 battle deaths reduces civilian life expectancy by one year and increases infant mortality by 10% and malnutrition by 3.3%. Additionally, about 1.8% of the population loses access to drinking water. Most estimates of World War II casualties indicate around 60 million people died, 40 million of whom were civilians. Deaths in the Soviet Union were around 27 million. Since a high proportion of those killed were young men who had not yet fathered any children, population growth in the postwar Soviet Union was much lower than it otherwise would have been. ### Economic Once a war has ended, losing nations are sometimes required to pay war reparations to the victorious nations. In certain cases, land is ceded to the victorious nations. For example, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has been traded between France and Germany on three different occasions. Typically, war becomes intertwined with the economy and many wars are partially or entirely based on economic reasons. Following World War II, consensus opinion for many years amongst economists and historians was that war can stimulate a country's economy as evidenced by the U.S's emergence from the Great Depression, though modern economic analysis has thrown significant doubt on these views. In most cases, such as the wars of Louis XIV, the Franco-Prussian War, and World War I, warfare primarily results in damage to the economy of the countries involved. For example, Russia's involvement in World War I took such a toll on the Russian economy that it almost collapsed and greatly contributed to the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917. #### World War II World War II was the most financially costly conflict in history; its belligerents cumulatively spent about a trillion U.S. dollars on the war effort (as adjusted to 1940 prices). The Great Depression of the 1930s ended as nations increased their production of war materials. By the end of the war, 70% of European industrial infrastructure was destroyed. Property damage in the Soviet Union inflicted by the Axis invasion was estimated at a value of 679 billion rubles. The combined damage consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, 2,508 church buildings, 31,850 industrial establishments, 40,000 mi (64,374 km) of railroad, 4100 railroad stations, 40,000 hospitals, 84,000 schools, and 43,000 public libraries. Theories of motivation ---------------------- There are many theories about the motivations for war, but no consensus about which are most common. Military theorist Carl von Clausewitz said, "Every age has its own kind of war, its own limiting conditions, and its own peculiar preconceptions." ### Psychoanalytic Dutch psychoanalyst Joost Meerloo held that, "War is often...a mass discharge of accumulated internal rage (where)...the inner fears of mankind are discharged in mass destruction." Other psychoanalysts such as E.F.M. Durban and John Bowlby have argued human beings are inherently violent. This aggressiveness is fueled by displacement and projection where a person transfers his or her grievances into bias and hatred against other races, religions, nations or ideologies. By this theory, the nation state preserves order in the local society while creating an outlet for aggression through warfare. The Italian psychoanalyst Franco Fornari, a follower of Melanie Klein, thought war was the paranoid or projective "elaboration" of mourning. Fornari thought war and violence develop out of our "love need": our wish to preserve and defend the sacred object to which we are attached, namely our early mother and our fusion with her. For the adult, nations are the sacred objects that generate warfare. Fornari focused upon sacrifice as the essence of war: the astonishing willingness of human beings to die for their country, to give over their bodies to their nation. Despite Fornari's theory that man's altruistic desire for self-sacrifice for a noble cause is a contributing factor towards war, few wars have originated from a desire for war among the general populace. Far more often the general population has been reluctantly drawn into war by its rulers. One psychological theory that looks at the leaders is advanced by Maurice Walsh. He argues the general populace is more neutral towards war and wars occur when leaders with a psychologically abnormal disregard for human life are placed into power. War is caused by leaders who seek war such as Napoleon and Hitler. Such leaders most often come to power in times of crisis when the populace opts for a decisive leader, who then leads the nation to war. > Naturally, the common people don't want war; neither in Russia nor in England nor in America, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy or a fascist dictatorship or a Parliament or a Communist dictatorship. ... the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country. > > — Hermann Göring at the Nuremberg trials, 18 April 1946 ### Evolutionary Several theories concern the evolutionary origins of warfare. There are two main schools: One sees organized warfare as emerging in or after the Mesolithic as a result of complex social organization and greater population density and competition over resources; the other sees human warfare as a more ancient practice derived from common animal tendencies, such as territoriality and sexual competition. The latter school argues that since warlike behavior patterns are found in many primate species such as chimpanzees, as well as in many ant species, group conflict may be a general feature of animal social behavior. Some proponents of the idea argue that war, while innate, has been intensified greatly by developments of technology and social organization such as weaponry and states. Psychologist and linguist Steven Pinker argued that war-related behaviors may have been naturally selected in the ancestral environment due to the benefits of victory. He also argued that in order to have credible deterrence against other groups (as well as on an individual level), it was important to have a reputation for retaliation, causing humans to develop instincts for revenge as well as for protecting a group's (or an individual's) reputation ("honor"). Crofoot and Wrangham have argued that warfare, if defined as group interactions in which "coalitions attempt to aggressively dominate or kill members of other groups", is a characteristic of most human societies. Those in which it has been lacking "tend to be societies that were politically dominated by their neighbors". Ashley Montagu strongly denied universalistic instinctual arguments, arguing that social factors and childhood socialization are important in determining the nature and presence of warfare. Thus, he argues, warfare is not a universal human occurrence and appears to have been a historical invention, associated with certain types of human societies. Montagu's argument is supported by ethnographic research conducted in societies where the concept of aggression seems to be entirely absent, e.g. the Chewong and Semai of the Malay peninsula. Bobbi S. Low has observed correlation between warfare and education, noting societies where warfare is commonplace encourage their children to be more aggressive. ### Economic War can be seen as a growth of economic competition in a competitive international system. In this view wars begin as a pursuit of markets for natural resources and for wealth. War has also been linked to economic development by economic historians and development economists studying state-building and fiscal capacity. While this theory has been applied to many conflicts, such counter arguments become less valid as the increasing mobility of capital and information level the distributions of wealth worldwide, or when considering that it is relative, not absolute, wealth differences that may fuel wars. There are those on the extreme right of the political spectrum who provide support, fascists in particular, by asserting a natural right of a strong nation to whatever the weak cannot hold by force. Some centrist, capitalist, world leaders, including Presidents of the United States and U.S. Generals, expressed support for an economic view of war. ### Marxist The Marxist theory of war is quasi-economic in that it states all modern wars are caused by competition for resources and markets between great (imperialist) powers, claiming these wars are a natural result of capitalism. Marxist economists Karl Kautsky, Rosa Luxemburg, Rudolf Hilferding and Vladimir Lenin theorized that imperialism was the result of capitalist countries needing new markets. Expansion of the means of production is only possible if there is a corresponding growth in consumer demand. Since the workers in a capitalist economy would be unable to fill the demand, producers must expand into non-capitalist markets to find consumers for their goods, hence driving imperialism. ### Demographic Demographic theories can be grouped into two classes, Malthusian and youth bulge theories: #### Malthusian Malthusian theories see expanding population and scarce resources as a source of violent conflict. Pope Urban II in 1095, on the eve of the First Crusade, advocating Crusade as a solution to European overpopulation, said: > For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many among you perish in civil strife. Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulchre; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves. > > This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthusian theory of war, in which wars are caused by expanding populations and limited resources. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) wrote that populations always increase until they are limited by war, disease, or famine. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, Mali, Sudan and other countries in the Sahel region have been exacerbated by land degradation and population growth. #### Youth bulge According to Heinsohn, who proposed youth bulge theory in its most generalized form, a youth bulge occurs when 30 to 40 percent of the males of a nation belong to the "fighting age" cohorts from 15 to 29 years of age. It will follow periods with total fertility rates as high as 4–8 children per woman with a 15–29-year delay. Heinsohn saw both past "Christianist" European colonialism and imperialism, as well as today's Islamist civil unrest and terrorism as results of high birth rates producing youth bulges. Among prominent historical events that have been attributed to youth bulges are the role played by the historically large youth cohorts in the rebellion and revolution waves of early modern Europe, including the French Revolution of 1789, and the effect of economic depression upon the largest German youth cohorts ever in explaining the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s. The 1994 Rwandan genocide has also been analyzed as following a massive youth bulge. Youth bulge theory has been subjected to statistical analysis by the World Bank, Population Action International, and the Berlin Institute for Population and Development. Youth bulge theories have been criticized as leading to racial, gender and age discrimination. ### Cultural Geoffrey Parker argues that what distinguishes the "Western way of war" based in Western Europe chiefly allows historians to explain its extraordinary success in conquering most of the world after 1500: > The Western way of war rests upon five principal foundations: technology, discipline, a highly aggressive military tradition, a remarkable capacity to innovate and to respond rapidly to the innovation of others and – from about 1500 onward – a unique system of war finance. The combination of all five provided a formula for military success....The outcome of wars has been determined less by technology, then by better war plans, the achievement of surprise, greater economic strength, and above all superior discipline. > > Parker argues that Western armies were stronger because they emphasized discipline, that is, "the ability of a formation to stand fast in the face of the enemy, where they're attacking or being attacked, without giving way to the natural impulse of fear and panic." Discipline came from drills and marching in formation, target practice, and creating small "artificial kinship groups: such as the company and the platoon, to enhance psychological cohesion and combat efficiency. ### Rationalist Rationalism is an international relations theory or framework. Rationalism (and Neorealism (international relations)) operate under the assumption that states or international actors are rational, seek the best possible outcomes for themselves, and desire to avoid the costs of war. Under one game theory approach, rationalist theories posit all actors can bargain, would be better off if war did not occur, and likewise seek to understand why war nonetheless reoccurs. Under another rationalist game theory without bargaining, the peace war game, optimal strategies can still be found that depend upon number of iterations played. In "Rationalist Explanations for War", James Fearon examined three rationalist explanations for why some countries engage in war: * Issue indivisibilities * Incentives to misrepresent or information asymmetry * Commitment problems "Issue indivisibility" occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining, because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them, but only owned entirely by one side or the other. "Information asymmetry with incentives to misrepresent" occurs when two countries have secrets about their individual capabilities, and do not agree on either: who would win a war between them, or the magnitude of state's victory or loss. For instance, Geoffrey Blainey argues that war is a result of miscalculation of strength. He cites historical examples of war and demonstrates, "war is usually the outcome of a diplomatic crisis which cannot be solved because both sides have conflicting estimates of their bargaining power." Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability to make credible commitments. Within the rationalist tradition, some theorists have suggested that individuals engaged in war suffer a normal level of cognitive bias, but are still "as rational as you and me". According to philosopher Iain King, "Most instigators of conflict overrate their chances of success, while most participants underrate their chances of injury...." King asserts that "Most catastrophic military decisions are rooted in groupthink" which is faulty, but still rational. The rationalist theory focused around bargaining is currently under debate. The Iraq War proved to be an anomaly that undercuts the validity of applying rationalist theory to some wars. ### Political science The statistical analysis of war was pioneered by Lewis Fry Richardson following World War I. More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project, Peter Brecke and the Uppsala Conflict Data Program. The following subsections consider causes of war from system, societal, and individual levels of analysis. This kind of division was first proposed by Kenneth Waltz in *Man, the State, and War* and has been often used by political scientists since then. #### System-level There are several different international relations theory schools. Supporters of realism in international relations argue that the motivation of states is the quest for security, and conflicts can arise from the inability to distinguish defense from offense, which is called the security dilemma. Within the realist school as represented by scholars such as Henry Kissinger and Hans Morgenthau, and the neorealist school represented by scholars such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer, two main sub-theories are: 1. Balance of power theory: States have the goal of preventing a single state from becoming a hegemon, and war is the result of the would-be hegemon's persistent attempts at power acquisition. In this view, an international system with more equal distribution of power is more stable, and "movements toward unipolarity are destabilizing." However, evidence has shown power polarity is not actually a major factor in the occurrence of wars. 2. Power transition theory: Hegemons impose stabilizing conditions on the world order, but they eventually decline, and war occurs when a declining hegemon is challenged by another rising power or aims to preemptively suppress them. On this view, unlike for balance-of-power theory, wars become *more* probable when power is more equally distributed. This "power preponderance" hypothesis has empirical support. The two theories are not mutually exclusive and may be used to explain disparate events according to the circumstance. Liberalism as it relates to international relations emphasizes factors such as trade, and its role in disincentivizing conflict which will damage economic relations. Realists[*who?*] respond that military force may sometimes be at least as effective as trade at achieving economic benefits, especially historically if not as much today. Furthermore, trade relations which result in a high level of dependency may escalate tensions and lead to conflict. Empirical data on the relationship of trade to peace are mixed, and moreover, some evidence suggests countries at war don't necessarily trade less with each other. #### Societal-level * Diversionary theory, also known as the "scapegoat hypothesis", suggests the politically powerful may use war to as a diversion or to rally domestic popular support. This is supported by literature showing out-group hostility enhances in-group bonding, and a significant domestic "rally effect" has been demonstrated when conflicts begin. However, studies examining the increased use of force as a function of need for internal political support are more mixed. U.S. war-time presidential popularity surveys taken during the presidencies of several recent U.S. leaders have supported diversionary theory. #### Individual-level These theories suggest differences in people's personalities, decision-making, emotions, belief systems, and biases are important in determining whether conflicts get out of hand. For instance, it has been proposed that conflict is modulated by bounded rationality and various cognitive biases, such as prospect theory. Ethics ------ The morality of war has been the subject of debate for thousands of years. The two principal aspects of ethics in war, according to the just war theory, are *jus ad bellum* and *jus in bello*. *Jus ad bellum* (right to war), dictates which unfriendly acts and circumstances justify a proper authority in declaring war on another nation. There are six main criteria for the declaration of a just war: first, any just war must be declared by a lawful authority; second, it must be a just and righteous cause, with sufficient gravity to merit large-scale violence; third, the just belligerent must have rightful intentions – namely, that they seek to advance good and curtail evil; fourth, a just belligerent must have a reasonable chance of success; fifth, the war must be a last resort; and sixth, the ends being sought must be proportional to means being used. *Jus in bello* (right in war), is the set of ethical rules when conducting war. The two main principles are proportionality and discrimination. Proportionality regards how much force is necessary and morally appropriate to the ends being sought and the injustice suffered. The principle of discrimination determines who are the legitimate targets in a war, and specifically makes a separation between combatants, who it is permissible to kill, and non-combatants, who it is not. Failure to follow these rules can result in the loss of legitimacy for the just-war-belligerent. The just war theory was foundational in the creation of the United Nations and in international law's regulations on legitimate war. Lewis Coser, an American conflict theorist and sociologist, argued conflict provides a function and a process whereby a succession of new equilibriums are created. Thus, the struggle of opposing forces, rather than being disruptive, may be a means of balancing and maintaining a social structure or society. Limiting and stopping --------------------- Religious groups have long formally opposed or sought to limit war as in the Second Vatican Council document *Gaudiem et Spes*: "Any act of war aimed indiscriminately at the destruction of entire cities of extensive areas along with their population is a crime against God and man himself. It merits unequivocal and unhesitating condemnation." Anti-war movements have existed for every major war in the 20th century, including, most prominently, World War I, World War II, and the Vietnam War. In the 21st century, worldwide anti-war movements occurred in response to the United States invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq. Protests opposing the War in Afghanistan occurred in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Pauses ------ During a war, brief pauses of violence may be called for, and further agreed to – ceasefire, temporary cessation, humanitarian pauses and corridors, days of tranquility, de-confliction arrangements. There a number of disadvantages, obstacles and hesitations against implementing such pauses such as a humanitarian corridor. Pauses in conflict can also be ill-advised, for reasons such as "delay of defeat" and the "weakening of credibility". Natural causes for a pause may include events such as the 2019 coronavirus pandemic. See also -------- * Outline of war * Grey-zone (international relations) ### Bibliography * Barzilai, Gad (1996). *Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East*. Albany: State University of New York Press. * Beer, Francis A. (1974). *How Much War in History: Definitions, Estimates, Extrapolations, and Trends*. Beverly Hills: Sage. * Beer, Francis A. (1981). *Peace against War: The Ecology of International Violence*. San Francisco: W.H.Freeman. * Beer, Francis A. (2001). *Meanings of War and Peace*. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. * Blainey, Geoffrey (1973). *The Causes of War*. Simon and Schuster. * Butler, Smedley (1935). *War is a Racket*. * Chagnon, N. (1983). *The Yanomamo*. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. * Clausewitz, Carl Von (1976). *On War*, Princeton University Press * Codevilla, Angelo (2005). *No Victory, No Peace*. Rowman and Littlefield * Codevilla, Angelo; Seabury, Paul (2006). *War: Ends and Means* (2 ed.). Potomac Books. * Fog, Agner (2017). *Warlike and Peaceful Societies: The Interaction of Genes and Culture*. Open Book Publishers. doi:10.11647/OBP.0128. ISBN 978-1-78374-403-9. * Fornari, Franco (1974). *The Psychoanalysis of War*. Translated by Pfeifer, Alenka. NY: Doubleday Anchor Press. ISBN 978-0385043472. * Fry, Douglas (2004). "Conclusion: Learning from Peaceful Societies". In Kemp, Graham (ed.). *Keeping the Peace*. Routledge. pp. 185–204. * Fry, Douglas (2005). *The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence*. Oxford University Press. * Fry, Douglas (2009). *Beyond War*. Oxford University Press. * Gat, Azar (2006). *War in Human Civilization*. Oxford University Press. * Heinsohn, Gunnar (2003). *Söhne und Weltmacht: Terror im Aufstieg und Fall der Nationen [Sons and Imperial Power: Terror and the Rise and Fall of Nations]* (PDF) (in German). Orell Füssl. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016. * Howell, Signe; Willis, Roy (1990). *Societies at Peace: Anthropological Perspectives.* London: Routledge. * James, Paul; Friedman, Jonathan (2006). *Globalization and Violence, Vol. 3: Globalizing War and Intervention*. London: Sage Publications. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2017. * James, Paul; Sharma, RR (2006). *Globalization and Violence, Vol. 4: Transnational Conflict*. London: Sage Publications. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2017. * Keegan, John (1994). *A History of Warfare*. Pimlico. * Keeley, Lawrence (1996). *War Before Civilization*, Oxford University Press. * Keen, David (2012). *Useful Enemies: When Waging Wars Is More Important Than Winning Them*. Yale University Press. * Kelly, Raymond C. (2000). *Warless Societies and the Origin of War,* University of Michigan Press. * Kemp, Graham; Fry, Douglas (2004). *Keeping the Peace.* New York: Routledge. * Kolko, Gabriel (1994). *Century of War: Politics, Conflicts, and Society since 1914*. New York, NY: The New Press. * Lebow, Richard Ned (2008). *A Cultural Theory of International Relations*. Cambridge University Press. * Lindemann, Thomas (2010). *Causes of War. The Struggle for Recognition*. Colchester, ECPR Press * Maniscalco, Fabio (2007). *World heritage and war: linee guida per interventi a salvaguardia dei beni culturali nelle aree a rischio bellico*. Massa. ISBN 978-88-87835-89-2. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015. * McIntosh, Jane (2002). *A Peaceful Realm: The Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization.* Oxford, UK: Westview Press. * Metz, Steven and Cuccia, Philip R. (2011). *Defining War for the 21st Century,* Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. ISBN 978-1-58487-472-0 * Montagu, Ashley (1978). *Learning Nonaggression.* New York: Oxford University Press. * Otterbein, Keith (2004). *How War Began*. College Station TX: Texas A&M University Press. * Parker, Geoffrey, ed. (2008) *The Cambridge Illustrated History of Warfare: The Triumph of the West* (Cambridge University Press, 1995, revised 2008) online * Pauketat, Timothy (2005). *North American Archaeology*. Blackwell Publishing. * Small, Melvin; Singer, Joel David (1982). *Resort to arms: international and civil wars, 1816–1980*. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-1776-7. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015. * Smith, David Livingstone (2009). *The Most Dangerous Animal: Human Nature and the Origins of War*. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-53744-9. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2015. * Sponsel, Leslie; Gregor, Thomas (1994). *Anthropology of Peace and Nonviolence.* Lynne Rienner Publishing. * Strachan, Hew (2013). *The Direction of War*. Cambridge University Press. * Turchin, P. (2005). *War and Peace and War: Life Cycles of Imperial Nations*. NY: Pi Press. * Van Creveld, Martin. *The Art of War: War and Military Thought* London: Cassell, Wellington House * Wade, Nicholas (2006). *Before the Dawn*, New York: Penguin. * Walzer, Michael (1977). *Just and Unjust Wars*. Basic Books. * War zone safety travel guide from Wikivoyage

War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War

**This article contains Tibetan script.** Without proper rendering support, you may see very small fonts, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Tibetan characters. **This article contains Lao text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Lao script. **This article contains Khmer text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Khmer script. **This article contains Burmese script.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script. The **Mekong** or **Mekong River** is a trans-boundary river in East Asia and Southeast Asia. It is the world's twelfth-longest river and the third-longest in Asia with an estimated length of 4,909 km (3,050 mi) and a drainage area of 795,000 km2 (307,000 sq mi), discharging 475 km3 (114 cu mi) of water annually. From its headwaters in the Tibetan Plateau, the river runs through Southwest China (where it is officially called the **Lancang River**), Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and southern Vietnam. The extreme seasonal variations in flow and the presence of rapids and waterfalls in the Mekong make navigation difficult. Even so, the river is a major trade route between western China and Southeast Asia. The construction of hydroelectric dams along the Mekong in recent decades causes serious problems for the river's ecosystem, including the exacerbation of drought. Names ----- The Mekong was originally called *Mae Nam Khong* from a contracted form of Tai shortened to *Mae Khong*. In Thai and Lao, *Mae Nam* ("Mother of Water[s]") is used for large rivers and *Khong* is the proper name referred to as "River Khong". However, *Khong* is an archaic word meaning "river", loaned from Austroasiatic languages, such as Vietnamese *sông* (from \**krong*) and Mon *kruŋ* "river", which led to Chinese 江 whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as /\*kˤroŋ/ and which long served as the proper name of the Yangtze before becoming a generic word for major rivers. To the early European traders, the Mekong River was also known as *Mekon River*, *May-Kiang River* and *Cambodia River*. The local names for the river include: 1. From Tai: * Thai: แม่น้ำโขง, [mɛ̂ː náːm kʰǒːŋ], or just 'แม่โขง' [mɛ̂ː kʰǒːŋ]. * Lao: ແມ່ນ້ຳຂອງ, [mɛː nâːm kʰɔːŋ], ນ້ຳຂອງ [nâːm kʰɔːŋ]. * Tai Lue: น้ำแม่ของ [nâːm mɛː kʰɔ̌ːŋ], น้ำของ [nâːm kʰɔ̌ːŋ]. * Khmer: មេគង្គ *Mékôngk* [meːkɔŋ], ទន្លេមេគង្គ *Tônlé Mékôngk* [tɔnlei meikɔŋ]. * Burmese: မဲခေါင်မြစ်, IPA: [mɛ́ɡàʊɰ̃ mjɪ̰ʔ]. * Shan: ၼမ်ႉၶွင် [nâm.kʰɔ̌ŋ] or ၼမ်ႉမႄႈၶွင် [nâm.mɛ.kʰɔ̌ŋ]. * Chinese: 湄公河; *Méigōng hé*. * Vietnamese: *Sông Mê Kông* (IPA: [ʂə̄wŋm mē kə̄wŋm]). 2. Other: * Vietnamese: *Sông Cửu Long*, (九龍 *Nine Dragons River* [ʂə̄wŋm kɨ̂w lāwŋm]). * Khmer: ទន្លេធំ *Tônlé Thum* [tɔnlei tʰum] (lit. "Big River" or "Great River"). * Khmuic: [ŏ̞m̥ kʰrɔːŋ̊], 'ŏ̞m̥' means 'river' or 'water', here it means 'river', 'kʰrɔːŋ̊' means 'canal'. So 'ŏ̞m̥ kʰrɔːŋ̊' means 'canal river'. In the ancient time Khmuic people called it '[ŏ̞m̥ kʰrɔːŋ̊ ɲă̞k̥]' or '[ŏ̞m̥ kʰrɔːŋ̊ ɟru̞ːʔ]' which means 'giant canal river' or 'deep canal river' respectively. Course ------ The Mekong rises as the **Za Qu** (Tibetan: རྫ་ཆུ་, Wylie: *rDza chu*, ZYPY: *Za qu*; Chinese: 扎曲; pinyin: *Zā Qū*) and soon becomes known as the **Lancang River** (simplified Chinese: 澜沧江; traditional Chinese: 瀾滄江; pinyin: *Láncāng Jiāng*, from the old name of Lao kingdom Lan Xang; the characters may also be literally understood as "turbulent green river"). It originates in the "three rivers source area" on the Tibetan Plateau in the Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve. The reserve protects the headwaters of, from north to south, the Yellow (Huang He), the Yangtze, and the Mekong Rivers. It flows through the Tibetan Autonomous Region and then southeast into Yunnan Province, and then the Three Parallel Rivers Area in the Hengduan Mountains, along with the Yangtze to its east and the Salween River (Nu Jiang in Chinese) to its west. Then the Mekong meets the China–Myanmar border and flows about 10 km (6.2 mi) along that border until it reaches the tripoint of China, Myanmar and Laos. From there it flows southwest and forms the border of Myanmar and Laos for about 100 km (62 mi) until it arrives at the tripoint of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. This is also the point of confluence between the Ruak River (which follows the Thai–Myanmar border) and the Mekong. The area of this tripoint is sometimes termed the Golden Triangle, although the term also refers to the much larger area of those three countries that was notorious as a drug producing region. From the Golden Triangle tripoint, the Mekong turns southeast to briefly form the border of Laos with Thailand. Khon Pi Long is a series of rapids along a 1.6-kilometre section of the Mekong River dividing Chiang Rai and Bokeo Province in Laos. The name of the rapids means 'where the ghost lost its way'. It then turns east into the interior of Laos, flowing first east and then south for some 400 km (250 mi) before meeting the border with Thailand again. Once more, it defines the Laos-Thailand border for some 850 km (530 mi) as it flows first east, passing the capital of Laos, Vientiane, then turns south. A second time, the river leaves the border and flows east into Laos soon passing the city of Pakse. Thereafter, it turns and runs more or less directly south, crossing into Cambodia. At Phnom Penh the river is joined on the right bank by the river and lake system the Tonlé Sap. When the Mekong is low, the Tonle Sap is a tributary: water flows from the lake and river into the Mekong. When the Mekong floods, the flow reverses: the floodwaters of the Mekong flow up the Tonle Sap. Immediately after the Sap River joins the Mekong by Phnom Penh, the Bassac River branches off the right (west) bank. The Bassac River is the first and main distributary of the Mekong. This is the beginning of the Mekong Delta. The two rivers, the Bassac to the west and the Mekong to the east, enter Vietnam shortly after this. In Vietnam, the Bassac is called the Hậu River (Sông Hậu or Hậu Giang); the main, eastern, branch of the Mekong is called the Tiền River or Tiền Giang. In Vietnam, distributaries of the eastern (main, Mekong) branch include the Mỹ Tho River, the Ba Lai River, the Hàm Luông River, and the Cổ Chiên River. Drainage basin -------------- The Mekong Basin can be divided into two parts: the "upper Mekong basin" in Tibet, and the "lower Mekong basin" from Yunnan downstream from China to the South China Sea. From the point where it rises to its mouth, the most precipitous drop in the Mekong occurs in the upper Mekong basin, a stretch of some 2,200 km (1,400 mi). Here, it drops 4,500 m (14,800 ft) before it enters the lower basin where the borders of Thailand, Laos, China, and Myanmar come together in the Golden Triangle. Downstream from the Golden Triangle, the river flows for a further 2,600 km (1,600 mi) through Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia before entering the South China Sea via a complex delta system in Vietnam. ### Upper basin The upper basin makes up 24% of the total area and contributes 15–20% of the water that flows into the Mekong River. The catchment here is steep and narrow. Soil erosion has been a major problem and approximately 50% of the sediment in the river comes from the upper basin. In Yunnan Province in China, the river and its tributaries are confined by narrow, deep gorges. The tributary river systems in this part of the basin are small. Only 14 have catchment areas that exceed 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi), yet the greatest amount of loss of forest cover in the entire river system per square kilometer has occurred in this region due to heavy unchecked demand for natural resources. In the south of Yunnan, in Simao and Xishuangbanna Prefectures, the river changes as the valley opens out, the floodplain becomes wider, and the river becomes wider and slower. ### Lower basin Major tributary systems develop in the lower basin. These systems can be separated into two groups: tributaries that contribute to the major wet season flows, and tributaries that drain low relief regions of lower rainfall. The first group are left bank tributaries that drain the high rainfall areas of Laos. The second group are those on the right bank, mainly the Mun and Chi Rivers, that drain a large part of northeast Thailand. Laos lies almost entirely within the lower Mekong basin. Its climate, landscape and land use are the major factors shaping the hydrology of the river. The mountainous landscape means that only 16% of the country is farmed under lowland terrace or upland shifting cultivation. With upland shifting agriculture (slash and burn), soils recover within 10 to 20 years but the vegetation does not. Shifting cultivation is common in the uplands of northern Laos and is reported to account for as much as 27% of the total land under rice cultivation. As elsewhere in the basin, forest cover has been steadily reduced during the last three decades by shifting agriculture and permanent agriculture. The cumulative impacts of these activities on the river regime have not been measured. However, the hydrological impacts of land cover changes induced by the Vietnam War were quantified in two sub-catchments of the lower Mekong River basin. Loss of forest cover in the Thai areas of the lower basin has been the highest of all the lower Mekong countries over the past 60 years. On the Khorat Plateau, which includes the Mun and Chi tributary systems, forest cover was reduced from 42% in 1961 to 13% in 1993. Although this part of northeast Thailand has an annual rainfall of more than 1,000 mm, a high evaporation rate means it is classified as a semi-arid region. Consequently, although the Mun and Chi basins drain 15% of the entire Mekong basin, they only contribute 6% of the average annual flow. Sandy and saline soils are the most common soil types, which makes much of the land unsuitable for wet rice cultivation. In spite of poor fertility, however, agriculture is intensive. Glutinous rice, maize, and cassava are the principal crops. Drought is by far the major hydrological hazard in this region. As the Mekong enters Cambodia, over 95% of its flows have already joined the river. From here on downstream the terrain is flat and water levels rather than flow volumes determine the movement of water across the landscape. The seasonal cycle of changing water levels at Phnom Penh results in the unique "flow reversal" of water into and out of the Great Lake via the Tonle Sap River. Phnom Penh also marks the beginning of the delta system of the Mekong River. Here the mainstream begins to break up into an increasing number of branches. In Cambodia, wet rice is the main crop and is grown on the flood plains of the Tonle Sap, Mekong, and Bassac (the Mekong delta distributary known as the Hậu in Vietnam) Rivers. More than half of Cambodia remains covered with mixed evergreen and deciduous broadleaf forest, but forest cover has decreased from 73% in 1973 to 63% in 1993. Here, the river landscape is flat. Small changes in water level determine the direction of water movement, including the large-scale reversal of flow into and out of the Tonle Sap basin from the Mekong River. The Mekong delta in Vietnam is farmed intensively and has little natural vegetation left. Forest cover is less than 10%. In the Central Highlands of Vietnam, forest cover was reduced from over 95% in the 1950s to around 50% in the mid-1990s. Agricultural expansion and population pressure are the major reasons for land use and landscape change. Both drought and flood are common hazards in the Delta, which many people believe is the most sensitive to upstream hydrological change. ### Water flow along its course **Table 1: Country share of Mekong River Basin (MRB) and water flows** | | | | | China | Myanmar | Laos | Thailand | Cambodia | Vietnam | Total | | Basin area (km2) | 165,000 | 24,000 | 202,000 | 184,000 | 155,000 | 65,000 | 795,000 | | Catchment as % of MRB | 21 | 3 | 25 | 23 | 20 | 8 | 100 | | Flow as % of MRB | 16 | 2 | 35 | 18 | 18 | 11 | 100 | By taking into account hydrological regimes, physiography land use, and existing, planned and potential resource developments, the Mekong is divided into six distinct reaches: *Reach 1: Lancang Jiang or Upper Mekong River in China*. In this part of the river, the major source of water flowing into the river comes from melting snow on the Tibetan plateau. This volume of water is sometimes called the "Yunnan component" and plays an important role in the low-flow hydrology of the lower mainstream. Even as far downstream as Kratie, the Yunnan component makes up almost 30% of the average dry season flow. A major concern is that the ongoing and planned expansion of dams and reservoirs on the Mekong mainstream in Yunnan could have a significant effect on the low-flow regime of the lower Mekong basin system. *Reach 2: Chiang Saen to Vientiane and Nong Khai*. This reach is almost entirely mountainous and covered with natural forest although there has been widespread slash and burn agriculture. Although this reach cannot be termed "unspoiled", the hydrological response is perhaps the most natural and undisturbed of all the lower basin. Many hydrological aspects of the lower basin start to change rapidly at the downstream boundary of this reach. On 19 July 2019 this reach of the river dropped to its lowest level in a century. Officials are particularly concerned as July is in the wet season, when mainstream flows are abundant historically. Locals are blaming low water on the newly constructed Xayaburi Dam, as it enters its test phase prior to the start of commercial operation in October 2019. *Reach 3: Vientiane and Nong Khai to Pakse*. The boundary between Reach 2 and 3 is where the Mekong hydrology starts to change. Reach 2 is dominated in both wet and dry seasons by the Yunnan Component. Reach 3 is increasingly influenced by contributions from the large left bank tributaries in Laos, namely the Nam Ngum, Nam Theun, Nam Hinboun, Se Bang Fai, Se Bang Hieng and Se Done Rivers. The Mun-Chi river system from the right bank in Thailand enters the mainstream within this reach. *Reach 4: Pakse to Kratie*. The main hydrological contributions to the mainstream in this reach come from the Se Kong, Se San, and Sre Pok catchments. Together, these rivers make up the largest hydrological sub-component of the lower basin. Over 25% of the mean annual flow volume to the mainstream at Kratie comes from these three river basins. They are the key element in the hydrology of this part of the system, especially to the Tonle Sap flow reversal. *Reach 5: Kratie to Phnom Penh*. This reach includes the hydraulic complexities of the Cambodian floodplain, the Tonle Sap and the Great Lake. By this stage, over 95% of the total flow has entered the Mekong system. The focus turns from hydrology and water discharge to the assessment of water level, over- bank storage and flooding and the hydrodynamics that determine the timing, duration and volume of the seasonal flow reversal into and out of the Great Lake. *Reach 6: Phnom Penh to the South China Sea*. Here the mainstream divides into a complex and increasingly controlled and artificial system of branches and canals. Key features of flow behaviour are tidal influences and salt water intrusion. Every year, 35–50% of this reach is flooded during the rainy season. The impact of road embankments and similar infrastructure developments on the movement of this flood water is an increasingly important consequence of development. Table 2 summarises the mean annual flows along the mainstream. The mean annual flow entering the lower Mekong from China is equivalent to a relatively modest 450 mm depth of runoff. Downstream of Vientiane this increases to over 600 mm as the principal left bank tributaries enter the mainstream, mainly the Nam Ngum and Nam Theun. The flow level falls again, even with the right bank entry of the Mun-Chi system from Thailand. Although the Mun–Chi basin drains 20% of the lower system, average annual runoff is only 250 mm. Runoff in the mainstream increases again with the entry from the left bank of the Se Kong from southern Laos and Se San and Sre Pok from Vietnam and Cambodia. **Table 2: Lower Mekong Mainstream annual flow (1960 to 2004) at selected sites.** | Mainstream site | Catchment area (km2) | Mean annual flow | | | as % total Mekong | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | Discharge m3/s | Volume km3 | Runoff (mm) | | | Chiang Saen | 189,000 | 2,700 | 85 | 450 | 19 | | Luang Prabang | 268,000 | 3,900 | 123 | 460 | 27 | | Chiang Khan | 292,000 | 4,200 | 133 | 460 | 29 | | Vientiane | 299,000 | 4,400 | 139 | 460 | 30 | | Nong Khai | 302,000 | 4,500 | 142 | 470 | 31 | | Nakhon Phanom | 373,000 | 7,100 | 224 | 600 | 49 | | Mukdahan | 391,000 | 7,600 | 240 | 610 | 52 | | Pakse | 545,000 | 9,700 | 306 | 560 | 67 | | Stung Treng | 635,000 | 13,100 | 413 | 650 | 90 | | Kratié | 646,000 | 13,200 | 416 | 640 | 91 | | Basin Total | 760,000 | 14,500 | 457 | 600 | 100 | Flows at Chiang Saen entering the lower basin from Yunnan make up about 15% of the wet season flow at Kratie. This rises to 40% during the dry season, even this far downstream. During the wet season, the proportion of average flow coming from Yunnan rapidly decreases downstream of Chiang Saen, from 70% to less than 20% at Kratie. The dry season contribution from Yunnan is much more significant. The major portion of the balance comes from Laos, which points to a major distinction in the low-flow hydrology of the river. One fraction comes from melting snow in China and Tibet and the rest from over-season catchment storage in the lower basin. This has implications for the occurrence of drought conditions. For example, if runoff from melting snow in any given year is very low, then flows upstream of Vientiane-Nong Khai would be lower. In a large river system like the Mekong, seasonal flows can be quite variable from year to year. Although the pattern of the annual hydrograph is fairly predictable, its magnitude is not. The average monthly flows along the mainstream are listed in Table 3, providing an indication of their range and variability from year to year. At Pakse, for example, flood season flows during August would exceed 20,000 cubic metres per second nine years out of ten, but exceed 34,000 m3/s only one year in ten. Table 3: Mekong Mainstream monthly discharge, 1960–2004 (m3/s). | Month | Chiang Saen | Luang Prabang | Vientiane | Nakhon Phanom | Mukdahan | Pakse | Kratie | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Jan | 1,150 | 1,690 | 1,760 | 2,380 | 2,370 | 2,800 | 3,620 | | Feb | 930 | 1,280 | 1,370 | 1,860 | 1,880 | 2,170 | 2,730 | | Mar | 830 | 1,060 | 1,170 | 1,560 | 1,600 | 1,840 | 2,290 | | Apr | 910 | 1,110 | 1,190 | 1,530 | 1,560 | 1,800 | 2,220 | | May | 1,300 | 1,570 | 1,720 | 2,410 | 2,430 | 2,920 | 3,640 | | Jun | 2,460 | 3,110 | 3,410 | 6,610 | 7,090 | 8,810 | 11,200 | | Jul | 4,720 | 6,400 | 6,920 | 12,800 | 13,600 | 16,600 | 22,200 | | Aug | 6,480 | 9,920 | 11,000 | 19,100 | 20,600 | 26,200 | 35,500 | | Sep | 5,510 | 8,990 | 10,800 | 18,500 | 19,800 | 26,300 | 36,700 | | Oct | 3,840 | 5,750 | 6,800 | 10,200 | 10,900 | 15,400 | 22,000 | | Nov | 2,510 | 3,790 | 4,230 | 5,410 | 5,710 | 7,780 | 10,900 | | Dec | 1,590 | 2,400 | 2,560 | 3,340 | 3,410 | 4,190 | 5,710 | There is little evidence from the last 45 years of data of any systematic changes in the hydrological regime of the Mekong. Geology ------- The internal drainage patterns of the Mekong are unusual when compared to those of other large rivers. Most large river systems that drain the interiors of continents, such as the Amazon, Congo, and Mississippi, have relatively simple dendritic tributary networks that resemble a branching tree. Typically, such patterns develop in basins with gentle slopes where the underlying geological structure is fairly homogeneous and stable, exerting little or no control on river morphology. In marked contrast, the tributary networks of the Salween, Yangtze, and particularly the Mekong, are complex with different sub-basins often exhibiting different, and distinct, drainage patterns. These complex drainage systems have developed in a setting where the underlying geological structure is heterogeneous and active, and is the major factor controlling the course of rivers and the landscapes they carve out. The elevation of the Tibetan Plateau during the Tertiary period was an important factor in the genesis of the south-west monsoon, which is the dominant climatic control influencing the hydrology of the Mekong Basin. Understanding the nature and timing of the elevation of Tibet (and the Central Highlands of Vietnam) therefore helps explain the provenance of sediment reaching the delta and the Tonle Sap Great Lake today. Studies of the provenance of sediments in the Mekong delta reveal a major switch in the source of sediments about eight million years ago (Ma). From 36 to 8 Ma the bulk (76%) of the sediments deposited in the delta came from erosion of the bedrock in the Three Rivers Area. From 8 Ma to the present, however, the contribution from the Three Rivers Area fell to 40%, while that from the Central Highlands rose from 11 to 51%. One of the most striking conclusions of provenance studies is the small contribution of sediment from the other parts of the Mekong basin, notably the Khorat Plateau, the uplands of northern Laos and northern Thailand, and the mountain ranges south of the Three Rivers area. The last glacial period came to an abrupt end about 19,000 years ago (19 ka) when sea levels rose rapidly, reaching a maximum of about 4.5 m above present levels in the early Holocene about 8 ka. At this time the shoreline of the South China Sea almost reached Phnom Penh and cores recovered from near Angkor Borei contained sediments deposited under the influence of tides, and salt marsh and mangrove swamp deposits. Sediments deposited in the Tonle Sap Great Lake about this time (7.9–7.3 ka) also show indications of marine influence, suggesting a connection to the South China Sea. Although the hydraulic relationships between the Mekong and the Tonle Sap Great Lake systems during the Holocene are not well understood, it is clear that between 9,000 and 7,500 years ago the confluence of the Tonle Sap and the Mekong was in proximity to the South China Sea. The present river morphology of the Mekong Delta developed over the last 6,000 years. During this period, the delta advanced 200 km over the continental shelf of the South China Sea, covering an area of more than 62,500 km2. From 5.3 to 3.5 ka the delta advanced across a broad embayment formed between higher ground near the Cambodian border and uplands north of Ho Chi Minh City. During this phase of its development the delta was sheltered from the wave action of long-shore currents and was constructed largely through fluvial and tidal processes. At this time the delta was advancing at a rate of 17–18 m per year. After 3.5 ka, however, the delta had built out beyond the embayment and became subject to wave action and marine currents. These deflected deposition south-eastwards in the direction of the Cà Mau Peninsula, which is one of the most recent features of the delta. For much of its length the Mekong flows through bedrock channels, i.e., channels that are confined or constrained by bedrock or old alluvium in the bed and riverbanks. Geomorphologic features normally associated with the alluvial stretches of mature rivers, such as meanders, oxbow lakes, cut-offs, and extensive floodplains are restricted to a short stretch of the mainstream around Vientiane and downstream of Kratie where the river develops alluvial channels that are free of control exerted by the underlying bedrock. The Mekong basin is not normally considered a seismically active area as much of the basin is underlain by the relatively stable continental block. Nonetheless, the parts of the basin in northern Laos, northern Thailand, Myanmar and China do experience frequent earthquakes and tremors. The magnitude of these earthquakes rarely exceeds 6.5 on the Richter magnitude scale and is unlikely to cause material damage.[*page needed*] History ------- The difficulty of navigating the river has meant that it has divided, rather than united, the people who live near it. The earliest known settlements date to 210 BCE, with Ban Chiang being an excellent example of early Iron Age culture. The earliest recorded civilization was the 1st century Indianised-Khmer culture of Funan, in the Mekong delta. Excavations at Oc Eo, near modern An Giang, have found coins from as far away as the Roman Empire. This was succeeded by the Khmer culture Chenla state around the 5th century. The Khmer empire of Angkor was the last great Indianized state in the region. From around the time of the fall of the Khmer empire, the Mekong was the front line between the emergent states of Siam and Tonkin (North Vietnam), with Laos and Cambodia, then on the coast, torn between their influence. The first European to encounter the Mekong was the Portuguese António de Faria in 1540. A European map of 1563 depicts the river, although even by then little was known of the river upstream of the delta. European interest was sporadic: the Spanish and Portuguese mounted some missionary and trade expeditions, while the Dutch Gerrit van Wuysthoff led an expedition up the river as far as Vientiane in 1641–42. The French invaded the region in the mid-19th century, capturing Saigon in 1861, and establishing a protectorate over Cambodia in 1863. The first systematic European exploration began with the French Mekong Expedition led by Ernest Doudard de Lagrée and Francis Garnier, which ascended the river from its mouth to Yunnan between 1866 and 1868. Their chief finding was that the Mekong had too many falls and rapids to ever be useful for navigation. The river's source was found by Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov in 1900. From 1893, the French extended their control of the river into Laos, establishing French Indochina by the first decade of the 20th century. This lasted until the First and Second Indochina Wars expelled French from its former colony and defeated US-supported governments. During the wars in Indochina in the 1970s, a significant quantity of explosives (sometimes, entire barges loaded with military ordnance) sank in the Cambodian section of the Mekong (as well as in the country's other waterways). Besides being a danger for fishermen, unexploded ordnance also creates problems for bridge and irrigation systems construction. As of 2013, Cambodian volunteers are being trained, with the support of the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement within the US State Department Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, to conduct underwater explosive removal. The many maps of the river basin produced throughout recorded history reflect the region's changing human geography and politics. In 1995, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam established the Mekong River Commission (MRC) to manage and coordinate the use and care of the Mekong. In 1996 China and Myanmar became "dialogue partners" of the MRC and the six countries now work together in a cooperative framework. In 2000, the governments of China, Laos, Thailand and Myanmar signed a *Agreement on Commercial Navigation on Lancang-Mekong River among the Governments of the People’s Republic of China, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, the Union of Myanmar and the Kingdom of Thailand* which is the mechanism for cooperation with regard to riverine trade on the upper stretches of the Mekong. Natural history --------------- The Mekong basin is one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. Only the Amazon boasts a higher level of bio-diversity. Biota estimates for the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) include 20,000 plant species, 430 mammals, 1,200 birds, 800 reptiles and amphibians, and an estimated 850 freshwater fish species (excluding euryhaline species mainly found in salt or brackish water, as well as introduced species). The most species rich orders among the freshwater fish in the river basin are cypriniforms (377 species) and catfish (92 species). New species are regularly described from the Mekong. In 2009, 145 species previously unknown to science were described from the region, including 29 fish species, two bird species, 10 reptiles, five mammals, 96 plants, and six amphibians. Between 1997 and 2015, an average of two new species per week were discovered in the region. The Mekong Region contains 16 WWF Global 200 ecoregions, the greatest concentration of ecoregions in mainland Asia. No other river is home to so many species of very large fish. The biggest include three species of *Probarbus* barbs, which can grow up to 1.5 m (5 ft) and weigh 70 kg (150 lb), the giant freshwater stingray (*Himantura polylepis*, syn. *H. chaophraya*), which can reach at least 5 m (16 ft) in length and 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) in width, the giant pangasius (*Pangasius sanitwongsei*), giant barb (*Catlocarpio siamensis*) and the endemic Mekong giant catfish (*Pangasianodon gigas*). The last three can grow up to about 3 m (10 ft) in length and weigh 300 kg (660 lb). All of these have declined drastically because of dams, flood control, and overfishing. One species of freshwater dolphin, the Irrawaddy dolphin (*Orcaella brevirostris*), was once common in the whole of the lower Mekong but is now very rare, with only 85 individuals remaining. Among other wetland mammals that have been living in and around the river are the smooth-coated otter (*Lutra perspicillata*) and fishing cat (*Prionailurus viverrinus*). The endangered Siamese crocodile (*Crocodylus siamensis*) occurs in small isolated pockets within the northern Cambodian and Laotian portions of the Mekong River. The saltwater crocodile (*Crocodylus porosus*) once ranged from the Mekong Delta up the river into Tonle Sap and beyond but is now extinct in the river, along with being extinct in all of Vietnam and possibly even Cambodia. ### Protected areas * The headwaters of the Mekong in Zadoi County, Qinghai, China, are protected in Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve. The name Sanjiangyuan means "the sources of the Three Rivers". The reserve also includes the headwaters of the Yellow River and the Yangtze. * The section of the river flowing through deep gorges in Yunnan Province is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. * The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve in Cambodia contains the largest lake in Southeast Asia. It is a UNESCO Biosphere reserve. ### Natural phenomena The low tide level of the river in Cambodia is lower than the high tide level out at sea, and the flow of the Mekong inverts with the tides throughout its stretch in Vietnam and up to Phnom Penh. The very flat Mekong delta area in Vietnam is thus prone to flooding, especially in the provinces of An Giang and Dong Thap (Đồng Tháp), near the Cambodian border. Fisheries --------- Aquatic biodiversity in the Mekong River system is the second highest in the world after the Amazon. The Mekong boasts the most concentrated biodiversity per hectare of any river. The largest recorded freshwater fish, a 300 kg giant freshwater stingray in 2022 and previously a 293 kg Mekong giant catfish in 2005, were both caught in the Mekong River. The commercially valuable fish species in the Mekong are generally divided between "black fish", which inhabit low oxygen, slow moving, shallow waters, and "white fish", which inhabit well oxygenated, fast moving, deeper waters. People living within the Mekong River system generate many other sources of food and income from what are often termed "other aquatic animals" (OAAs) such as freshwater crabs, shrimp, snakes, turtles, and frogs. OAAs account for about 20% of the total Mekong catch. When fisheries are discussed, catches are typically divided between the wild capture fishery (i.e., fish and other aquatic animals caught in their natural habitat), and aquaculture (fish reared under controlled conditions). Wild capture fisheries play the most important role in supporting livelihoods. Wild capture fisheries are largely open access fisheries, which poor rural people can access for food and income. Broadly, there are three types of fish habitats in the Mekong: i) the river, including all the main tributaries, rivers in the major flood zone, and the Tonle Sap, which altogether yield about 30% of wild catch landings; ii) rain-fed wetlands outside the river-floodplain zone, including mainly rice paddies in formerly forested areas and usually inundated to about 50 cm, yielding about 66% of wild catch landings; and iii) large water bodies outside the flood zone, including canals and reservoirs yielding about 4% of wild catch landings. The Mekong Basin has one of the world's largest and most productive inland fisheries. An estimated two million tonnes of fish are landed a year, in addition to almost 500,000 tonnes of other aquatic animals. Aquaculture yields about two million tonnes of fish a year. Hence, the lower Mekong basin yields about 4.5 million tonnes of fish and aquatic products annually. The total economic value of the fishery is between US$3.9 and US$7 billion a year. Wild capture fisheries alone have been valued at US$2 billion a year. This value increases considerably when the multiplier effect is included, but estimates vary widely. An estimated 2.56 million tonnes of inland fish and other aquatic animals are consumed in the lower Mekong every year. Aquatic resources make up between 47 and 80% of animal protein in rural diets for people who live in the Lower Mekong Basin. Fish are the cheapest source of animal protein in the region and any decline in the fishery is likely to significantly impact nutrition, especially among the poor. Fish are the staple of the diet in Laos and Cambodia, with around 80% of the Cambodian population's annual protein intake coming from fish caught in the Mekong River system, with no alternative source to replace it. An MRC report claims that dam projects on the Mekong River will reduce aquatic life by 40% by 2020, and predicted that 80% of fish will be depleted by 2040. Thailand will be impacted, as its fish stocks in the Mekong will decline by 55%, Laos will be reduced by 50%, Cambodia by 35%, and Vietnam by 30%. It is estimated that 40 million rural people, more than two-thirds of the rural population in the lower Mekong basin, are engaged in the wild capture fishery. Fisheries contribute significantly to a diversified livelihood strategy for many people, particularly the poor, who are highly dependent on the river and its resources for their livelihoods. They provide a principal form of income for numerous people and act as a safety net and coping strategy in times of poor agricultural harvests or other difficulties. In Laos alone, 71% of rural households (2.9 million people) rely on fisheries for either subsistence or additional cash income. Around the Tonle Sap Lake in Cambodia, more than 1.2 million people live in fishing communes and depend almost entirely on fishing for their livelihoods. Dams ---- The Mekong is already heavily dammed, with many more dams planned and under construction, mostly for generating hydropower. China built ten or eleven cascade dams on the Mekong mainstream between 1995 and mid-2019, leaving Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand without same amount of water as before investment. China, Laos and Cambodia are planning and/or building more. The Mekong has the fastest-growing hydropower construction of any large river basin worldwide. The Lao Government is aiming to lift the nation out of poverty by making it "the battery of Asia". Critics fear that China's ability to control the Mekong's flow gives it leverage over downstream nations who rely on China's goodwill. In a worst-case scenario, China could well make demands on thirsty downstream countries who would not be able to refuse. "China could, in short, use its dams to 'weaponize water'". The Jinghong Dam, as of January 2020[update] the nearest Chinese dam upstream of the Thai border, has caused huge fluctuations in river levels, affecting people's livelihoods downstream by disrupting the river's natural cycle. It is impacting the ecosystem, disturbing the migratory patterns of fish as well as riverbank plants and local agriculture downstream. Navigation ---------- For thousands of years the Mekong River has been an important conduit for people and goods between the many towns on its banks. Traditional forms of trade in small boats linking communities continue today, however the river is also becoming an important link in international trade routes, connecting the six Mekong countries to each other, and also to the rest of the world. The Mekong is still a wild river and navigation conditions vary greatly along its length. Broadly, navigation of the river is divided between upper and lower Mekong, with the "upper" part of the river defined as the stretch north of the Khone Falls in southern Laos and the "lower" part as the stretch below these falls. Narrower and more turbulent sections of water in the upstream parts of the Mekong River, coupled with large annual water level variations continue to present a challenge to navigation. The seasonal variations in water level directly affect trade in this section of the river. Volumes of trade being shipped decrease by more than 50%, primarily due to the reduced draughts available during the low water season (June–January). Despite these difficulties, the Mekong River is already an important link in the transit chain between Kunming and Bangkok with about 300,000 tonnes of goods shipped via this route each year. The volume of this trade is expected to increase by 8–11% per year. Port infrastructure is being expanded to accommodate the expected growth in traffic, with new facilities planned for Chiang Saen port. In Laos, 50 and 100 DWT vessels are operated for regional trade. Cargos carried are timber, agricultural products, and construction materials. Thailand imports a wide variety of products from China, including vegetables, fruit, agricultural products, and fertilisers. The main exports from Thailand are dried longan, fish oil, rubber products, and consumables. Nearly all the ships carrying cargo to and from Chiang Saen Port are 300 DWT Chinese flag vessels. Waterborne trade in the lower Mekong countries of Vietnam and Cambodia has grown significantly, with trends in container traffic at Phnom Penh port and general cargo through Can Tho port both showing steady increases until 2009 when a decrease in cargo volumes can be attributed to the global financial crisis and a subsequent decline in demand for the export of garments to the US. In 2009, Mekong trade received a significant boost with the opening of a new deep-water port at Cai Mep in Vietnam. This new port has generated a renewed focus on the Mekong River as a trade route. The Cai Mep container terminals can accommodate vessels with a draught of 15.2 m, equivalent to the largest container ships in the world. These mother vessels sail directly to Europe or the United States, which means that goods can be shipped internationally to and from Phnom Penh with only a single transshipment at Cai Mep. As an international river, a number of agreements exist between the countries that share the Mekong to enable trade and passage between them. The most important of these, which address the full length of the river, are: * Agreement between China and Lao PDR on Freight and Passenger Transport along the Lancang–Mekong River, adopted in November 1994. * Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, Article 9, Freedom of Navigation, 5 April 1995, Chiang Rai. * Hanoi Agreement between Cambodia and Viet Nam on Waterway Transportation, 13 December 1998. * Agreement between and among the Governments of the Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam for Facilitation of Cross border Transport of Goods and People, (amended at Yangon, Myanmar), signed in Vientiane, 26 November 1999. * Agreement on Commercial Navigation on Lancang–Mekong River among the governments of China, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand, adopted at Tachileik, 20 April 2000. * Phnom Penh Agreement between Cambodia and Vietnam on the Transit of Goods, 7 September 2000. * New Agreement on Waterway Transportation between Vietnam and Cambodia, signed in Phnom Penh, 17 December 2009. In December 2016, the Thai cabinet of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha agreed "in principle" to a plan to dredge stretches of the Mekong and demolish rocky outcrops that are hindrances to easy navigation. The international Lancang-Mekong River navigation improvement plan for 2015–2025, conceived by China, Myanmar, Lao, and Thailand, aims to make the river more navigable for 500-tonne cargo vessels sailing the river from Yunnan to Luang Prabang, a distance of 890 kilometres. China has been the driving force behind the demolition plan as it aims to expand trade in the area. The plan is split into two phases. The first phase, from 2015 to 2020, involves a survey, a design, and an assessment of the environmental and social impacts of the project. These have to be approved by the four countries involved: China, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand. The second phase (2020–2025) involves navigational improvements from Simao in China to 243 border posts in China and Myanmar, a distance of 259 km. Local groups have countered that native inhabitants already operate their boats year-round and that the plan to blast the rapids is not about making life better for local people, but about enabling year-round traffic of large Chinese commercial boats. On 4 February 2020, the Thai Cabinet voted to stop the project to blast and dredge 97 km of the river bed after Beijing failed to stump up the money for further surveys of the affected area. Bridges ------- Construction of Myanmar–Laos Friendship Bridge started on 19 February 2013. The bridge will be 691.6 m (2,269 ft) long and have an 8.5 m (28 ft) wide two-lane motorway. The Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge (Thai: สะพานมิตรภาพ ไทย-ลาว, RTGS: *Saphan Mittraphap Thai-Lao*) connects Nong Khai city with Vientiane in Laos. The 1,170 m-long (3,840 ft) bridge opened on 8 April 1994. It has two 3.5 m-wide (11 ft) lanes with a single railway line in the middle. On 20 March 2004, the Thai and Lao governments agreed to extend the railway to Tha Nalaeng in Laos. This extension has since been completed. The Second Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge connects Mukdahan to Savannakhet. The two-lane, 12 m-wide (39 ft), 1,600 m-long (5,200 ft) bridge opened to the public on 9 January 2007. The Third Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge opened for traffic on 11 November 2011, connecting Nakhon Phanom Province (Thailand) and Thakhek (Laos), as part of Asian Highway 3. The Chinese and Thai governments agreed to build the bridge and share the estimated US$33 million cost. The Fourth Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge opened to traffic on 11 December 2013. It links Chiang Rai Province, Thailand with Ban Houayxay, Laos. There is one bridge over the Mekong entirely within Laos. Unlike the Friendship Bridges, it is not a border crossing. It is at Pakse in Champasak Province. It is 1,380 m (4,528 ft) long, and was completed in 2000. 15°6′19.95″N 105°48′49.51″E / 15.1055417°N 105.8137528°E / 15.1055417; 105.8137528 (Pakxe)). The Kizuna Bridge is in Cambodia, in the city of Kampong Cham, on the road linking Phnom Penh with the remote provinces of Ratanakiri and Mondolkiri, and Laos. The bridge opened for traffic on 11 December 2001. The Prek Tamak Bridge, 40 km (25 mi) north of Phnom Penh opened in 2010. Phnom Penh itself has no bridge under construction yet, although two new bridges have recently opened on the Tonle Sap, and the main bridge on the highway to Ho Chi Minh was duplicated in 2010. Another new bridge was built at Neak Leung on the Phnom Penh to Ho Chi Minh Highway 1 with Japanese government assistance, and opened in 2015. In Vietnam, since the year 2000 Mỹ Thuận Bridge crosses the first channel—the left, main branch of the Mekong, the Sông Tiền or Tiền Giang—near Vĩnh Long and since 2008 Rạch Miễu Bridge crosses it near Mỹ Tho, between the provinces of Tiền Giang and Bến Tre. Cần Thơ Bridge crosses the second channel—the right, main distributary of the Mekong, the Bassac (Song Hau). Inaugurated in 2010, it is the longest main span cable-stayed bridge in Southeast Asia. Environmental issues -------------------- Drought linked to a changing climate and dozens of hydroelectric dams are damaging the Mekong ecosystem. When drought ends and the inevitable floods begin, the effects of Mekong dams on flood pulse dynamics over the entire Lower Mekong are poorly understood. Sewage treatment is rudimentary in towns and urban areas throughout much of the Mekong's length, such as Vientiane in Laos. Water pollution impacts the river's ecological integrity as a result. Much of the 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic present on earth makes its way to the oceans. Ninety percent of plastic in the oceans is flushed there by just 10 rivers. The Mekong is one of them. A growing number of academics, NGOs, and scientists have urged the international community and the Mekong River Commission to reduce the use of hydropower, giving concerns of long-term sustainability. Some of them have urged an immediate moratorium on new construction of hydropower projects and a shift to solar and other forms of renewable energy, which are becoming more competitive and faster to install. See also -------- * Greater Mekong Subregion * Greater Mekong Sub-region Academic and Research Network * GMS Environment Operations Center * Indochina * Sekong River * Mekong River Basin Hydropower * Mekong River massacre 2011 killings on Mekong river * Stung Sen River * Mekong Expedition of 1866-1868 * Fair river sharing Further reading --------------- * Kuenzer, C., I. Campbell, M. Roch, P. Leinenkugel, V. Q. Tuan and S. Dech (2012): Understanding the impact of hydropower developments in the context of upstream–downstream relations in the Mekong river basin. In: Sustainability Science 8 (4), pp. 565–584. DOI: 10.1007/s11625-012-0195-z. * Kuenzer, C., H. Guo, J. Huth, P. Leinenkugel, X. Li and S. Dech (2013): Flood Mapping and Flood Dynamics of the Mekong Delta. ENVISAT-ASAR-WSM Based Time-Series Analyses. In: Remote Sensing 5, pp. 687–715. DOI: 10.3390/rs5020687. * Leinenkugel, P., C. Kuenzer, N. Oppelt and S. Dech (2013): Characterisation of land surface phenology and land cover based on moderate resolution satellite data in cloud prone areas – A novel product for the Mekong Basin. In: Remote Sensing of Environment 136, pp. 180–198. DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2013.05.004. * Moder, F., C. Kuenzer, Z. Xu, P. Leinenkugel and Q. Bui Van (2012): IWRM for the Mekong Basin. In: Renaud, F. G. and C. Kuenzer (eds.): The Mekong Delta System. Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 133–166. * Renaud, F. G. und C. Kuenzer (2012): The Mekong Delta System. Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta (= Springer Environmental Science and Engineering). Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-3961-1. * Kuenzer, C. and F. G. Renaud (2012): Climate Change and Environmental Change in River Deltas Globally. In: Renaud, F. G. and C. Kuenzer (eds.): The Mekong Delta System. Interdisciplinary Analyses of a River Delta. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 7–48. * Kuenzer, C. (2014): Remote Sensing the Mekong. In: International Journal of Remote Sensing 35 (8), pp. 2747–2751. DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2014.890377. * Kuenzer, C., P. Leinenkugel, M. Vollmuth and S. Dech (2014): Comparing global land-cover products – implications for geoscience applications: an investigation for the trans-boundary Mekong Basin. In: International Journal of Remote Sensing 35 (8), pp. 2752–2779. DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2014.890305. * Shoemaker, Bruce; Robichaud, William, eds. (November 2019). *Dead in the Water; Global Lessons from the World Bank's Model Hydropower Project in Laos* (Paper ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299317942. Retrieved 26 November 2019.

Mekong

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekong

**Ice** is water frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 32 °F, 0 °C, or 273.15 K. Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color. In the Solar System, ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects. Beyond the Solar System, it occurs as interstellar ice. It is abundant on Earth's surface – particularly in the polar regions and above the snow line – and, as a common form of precipitation and deposition, plays a key role in Earth's water cycle and climate. It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice spikes and aggregates from snow as glaciers and ice sheets. Ice exhibits at least eighteen phases (packing geometries), depending on temperature and pressure. When water is cooled rapidly (quenching), up to three types of amorphous ice can form depending on its history of pressure and temperature. When cooled slowly, correlated proton tunneling occurs below −253.15 °C (20 K, −423.67 °F) giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena. Virtually all ice on Earth's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice Ih (spoken as "ice one h") with minute traces of cubic ice, denoted as ice Ic and, more recently found, Ice VII inclusions in diamonds. The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below 0 °C (273.15 K, 32 °F) at standard atmospheric pressure. It may also be deposited directly by water vapor, as happens in the formation of frost. The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation. Ice is used in a variety of ways, including for cooling, for winter sports, and ice sculpting. Physical properties ------------------- As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a mineral. It possesses a regular crystalline structure based on the molecule of water, which consists of a single oxygen atom covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, or H–O–H. However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of hydrogen bonds between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice. An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at atmospheric pressure—is approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%. The density of ice is 0.9167–0.9168 g/cm3 at 0 °C and standard atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), whereas water has a density of 0.9998–0.999863 g/cm3 at the same temperature and pressure. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm3, at 4 °C and begins to lose its density as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of ice as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid. Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm3 at −180 °C (93 K). When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water). The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from frost heaving. It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes. The result of this process is that ice (in its most common form) floats on liquid water, which is an important feature in Earth's biosphere. It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some cases permanently, from the bottom up, resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh and sea water. Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow light to pass through while protecting the underside from short-term weather extremes such as wind chill. This creates a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies. When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide food for animals such as krill and specialised fish like the bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as emperor penguins and minke whales. When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C. During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C. While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules. Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water. The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the *heat of fusion*. As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch. Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies. Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water. Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice. Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself. For instance, icebergs containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green. Because ice in natural environments is usually close to its melting temperature, its hardness shows pronounced temperature variations. At its melting point, ice has a Mohs hardness of 2 or less, but the hardness increases to about 4 at a temperature of −44 °C (−47 °F) and to 6 at a temperature of −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F), the vaporization point of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice). ### Phases Ice may be any one of the 19 known solid crystalline phases of water, or in an amorphous solid state at various densities. Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at *higher* temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together. However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: for some pressures higher than 1 atm (0.10 MPa), water freezes at a temperature *below* 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below. The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers. Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist at the triple point, which is exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C) at a pressure of 611.657 Pa. The kelvin was defined as 1/273.16 of the difference between this triple point and absolute zero, though this definition changed in May 2019. Unlike most other solids, ice is difficult to superheat. In an experiment, ice at −3 °C was superheated to about 17 °C for about 250 picoseconds. Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in 19 separate known crystalline phases. With care, at least 15 of these phases (one of the known exceptions being ice X) can be recovered at ambient pressure and low temperature in metastable form. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, proton ordering, and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are IV and XII. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. In 2006, XIII and XIV were discovered. Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices Ih, V, and XII respectively. In 2009, ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and −143 °C. At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to become a metal; this has been variously estimated to occur at 1.55 TPa or 5.62 TPa. As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid water (ASW) of varying densities. Water in the interstellar medium is dominated by amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form of water in the universe. Low-density ASW (LDA), also known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for noctilucent clouds on Earth and is usually formed by deposition of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions. High-density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice Ih or LDA at GPa pressures. Very-high-density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to 160 K under 1–2 GPa pressures. In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice (the predominant form found on Earth) is extremely rare. Amorphous ice is more common; however, hexagonal crystalline ice can be formed by volcanic action. Ice from a theorized superionic water may possess two crystalline structures. At pressures in excess of 500,000 bars (7,300,000 psi) such *superionic ice* would take on a body-centered cubic structure. However, at pressures in excess of 1,000,000 bars (15,000,000 psi) the structure may shift to a more stable face-centered cubic lattice. It is speculated that superionic ice could compose the interior of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune. | Phase | Characteristics | | --- | --- | | Amorphous ice | Amorphous ice is ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in four forms: low-density (LDA) formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, medium-density (MDA), high-density (HDA) and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA), forming at higher pressures. LDA forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water ("hyperquenched glassy water", HGW), by depositing water vapour on very cold substrates ("amorphous solid water", ASW) or by heating high density forms of ice at ambient pressure ("LDA"). Recently, a medium-density amorphous form ("MDA") has been shown to exist, created by ball-milling ice Ih at low temperatures. | | Ice Ih | Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic. | | Ice Ic | A metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130 and 220 K, and can exist up to 240 K, when it transforms into ice Ih. It may occasionally be present in the upper atmosphere. More recently, it has been shown that many samples which were described as cubic ice were actually stacking disordered ice with trigonal symmetry. The first samples of ice I with cubic symmetry (i.e. cubic ice) were only reported in 2020. | | Ice II | A rhombohedral crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190–210 K. When heated, it undergoes transformation to ice III. | | Ice III | A tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. Denser than water. | | Ice IV | A metastable rhombohedral phase. It can be formed by heating high-density amorphous ice slowly at a pressure of 810 MPa. It does not form easily without a nucleating agent. | | Ice V | A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases. | | Ice VI | A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits Debye relaxation. | | Ice VII | A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms' positions are disordered. Exhibits Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices. | | Ice VIIt | Forms at around 5 GPa, when Ice VII becomes tetragonal. | | Ice VIII | A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. It is formed from ice VII, by cooling it below 5 °C (278 K) at 2.1 GPa. | | Ice IX | A tetragonal phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from 208 K to 165 K, stable below 140 K and pressures between 200 MPa and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm3, slightly higher than ordinary ice. | | Ice X | Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at pressures around 70 GPa, or perhaps as low as 30 GPa. | | Ice XI | An orthorhombic, low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is ferroelectric. Ice XI is considered the most stable configuration of ice Ih. | | Ice XII | A tetragonal, metastable, dense crystalline phase. It is observed in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77 K to about 183 K at 810 MPa. It has a density of 1.3 g·cm−3 at 127 K (i.e., approximately 1.3 times denser than water). | | Ice XIII | A monoclinic crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to below 130 K at 500 MPa. The proton-ordered form of ice V. | | Ice XIV | An orthorhombic crystalline phase. Formed below 118 K at 1.2 GPa. The proton-ordered form of ice XII. | | Ice XV | A proton-ordered form of ice VI formed by cooling water to around 80–108 K at 1.1 GPa. | | Ice XVI | The least dense crystalline form of water, topologically equivalent to the empty structure of sII clathrate hydrates. | | Square ice | Square ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene. The material was a new crystalline phase of ice when it was first reported in 2014. The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium. The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure. | | Ice XVII | A porous hexagonal crystalline phase with helical channels, with density near that of ice XVI. Formed by placing hydrogen-filled ice in a vacuum and increasing the temperature until the hydrogen molecules escape. | | Ice XVIII | A form of water also known as superionic water or superionic ice in which oxygen ions develop a crystalline structure while hydrogen ions move freely. | | Ice XIX | Another phase related to ice VI formed by cooling water to around 100 K at approximately 2 GPa. | ### Friction properties The low coefficient of friction ("slipperiness") of ice has been attributed to the pressure of an object coming into contact with the ice, melting a thin layer of the ice and allowing the object to glide across the surface. For example, the blade of an ice skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a thin layer, providing lubrication between the ice and the blade. This explanation, called "pressure melting", originated in the 19th century. However, it does not account for skating on ice temperatures lower than −4 °C (25 °F; 269 K), which is often skated upon. Also, the effect of pressure melting is too small to account for the reduced friction as commonly experienced. A second theory describing the coefficient of friction of ice suggested that ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water). These molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by any object. However, the significance of this hypothesis is disputed by experiments showing a high coefficient of friction for ice using atomic force microscopy. A third theory is "friction heating", which suggests that friction of the material is the cause of the ice layer melting. However, this theory does not sufficiently explain why ice is slippery when standing still even at below-zero temperatures. A comprehensive theory of ice friction takes into account all the above-mentioned friction mechanisms. This model allows quantitative estimation of the friction coefficient of ice against various materials as a function of temperature and sliding speed. In typical conditions related to winter sports and tires of a vehicle on ice, melting of a thin ice layer due to the frictional heating is the primary reason for the slipperiness. The mechanism controlling the frictional properties of ice is still an active area of scientific study. Natural formation ----------------- The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the *cryosphere.* Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle. Glaciers and snowpacks are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt. Snowmelt is an important source of seasonal fresh water. The World Meteorological Organization defines several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, influence and so on. Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. ### On the oceans Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of drift ice floating in the water, fast ice fixed to a shoreline or anchor ice if attached to the sea bottom. Ice which calves (breaks off) from an ice shelf or glacier may become an iceberg. Sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to form pressure ridges up to 12 metres (39 ft) tall. Navigation through areas of sea ice occurs in openings called "polynyas" or "leads" or requires the use of a special ship called an "icebreaker". ### On land and structures Ice on land ranges from the largest type called an "ice sheet" to smaller ice caps and ice fields to glaciers and ice streams to the snow line and snow fields. Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys. Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer. This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle. The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick. Freezing rain is a type of winter storm called an ice storm where rain falls and then freezes producing a glaze of ice. Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, or stalagmite-like forms as water drips and re-freezes. The term "ice dam" has three meanings (others discussed below). On structures, an ice dam is the buildup of ice on a sloped roof which stops melt water from draining properly and can cause damage from water leaks in buildings. ### On rivers and streams Ice which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform and stable than ice which forms on calm water. Ice jams (sometimes called "ice dams"), when broken chunks of ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers. Ice jams can cause flooding, damage structures in or near the river, and damage vessels on the river. Ice jams can cause some hydropower industrial facilities to completely shut down. An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier which may produce a proglacial lake. Heavy ice flows in rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an icebreaker to keep navigation possible. Ice discs are circular formations of ice surrounded by water in a river. Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions. ### On lakes Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on lakes is generally four types: primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate. Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of the heat flow. Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow. Shelf ice occurs when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore. Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake. An ice shove occurs when ice movement, caused by ice expansion and/or wind action, occurs to the extent that ice pushes onto the shores of lakes, often displacing sediment that makes up the shoreline. ### In the air #### Rime Rime is a type of ice formed on cold objects when drops of water crystallize on them. This can be observed in foggy weather, when the temperature drops during the night. Soft rime contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice. Hard rime is comparatively dense. ### Pellets Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of precipitation is also referred to as "sleet" by the United States National Weather Service. (In British English "sleet" refers to a mixture of rain and snow.) Ice pellets are usually smaller than hailstones. They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is *PL*. Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 and 3,000 metres (4,900 and 9,800 ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season, but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front. #### Hail Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more. Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in) and GS for smaller. Stones of 19 millimetres (0.75 in), 25 millimetres (1.0 in) and 44 millimetres (1.75 in) are the most frequently reported hail sizes in North America. Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb). In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud. Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F). Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration. The growth rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes vanishingly small much below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m). Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations. #### Snow Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (255 K; 0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this "nucleus". Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (238 K; −31 °F). In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or "ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor – what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective, although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei are used in cloud seeding. The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor onto the ice surfaces. #### Diamond dust So-called "diamond dust", also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching −40 °C (−40 °F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air. The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is *IC*. Ablation -------- Ablation of ice refers to both its melting and its dissolution. The melting of ice means entails the breaking of hydrogen bonds between the water molecules. The ordering of the molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid melts to become a liquid. This is achieved by increasing the internal energy of the ice beyond the melting point. When ice melts it absorbs as much energy as would be required to heat an equivalent amount of water by 80 °C. While melting, the temperature of the ice surface remains constant at 0 °C. The rate of the melting process depends on the efficiency of the energy exchange process. An ice surface in fresh water melts solely by free convection with a rate that depends linearly on the water temperature, *T*∞, when *T*∞ is less than 3.98 °C, and superlinearly when *T*∞ is equal to or greater than 3.98 °C, with the rate being proportional to (T∞ − 3.98 °C)*α*, with *α* = 5/3 for *T*∞ much greater than 8 °C, and α = 4/3 for in between temperatures *T*∞. In salty ambient conditions, dissolution rather than melting often causes the ablation of ice. For example, the temperature of the Arctic Ocean is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice. The phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing salt and water molecules, similar to the dissolution of sugar in water, even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar. Thus the dissolution rate is limited by salt transport whereas melting can occur at much higher rates that are characteristic for heat transport.[*clarification needed*] Role in human activities ------------------------ Humans have used ice for cooling and food preservation for centuries, relying on harvesting natural ice in various forms and then transitioning to the mechanical production of the material. Ice also presents a challenge to transportation in various forms and a setting for winter sports. ### Cooling Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling. In 400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in from ice pools or during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled *refrigerators*, called yakhchal (meaning *ice storage*). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m3) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made of a special mortar called *sarooj*, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days. The ice was used to chill treats for royalty. #### Harvesting There were thriving industries in 16th–17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the Thames Estuary were flooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses, and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters. This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had seen the same activity in China. Ice was imported into England from Norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823. In the United States, the first cargo of ice was sent from New York City to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1799, and by the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become a big business. Frederic Tudor, who became known as the "Ice King", worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice, especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice trade. Trieste sent ice to Egypt, Corfu, and Zante; Switzerland, to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied from Bavarian lakes. The Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton for air conditioning. Ice houses were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and an early type of refrigerator known as an icebox was cooled using a block of ice placed inside it. In many cities, it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer. The advent of artificial refrigeration technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete. Ice is still harvested for ice and snow sculpture events. For example, a swing saw is used to get ice for the Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival each year from the frozen surface of the Songhua River. ### Artificial production The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is by the 13th-century writings of Arab historian Ibn Abu Usaybia in his book *Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba* concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybi’a attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known. #### Mechanical production Ice is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice. Most commercial icemakers produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques. Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day. In 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000. Home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in icemaker, which will typically make ice cubes or crushed ice. Stand-alone icemaker units that make ice cubes are often called ice machines. ### Transportation Ice can present challenges to safe transportation on land, sea and in the air. #### Land travel Ice forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard. Black ice is very difficult to see, because it lacks the expected frosty surface. Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles. Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up. Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long and laborious process. Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows. This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving, if the outside temperature is low enough. Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals. It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window defrosters to solve the problem. A similar problem can happen in homes, which is one reason why many colder regions require double-pane windows for insulation. When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on lakes and other bodies of water, although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures. The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with automobiles and trucks. Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 cm (11+3⁄4 in). #### Water-borne travel For ships, ice presents two distinct hazards. First, spray and freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, and to require it to be hacked off or melted with steam hoses. Second, icebergs – large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) – can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway. Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous being the *Titanic*. For harbors near the poles, being ice-free, ideally all year long, is an important advantage. Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland), and Vardø (Norway). Harbors which are not ice-free are opened up using icebreakers. #### Air travel For aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers. As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation. If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft. During the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic, the British aviators Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown encountered such icing conditions – Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they were flying. One vulnerability effected by icing that is associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the carburetor. As air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes adiabatic cooling. Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburetor will be colder, and tend to ice up. This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail. For this reason, aircraft reciprocating engines with carburetors are provided with carburetor air intake heaters. The increasing use of fuel injection—which does not require carburetors—has made "carb icing" less of an issue for reciprocating engines. Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but recent evidence indicates that they can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by internal icing in certain types of atmospheric conditions much more easily than previously believed. In most cases, the engines can be quickly restarted and flights are not endangered, but research continues to determine the exact conditions which produce this type of icing, and find the best methods to prevent, or reverse it, in flight. ### Recreation and sports Ice also plays a central role in winter recreation and in many sports such as ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey, bandy, ice fishing, ice climbing, curling, broomball and sled racing on bobsled, luge and skeleton. Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the Winter Olympic Games. A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to ice yachting. Another sport is ice racing, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt track racing). The sport has even been modified for ice rinks. ### Other uses #### As thermal ballast * Ice is used to cool and preserve food in iceboxes. * Ice cubes or crushed ice can be used to cool drinks. As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink near 0 °C (32 °F). * Ice can be used as part of an air conditioning system, using battery- or solar-powered fans to blow hot air over the ice. This is especially useful during heat waves when power is out and standard (electrically powered) air conditioners do not work. * Ice can be used (like other cold packs) to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body. #### As structural material * Engineers used the substantial strength of pack ice when they constructed Antarctica's first floating ice pier in 1973. Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships. Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter. They build upon naturally occurring frozen seawater in McMurdo Sound until the dock reaches a depth of about 22 feet (6.7 m). Ice piers have a lifespan of three to five years. * Structures and ice sculptures are built out of large chunks of ice or by spraying water The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles), and not practical for long-term habitation. Ice hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. Igloos are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow. * In cold climates, roads are regularly prepared on iced-over lakes and archipelago areas. Temporarily, even a railroad has been built on ice. * During World War II, Project Habbakuk was an Allied programme which investigated the use of pykrete (wood fibers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed by ice. A small-scale prototype was built, but the need for such a vessel in the war was removed prior to building it in full-scale. * Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, for example by percussionist Terje Isungset. Non-water --------- The solid phases of several other volatile substances are also referred to as *ices*; generally a volatile is classed as an ice if its melting point lies above or around 100 K. The best known example is dry ice, the solid form of carbon dioxide. A "magnetic analogue" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler ice rules arising from the geometrical frustration of the proton configuration in water ice. These materials are called spin ice. See also -------- * Density of ice versus water – Physical and chemical properties of pure waterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Ice famine – Historical scarcity of commercial ice * Ice jacking – Structural damage caused by the expansion of freezing water in a confined space * Ice road – Path made over frozen water rather than land * Jumble ice – Irregular jagged ice formed over water * Pumpable ice technology – Type of technology to produce and use fluids or secondary refrigerants * Ice crystal – Solid frozen water moleculesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

Ice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice

In computer science, a **data structure** is a data organization, management, and storage format that is usually chosen for efficient access to data. More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data, i.e., it is an algebraic structure about data. Usage ----- Data structures serve as the basis for abstract data types (ADT). The ADT defines the logical form of the data type. The data structure implements the physical form of the data type. Different types of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, relational databases commonly use B-tree indexes for data retrieval, while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers. Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Data structures can be used to organize the storage and retrieval of information stored in both main memory and secondary memory. Implementation -------------- Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory, specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and manipulated by the program. Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the structure itself. The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure. The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations. This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including their space and time cost). Examples -------- There are numerous types of data structures, generally built upon simpler primitive data types. Well known examples are: * An array is a number of elements in a specific order, typically all of the same type (depending on the language, individual elements may either all be forced to be the same type, or may be of almost any type). Elements are accessed using an integer index to specify which element is required. Typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words for the elements of arrays (but this is not always a necessity). Arrays may be fixed-length or resizable. * A linked list (also just called *list*) is a linear collection of data elements of any type, called nodes, where each node has itself a value, and points to the next node in the linked list. The principal advantage of a linked list over an array is that values can always be efficiently inserted and removed without relocating the rest of the list. Certain other operations, such as random access to a certain element, are however slower on lists than on arrays. * A record (also called *tuple* or *struct*) is an aggregate data structure. A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence and typically indexed by names. The elements of records are usually called *fields* or *members*. In the context of object-oriented programming, records are known as plain old data structures to distinguish them from objects. * Hash tables, also known as hash maps, are data structures that provide fast retrieval of values based on keys. They use a hashing function to map keys to indexes in an array, allowing for constant-time access in the average case. Hash tables are commonly used in dictionaries, caches, and database indexing. However, hash collisions can occur, which can impact their performance. Techniques like chaining and open addressing are employed to handle collisions. * Graphs are collections of nodes connected by edges, representing relationships between entities. Graphs can be used to model social networks, computer networks, and transportation networks, among other things. They consist of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections between nodes). Graphs can be directed or undirected, and they can have cycles or be acyclic. Graph traversal algorithms include breadth-first search and depth-first search. * Stacks and queues are abstract data types that can be implemented using arrays or linked lists. A stack has two primary operations: push (adds an element to the top of the stack) and pop (removes the topmost element from the stack), that follow the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle. Queues have two main operations: enqueue (adds an element to the rear of the queue) and dequeue (removes an element from the front of the queue) that follow the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. * Trees represent a hierarchical organization of elements. A tree consists of nodes connected by edges, with one node being the root and all other nodes forming subtrees. Trees are widely used in various algorithms and data storage scenarios. Binary trees (particularly heaps), AVL trees, and B-trees are some popular types of trees. They enable efficient searching, sorting, and hierarchical representation of data. * A trie, also known as a prefix tree, is a specialized tree data structure used for the efficient retrieval of strings. Tries store characters of a string as nodes, with each edge representing a character. They are particularly useful in text processing scenarios like autocomplete, spell-checking, and dictionary implementations. Tries enable fast searching and prefix-based operations on strings. Language support ---------------- Most assembly languages and some low-level languages, such as BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language), lack built-in support for data structures. On the other hand, many high-level programming languages and some higher-level assembly languages, such as MASM, have special syntax or other built-in support for certain data structures, such as records and arrays. For example, the C (a direct descendant of BCPL) and Pascal languages support structs and records, respectively, in addition to vectors (one-dimensional arrays) and multi-dimensional arrays. Most programming languages feature some sort of library mechanism that allows data structure implementations to be reused by different programs. Modern languages usually come with standard libraries that implement the most common data structures. Examples are the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Collections Framework, and the Microsoft .NET Framework. Modern languages also generally support modular programming, the separation between the interface of a library module and its implementation. Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details. Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java, and Smalltalk, typically use classes for this purpose. Many known data structures have concurrent versions which allow multiple computing threads to access a single concrete instance of a data structure simultaneously. See also -------- * Abstract data type * Concurrent data structure * Data model * Dynamization * Linked data structure * List of data structures * Persistent data structure * Plain old data structure * Queap * Succinct data structure * Tree (data structure) Further reading --------------- * Alfred Aho, John Hopcroft, and Jeffrey Ullman, *Data Structures and Algorithms*, Addison-Wesley, 1983, ISBN 0-201-00023-7 * G. H. Gonnet and R. Baeza-Yates, *Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures - in Pascal and C*, second edition, Addison-Wesley, 1991, ISBN 0-201-41607-7 * Ellis Horowitz and Sartaj Sahni, *Fundamentals of Data Structures in Pascal*, Computer Science Press, 1984, ISBN 0-914894-94-3

Data structure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure

During classical antiquity, Albania was home to several Illyrian tribes such as the Ardiaei, Albanoi, Amantini, Enchele, Taulantii and many others, but also Thracian and Greek tribes, as well as several Greek colonies established on the Illyrian coast. In the 3rd century BC, the area was annexed by Rome and became part of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Macedonia and Moesia Superior. Afterwards, the territory remained under Roman and Byzantine control until the Slavic migrations of the 7th century. It was integrated into the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century. In the Middle Ages, the Principality of Arbër and a Sicilian union known as the medieval Kingdom of Albania were established. Some areas became part of the Venetian and later Serbian Empire. Between the mid-14th and the late 15th centuries, most of modern-day Albania was dominated by Albanian principalities, when the Albanian principalities fell to the rapid invasion of the Ottoman Empire. Albania remained under Ottoman control as part of the province of Rumelia until 1912; with some interruptions during the 18th and 19th century with the establishment of autonomy minded Albanian lords. The first independent Albanian state was founded by the Albanian Declaration of Independence following a short occupation by the Kingdom of Serbia. The formation of an Albanian national consciousness dates to the later 19th century and is part of the larger phenomenon of the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire. A short-lived monarchical state known as the Principality of Albania (1914–1925) was succeeded by an even shorter-lived first Albanian Republic (1925–1928). Another monarchy, the Kingdom of Albania (1928–1939), replaced the republic. The country endured occupation by Italy just prior to World War II (1939–1945). After the Armistice of Cassibile between Italy and the Allies, Albania was occupied by Nazi Germany. Following the collapse of the Axis powers, Albania became a one-party communist state, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, which for most of its duration was dominated by dictator Enver Hoxha (died 1985). Hoxha's political heir Ramiz Alia oversaw the disintegration of the "Hoxhaist" state during the wider collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the later 1980s. The communist regime collapsed in 1990, and the former communist Party of Labour of Albania was routed in elections in March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest. The unstable economic situation led to an Albanian diaspora, mostly to Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Germany and North America during the 1990s. The crisis peaked in the Albanian Turmoil of 1997. An amelioration of the economic and political conditions in the early years of the 21st century enabled Albania to become a full member of NATO in 2009. The country is applying to join the European Union. Prehistory ---------- ### Mesolithic & Neolithic The first traces of human presence in Albania, dating to the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic eras, were found in the village of Xarrë, near Sarandë and Dajti near Tirana. The objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects and fossilized animal bones, while those found at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. The Paleolithic finds of Albania show great similarities with objects of the same era found at Crvena Stijena in Montenegro and north-western Greece. There are several archaeological sites in Albania that carry artifacts dating from the Neolithic era, and they are dated between 6,000 and the end of the EBA. The most important are found in Maliq, Gruemirë, Dushman (Dukagjin), on the Erzen river (close to Shijak), near Durrës, Ziçisht, Nepravishtë, Finiq, and Butrint. ### Bronze Age The next period in the prehistory of Albania coincides with the Indo-Europeanization of the Balkans, which involved Pontic steppe migrations which brought the IE languages in the region and the formation of the Paleo-Balkan peoples as the result of fusion between the IE-speakers and the Neolithic population. In Albania, consecutive movements from the northern parts of the region which became known as *Illyria* in the Iron Age had a significant impact in the formation of the new post-IE migration population. The ancestral groups to Iron Age Illyrians are usually identified in Albania towards the end of the EBA with movements from north of Albania and are linked to the construction of tumuli burial grounds of patrilineally organized clans. Some of the first tumuli date to 26th century BCE. These burial mounds belong to the southern expression of the Adriatic-Ljubljana culture (related to Cetina culture) which moved southwards along the Adriatic from the northern Balkans. The same community built similar mounds in Montenegro (Rakića Kuće) and northern Albania (Shtoj). In the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age a number of possible population movements occurred in the territories of modern Albania, for example the settlement of the Bryges in areas of southern Albania-northwestern Greece and Illyrian tribes into central Albania. The latter derived from early an Indo-European presence in the western Balkan Peninsula. The movement of the Byrgian tribes can be assumed to coincide with the beginning Iron Age in the Balkans during the early 1st millennium BC. Antiquity --------- ### Illyrians The Illyrians were a group of tribes who inhabited the western Balkans during the classical times. The territory the tribes covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding roughly to the area between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of Vjosë river in the south. The first account of the Illyrian peoples comes from the Coastal Passage contained in a periplus, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC. Several Illyrian tribes that resided in the region of Albania were the Ardiaei, Taulantii and Albanoi in central Albania, the Parthini, the Abri and the Caviii in the north, the Enchelei in the east, the Bylliones in the south and several others. In the westernmost parts of the territory of Albania, along with the Illyrian tribes, lived the Bryges, a Phrygian people, and in the south lived the Greek tribe of the Chaonians. In the 4th century BC, the Illyrian king Bardylis united several Illyrian tribes and engaged in conflicts with Macedon to the south-east, but was defeated. Bardyllis was succeeded by Grabos II, then by Bardylis II, and then by Cleitus the Illyrian, who was defeated by Alexander the Great. Around 230 BC, the Ardiaei briefly attained military might under the reign of king Agron. Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well. He raided parts of Epirus, Epidamnus, and the islands of Corcyra and Pharos. His state stretched from Narona in Dalmatia south to the river Aoos and Corcyra. During his reign, the Ardiaean Kingdom reached the height of its power. The army and fleet made it a major regional power in the Balkans and the southern Adriatic. The king regained control of the Adriatic with his warships (*lembi*), a domination once enjoyed by the Liburnians. None of his neighbours were nearly as powerful. Agron divorced his (first) wife. Agron suddenly died, c. 231 BC, after his triumph over the Aetolians. Agron's (second) wife was Queen Teuta, who acted as regent after Agron's death. According to Polybius, she ruled "by women's reasoning". Teuta started to address the neighbouring states malevolently, supporting the piratical raids of her subjects. After capturing Dyrrhachium and Phoenice, Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward into the Ionian Sea, defeating the combined Achaean and Aetolian fleet in the Battle of Paxos and capturing the island of Corcyra. Later on, in 229 BC, she clashed with the Romans and initiated the Illyrian Wars. These wars, which were spread out over 60 years, eventually resulted in defeat for the Illyrians by 168 BC and the end of Illyrian independence when King Gentius was defeated by a Roman army after heavy clashes with Rome and Roman allied cities such as Apollonia and Dyrrhachium under Anicius Gallus. After his defeat, the Romans split the region into three administrative divisions, called *meris*. ### Greeks and Romans Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greek colonies were established on the Illyrian coast. The most important were Apollonia, Aulon (modern-day Vlorë), Epidamnos (modern-day Durrës), and Lissus (modern-day Lezhë). The city of Buthrotum (modern-day Butrint), a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is probably more significant today than it was when Julius Caesar used it as a provisions depot for his troops during his campaigns in the 1st century BC. At that time, it was considered an unimportant outpost, overshadowed by Apollonia and Epidamnos. The lands comprising modern-day Albania were incorporated into the Roman Empire as part of the province of Illyricum above the river Drin, and Roman Macedonia (specifically as Epirus Nova) below it. The western part of the Via Egnatia ran inside modern Albania, ending at Dyrrachium. Illyricum was later divided into the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia. The Roman province of *Illyricum* or *Illyris Romana* or *Illyris Barbara* or *Illyria Barbara* replaced most of the region of Illyria. It stretched from the Drilon River in modern Albania to Istria (Croatia) in the west and to the Sava River (Bosnia and Herzegovina) in the north. Salona (near modern Split in Croatia) functioned as its capital. The regions which it included changed through the centuries though a great part of ancient Illyria remained part of Illyricum. South Illyria became Epirus Nova, part of the Roman province of Macedonia. In 357 AD the region was part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum one of four large praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided. By 395 AD dioceses in which the region was divided were the Diocese of Dacia (as Pravealitana), and the Diocese of Macedonia (as Epirus Nova). Most of the region of modern Albania corresponds to the Epirus Nova. ### Christianization Christianity came to Epirus nova, then part of the Roman province of Macedonia. Since the 3rd and 4th century AD, Christianity had become the established religion in Byzantium, supplanting pagan polytheism and eclipsing for the most part the humanistic world outlook and institutions inherited from the Greek and Roman civilizations. The Durrës Amphitheatre *(Albanian: Amfiteatri i Durrësit)* is a historic monument from the time period located in Durrës, Albania, that was used to preach Christianity to civilians during that time. When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in AD 395, Illyria east of the Drinus River (Drina between Bosnia and Serbia), including the lands form Albania, were administered by the Eastern Empire but were ecclesiastically dependent on Rome. Though the country was in the fold of Byzantium, Christians in the region remained under the jurisdiction of the Pope until 732. In that year the iconoclast Byzantine emperor Leo III, angered by archbishops of the region because they had supported Rome in the Iconoclastic Controversy, detached the church of the province from the Roman pope and placed it under the patriarch of Constantinople. When the Christian church split in 1054 between Eastern Orthodoxy and Catholicism, the region of southern Albania retained its ties to Constantinople, while the north reverted to the jurisdiction of Rome. This split marked the first significant religious fragmentation of the country. After the formation of the Slav principality of Dioclia (modern Montenegro), the metropolitan see of Bar was created in 1089, and dioceses in northern Albania (Shkodër, Ulcinj) became its suffragans. Starting in 1019, Albanian dioceses of the Byzantine rite were suffragans of the independent Archdiocese of Ohrid until Dyrrachion and Nicopolis, were re-established as metropolitan sees. Thereafter, only the dioceses in inner Albania (Elbasan, Krujë) remained attached to Ohrid. In the 13th century during the Venetian occupation, the Latin Archdiocese of Durrës was founded. Middle Ages ----------- ### Early Middle Ages After the region fell to the Romans in 168 BC it became part of Epirus nova that was, in turn, part of the Roman province of Macedonia. When the Roman Empire was divided into East and West in 395, the territories of modern Albania became part of the Byzantine Empire. Beginning in the first decades of Byzantine rule (until 461), the region suffered devastating raids by Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the Slavic invasion of Europe forced Albanians and Vlachs to pull back into the mountainous regions and adopt nomadic lifestyle, or flee into Byzantine Greece. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and Byzantine cultural centres in the lands that would become Albania. In the late 11th and 12th centuries, the region played a crucial part in the Byzantine–Norman wars; Dyrrhachium was the westernmost terminus of the *Via Egnatia*, the main overland route to Constantinople, and was one of the main targets of the Normans (cf. Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)). Towards the end of the 12th century, as Byzantine central authority weakened and rebellions and regionalist secessionism became more common, the region of Arbanon became an autonomous principality ruled by its own hereditary princes. In 1258, the Sicilians took possession of the island of Corfu and the Albanian coast, from Dyrrhachium to Valona and Buthrotum and as far inland as Berat. This foothold, reformed in 1272 as the "Kingdom of Albania", was intended by the dynamic Sicilian ruler, Charles of Anjou, to become the launchpad for an overland invasion of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines, however, managed to recover most of Albania by 1274, leaving only Valona and Dyrrhachium in Charles' hands. Finally, when Charles launched his much-delayed advance, it was stopped at the Siege of Berat in 1280–1281. Albania would remain largely part of the Byzantine empire until the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 when it fell shortly to the hands of the Serbian ruler Stephen Dushan. During this time, the territory became Albanian majority as the Black Death wiped out much of its Greek population. In the mid-9th century, most of eastern Albania became part of the Bulgarian Empire. The area, known as Kutmichevitsa, became an important Bulgarian cultural center in the 10th century with many thriving towns such as Devol, Glavinitsa (Ballsh) and Belgrad (Berat). When the Byzantines managed to conquer the First Bulgarian Empire the fortresses in eastern Albania were some of the last Bulgarian strongholds to submit to the Byzantines. Later the region was recovered by the Second Bulgarian Empire. In the Middle Ages, the name Arberia began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. The first undisputed mention of Albanians in the historical record is attested in a Byzantine source for the first time in 1079–1080, in a work titled *History* by Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, who referred to the *Albanoi* as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the *Arbanitai* as subjects of the duke of Dyrrhachium. A later reference to Albanians from the same Attaliates, regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078, is undisputed. ### Principality of Arbër In 1190, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon) was founded by archon Progon in the region of Krujë. Progon was succeeded by Gjin Progoni and then Dhimitër Progoni. Arbanon extended over the modern districts of central Albania, with its capital located at Krujë. The principality of Arbanon was established in 1190 by the native *archon* Progon in the region surrounding Kruja, to the east and northeast of Venetian territories. Progon was succeeded by his sons Gjin and then Demetrius (Dhimitër), who managed to retain a considerable degree of autonomy from the Byzantine Empire. In 1204, Arbanon attained full, though temporary, political independence, taking advantage of the weakening of Constantinople following its pillage during the Fourth Crusade. However, Arbanon lost its large autonomy ca. 1216, when the ruler of Epirus, Michael I Komnenos Doukas, started an invasion northward into Albania and Macedonia, taking Kruja and ending the independence of the principality of Arbanon and its ruler, Demetrius. After the death of Demetrius, the last ruler of the Progon family, the same year, Arbanon was successively controlled subsequently by the Despotate of Epirus, the Bulgarian Empire and, from 1235, by the Empire of Nicaea. During the conflicts between Michael II Komnenos Doukas of Epirus and Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes, Golem (ruler of Arbanon at the time) and Theodore Petraliphas, who were initially Michael's allies, defected to John III in 1252. He is last mentioned in the sources among other local leaders, in a meeting with George Akropolites in Durrës in 1256. Arbanon was a beneficiary of the Via Egnatia trade road, which brought wealth and benefits from the more developed Byzantine civilization. ### High Middle Ages After the fall of the Principality of Arber in territories captured by the Despotate of Epirus, the Kingdom of Albania was established by Charles of Anjou. He took the title of King of Albania in February 1272. The kingdom extended from the region of Durrës (then known as Dyrrhachium) south along the coast to Butrint. After the failure of the Eighth Crusade, Charles of Anjou returned his attention to Albania. He began contacting local Albanian leaders through local catholic clergy. Two local Catholic priests, namely John from Durrës and Nicola from Arbanon, acted as negotiators between Charles of Anjou and the local noblemen. During 1271 they made several trips between Albania and Italy eventually succeeding in their mission. On 21 February 1272, a delegation of Albanian noblemen and citizens from Durrës made their way to Charles' court. Charles signed a treaty with them and was proclaimed King of Albania "by common consent of the bishops, counts, barons, soldiers and citizens" promising to protect them and to honor the privileges they had from Byzantine Empire. The treaty declared the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin: *Regnum Albanie*) with the Kingdom of Sicily under King Charles of Anjou (*Carolus I, dei gratia rex Siciliae et Albaniae*). He appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his Vicar-General and hoped to take up his expedition against Constantinople again. Throughout 1272 and 1273 he sent huge provisions to the towns of Durrës and Vlorë. This alarmed the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, who began sending letters to local Albanian nobles, trying to convince them to stop their support for Charles of Anjou and to switch sides. However, the Albanian nobles placed their trust on Charles, who praised them for their loyalty. Throughout its existence the Kingdom saw armed conflict with the Byzantine empire. The kingdom was reduced to a small area in Durrës. Even before the city of Durrës was captured, it was landlocked by Karl Thopia's principality. Declaring himself as Angevin descendant, with the capture of Durrës in 1368 Karl Thopia created the Princedom of Albania. During its existence Catholicism saw rapid spread among the population which affected the society as well as the architecture of the Kingdom. A Western type of feudalism was introduced and it replaced the Byzantine Pronoia. ### Principalities and League of Lezhë In 1371, the Serbian Empire was dissolved and several Albanian principalities were formed including the Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Albania and Despotate of Arta as the major ones. In the late 14th and the early 15th century the Ottoman Empire conquered parts of south and central Albania. The Albanians regained control of their territories in 1444 when the League of Lezhë was established, under the rule of George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, the Albanian national hero. The League was a military alliance of feudal lords in Albania forged in Lezhë on 2 March 1444, initiated and organised under Venetian patronage with Skanderbeg as leader of the regional Albanian and Serbian chieftains united against the Ottoman Empire. The main members of the league were the Arianiti, Balšić, Dukagjini, Muzaka, Spani, Thopia and Crnojevići. For 25 years, from 1443 to 1468, Skanderbeg's 10,000-man army marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces. Threatened by Ottoman advances in their homeland, Hungary, and later Naples and Venice – their former enemies – provided the financial backbone and support for Skanderbeg's army. By 1450 it had certainly ceased to function as originally intended, and only the core of the alliance under Skanderbeg and Araniti Comino continued to fight on. After Skanderbeg's death in 1468, the sultan "easily subdued Albania," but Skanderbeg's death did not end the struggle for independence, and fighting continued until the Ottoman siege of Shkodra in 1478–79, a siege ending when the Republic of Venice ceded Shkodra to the Ottomans in the peace treaty of 1479. ### Early Ottoman period Ottoman supremacy in the west Balkan region began in 1385 with their success in the Battle of Savra. Following that battle, the Ottoman Empire in 1415 established the Sanjak of Albania covering the conquered parts of Albania, which included territory stretching from the Mat River in the north to Chameria in the south. In 1419, Gjirokastra became the administrative centre of the Sanjak of Albania. The northern Albanian nobility, although tributary of the Ottoman Empire they still had autonomy to rule over their lands, but the southern part which was put under the direct rule of the Ottoman Empire, prompted by the replacement of large parts of the local nobility with Ottoman landowners, centralized governance and the Ottoman taxation system, the population and the nobles, led principally by Gjergj Arianiti, revolted against the Ottomans. During the early phases of the revolt, many land (timar) holders were killed or expelled. As the revolt spread, the nobles, whose holdings had been annexed by the Ottomans, returned to join the revolt and attempted to form alliances with the Holy Roman Empire. While the leaders of the revolt were successful in defeating successive Ottoman campaigns, they failed to capture many of the important towns in the Sanjak of Albania. Major combatants included members of the Dukagjini, Zenebishi, Thopia, Kastrioti and Arianiti families. In the initial phase, the rebels were successful in capturing some major towns such as Dagnum. Protracted sieges such as that of Gjirokastër, the capital of the Sanjak, gave the Ottoman army time to assemble large forces from other parts of the empire and to subdue the main revolt by the end of 1436. Because the rebel leaders acted autonomously without a central leadership, their lack of coordination of the revolt contributed greatly to their final defeat. Ottoman forces conducted a number of massacres in the aftermath of the revolt. ### Ottoman-Albanian Wars Many Albanians had been recruited into the Janissary corps, including the feudal heir George Kastrioti who was renamed Skanderbeg (Iskandar Bey) by his Turkish officers at Edirne. After the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Niš at the hands of the Hungarians, Skanderbeg deserted in November 1443 and began a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. After his desertion, Skanderbeg re-converted to Christianity and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which he led from 1443 to 1468. Skanderbeg summoned the Albanian princes to the Venetian-controlled town of Lezhë where they formed the League of Lezhë. Gibbon reports that the "Albanians, a martial race, were unanimous to live and die with their hereditary prince", and that "in the assembly of the states of Epirus, Skanderbeg was elected general of the Turkish war and each of the allies engaged to furnish his respective proportion of men and money". Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force held off Ottoman campaigns for twenty-five years and overcame a number of the major sieges: Siege of Krujë (1450), Second Siege of Krujë (1466–67), Third Siege of Krujë (1467) against forces led by the Ottoman sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. For 25 years Skanderbeg's army of around 10,000 men marched through Ottoman territory winning against consistently larger and better supplied Ottoman forces. Throughout his rebellion, Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans in a number of battles, including Torvioll, Oranik, Otonetë, Modric, Ohrid and Mokra; with his most brilliant being in Albulena. However, Skanderbeg did not receive any of the help which had been promised to him by the popes or the Italian states, Venice, Naples and Milan. He died in 1468, leaving no clear successor. After his death the rebellion continued, but without its former success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by Skanderbeg faltered and fell apart and the Ottomans reconquered the territory of Albania, culminating with the siege of Shkodra in 1479. However, some territories in Northern Albania remained under Venetian control. Shortly after the fall of the castles of northern Albania, many Albanians fled to neighbouring Italy, giving rise to the Arbëreshë communities still living in that country. Skanderbeg's long struggle to keep Albania free became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom and independence. ### Late Ottoman period Upon the Ottomans return in 1479, a large number of Albanians fled to Italy, Egypt and other parts of the Ottoman Empire and Europe and maintained their Arbëresh identity. Many Albanians won fame and fortune as soldiers, administrators, and merchants in far-flung parts of the Empire. As the centuries passed, however, Ottoman rulers lost the capacity to command the loyalty of local pashas, which threatened stability in the region. The Ottoman rulers of the 19th century struggled to shore up central authority, introducing reforms aimed at harnessing unruly pashas and checking the spread of nationalist ideas. Albania would be a part of the Ottoman Empire until the early 20th century. The Ottoman period that followed was characterized by a change in the landscape through a gradual modification of the settlements with the introduction of bazaars, military garrisons and mosques in many Albanian regions. Part of the Albanian population gradually converted to Islam, with many joining the Sufi Order of the Bektashi. Converting from Christianity to Islam brought considerable advantages, including access to Ottoman trade networks, bureaucratic positions and the army. As a result, many Albanians came to serve in the elite Janissary and the administrative Devşirme system. Among these were important historical figures, including Iljaz Hoxha, Hamza Kastrioti, Koca Davud Pasha, Zağanos Pasha, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (head of the Köprülü family of Grand Viziers), the Bushati family, Sulejman Pasha, Edhem Pasha, Nezim Frakulla, Haxhi Shekreti, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Ali Pasha of Gucia, Muhammad Ali ruler of Egypt, Ali Pasha of Tepelena rose to become one of the most powerful Muslim Albanian rulers in western Rumelia. His diplomatic and administrative skills, his interest in modernist ideas and concepts, his popular religiousness, his religious neutrality, his win over the bands terrorizing the area, his ferocity and harshness in imposing law and order, and his looting practices towards persons and communities in order to increase his proceeds cause both the admiration and the criticism of his contemporaries. His court was in Ioannina, but the territory he governed incorporated most of Epirus and the western parts of Thessaly and Greek Macedonia in Northern Greece. The port cities of Durrës and Vlorë in 1573. Many Albanians gained prominent positions in the Ottoman government, Albanians highly active during the Ottoman era and leaders such as Ali Pasha of Tepelena might have aided Husein Gradaščević. The Albanians proved generally faithful to Ottoman rule following the end of the resistance led by Skanderbeg, and accepted Islam more easily than their neighbors. ### Semi-independent Albanian Pashaliks Kara Mahmut PashaKara Mahmud Pasha ruler of the Pashalik of Scutari the most prominent figure of the Bushati family.Ali Pasha TepelenaAli Pasha Tepelena was one of the most powerful autonomous Ottoman Albanian rulers. A period of semi-independence started during the mid 18th century. As Ottoman power began to decline in the 18th century, the central authority of the empire in Albania gave way to the local authority of autonomy-minded lords. The most successful of those lords were three generations of pashas of the Bushati family, who dominated most of northern Albania from 1757 to 1831, and Ali Pasha Tepelena of Janina (now Ioánnina, Greece), a brigand-turned-despot who ruled over southern Albania and northern Greece from 1788 to 1822. Those pashas created separate states within the Ottoman state until they were overthrown by the sultan. Modern ------ ### National Renaissance In the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had failed. The image of the "Turkish yoke" had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the empire's Balkan peoples and their march toward independence quickened. The Albanians, because of the higher degree of Islamic influence, their internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian-speaking territories to the emerging Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece, were the last of the Balkan peoples to desire division from the Ottoman Empire. With the rise of the Albanian National Awakening, Albanians regained a sense of statehood and engaged in military resistance against the Ottoman Empire as well as instigating a massive literary revival. Albanian émigrés in Bulgaria, Egypt, Italy, Romania and the United States supported the writing and distribution of Albanian textbooks and writings. ### League of Prizren In the second quarter of the 19th century, after the fall of the Albanian pashaliks and the Massacre of the Albanian Beys, an Albanian National Awakening took place and many revolts against the Ottoman Empire were organized. These revolts included the Albanian Revolts of 1833–1839, the Revolt of 1843–44, and the Revolt of 1847. A culmination of the Albanian National Awakening was the League of Prizren. The league was formed at a meeting of 47 Ottoman beys in Prizren on 18 June 1878. An initial position of the league was presented in a document known as Kararname. Through this document Albanian leaders emphasized their intention to preserve and maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans by supporting the porte, and "to struggle in arms to defend the wholeness of the territories of Albania". In this early period, the League participated in battles against Montenegro and successfully wrestled control over Plav and Gusinje after brutal warfare with Montenegrin troops. In August 1878, the Congress of Berlin ordered a commission to determine the border between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro. Finally, the Great Powers blockaded Ulcinj by sea and pressured the Ottoman authorities to bring the Albanians under control. Albanian diplomatic and military efforts were successful in wresting control of Epirus, however some lands were still ceded to Greece by 1881. The League's founding figure Abdyl Frashëri influenced the League to demand autonomy and wage open war against the Ottomans. Faced with growing international pressure "to pacify" the refractory Albanians, the sultan dispatched a large army under Dervish Turgut Pasha to suppress the League of Prizren and deliver Ulcinj to Montenegro. The League of Prizren's leaders and their families were arrested and deported. Frashëri, who originally received a death sentence, was imprisoned until 1885 and exiled until his death seven years later. A similar league was established in 1899 in Peja by former League member Haxhi Zeka. The league ended its activity in 1900 after an armed conflict with the Ottoman forces. Zeka was assassinated by a Serbian agent Adem Zajmi in 1902. ### Independence The initial sparks of the First Balkan war in 1912 were ignited by the Albanian uprising between 1908 and 1910, which had the aim of opposing the Young Turk policies of consolidation of the Ottoman Empire. Following the eventual weakening of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria declared war, seizing the remaining Ottoman territory in Europe. The territory of Albania was occupied by Serbia in the north and Greece in the south, leaving only a patch of land around the southern coastal city of Vlora. The unsuccessful uprising of 1910, 1911 and the successful and final Albanian revolt in 1912, as well as the Serbian and Greek occupation and attempts to incorporate the land into their respective countries, led to a proclamation of independence by Ismail Qemali in Vlorë on 28 November 1912. The same day, Ismail Qemali waved the national flag of Albania, from the balcony of the Assembly of Vlorë, in the presence of hundreds of Albanians. This flag was sewn after Skanderbeg's principality flag, which had been used more than 500 years earlier. Albanian independence was recognized by the Conference of London on 29 July 1913. The Conference of London then delineated the border between Albania and its neighbors, leaving more than half of ethnic Albanians outside Albania. This population was largely divided between Montenegro and Serbia in the north and east (including what is now Kosovo and North Macedonia), and Greece in the south. A substantial number of Albanians thus came under Serbian rule. At the same time, an uprising in the country's south by local Greeks led to the formation of the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus in the southern provinces (1914). The republic proved short-lived as Albania collapsed with the onset of World War I. Greece held the area between 1914 and 1916, and unsuccessfully tried to annex it in March 1916; however in 1917 the Greeks were driven from the area by Italy, which took over most of Albania. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 awarded the area to Greece. However the area definitively reverted to Albanian control in November 1921, following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War. Principality of Albania ----------------------- In supporting the independence of Albania, the Great Powers were assisted by Aubrey Herbert, a British MP who passionately advocated the Albanian cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, from accepting. Instead the offer went to William of Wied, a German prince who accepted and became sovereign of the new Principality of Albania. The Principality was established on 21 February 1914. The Great Powers selected Prince William of Wied, a nephew of Queen Elisabeth of Romania to become the sovereign of the newly independent Albania. A formal offer was made by 18 Albanian delegates representing the 18 districts of Albania on 21 February 1914, an offer which he accepted. Outside of Albania William was styled prince, but in Albania he was referred to as Mbret (King) so as not to seem inferior to the King of Montenegro. This is the period when Albanian religions gained independence. The ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople recognized the autocephaly of the Albanian Orthodox Church after a meeting of the country's Albanian Orthodox congregations in Berat in August 1922. The most energetic reformers in Albania came from the Orthodox population who wanted to see Albania move quickly away from its Turkish-ruled past, during which Christians made up the underclass. Albania's conservative Sunni Muslim community broke its last ties with Constantinople in 1923, formally declaring that there had been no caliph since Muhammad himself and that Muslim Albanians pledged primary allegiance to their native country. The Muslims also banned polygamy and allowed women to choose whether or not they wanted to wear a veil. Upon termination of Albania from Turkey in 1912, as in all other fields, the customs administration continued its operation under legislation approved specifically for the procedure. After the new laws were issued for the operation of customs, its duty was 11% of the value of goods imported and 1% on the value of those exported. The security was to be provided by a Gendarmerie commanded by Dutch officers. William left Albania on 3 September 1914 following a pan-Islamic revolt initiated by Essad Pasha Toptani and later headed by Haxhi Qamili, the latter the military commander of the "Muslim State of Central Albania" centered in Tirana. William never renounced his claim to the throne. ### World War I World War I interrupted all government activities in Albania, while the country was split in a number of regional governments. Political chaos engulfed Albania after the outbreak of World War I. The Albanian people split along religious and tribal lines after the prince's departure. Muslims demanded a Muslim prince and looked to Turkey as the protector of the privileges they had enjoyed. Other Albanians looked to Italy for support. Still others, including many beys and clan chiefs, recognized no superior authority. Prince William left Albania on 3 September 1914, as a result of the Peasant Revolt initiated by Essad Pasha and later taken over by Haxhi Qamili. William subsequently joined the German army and served on the Eastern Front, but never renounced his claim to the throne. In the country's south, the local Greek population revolted against the incorporation of the area into the new Albanian state and declared the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus at 28 February. In late 1914, Greece occupied the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus, including Korçë and Gjirokastër. Italy occupied Vlorë, and Serbia and Montenegro occupied parts of northern Albania until a Central Powers offensive scattered the Serbian army, which was evacuated by the French to Thessaloniki. Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian forces then occupied about two-thirds of the country (Bulgarian occupation of Albania). Under the secret Treaty of London signed in April 1915, Triple Entente powers promised Italy that it would gain Vlorë (*Valona*) and nearby lands and a protectorate over Albania in exchange for entering the war against Austria-Hungary. Serbia and Montenegro were promised much of northern Albania, and Greece was promised much of the country's southern half. The treaty left a tiny Albanian state that would be represented by Italy in its relations with the other major powers. In September 1918, Entente forces broke through the Central Powers' lines north of Thessaloniki and within days Austro-Hungarian forces began to withdraw from Albania. On 2 October 1918 the city of Durrës was shelled on the orders of Louis Franchet d'Espèrey, during the Battle of Durazzo: according to d'Espèrey, the Port of Durrës, if not destroyed, would have served the evacuation of the Bulgarian and German armies, involved in World War I. When the war ended on 11 November 1918, Italy's army had occupied most of Albania; Serbia held much of the country's northern mountains; Greece occupied a sliver of land within Albania's 1913 borders; and French forces occupied Korçë and Shkodër as well as other regions with sizable Albanian populations. ### Projects of partition in 1919–1920 After World War I, Albania was still under the occupation of Serbian and Italian forces. It was a rebellion of the respective populations of Northern and Southern Albania that pushed back the Serbs and Italians behind the recognized borders of Albania. Albania's political confusion continued in the wake of World War I. The country lacked a single recognized government, and Albanians feared, with justification, that Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece would succeed in extinguishing Albania's independence and carve up the country. Italian forces controlled Albanian political activity in the areas they occupied. The Serbs, who largely dictated Yugoslavia's foreign policy after World War I, strove to take over northern Albania, and the Greeks sought to control southern Albania. A delegation sent by a postwar Albanian National Assembly that met at Durrës in December 1918 defended Albanian interests at the Paris Peace Conference, but the conference denied Albania official representation. The National Assembly, anxious to keep Albania intact, expressed willingness to accept Italian protection and even an Italian prince as a ruler so long as it would mean Albania did not lose territory. Serbian troops conducted actions in Albanian-populated border areas, while Albanian guerrillas operated in both Serbia and Montenegro. In January 1920, at the Paris Peace Conference, negotiators from France, Britain, and Greece agreed to allow Albania to fall under Yugoslav, Italian, and Greek spheres of influence as a diplomatic expedient aimed at finding a compromising solution to the territorial conflicts between Italy and Yugoslavia. Members of a second Albanian National Assembly held at Lushnjë in January 1920 rejected the partition plan and warned that Albanians would take up arms to defend their country's independence and territorial integrity. The Lushnjë National Assembly appointed a four-man regency to rule the country. A bicameral parliament was also created, in which an elected lower chamber, the Chamber of Deputies (with one deputy for every 12,000 people in Albania and one for the Albanian community in the United States), appointed members of its own ranks to an upper chamber, the Senate. In February 1920, the government moved to Tirana, which became Albania's capital. One month later, in March 1920, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson intervened to block the Paris agreement. The United States underscored its support for Albania's independence by recognizing an official Albanian representative to Washington, and in December the League of Nations recognized Albania's sovereignty by admitting it as a full member. The country's borders, however, remained unsettled following the Vlora War in which all territory (except Saseno island) under Italian control in Albania was relinquished to the Albanian state. Albania achieved a degree of statehood after the First World War, in part because of the diplomatic intercession of the United States government. The country suffered from a debilitating lack of economic and social development, however, and its first years of independence were fraught with political instability. Unable to survive a predatory environment without a foreign protector, Albania became the object of tensions between Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which both sought to dominate the country. ### Zogu Government Interwar Albanian governments appeared and disappeared in rapid succession. Between July and December 1921 alone, the premiership changed hands five times. The Popular Party's head, Xhafer Ypi, formed a government in December 1921 with Fan S. Noli as foreign minister and Ahmed Bey Zogu as internal affairs minister, but Noli resigned soon after Zogu resorted to repression in an attempt to disarm the lowland Albanians despite the fact that bearing arms was a traditional custom. When the government's enemies attacked Tirana in early 1922, Zogu stayed in the capital and, with the support of the British ambassador, repulsed the assault. He took over the premiership later in the year and turned his back on the Popular Party by announcing his engagement to the daughter of Shefqet Verlaci, the Progressive Party leader. Zogu's protégés organized themselves into the Government Party. Noli and other Western-oriented leaders formed the Opposition Party of Democrats, which attracted all of Zogu's many personal enemies, ideological opponents, and people left unrewarded by his political machine. Ideologically, the Democrats included a broad sweep of people who advocated everything from conservative Islam to Noli's dreams of rapid modernization. Opposition to Zogu was formidable. Orthodox peasants in Albania's southern lowlands loathed Zogu because he supported the Muslim landowners' efforts to block land reform; Shkodër's citizens felt shortchanged because their city did not become Albania's capital, and nationalists were dissatisfied because Zogu's government did not press Albania's claims to Kosovo or speak up more energetically for the rights of the ethnic Albanian minorities in present-day Yugoslavia and Greece. Zogu's party handily won elections for a National Assembly in early 1924. Zogu soon stepped aside, however, handing over the premiership to Verlaci in the wake of a financial scandal and an assassination attempt by a young radical that left Zogu wounded. The opposition withdrew from the assembly after the leader of a nationalist youth organization, Avni Rustemi, was murdered in the street outside the parliament building. ### June Revolution Noli's supporters blamed the Rustemi murder on Zogu's Mati clansmen, who continued to practice blood vengeance. After the walkout, discontent mounted, and in June 1924 a peasant-backed insurgency had won control of Tirana. Because few people were willing to risk their lives in its defense, the government's fall was remarkably simple and entailed practically little violence. According to US estimates, 20 people were killed and 35 were injured in the northern theatre, while 6 people were killed and 15 were injured in the southern theater. In fact, only Zogu and his meagre group put up any resistance at all. However, fundamental concerns remained unanswered, and Noli's power grab was unstable to say the least. A far more unified group than Noli's was required to execute a new order; it also required crucial political and financial backing from overseas, as well as talented lawmakers prepared to make the necessary sacrifices and concessions. Noli formed his own administration, a small cabinet, on 16 June 1924, with representatives from all factions involved in the June rebellion, including the army, beys, liberals, progressives, and the Shkodra lobby. The Kosovo Committee was not a part of the government. The government cabinet consisted of: Fan Noli – Prime Minister Sulejman Delvina- Minister of Foreign Affairs Luigj Gurakuqi – Minister of Finance Stavro Vinjau – Minister of Education Kasëm Qafëzezi – Minister of War Rexhep Shala – Minister of Interior Qazim Koculi – Minister of Agriculture Xhemal Bushati – Minister without portfolio Fan Noli, an idealist, rejected demands for new elections on the grounds that Albania needed a "paternal" government. On 19 June, Noli's coalition administration proposed a twenty-point reform program that, if completed, would have resulted in a country-wide revolution. Noli launched a scathing attack on the former administration in the opening paragraph: "The previous governments' damaging policies had fostered such despair in the country that insurgency and fratricide were eventually the result. The late Ministers Administration is responsible for a ruined budget with a large deficit, state disorganization in all departments, insecurity throughout the country, anarchy among state organs, the creation of personal powers outside and above those of the state, as well as assassination and attempted assassination of citizens and foreigners. These undisputed facts had jeopardized the country's basis, tarnished our reputation at home and abroad, and raised doubts in the minds of both Albanians and foreigners about our country's ability to survive." The twenty point reform consisted of: "1. The general disarmament of the people without exception. 2. The denunciation of the inciters of fratricide and their main agents with expulsion and confiscation of their wealth or other punishments. 3. The reestablishment of tranquillity, order and the Sovereignty of the law. 4. To exalt the authority of the State over any personal or extralegal power. 5. To eliminate feudalism, free the people and establish democracy in Albania. 6. Radical reforms in all departments, both civil and military. 7. To simplify the bureaucracy and cleanse the administration. Besides ability and morality, the patriotism of workers will be taken into consideration. 8. The security and rights of the employees and the determination of their responsibilities shall be established by a special law. 9. To organize the communes so as to improve the conditions of villages and villagers and to extend powers at the village level. 10. Balance the budget by radical economies. 11. Change the tax system in a manner favourable to the people. 12. Improve conditions for the farmers and their economic independence. 13. Ease entry for foreign capital into the country while defending and organizing the economic independence of the country. 14. Raise the credit and prestige of the State in the outside world. 15. True independence of the judiciary. 16. Radical reform of the outdated tribunals. 17. To construct new roads and bridges and to take special care of the means of communication in the country. 18. Organization of the Department of Health to combat the diseases that are ravaging the people. 19. Organization of the Department of Education on a modern and practical basis so that the schools should produce capable citizens, patriotic and able workers. 20. Friendly relations with all states, especially neighbouring countries." Jacques calls the program "too radical," Austin calls it "a really ambitious program, ....had it been implemented, it would have led to a revolutionary change of country," and Fischer writes, "Every Western Democrat would be proud of Noli's program, but the Prime Minister lacked two crucial elements, without which no one could carry out such a long series of radical reforms: financial support and support from the governmental cabinet." Noli went on to say that once normalcy was restored, a national election would be held with secret and direct voting to decide the people's support. Noli planned to rule by decree for ten to twelve months, believing that the country's past elections did not reflect the desires of the Albanian people. Noli subsequently stated that his party "had the majority when we put the agrarian reforms on our programme. When it came to putting them in place, we were in the minority." The takeover of wealthy owners' property, particularly in central Albania, would be the principal source of additional land for the peasants. Each farmer was to receive 4–6 hectares of land for a household of up to 10 individuals. Families with more than 10 members would receive eight hectares of land. Scaling back the bureaucracy, strengthening local government, assisting peasants, throwing Albania open to foreign investment, and improving the country's bleak transportation, public health, and education facilities filled out the Noli government's overly ambitious agenda. Noli encountered resistance to his program from people who had helped him oust Zogu, and he never attracted the foreign aid necessary to carry out his reform plans. Noli criticized the League of Nations for failing to settle the threat facing Albania on its land borders. Under Fan Noli, the government set up a special tribunal that passed death sentences, in absentia, on Zogu, Verlaci, and others and confiscated their property. In Yugoslavia Zogu recruited a mercenary army, and Belgrade furnished the Albanian leader with weapons, about 1,000 Yugoslav army regulars, and Russian White Emigres to mount an invasion that the Serbs hoped would bring them disputed areas along the border. After Noli decided to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, a bitter enemy of the Serbian ruling family, Belgrade began making wild allegations that Albania was about to embrace Bolshevism. On 13 December 1924, Zogu's Yugoslav-backed army crossed into Albanian territory. By Christmas Eve, Zogu had reclaimed the capital, and Noli and his government had fled to Italy. The Noli government lasted just 6 months and a week. First Republic -------------- After defeating Fan Noli's government, Ahmet Zogu recalled the parliament, in order to find a solution for the uncrowned principality of Albania. The parliament quickly adopted a new constitution, proclaimed the first republic, and granted Zogu dictatorial powers that allowed him to appoint and dismiss ministers, veto legislation, and name all major administrative personnel and a third of the Senate. The Constitution provided for a parliamentary republic with a powerful president serving as head of state and government. On 31 January, Zogu was elected president for a seven-year term. Opposition parties and civil liberties disappeared; opponents of the regime were murdered; and the press suffered strict censorship. Zogu ruled Albania using four military governors responsible to him alone. He appointed clan chieftains as reserve army officers who were kept on call to protect the regime against domestic or foreign threats. Zogu, however, quickly turned his back on Belgrade and looked instead to Benito Mussolini's Italy for patronage. Under Zogu, Albania joined the Italian coalition against Yugoslavia of Kingdom of Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria in 1924–1927. After the United Kingdom's and France's political intervention in 1927 with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the alliance crumbled. Zogu maintained good relations with Benito Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy and supported Italy's foreign policy. He would be the first and only Albanian to hold the title of president until 1991. Kingdom of Albania ------------------ In 1928, Zogu I secured the Parliament's consent to its own dissolution. Afterwards, Albania was declared a monarchy with Zogu I first as the Prime Minister, then as the President and at last as the King of Albania. International recognition arrived forthwith. The new formed constitution abolished the Albanian Senate and created a unicameral parliament, but King Zog retained the dictatorial powers he had enjoyed as president. Zogu I remained a conservative, but initiated reforms. For example, in an attempt at social modernisation the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. Soon after his incoronation, Zog broke off his engagement to Shefqet Verlaci's daughter, and Verlaci withdrew his support for the king and began plotting against him. Zog had accumulated a great number of enemies over the years, and the Albanian tradition of blood vengeance required them to try to kill him. Zog surrounded himself with guards and rarely appeared in public. The king's loyalists disarmed all of Albania's tribes except for his own Mati tribesmen and their allies, the Dibra. Nevertheless, on a visit to Vienna in 1931, Zog and his bodyguards fought a gun battle with would-be assassins Aziz Çami and Ndok Gjeloshi on the Opera House steps. Zog remained sensitive to steadily mounting disillusion with Italy's domination of Albania. The Albanian army, though always less than 15,000-strong, sapped the country's funds, and the Italians' monopoly on training the armed forces rankled public opinion. As a counterweight, Zog kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. In 1931, Zog openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 First Treaty of Tirana. ### Financial crisis In 1932 and 1933, Albania could not make the interest payments on its loans from the Society for the Economic Development of Albania. In response, Rome turned up the pressure, demanding that Tirana name Italians to direct the Gendarmerie; join Italy in a customs union; grant Italy control of the country's sugar, telegraph, and electrical monopolies; teach the Italian language in all Albanian schools; and admit Italian colonists. Zog refused. Instead, he ordered the national budget slashed by 30 percent, dismissed the Italian military advisers, and nationalized Italian-run Roman Catholic schools in the northern part of the country. In 1934, Albania had signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece, and Mussolini had suspended all payments to Tirana. An Italian attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania failed because the Albanians only allowed the forces to land unarmed. Mussolini then attempted to buy off the Albanians. In 1935 he presented the Albanian government 3 million gold francs as a gift. Zog's success in defeating two local rebellions convinced Mussolini that the Italians had to reach a new agreement with the Albanian king. A government of young men led by Mehdi Frasheri, an enlightened Bektashi administrator, won a commitment from Italy to fulfill financial promises that Mussolini had made to Albania and to grant new loans for harbor improvements at Durrës and other projects that kept the Albanian government afloat. Soon Italians began taking positions in Albania's civil service, and Italian settlers were allowed into the country. Mussolini's forces overthrew King Zog when Italy invaded Albania in 1939. World War II ------------ Starting in 1928, but especially during the Great Depression, the government of King Zog, which brought law and order to the country, began to increase the Italian influence more and more. Despite some significant resistance, especially at Durrës, Italy invaded Albania on 7 April 1939 and took control of the country, with the Italian Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini proclaiming Italy's figurehead King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy as King of Albania. The nation thus became one of the first to be occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II. As Hitler began his aggression against other European countries, Mussolini decided to occupy Albania as a means of competing with Hitler's territorial gains. Mussolini and the Italian Fascists saw Albania as a historical part of the Roman Empire, and the occupation was intended to fulfill Mussolini's dream of creating an Italian Empire. During the Italian occupation, Albania's population was subject to a policy of forced Italianization by the kingdom's Italian governors, in which the use of the Albanian language was discouraged in schools while the Italian language was promoted. At the same time, the colonization of Albania by Italians was encouraged. Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece, which led to the defeat of the Italian forces and the Greek occupation of Southern Albania in what was seen by the Greeks as the liberation of Northern Epirus. While preparing for the Invasion of Russia, Hitler decided to attack Greece in December 1940 to prevent a British attack on his southern flank. ### Italian penetration The Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939 was the conclusion of centuries of Italian interest in the country and twenty years of direct, if unsuccessful, economic and political participation in Albania, primarily under Benito Mussolini. The Straits of Otranto, which cross the Adriatic Sea and connect Albania and southern Italy by forty miles, have always operated as a bridge rather than a barrier, offering escape, cultural exchange, and an easy invasion path. Before World War I Italy and Austria-Hungary had been instrumental in the creation of an independent Albanian state. At the outbreak of war, Italy had seized the chance to occupy the southern half of Albania, to avoid it being captured by the Austro-Hungarians. That success did not last long, as post-war domestic problems, Albanian resistance, and pressure from United States President Woodrow Wilson, forced Italy to pull out in 1920. When Mussolini took power in Italy he turned with renewed interest to Albania. Italy began penetration of Albania's economy in 1925, when Albania agreed to allow it to exploit its mineral resources. That was followed by the First Treaty of Tirana in 1926 and the Second Treaty of Tirana in 1927, whereby Italy and Albania entered into a defensive alliance. The Albanian government and economy were subsidised by Italian loans, the Albanian army was trained by Italian military instructors, and Italian colonial settlement was encouraged. Despite strong Italian influence, Zog refused to completely give in to Italian pressure. In 1931 he openly stood up to the Italians, refusing to renew the 1926 Treaty of Tirana. After Albania signed trade agreements with Yugoslavia and Greece in 1934, Mussolini made a failed attempt to intimidate the Albanians by sending a fleet of warships to Albania. As Nazi Germany annexed Austria and moved against Czechoslovakia, Italy saw itself becoming a second-rate member of the Axis. The imminent birth of an Albanian royal child meanwhile threatened to give Zog a lasting dynasty. After Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia (15 March 1939) without notifying Mussolini in advance, the Italian dictator decided to proceed with his own annexation of Albania. Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III criticized the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk. Rome, however, delivered Tirana an ultimatum on 25 March 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania. Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonization of Albania. ### Italian invasion On 7 April Mussolini's troops invaded Albania. The operation was led by General Alfredo Guzzoni. The invasion force was divided into three groups, which were to land successively. The most important was the first group, which was divided in four columns, each assigned to a landing area at a harbor and an inland target on which to advance. Despite some stubborn resistance by some patriots, especially at Durrës, the Italians made short work of the Albanians. Durrës was captured on 7 April, Tirana the following day, Shkodër and Gjirokastër on 9 April, and almost the entire country by 10 April. Unwilling to become an Italian puppet, King Zog, his wife, Queen Geraldine Apponyi, and their infant son Leka fled to Greece and eventually to London. On 12 April, the Albanian parliament voted to depose Zog and unite the nation with Italy "in personal union" by offering the Albanian crown to Victor Emmanuel III. The parliament elected Albania's largest landowner, Shefqet Bej Verlaci, as Prime Minister. Verlaci additionally served as head of state for five days until Victor Emmanuel III formally accepted the Albanian crown in a ceremony at the Quirinale palace in Rome. Victor Emmanuel III appointed Francesco Jacomoni di San Savino, a former ambassador to Albania, to represent him in Albania as "Lieutenant-General of the King" (effectively a viceroy). ### Albania under Italy While Victor Emmanuel ruled as king, Shefqet Bej Verlaci served as the Prime Minister. Shefqet Verlaci controlled the day-to-day activities of the new Italian protectorate. On 3 December 1941, Shefqet Bej Verlaci was replaced as Prime Minister and Head of State by Mustafa Merlika Kruja. From the start, Albanian foreign affairs, customs, as well as natural resources came under direct control of Italy. The puppet Albanian Fascist Party became the ruling party of the country and the Fascists allowed Italian citizens to settle in Albania and to own land so that they could gradually transform it into Italian soil. In October 1940, during the Greco-Italian War, Albania served as a staging-area for Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's unsuccessful invasion of Greece. Mussolini planned to invade Greece and other countries like Yugoslavia in the area to give Italy territorial control of most of the Mediterranean Sea coastline, as part of the Fascists objective of creating the objective of *Mare Nostrum* ("Our Sea") in which Italy would dominate the Mediterranean. But, soon after the Italian invasion, the Greeks counter-attacked and a sizeable portion of Albania was in Greek hands (including the cities of Gjirokastër and Korçë). In April 1941, after Greece capitulated to the German forces, the Greek territorial gains in southern Albania returned to Italian command. Under Italian command came also large areas of Greece after the successful German invasion of Greece. After the fall of Yugoslavia and Greece in April 1941, the Italian Fascists added to the territory of the Kingdom of Albania most of the Albanian-inhabited areas that had been previously given to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The Albanian fascists claimed in May 1941 that nearly all the Albanian populated territories were united to Albania (see map). Even areas of northern Greece (Chameria) were administered by Albanians. But this was even a consequence of borders that Italy and Germany agreed on when dividing their spheres of influence. Some small portions of territories with Albanian majority remained outside the new borders and contact between the two parts was practically impossible: the Albanian population under the Bulgarian rule was heavily oppressed. ### Albania under Germany After the surrender of the Italian Army in September 1943, Albania was occupied by the Germans. With the collapse of the Mussolini government in line with the Allied invasion of Italy, Germany occupied Albania in September 1943, dropping paratroopers into Tirana before the Albanian guerrillas could take the capital. The German Army soon drove the guerrillas into the hills and to the south. The Nazi German government subsequently announced it would recognize the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organizing a new government, police and armed forces. The Germans did not exert heavy-handed control over Albania's administration. Rather, they sought to gain popular support by backing causes popular with Albanians, especially the annexation of Kosovo. Many Balli Kombëtar units cooperated with the Germans against the communists and several Balli Kombëtar leaders held positions in the German-sponsored regime. Albanian collaborators, especially the Skanderbeg SS Division, also expelled and killed Serbs living in Kosovo. In December 1943, a third resistance organization, an anticommunist, anti-German royalist group known as Legaliteti, took shape in Albania's northern mountains. Led by Abaz Kupi, it largely consisted of Geg guerrillas, supplied mainly with weapons from the allies, who withdrew their support for the NLM after the communists renounced Albania's claims on Kosovo. The capital Tirana was liberated by the partisans on 17 November 1944 after a 20-day battle. The communist partizans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 29 November 1944, pursuing the German army until Višegrad, Bosnia (then Yugoslavia) in collaboration with the Yugoslav communist forces. The Albanian partisans also liberated Kosovo, part of Montenegro, and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. By November 1944, they had thrown out the Germans, being with Yugoslavia the only European nations to do so without any assistance from the allies. Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as Secretary General of the Albanian Communist Party. After having taken over power of the country, the Albanian communists launched a tremendous terror campaign, shooting intellectuals and arresting thousands of innocent people. Some died due to suffering torture. Albania was one of the only European country occupied by the Axis powers that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the war. Some 1,200 Jewish residents and refugees from other Balkan countries were hidden by Albanian families during World War II, according to official records. ### Albanian resistance in World War II The National Liberation War of the Albanian people started with the Italian invasion in Albania on 7 April 1939 and ended on 28 November 1944. During the antifascist national liberation war, the Albanian people fought against Italy and Germany, which occupied the country. In the 1939–1941 period, the antifascist resistance was led by the National Front nationalist groups and later by the Communist Party. ### Communist resistance In October 1941, the small Albanian communist groups established in Tirana an Albanian Communist Party of 130 members under the leadership of Hoxha and an eleven-man Central Committee. The Albanian communists supported the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and did not participate in the antifascist struggle until Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The party at first had little mass appeal, and even its youth organization netted recruits. In mid-1942, however, party leaders increased their popularity by calling the young peoples to fight for the liberation of their country, that was occupied by Fascist Italy. This propaganda increased the number of new recruits by many young peoples eager for freedom. In September 1942, the party organized a popular front organization, the National Liberation Movement (NLM), from a number of resistance groups, including several that were strongly anticommunist. During the war, the NLM's communist-dominated partisans, in the form of the National Liberation Army, did not heed warnings from the Italian occupiers that there would be reprisals for guerrilla attacks. Partisan leaders, on the contrary, counted on using the lust for revenge such reprisals would elicit to win recruits. The communists turned the so-called war of liberation into a civil war, especially after the discovery of the Dalmazzo-Kelcyra protocol, signed by the Balli Kombëtar. With the intention of organizing a partisan resistance, they called a general conference in Pezë on 16 September 1942 where the Albanian National Liberation Front was set up. The Front included nationalist groups, but it was dominated by communist partisans. In December 1942, more Albanian nationalist groups were organized. Albanians fought against the Italians while, during Nazi German occupation, Balli Kombëtar allied itself with the Germans and clashed with Albanian communists, which continued their fight against Germans and Balli Kombëtar at the same time. ### Nationalist resistance A nationalist resistance to the Italian occupiers emerged in November 1942. Ali Këlcyra and Midhat Frashëri formed the Western-oriented Balli Kombëtar (National Front). Balli Kombëtar was a movement that recruited supporters from both the large landowners and peasantry. It opposed King Zog's return and called for the creation of a republic and the introduction of some economic and social reforms. The Balli Kombëtar's leaders acted conservatively, however, fearing that the occupiers would carry out reprisals against them or confiscate the landowners' estates. ### Communist revolution in Albania (1944) The communist partisans regrouped and gained control of southern Albania in January 1944. In May they called a congress of members of the National Liberation Front (NLF), as the movement was by then called, at Përmet, which chose an Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation to act as Albania's administration and legislature. Hoxha became the chairman of the council's executive committee and the National Liberation Army's supreme commander. The communist partisans defeated the last Balli Kombëtar forces in southern Albania by mid-summer 1944 and encountered only scattered resistance from the Balli Kombëtar and Legality when they entered central and northern Albania by the end of July. The British military mission urged the remnants of the nationalists not to oppose the communists' advance, and the Allies evacuated Kupi to Italy. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control of the capital by fighting what was left of the German army. A provisional government the communists had formed at Berat in October administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as prime minister. ### Consequences of the war The NLF's strong links with Yugoslavia's communists, who also enjoyed British military and diplomatic support, guaranteed that Belgrade would play a key role in Albania's postwar order. The Allies never recognized an Albanian government in exile or King Zog, nor did they ever raise the question of Albania or its borders at any of the major wartime conferences. No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses exist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war dead, 200 destroyed villages, 18,000 destroyed houses, and about 100,000 people left homeless. Albanian official statistics claim somewhat higher losses. Furthermore, thousands of Chams (Tsams, Albanians living in Northern Greece) were driven out of Greece with the justification that they had collaborated with the Nazis. Second Republic --------------- ### Communism A collection of communists moved quickly after the Second World War to subdue all potential political enemies in Albania, break the country's landowners and minuscule middle class, and isolate Albania from western powers in order to establish the People's Republic of Albania. In 1945, the communists had liquidated, discredited, or driven into exile most of the country's interwar elite. The Internal Affairs Minister, Koçi Xoxe, a pro-Yugoslav erstwhile tinsmith, presided over the trial and the execution of thousands of opposition politicians, clan chiefs, and members of former Albanian governments who were condemned as "war criminals." Thousands of their family members were imprisoned for years in work camps and jails and later exiled for decades to miserable state farms built on reclaimed marshlands. The communists' consolidation of control also produced a shift in political power in Albania from the northern Ghegs to the southern Tosks. Most communist leaders were middle-class Tosks, Vlachs and Orthodox, and the party drew most of its recruits from Tosk-inhabited areas, while the Ghegs, with their centuries-old tradition of opposing authority, distrusted the new Albanian rulers and their alien Marxist doctrines. In December 1945, Albanians elected a new People's Assembly, but only candidates from the Democratic Front (previously the National Liberation Movement then the National Liberation Front) appeared on the electoral lists, and the communists used propaganda and terror tactics to gag the opposition. Official ballot tallies showed that 92% of the electorate voted and that 93% of the voters chose the Democratic Front ticket. The assembly convened in January 1946, annulled the monarchy, and transformed Albania into a "people's republic." The new leaders inherited an Albania plagued by many evils: widespread poverty, overwhelming illiteracy, gjakmarrje ("blood feuds"), epidemics of disease and blatant subjugation of women. In an attempt to eradicate these ills, the Communists have devised a programme of radical modernization. The first important measure was a rapid and uncompromising agrarian reform, which dismantled the large estates and distributed the plots to the peasants. This reform destroyed the powerful bey class. The government has also decided to nationalize industry, banks and all commercial and foreign properties. Shortly after the agrarian reform, the Albanian government began to collectivise agriculture, a process that will continue until 1967. In rural areas, the communist regime suppressed the centuries-old blood feud and patriarchal structure of the family and clans, thus destroying the semi-feudal Bajraktars class. The traditional role of women, confinement to the home and farm, changed dramatically when they achieved legal equality with men and became active participants in all areas of society. Enver Hoxha and Mehmet Shehu emerged as communist leaders in Albania, and are recognized by most western nations. They began to concentrate primarily on securing and maintaining their power base by killing all their political adversaries, and secondarily on preserving Albania's independence and reshaping the country according to the precepts of Stalinism so they could remain in power and develop the nation's economy. Political executions were common with between 5,000 and 25,000 killed in total under the communist regime. According to the Albanian Association of Former Political Prisoners, 6,000 people were executed by the Stalinist regime from 1945 to 1991. Albania became an ally of the Soviet Union, but this came to an end after 1956 over the advent of de-Stalinization, causing the Soviet-Albanian split. A strong political alliance with China followed, leading to several billion dollars in aid, which was curtailed after 1974, causing the Sino-Albanian split. China cut off aid in 1978 when Albania attacked its policies after the death of Chinese leader Mao Zedong. Large-scale purges of officials occurred during the 1970s. During the period of socialist construction of Albania, the country saw rapid economic growth. For the first time, Albania was beginning to produce the major part of its own commodities domestically, which in some areas were able to compete in foreign markets. During the period of 1960 to 1970, the average annual rate of increase of Albania's national income was 29 percent higher than the world average and 56 percent higher than the European average. Also during this period, because of the monopolised socialist economy, Albania was the only country in the world that imposed no imposts or taxes on its people whatsoever. Enver Hoxha, who ruled Albania for four decades, died on 11 April 1985. Soon after Hoxha's death, voices for change emerged in the Albanian society and the government began to seek closer ties with the West in order to improve economic conditions. Eventually the new regime of Ramiz Alia introduced some liberalisation, and granting the freedom to travel abroad in 1990. The new government made efforts to improve ties with the outside world. The elections of March 1991 kept the former Communists in power, but a general strike and urban opposition led to the formation of a coalition cabinet that included non-Communists. In 1967, the authorities conducted a violent campaign to extinguish religious practice in Albania, claiming that religion had divided the Albanian nation and kept it mired in backwardness.[*self-published source?*] Student agitators combed the countryside, forcing Albanians to quit practicing their faith. Despite complaints, even by APL members, all churches, mosques, monasteries, and other religious institutions had been closed or converted into warehouses, gymnasiums, and workshops by year's end. A special decree abrogated the charters by which the country's main religious communities had operated. ### Albania and Yugoslavia Until Yugoslavia's expulsion from the Cominform in 1948, Albania acted like a Yugoslav satellite and the President of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito aimed to use his choke hold on the Albanian party to incorporate the entire country into Yugoslavia. After Germany's withdrawal from Kosovo in late 1944, Yugoslavia's communist partisans took possession of the province and committed retaliatory massacres against Albanians. Before the second World War, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had supported transferring Kosovo to Albania, but Yugoslavia's postwar communist regime insisted on preserving the country's prewar borders. In repudiating the 1943 Mukaj agreement under pressure from the Yugoslavs, Albania's communists had consented to restore Kosovo to Yugoslavia after the war. In January 1945, the two governments signed a treaty reincorporating Kosovo into Yugoslavia as an autonomous province. Shortly thereafter, Yugoslavia became the first country to recognize Albania's provisional government. Relations between Albania and Yugoslavia declined, however, when the Albanians began complaining that the Yugoslavs were paying too little for Albanian raw materials and exploiting Albania through the joint stock companies. In addition, the Albanians sought investment funds to develop light industries and an oil refinery, while the Yugoslavs wanted the Albanians to concentrate on agriculture and raw-material extraction. The head of Albania's Economic Planning Commission and one of Hoxha's allies, Nako Spiru, became the leading critic of Yugoslavia's efforts to exert economic control over Albania. Tito distrusted Hoxha and the other intellectuals in the Albanian party and, through Xoxe and his loyalists, attempted to unseat them. In 1947, Yugoslavia's leaders engineered an all-out offensive against anti-Yugoslav Albanian communists, including Hoxha and Spiru. In May, Tirana announced the arrest, trial, and conviction of nine People's Assembly members, all known for opposing Yugoslavia, on charges of antistate activities. A month later, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia's Central Committee accused Hoxha of following "independent" policies and turning the Albanian people against Yugoslavia. ### Albania and the Soviet Union Albania became dependent on Soviet aid and know-how after the break with Yugoslavia in 1948. In February 1949, Albania gained membership in the communist bloc's organization for coordinating economic planning, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Tirana soon entered into trade agreements with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Soviet and central European technical advisers took up residence in Albania, and the Soviet Union also sent Albania military advisers and built a submarine installation on Sazan Island. After the Soviet-Yugoslav split, Albania and Bulgaria were the only countries the Soviet Union could use to funnel war material to the communists fighting in Greece. What little strategic value Albania offered the Soviet Union, however, gradually shrank as nuclear arms technology developed. Anxious to pay homage to Stalin, Albania's rulers implemented new elements of the Stalinist economic system. In 1949, Albania adopted the basic elements of the Soviet fiscal system, under which state enterprises paid direct contributions to the treasury from their profits and kept only a share authorized for self-financed investments and other purposes. In 1951, the Albanian government launched its first five-year plan, which emphasized exploiting the country's oil, chromite, copper, nickel, asphalt, and coal resources; expanding electricity production and the power grid; increasing agricultural output; and improving transportation. The government began a program of rapid industrialization after the APL's Second Party Congress and a campaign of forced collectivization of farmland in 1955. At the time, private farms still produced about 87% of Albania's agricultural output, but by 1960 the same percentage came from collective or state farms. Stalin died in March 1953, and apparently fearing that the Soviet ruler's demise might encourage rivals within the Albanian party's ranks, neither Hoxha nor Shehu risked traveling to Moscow to attend his funeral. The Soviet Union's subsequent movement toward rapprochement with the hated Yugoslavs rankled the two Albanian leaders. Tirana soon came under pressure from Moscow to copy, at least formally, the new Soviet model for a collective leadership. In July 1953, Hoxha handed over the foreign affairs and defense portfolios to loyal followers, but he kept both the top party post and the premiership until 1954, when Shehu became Albania's prime minister. The Soviet Union, responding with an effort to raise the Albanian leaders' morale, elevated diplomatic relations between the two countries to the ambassadorial level. Despite some initial expressions of enthusiasm, Hoxha and Shehu mistrusted Nikita Khrushchev's programs of "peaceful coexistence" and "different roads to socialism" because they appeared to pose the threat that Yugoslavia might again try to take control of Albania. Hoxha and Shehu were also alarmed at the prospect that Moscow might prefer less dogmatic rulers in Albania. Tirana and Belgrade renewed diplomatic relations in December 1953, but Hoxha refused Khrushchev's repeated appeals to rehabilitate posthumously the pro-Yugoslav Xoxe as a gesture to Tito. The Albanian duo instead tightened their grip on their country's domestic life and let the propaganda war with the Yugoslavs grind on. ### Albania and China The People's Republic of Albania played a role in the Sino-Soviet split far outweighing either its size or its importance in the communist world. In 1958, the nation stood with the People's Republic of China in opposing Moscow on issues of peaceful coexistence, de-Stalinization, and Yugoslavia's separate road to socialism through decentralization of economic life. The Soviet Union, central European countries, and China, all offered Albania large amounts of aid. Soviet leaders also promised to build a large Palace of Culture in Tirana as a symbol of the Soviet people's "love and friendship" for the Albanian people. Despite these gestures, Tirana was dissatisfied with Moscow's economic policy toward Albania. Hoxha and Shehu apparently decided in May or June 1960 that Albania was assured of Chinese support, and they openly sided with the People's Republic of China when sharp polemics erupted between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. Ramiz Alia, at the time a candidate-member of the Politburo and Hoxha's adviser on ideological questions, played a prominent role in the rhetoric. Hoxha and Shehu continued their harangue against the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia at the APL's Fourth Party Congress in February 1961. During the congress, the Albanian government announced the broad outlines of the country's Third Five-Year Plan from 1961 to 65, which allocated 54% of all investment to industry, thereby rejecting Khrushchev's wish to make Albania primarily an agricultural producer. Moscow responded by canceling aid programs and lines of credit for Albania, but the Chinese again came to the rescue. The Albanian-Chinese relations had stagnated by 1970, and when the Asian giant began to reemerge from isolation in the early 1970s, Mao Zedong and the other communist Chinese leaders reassessed their commitment to tiny Albania, starting the Sino-Albanian split. In response, Tirana began broadening its contacts with the outside world. Albania opened trade negotiations with France, Italy, and the recently independent Asian and African states, and in 1971 it normalized relations with Yugoslavia and Greece. Albania's leaders abhorred the People's Republic of China's contacts with the United States in the early 1970s, and its press and radio ignored President Richard Nixon's trip to Beijing in 1972. Third Republic -------------- As Hoxha's health declined, the first secretary of the People's Socialist Republic began planning for an orderly succession. In 1976, the People's Parliament adopted its second communist Constitution of the post-war era. The constitution guaranteed the people of Albania the freedom of speech, press, organization, association, and parliament but subordinated these rights to the individual's duties to society as a whole. The constitution enshrined in law the idea of autarky and prohibited the government from seeking financial aid or credits or from forming joint companies with partners from capitalist or communist countries perceived to be "revisionist". The constitution's preamble also boasted that the foundations of religious belief in Albania had been abolished. In 1980, Hoxha turned to Ramiz Alia to succeed him as Albania's communist patriarch, overlooking his long-standing comrade-in-arms, Mehmet Shehu. Hoxha first tried to convince Shehu to step aside voluntarily, but when this move failed, Hoxha arranged for all the members of the Politburo to rebuke him for allowing his son to become engaged to the daughter of a former bourgeois family. Hoxha purged the members of Shehu's family and his supporters within the police and military. In November 1982, Hoxha announced that Shehu had been a foreign spy working simultaneously for the United States, British, Soviet, and Yugoslav intelligence agencies in planning the assassination of Hoxha himself. "He was buried like a dog", the dictator wrote in the Albanian edition of his book, 'The Titoites'. Hoxha went into semi-retirement in early 1983, and Alia assumed responsibility for Albania's administration. Alia traveled extensively around Albania, standing in for Hoxha at major events and delivering addresses laying down new policies and intoning litanies to the enfeebled president. Alia succeeded to the presidency and became legal secretary of the APL two days later. In due course, he became a dominant figure in the Albanian media, and his slogans appeared painted in crimson letters on signboards across the country. Fourth Republic --------------- ### Transition In 1985, Ramiz Alia became the first President of Albania. Alia tried to follow in Enver Hoxha's footsteps, but the changes had already started and the collapse of communism throughout Europe led to widespread changes within the society of Albania. Mikhail Gorbachev had appeared in the Soviet Union with new rules and policies (glasnost and perestroika). However, Alia took similar steps, signing the Helsinki Agreement and allowing pluralism under pressure from students and workers. Afterwards, the first multi-party elections took place since the communists assumed power in Albania. The Socialist Party led by Ramiz Alia won the 1991 elections. Nevertheless, it was clear that the change would not be stopped. Pursuant to a 29 April 1991 interim basic law, Albanians ratified a constitution on 28 November 1998, establishing a democratic system of government based upon the rule of law and guaranteeing the protection of fundamental human rights. Furthermore, the Communists retained support and governmental control in the first round of elections under the interim law, but fell two months later during a general strike. A committee of "national salvation" took over but also collapsed in half a year. On 22 March 1992, the Communists were trumped by the Democratic Party after winning the 1992 parliamentary elections. The transition from the socialist state to a parliamentary system had many challenges. The Democratic Party had to implement the reforms it had promised, but they were either too slow or did not solve the problems, so the people were disappointed when their hopes for fast prosperity went unfulfilled. ### Democratization The Democratic Party took control after winning the second multi-party elections, deposing the Communist Party. Afterwards, Sali Berisha became the second President. Today, Berisha is the longest-serving and the only President of Albania elected to a second term. In 1995, Albania became the 35th member of the Council of Europe and requested membership in North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[*self-published source?*] The people of Albania have continued to emigrate to western European countries,[*why?*] especially to Greece and Italy but also to the United States. Deliberate programmes of economic and democratic reforms were put in place, but Albanian inexperience with capitalism led to the proliferation of pyramid schemes,[*when?*] which were not banned due to the corruption of the government. Anarchy in late 1996 to early 1997 alarmed the world and prompted international mediation. In the early spring 1997, Italy led a multinational military and humanitarian intervention (Operation Alba), authorized by the United Nations Security Council, to help stabilize the country. The government of Berisha collapsed in 1997 in the wake of the additional collapse of pyramid schemes and widespread corruption, which caused anarchy and rebellion throughout the country. The government attempted to suppress the rebellion by military force but the attempt failed, due to long-term corrosion of the Military of Albania due to political and social factors. Few months later, after the 1997 parliamentary elections the Democratic Party was defeated by the Socialist Party, winning just 25 seats out of a total of 156. Sali Berisha resigned and the Socialists elected Rexhep Meidani as President. Including to that, the leader of the Socialists Fatos Nano was elected as Prime Minister, a post which he held until October 1998, when he resigned as a result of the tense situation created in the country after the assassination of Azem Hajdari, a prominent leader of the Democratic Party. Due to that, Pandeli Majko was then elected Prime Minister until November 1999, when he was replaced by Ilir Meta. The Parliament adopted the current Constitution on 29 November 1998. Albania approved its constitution through a popular referendum which was held in November 1998, but which was boycotted by the opposition. The general local elections of October 2000 marked the loss of control of the Democrats over the local governments and a victory for the Socialists. In 2001, Albania made strides toward democratic reform and the rule of law, serious deficiencies in the electoral code remain to be addressed, as demonstrated in the elections. International observers judged the elections to be acceptable, but the Union for Victory Coalition, the second-largest vote recipient, disputed the results and boycotted parliament until 31 January 2002. In June 2005, the democratic coalition formed a government with the Sali Berisha. His return to power in the elections of 3 July 2005 ended eight years of Socialist Party rule. After Alfred Moisiu, in 2006 Bamir Topi was elected President of Albania until 2010. Despite the political situation, the economy of Albania grew at an estimated 5% in 2007. The Albanian lek has strengthened from 143 lekë to the US dollar in 2000 to 92 lekë in 2007. ### Present On 23 June 2013, the seventh parliamentary elections took place, won by Edi Rama of the Socialist Party. During his tenure as 33rd Prime Minister, Albania has implemented numerous reforms focused on the modernizing the economy and democratizing of state institutions like the judiciary and law enforcement. Additionally, unemployment has been steadily reduced to the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. After the collapse of the Eastern Bloc, Albania started to develop closer ties with Western Europe. At the 2008 Bucharest summit, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) invited Albania to join the alliance. In April 2014 Albania became a full member of the NATO. Albania was among the first southeastern European countries to join the Partnership for peace programme. Albania applied to join the European Union, becoming an official candidate for accession to the European Union in June 2014. In 2017, the eighth parliamentary elections took place, simultaneously with the presidential elections. The presidential elections were held on 19, 20, 27 and 28 April 2017. In the fourth round, the incumbent Chairman and then-Prime Minister, Ilir Meta was elected as the eighth President of Albania with 87 votes. However, the result of the parliamentary elections held on 25 June 2017 was a victory for the Socialist Party led by Edi Rama, that received 48.33% of the votes of the elections, ahead of 5 other candidates. Lulzim Basha, the Democratic Party candidate and runner-up in the election, received only 28.81% of the votes. In April 2021 parliamentary election, ruling Socialist Party, led by Prime Minister Edi Rama, secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone. In February 2022, Albania's Constitutional Court overturned parliament's impeachment of President Ilir Meta, opponent of the ruling Socialist Party. In June 2022, Albanian parliament elected Bajram Begaj, the candidate of the ruling Socialist Party (PS), as the new President of Albania. On 24 July 2022, Bajram Begaj was sworn in as Albania's ninth president. On 19 July 2022, Albania started the negotiations with the European Union. Also in 6 December, in Tirana was hold the EU-Western Balkans Summit. Is the first EU Summit hold in Tirana. See also -------- * Albanians * Albanian nationalism * Politics of Albania * Timeline of Albanian history * Epitaph of Gllavenica * Gjergj Arianiti * Greater Albania * Illyrians

History of Albania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Albania

**Lenin's Mausoleum** (from 1953 to 1961 **Lenin's and Stalin's Mausoleum**) (Russian: Мавзолей Ленина, tr. *Mavzoley Lenina*, IPA: [məvzɐˈlʲej ˈlʲenʲɪnə]), also known as **Lenin's Tomb**, is a mausoleum located at Red Square in Moscow, Russia. It serves as the resting place of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin, whose preserved body has been on public display since shortly after his death in 1924, with rare exceptions in wartime. The outdoor tribune over the mausoleum's entrance was used by Soviet leaders to observe military parades. The structure, designed by Alexey Shchusev, incorporates some elements from ancient mausoleums such as the Step Pyramid, the Tomb of Cyrus the Great and, to some degree, the Temple of the Inscriptions. History ------- Two days after Vladimir Lenin's death on 21 January 1924, architect Alexey Shchusev was tasked with building a structure suitable for viewing of the body by mourners. A wooden tomb, built in Red Square close to the Moscow Kremlin Wall, was ready on January 27, the same day Lenin's coffin was placed inside. More than 100,000 Soviet citizens visited the tomb in the next six weeks. By the end of May, Shchusev had replaced the tomb with a larger, more elaborate mausoleum, and Lenin's body was transferred to a sarcophagus designed by architect Konstantin Melnikov. The new wooden mausoleum was opened to the public on 1 August 1924. Pathologist Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov had embalmed Lenin's body shortly after his death, with Boris Zbarsky and Vladimir Vorobiev later being tasked with its ongoing preservation. Zbarsky was soon assisted by his son Ilya Zbarsky, a recent graduate of Moscow University, who likened the work on Lenin's body to that of ancient Egyptian priests. In 1925, Boris Zbarsky and Vorobiev urged the Soviet government to replace the wooden structure after mold was found in the walls and even on the body itself. A new mausoleum of marble, porphyry, granite, and labradorite, designed by Shchusev, was completed in 1930. The mausoleum also served as a viewing stand for Soviet leaders to review military parades on Red Square. Lenin's body has been on almost continuous public display inside the mausoleum since its completion in 1930. In October 1941, during what Russians call the Great Patriotic War, the body was evacuated to Tyumen, in Siberia, when it appeared that Moscow might fall to German troops; the body was returned and the tomb reopened after the war. Between 1953 and 1961, the embalmed body of Joseph Stalin shared a spot next to Lenin's; Stalin's body was eventually removed as part of de-Stalinization and Khrushchev's Thaw, and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Soviet sculptor Nikolai Tomsky designed a new sarcophagus for Lenin's body in 1973. On 26 January 1924, the head of the Moscow Garrison issued an order to place the guard of honour, popularly known as the "Number One Sentry", at the mausoleum. The guard of honour was disbanded following the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993, but was restored at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Alexander Garden four years later. Architectural features ---------------------- ### Project selection and construction In January 1925, the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee announced an international competition to design a stone tomb for Lenin's body. The commission received 117 suggestions and sketches. Among them, there were offered different variants: a ship with Lenin's figure on board, a round mausoleum in a shape of a globe, an analogue of an Egyptian pyramid and a mausoleum in a shape of the five-pointed star. But after considering the proposed designs, the commission decided to retain the image of a wooden mausoleum. Shchusev created some new drawings based on old sketches and made a model in granite, and his project was approved. It was decided to clad the new building with red granite, as well as black and grey labradorite. The basement under the sarcophagus weighed twenty tonnes. It was installed on a thick layer of sand, and guarding piles–meant to protect the tomb from vibration–were driven around the slab. Altogether 2900 m2 of polished granite was required for the construction, each square metre of which was processed for three days on average. The upper slab of red Karelian quartzite was placed on columns of granite, whose different species were specially brought to Moscow from all the republics of the USSR. The stone mausoleum was completed October 1930, after sixteen months of construction. Compared to the previous wooden mausoleum, the new building was built three metres higher, the outer volume was increased 4.5 times – 5800 m³, and the inner volume 12 times, up to 2400 m³. Its total weight was about 10,000 tonnes. The mausoleum occupied the highest point on Red Square. During construction, both the mausoleum and the necropolis were brought to a unified architectural design: differently characterised tombstones and monuments were removed, individual and collective burials at Nikolskaya and Spasskaya Towers were united, and the fence was redesigned and installed. Guest stands for ten thousand seats were installed on either side of the mausoleum. ### Interiors The mausoleum contains a vestibule, Mourning Hall and two staircases. Opposite the entrance is a huge granite block bearing the State Emblem of the Soviet Union. Two stairs are lead down from the vestibule. The left staircase, measuring three meters wide, takes visitors down to the Funeral Hall. The walls of the descent are of grey labradorite. The Funeral Hall is a ten-meter cube with a stepped ceiling. A band of black labradorite runs across the entire room, on which pilasters of red porphyry are placed. Next to the pilasters are bands of bright red smalt, to the right of which are bands of black labradorite. This combination creates the effect of flames and banners flying in the wind. In the centre of the hall is a black pedestal with a sarcophagus. The upper stepped slab of the sarcophagus is supported by four inconspicuous metal columns, which gives the impression that the slab is hanging in the air. The lower slab is covered in reddish jasper. The sarcophagus is made up of two inclined conical glasses, which are held together by a bronze frame. Illuminators and light filters are embedded in the upper part of the frame, giving an animating pink coloring and reducing heat. On either side of the sarcophagus are the battle and labour bronze banners, which appear satiny due to the special illumination. In the headboard is the Soviet State Emblem framed by oak and laurel branches. At the foot, there are branches twisted with ribbon. Exit from the Funeral Hall to the right-hand staircase leads back to Red Square. Preserving the body ------------------- One of the main problems the embalmers faced was the appearance of dark spots on Lenin's body, especially on the face and hands. They managed to solve the problem by the use of a variety of different reagents. While working on ways to preserve the body, Boris Zbarsky invented a new way to purify medical chloroform used for preservation. For example, if a patch of wrinkling or discoloration occurred, it was treated with a solution of acetic acid and ethyl alcohol diluted with water. Hydrogen peroxide could be used to restore the tissues' original coloring. Damp spots were removed by means of disinfectants such as quinine or phenol. Lenin's remains are soaked in a solution of glycerol and potassium acetate on a yearly basis. Synthetic eyeballs were placed in Lenin's orbital cavities to prevent his eye sockets from collapsing. Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the continued preservation work was funded by the Soviet government. After 1991 the government discontinued financial support, after which the mausoleum was funded by private donations. In 2016 the Russian government reversed its earlier decision and announced it would spend 13 million rubles to preserve Lenin's body. Contemporary ------------ Lenin's Mausoleum is open to the public on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays and Sundays from 10:00–13:00. Visitors still queue to see Lenin's body, although queues are not as long as they once were. Entrance is free of charge. Before visitors are allowed to enter the mausoleum, they are searched by armed police or military guards. Visitors are required to show respect whilst inside the tomb: photography and filming inside the mausoleum are forbidden, as is talking, smoking, keeping hands in pockets or (unless female) wearing hats. Since 1991 there has been discussion about moving Lenin's body to the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Russian President Boris Yeltsin, with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church, intended to close the mausoleum and bury Lenin next to his mother, Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova, at the Volkov Cemetery in St. Petersburg. Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, opposed this, stating that a reburial of Lenin would imply that generations of citizens had observed false values during seventy years of Soviet rule. Lenin's Mausoleum has undergone several changes in appearance since the collapse of the Soviet Union. One of the first noticeable was the placement of gates at the staircases leading to the tribune. After the removal of the guard, this was necessary to prevent unauthorised usage of the tribune. Beginning in 2012, the mausoleum underwent foundation reconstruction, necessitated by the construction of a building attached to the mausoleum in 1983. The new building housed an escalator used by members of the Politburo to ascend the tribune. In 1995–96, when Yeltsin used the tribune, he used the staircase and not the escalator. The escalator was removed after the tribune became disused. Following renovations, the mausoleum was reopened on April 30, 2013, in time for the May 1 celebration of "The Day of Spring and Labour". In 2018, RIA Novosti reported that Vladimir Petrov, a member of the legislative assembly of Leningrad Oblast, proposed creating a special commission in order to examine the question of the removal of Lenin's body from the mausoleum. Petrov seemed to be willing to replace the corpse with a copy made of synthetic resin. Dmitry Novikov, a member of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, has strongly opposed Petrov's proposition. Honours ------- * The Hungarian People's Republic issued a postage stamp depicting it on 20 February 1952. * The Soviet Union issued postage stamps depicting it in 1925, 1934, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948, and 1949. See also -------- * Kumsusan Palace of the Sun * Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum * Kremlin Wall Necropolis * Tampere Lenin Museum * Chairman Mao Memorial Hall * Pyramid of Tirana * House of Flowers * Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum * Che Guevara Mausoleum * Santa Ifigenia Cemetery * Sükhbaatar's Mausoleum * Georgi Dimitrov Mausoleum * National Monument in Vitkov * Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's Mausoleum * Mausoleum of Ruhollah Khomeini * Raj Ghat * Mazar-e-Quaid * Bourguiba mausoleum * Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Mosque * Artigas Mausoleum * Martyrs' Mausoleum, Yangon * Mausoleum of Arafat * Leninism * Marxism–Leninism

Lenin's Mausoleum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenin%27s_Mausoleum

The **Book of Lamentations** (Hebrew: אֵיכָה, *ʾĒḵā*, from its incipit meaning "how") is a collection of poetic laments for the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. In the Hebrew Bible it appears in the Ketuvim ("Writings") as one of the Five Megillot (or "Five Scrolls") alongside the Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, Ecclesiastes and the Book of Esther although there is no set order. In the Christian Old Testament it follows the Book of Jeremiah, as the prophet Jeremiah is its traditional author. However, according to modern scholarship, while the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586/7 BCE forms the background to the poems, they were probably not written by Jeremiah. Most likely, each of the book's chapters was written by a different anonymous poet, and they were then joined to form the book. Some motifs of a traditional Mesopotamian "city lament" are evident in this book, such as mourning the desertion of the city by God, its destruction, and the ultimate return of the divinity; others "parallel the funeral dirge in which the bereaved bewails... and... addresses the [dead]". The tone is bleak: God does not speak, the degree of suffering is presented as overwhelming, and expectations of future redemption are minimal. Nonetheless, the author repeatedly makes clear that the city (and even the author himself) had profusely sinned against God, to which God had strongly responded. In doing so the author does not blame God but rather presents him as righteous, just and sometimes even as merciful. Summary ------- The book consists of five separate poems. In the first (chapter 1), the city sits as a desolate weeping widow overcome with miseries. In chapter 2, these miseries are described in connection with national sins and acts of God. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the people of God: that the chastisement would only be for their good; a better day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and desolation of the city and temple, but traces it to the people's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion's reproach may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of the people. Themes ------ Lamentations combines elements of the *qinah*, a funeral dirge for the loss of the city, and the "communal lament" pleading for the restoration of its people. It reflects the view, traceable to Sumerian literature of a thousand years earlier, that the destruction of the holy city was a punishment by God for the communal sin of its people. However, while Lamentations is generically similar to the Sumerian laments of the early 2nd millennium BCE (e.g., "Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur," "Lament for Sumer and Ur," "Nippur Lament"), the Sumerian laments (that we have) were recited on the occasion of the rebuilding of a temple, so their story has a happy ending, whereas the book of Lamentations was written before the return/rebuilding, and thus contains only lamentations and pleas to God with no response or resolution. Beginning with the reality of disaster, Lamentations concludes with the bitter possibility that God may have finally rejected Israel (chapter 5:22). Sufferers in the face of grief are not urged to a confidence in the goodness of God; in fact, God is accountable for the disaster. The poet acknowledges that this suffering is a just punishment, still God is held to have had choice over whether to act in this way and at this time. Hope arises from a recollection of God's past goodness, but although this justifies a cry to God to act in deliverance, there is no guarantee that he will. Repentance will not persuade God to be gracious, since he is free to give or withhold grace as he chooses. In the end, the possibility is that God has finally rejected his people and may not again deliver them. Nevertheless, it also affirms confidence that the mercies of Yahweh (the God of Israel) never end, but are new every morning (3:22–33). Structure --------- Lamentations consists of five distinct (and non-chronological) poems, corresponding to its five chapters. Two of its defining characteristic features are the alphabetic acrostic and its *qinah* meter. However, few English translations capture either of these; even fewer attempt to capture both. ### Acrostic The first four chapters are written as acrostics. Chapters 1, 2, and 4 each have 22 verses, corresponding to the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, the first lines beginning with the first letter of the alphabet, the second with the second letter, and so on. Chapter 3 has 66 verses, so that each letter begins three lines. Unlike standard alphabetical order, in the middle chapters of Lamentations, the letter *pe* (the 17th letter) comes before *ayin* (the 16th). In the first chapter, the Masoretic text uses the standard/modern alphabetical order; however, in the dead sea scroll version of the text (4QLam/4Q111, c. 37 BCE – 73 CE), even the first chapter uses the *pe-ayin* order found in chapters 2, 3, and 4. This *pe-ayin* order may be based on the pre-exilic Paleo-Hebrew alphabet/script in which *pe* did indeed come before *ayin* (as is reflected in pre-exilic abecedaries and other texts). The *ayin* before *pe* order (which is found in other ancient western Semitic alphabets as far back as the 13th century BCE) was likely adopted by the Judeans at some point in the exilic or post-exilic period. Given that they largely abandoned the Paleo-Hebrew script for the Aramaic script (which used *ayin-pe*), it is not surprising that they also adopted the Aramaic letter order (around the same (exilic) time period). The fact that Lamentations follows the pre-exilic *pe-ayin* order is evidence for the position that they are not postexilic compositions but rather written shortly after the events described. The fifth poem, corresponding to the fifth chapter, is not acrostic but still has 22 lines. Although some claim that purpose or function of the acrostic form is unknown, it is frequently thought that a complete alphabetical order expresses a principle of completeness, from *alef* (first letter) to *tav* (22nd letter); the English equivalent would be "from A to Z". English translations that attempt to capture this acrostic nature are few in number. They include those by Ronald Knox and by David R. Slavitt. In both cases their mapping of the 22 Hebrew letters into the Latin alphabet's 26 uses 'A' to 'V' (omitting W, X, Y and Z), thus lacking the "A to Z" sense of completeness. ### *Qinah* The book's first four chapters have a well-defined *qinah* rhythm of three stresses followed by two, although the fifth chapter lacks this. Dobbs-Allsopp describes this meter as "the rhythmic dominance of unbalanced and enjambed lines". Again, few English translations attempt to capture this. Exceptions include Robert Alter's *The Hebrew Bible* and the *New American Bible Revised Edition*. Composition ----------- Lamentations has traditionally been ascribed to Jeremiah. The ascription of authorship to Jeremiah derives from the impetus to ascribe all biblical books to inspired biblical authors, and Jeremiah being a prophet at the time who prophesied its demise was an obvious choice. Additionally in 2 Chronicles 35:25 Jeremiah is said to have composed a lament on the death of King Josiah, but there is no reference to Josiah in the book of Lamentations and no reason to connect it to Jeremiah. However, the modern consensus amongst scholars is that Jeremiah did not write Lamentations; like most ancient literature, the author remains anonymous. Most likely, each of the book's chapters was written by a different poet, and they then were joined to form the book. The book's language fits an Exilic date (586–520 BCE), and the poems probably originated from Judeans who remained in the land. The fact that the acrostics follow the *pe-ayin* order[*dubious – discuss*] of the pre-exilic Paleo-Hebrew alphabet/script further supports the position that they are not postexilic compositions. However, the sequence of the chapters is not chronological, and the poems were not necessarily written by eyewitnesses to the events. The book was compiled between 586 BCE and the end of the 6th century BCE, when the Temple was rebuilt. Because Second Isaiah, whose work is dated to 550–538 BCE, seems to have known at least parts of Lamentations, the book was probably in circulation by the mid-6th century, but the exact time, place, and reason for its composition are unknown. Scholars are divided over whether the book is the work of one or multiple authors. One clue pointing to multiple authors is that the gender and situation of the first-person witness changes – the narration is feminine in the first and second lamentation, and masculine in the third, while the fourth and fifth are eyewitness reports of Jerusalem's destruction; conversely, the similarities of style, vocabulary, and theological outlook, as well as the uniform historical setting, are arguments for one author. Later interpretation and influence ---------------------------------- Lamentations is recited annually by Jews on the fast day of Tisha B'Av ("Ninth of Av") (July–August), mourning the destruction of both the First Temple (by the Babylonians in 586 BCE) and the Second Temple (by the Romans in 70 CE). In Christian tradition, readings from Lamentations are part of the Holy Week liturgies. In Western Christianity, readings (often chanted) and choral settings of extracts from the book are used in the Lenten religious service known as *Tenebrae* (Latin for 'darkness'). In the Church of England, readings are used at Morning and Evening Prayer on the Monday and Tuesday of Holy Week, and at Evening Prayer on Good Friday. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the book's third chapter is chanted on the 12th hour of the Good Friday service, that commemorates the burial of Jesus. References ---------- ### Sources * Aarons, Victoria; Levitsky, Holli (2019). *New Directions in Jewish American and Holocaust Literatures: Reading and Teaching*. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-7320-8. * Assis, Ellie (2007). "The Alphabetic Acrostic in the Book of Lamentations". *The Catholic Biblical Quarterly*. * Berlin, Adele (2004). *Lamentations: A Commentary*. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664229740. * Berlin, Adele (2014). Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). *The Jewish Study Bible: Second Edition* (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939387-9. * Berlin, Adele (2018). Coogan, Michael; Brettler, Marc; Newsom, Carol; Perkins, Pheme (eds.). *The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard Version*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-027611-9. * Clines, David J.A. (2003). "Lamentations". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). *Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible*. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110. * Dobbs-Allsopp, F.W. (2002). *Lamentations*. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664237547. * First, Mitchell (June 2014). "Using the Pe–Ayin Order of the Abecedaries of Ancient Israel to Date the Book of Psalms". *Journal for the Study of the Old Testament*. **38** (4): 471–485. doi:10.1177/0309089214536490. ISSN 0309-0892. S2CID 170926400. * First, Mitchell (2017). *Pe before Ayin in Biblical Pre-Exilic Acrostics*. *www.thetorah.com*. * Hayes, John H. (1998). "The Songs of Israel". In McKenzie, Steven L.; Graham, Matt Patrick (eds.). *The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues*. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524. * Hillers, Delbert R. (1993). "Lamentations of Jeremiah". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). *The Oxford Companion to the Bible*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743919. * Joyce, Paul M. (2013). *Lamentations Through the Centuries*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118332641. * Lee, Archie C. C. (2008). "Book of Lamentations". In Sakenfeld, Katherine Doob (ed.). *The New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible*. Vol. 3. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-0-687-33365-3. * Pitre, Brant J.; Bergsma, John S. (2018). *A Catholic Introduction to the Bible: The Old Testament*. Ignatius Press. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-58617-722-5. | | | --- | | Book of Lamentations **Hebrew lament** | | Preceded byRuth | **Hebrew Bible** | Succeeded byEcclesiastes | | Preceded byJeremiah | **ProtestantOld Testament** | Succeeded byEzekiel | | **Roman CatholicOld Testament** | Succeeded byBaruch | | **E. OrthodoxOld Testament** |

Book of Lamentations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Lamentations

A **banana** is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus *Musa*. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguishing them from **dessert bananas**. The fruit is variable in size, color, and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow upward in clusters near the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless (parthenocarp) bananas come from two wild species – *Musa acuminata* and *Musa balbisiana*. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are *Musa acuminata*, *Musa balbisiana*, and *Musa* × *paradisiaca* for the hybrid *Musa acuminata* × *M. balbisiana*, depending on their genomic constitution. The old scientific name for this hybrid, *Musa sapientum*, is no longer used. *Musa* species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to make fiber, banana wine, and banana beer, and are sometimes even grown as ornamental plants. The world's largest producers of bananas in 2017 were India and China, which together accounted for approximately 38% of total production. As of 2023, India was producing nearly 30.5 million tons of bananas each year, a little less than 20 million tons more than China. Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and "plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. In the US, as of 2019, these bananas, by poundage, are the most consumed fresh fruit. By contrast, *Musa* cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains". In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana are grown and eaten, so the binary distinction is not as useful and is not made in local languages. The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants that produce the fruit. This can extend to other members of the genus *Musa*, such as the scarlet banana (*Musa coccinea*), the pink banana (*Musa velutina*), and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer to members of the genus *Ensete*, such as the snow banana (*Ensete glaucum*) and the economically important false banana (*Ensete ventricosum*). Both genera are in the banana family, Musaceae. Description ----------- The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant. All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a "corm". Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy with a treelike appearance, but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. Banana plants are among the fastest growing of all plants, with daily surface growth rates recorded of 1.4 square metres (15 sq ft) to 1.6 square metres (17 sq ft). The leaves of banana plants are composed of a stalk (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart. Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide. They are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look. When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top. Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional plant in the Philippines produced five.) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole is perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing. The inflorescence contains many bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary. The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. The hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3–20 tiers, or commercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh 30–50 kilograms (66–110 lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or "finger") average 125 grams (4+1⁄2 oz), of which approximately 75% is water and 25% dry matter (nutrient table, lower right). The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry". There is a protective outer layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the three carpels by manually deforming the unopened fruit. In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit. The end of the fruit opposite the stem contains a small tip distinct in texture, and often darker in color. Often misunderstood to be some type of seed or excretory vein, it is actually just the remnants from whence the banana fruit was a banana flower. * A banana corm, about 25 cm (10 in) acrossA banana corm, about 25 cm (10 in) across * Young banana plantYoung banana plant * Female flowers have petals at the tip of the ovaryFemale flowers have petals at the tip of the ovary * Banana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescenceBanana 'tree' showing fruit and inflorescence * Single row planting of bananaSingle row planting of banana * Banana inflorescence, partially openedBanana inflorescence, partially opened * Wild banana with flowers and stem growing in reverse directionWild banana with flowers and stem growing in reverse direction * Extracted banana DNA strandsExtracted banana DNA strands ### Banana equivalent radiation dose As with all living things on earth, potassium-containing bananas emit radioactivity at low levels occurring naturally from potassium-40 (40K or K-40), which is one of several isotopes of potassium. The banana equivalent dose of radiation was developed in 1995 as a simple teaching-tool to educate the public about the natural, small amount of K-40 radiation occurring in every human and in common foods. The K-40 in a banana emits about 15 becquerels or 0.1 microsieverts (units of radioactivity exposure), an amount that does not add to the total body radiation dose when a banana is consumed. By comparison, the normal radiation exposure of an average person over one day is 10 microsieverts, a commercial flight across the United States exposes a person to 40 microsieverts, and the total yearly radiation exposure from the K-40 sources in a person's body is about 390 microsieverts. Etymology --------- The word "banana" is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from the Wolof word *banaana*, and passed into English via Spanish or Portuguese. Taxonomy -------- The genus *Musa* was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The name may be derived from Antonius Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus, or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana, *mauz*. According to Roger Blench, the ultimate origin of *musa* is in the Trans–New Guinea languages, whence they were borrowed into the Austronesian languages and across Asia, via the Dravidian languages of India, into Arabic as a *Wanderwort*. *Musa* is the type genus in the family Musaceae. The APG III system assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales, part of the commelinid clade of the monocotyledonous flowering plants. Some 70 species of *Musa* were recognized by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of January 2013[update]; several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals. The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food: *Musa sapientum* for dessert bananas and *Musa paradisiaca* for plantains. More species names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the number of cultivars in the primary center of diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later discovered to be synonyms. In a series of papers published from 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus's *Musa sapientum* and *Musa paradisiaca* were cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species, *Musa acuminata* and *Musa balbisiana*, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Colla. Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of *Musa balbisiana*, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of *Musa acuminata*, and those with characteristics of both. Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities, leading to confusion. The accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are *Musa acuminata* Colla and *Musa balbisiana* Colla for the ancestral species, and *Musa* × *paradisiaca* L. for the hybrid *M. acuminata* × *M. balbisiana*. Synonyms of *M.* × *paradisiaca* include * many subspecific and varietal names of *M.* × *paradisiaca*, including *M. p.* subsp. *sapientum* (L.) Kuntze * *Musa* × *dacca* Horan. * *Musa* × *sapidisiaca* K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl. * *Musa* × *sapientum* L., and many of its varietal names, including *M.* × *sapientum* var. *paradisiaca* (L.) Baker, nom. illeg. Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placed in groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus the Latundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both *M. acuminata* (A) and *M. balbisiana* (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under this system, *see* "List of banana cultivars". In 2012, a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft sequence of the genome of *M. acuminata*. Bananas and plantains --------------------- In regions such as North America and Europe, *Musa* fruits offered for sale can be divided into "bananas" and "plantains" (cooking banana), based on their intended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor Chiquita produces publicity material for the American market which says that "a plantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that plantains are more starchy and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness. Linnaeus made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of *Musa*. Members of the "plantain subgroup" of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true" plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas. The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, the East African Highland bananas, so would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition. An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the subgroups of cooking bananas. Triploid cultivars derived solely from *M. acuminata* are examples of "dessert bananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between *M. acuminata* and *M. balbisiana* (in particular the plantain subgroup of the AAB Group) are "plantains". Small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could be placed into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas. In Southeast Asia—the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated—the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas. Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both Cavendish cultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas, and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are called *pisang* in Malaysia and Indonesia, *kluai* in Thailand and *chuối* in Vietnam. Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, but Karat bananas, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow dessert bananas, are eaten raw. In the Spanish market, the distinction is among *plátano*, applied to the Cavendish cultivars produced in the Spanish Canary Islands under the protected geographical indication *plátano de Canarias*, *banana*, applied to dessert imports from Africa and the Americas, and *plátano macho* (literally, "male banana"), applied to imports that are to be cooked. In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible to distinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of the world, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana and the two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cooking bananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas. Historical cultivation ---------------------- ### Early cultivation The earliest domestication of bananas (*Musa* spp.) was from naturally occurring parthenocarpic (seedless) individuals of *Musa banksii* in New Guinea. These were cultivated by Papuans before the arrival of Austronesian-speakers. Numerous phytoliths of bananas have been recovered from the Kuk Swamp archaeological site and dated to around 10,000 to 6,500 BP. Foraging humans in this area began domestication in the late Pleistocene using transplantation and early cultivation methods. Various investigations – including Denham *et al.*, 2003 – determine that by the early to middle of the Holocene the process was complete. From New Guinea, cultivated bananas spread westward into Island Southeast Asia through proximity (not migrations). They hybridized with other (possibly independently domesticated) subspecies of *Musa acuminata* as well as *M. balbisiana* in the Philippines, northern New Guinea, and possibly Halmahera. These hybridization events produced the triploid cultivars of bananas commonly grown today. From Island Southeast Asia, they became part of the staple domesticated crops of Austronesian peoples and were spread during their voyages and ancient maritime trading routes into Oceania, East Africa, South Asia, and Indochina. These ancient introductions resulted in the banana subgroup now known as the "true" plantains, which include the East African Highland bananas and the Pacific plantains (the Iholena and Maoli-Popo'ulu subgroups). East African Highland bananas originated from banana populations introduced to Madagascar probably from the region between Java, Borneo, and New Guinea; while Pacific plantains were introduced to the Pacific Islands from either eastern New Guinea or the Bismarck Archipelago. Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in Madagascar around that time.[*dubious – discuss*] The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE. It is likely, however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to the East African coast during the phase of Malagasy colonization of the island from South East Asia c. 400 CE. Glucanase and two other proteins specific to bananas were found in dental calculus from early Iron Age (12th century BCE) Philistines in Tel Erani in the southern Levant. Another wave of introductions later spread bananas to other parts of tropical Asia, particularly Indochina and the Indian subcontinent. However, there is evidence that bananas were known to the Indus Valley civilisation from phytoliths recovered from the Kot Diji archaeological site in Pakistan (although they are absent in other contemporary sites in South Asia). This may be a possible indication of very early dispersal of bananas by Austronesian traders by sea from as early as 2000 BCE. But this is still putative, as they may have come from local wild *Musa* species used for fiber or as ornamentals, not food. Southeast Asia remains the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation in these regions. The banana may also have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve of Islam. The spread of Islam was followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt. From there it diffused into North Africa and Muslim Iberia. An article on banana tree cultivation is included in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, *Book on Agriculture*. During the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were considered among the best in the Arab world. In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine. Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight fasting. Bananas were certainly grown in the Christian Kingdom of Cyprus by the late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writer Gabriele Capodilista wrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-day Limassol, including the region's banana plantations. Bananas (as well as coconuts) were encountered by European explorers during the Magellan expedition in 1521, in both Guam and the Philippines. Lacking a name for the fruit, the ship's historian Antonio Pigafetta described them as "figs more than one palm long." Bananas were introduced to South America by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West Africa in the 16th century. Southeast Asian banana cultivars, as well as abaca grown for fibers, were also introduced to New Spain (North and Central America) by the Spanish from the Philippines, via the Manila galleons. Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in India, China, and Southeast Asia. > There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with pulp the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The Double Mahoi plant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong banana means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow fused; another produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long. > > — Mike Peed, *The New Yorker* ### Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa. North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more widespread. As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available. Jules Verne introduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in *Around the World in Eighty Days* (1872). The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the related Western Caribbean Zone, including most of Central America. It involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and Andrew Preston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders like Minor C. Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita Brands International and Dole. These companies were monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning they controlled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclave economies (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented that contribute very little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term banana republic for states such as Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War, to keep the political climate favorable to their interests. ### Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets. India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate and soil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their crop. Peasant sector banana growers produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. The Windward Islands are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generally in Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation is widespread, holdings are in the 1–2 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops, from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas. Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or cyclones. Modern cultivation ------------------ All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas *Musa acuminata* and *Musa balbisiana*. While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some being hybrids) with tiny seeds or triploid hybrids without seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption, as banana seeds are large and hard and spiky and liable to crack teeth. These are propagated asexually from offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months. As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round. ### Cavendish In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploid AAA group of *Musa acuminata*, commonly referred to as Cavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana exports, despite only coming into existence in 1836. The cultivars Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity in the 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (also an AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, caused by the fungus *Fusarium oxysporum* which attacks the roots of the banana plant. Cavendish cultivars are resistant to the Panama disease, but in 2013 there were fears that the black sigatoka fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable. Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas where Panama disease is not found. Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction, but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana. One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish, also known as the Formosana. ### Ripening Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color consumers normally associate with supermarket bananas is, in fact, caused by the artificial ripening process. Flavor and texture are also affected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56.3 and 59.0 °F) during transport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and the bananas turn gray as cell walls break down. The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the 4 °C (39 °F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected. Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (*i.e.* not treated with ethylene), and may show up at the supermarket fully green. *Guineos verdes* (green bananas) that have not been gassed will never fully ripen before becoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas can be used for cooking, as seen in Jamaican cuisine. A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green (under-ripe) bananas do not fluoresce. That paper suggested that this fluorescence could be put to use "for optical in vivo monitoring of ripening and over-ripening of bananas and other fruit". ### Storage and transport Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process. Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. This effect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g., potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been shown to more than double lifespans up to 3–4 weeks without the need for refrigeration. ### Sustainability The excessive use of fertilizers often left in abandoned plantations contributes greatly to eutrophication in local streams and lakes, and harms aquatic life after algal blooms deprive fish of oxygen. It has been theorized that destruction of 60% of coral reefs along the coasts of Costa Rica is partially from sediments from banana plantations. Another issue is the deforestation associated with expanding banana production. As monocultures rapidly deplete soil nutrients plantations expand to areas with rich soils and cut down forests, which also affects soil erosion and degradation, and increases frequency of flooding. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) stated that banana production produced more waste than any other agricultural sector, mostly from discarded banana plants, bags used to cover the bananas, strings to tie them, and containers for transport. Voluntary sustainability standards such as Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade are increasingly being used to address some of these issues. Bananas production certified by such sustainability standards experienced a 43% compound annual growth rate from 2008 to 2016, to represent 36% of banana exports. Breeding -------- Mutation breeding can be used in this crop. Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides lab protocols from cutting knife to sequencer to computer code for screening mutants. Aneuploidy is a source of significant variation in allotriploid varieties (the ABBs and AABs). For one example, it can be a source of TR4 resistance. Jankowicz-Cieslak & Ingelbrecht 2022 provides lab protocols to screen for such aberrations and for possible resulting disease resistances. (See TR4 resistance § Notes.) Production and export --------------------- 2017 production (in millions of tonnes)| | Bananas | Plantains | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  India | 30.5 |   | 30.5 | |  China | 11.2 |   | 11.2 | |  Philippines | 6.1 | 3.1 | 9.2 | |  Colombia | 3.8 | 3.6 | 7.4 | |  Indonesia | 7.2 |   | 7.2 | |  Ecuador | 6.3 | 0.8 | 7.1 | |  Brazil | 6.7 |   | 6.7 | |  Cameroon | 1.3 | 4.5 | 5.8 | |  Democratic Republic of the Congo | 0.3 | 4.8 | 5.1 | |  Angola | 4.3 |   | 4.3 | |  Guatemala | 3.9 | 0.4 | 4.3 | |  Ghana | 0.1 | 4.1 | 4.2 | |  Tanzania | 3.5 | 0.6 | 4.1 | |  Uganda | 0.6 | 3.3 | 3.9 | |  Nigeria |   | 3.2 | 3.2 | |  Costa Rica | 2.6 | 0.1 | 2.7 | |  Peru | 0.3 | 2.0 | 2.3 | |  Mexico | 2.2 | | 2.2 | |  Dominican Republic | 1.2 | 1.0 | 2.2 | |  Vietnam | 2.1 | | 2.1 | | **World** | **113.9** | **39.2** | **153.1** | | Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations Note: Some countries distinguish between bananas and plantains, but four of the top six producers do not, thus necessitating comparisons using the total for bananas and plantains combined. | In 2017, world production of bananas and plantains combined was 153 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined total of 27% of global production. Other major producers were the Philippines, Colombia, Indonesia, Ecuador, and Brazil. As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains. Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the Dominican Republic was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes. ### Developing countries Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people in developing countries. In many tropical countries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent the main cultivars. Most producers are small-scale farmers either for home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during the *hunger season* (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are important for global food security. Pests, diseases, and natural disasters -------------------------------------- Although in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivar Cavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could become unviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 10–20 years. Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas, Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases, threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming. Within the data gathered from the genes of hundreds of bananas, Botanist, Julie Sardos, of the Bioversity International research group, along with her colleagues found proof that at least several wild banana ancestors exist that are currently unknown to scientists, which could provide a means of defense against banana crop diseases. Some commentators remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives. Overall, fungal diseases are disproportionately important to small island developing states. Deep learning can be used in disease classication. Amara *et al.*, 2017 provides one such system. ### Panama disease Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel", which was highly susceptible. Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is required for shipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated. According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are genetically identical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for resistance. #### Tropical race 4 Tropical Race 4 (TR4), a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was first discovered in 1993. This virulent form of fusarium wilt destroyed Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries and spread to Australia and India. As the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools, the wilt spread to the Americas despite years of preventive efforts. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time, Cavendish is endangered for commercial production by this disease. The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance. This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid banana, or by the nematode-derived Ced9. This is best achieved by genetic modification, such as in the Dale banana disclosed in Dale *et al.*, 2017. Experts state the need to enrich banana biodiversity by producing diverse new banana varieties, not just having a focus on the Cavendish. ### Black sigatoka Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known as black leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars), impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating 1 hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding US$1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how long intensive spraying can be environmentally justified. ### Banana bunchy top virus Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a plant virus of the genus *Babuvirus*, family *Nanonviridae* affecting *Musa spp.* (including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) and *Ensete spp.* in the family *Musaceae*. Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD) symptoms include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected plants may produce no fruit or the bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem. The virus is transmitted by the banana aphid *Pentalonia nigronervosa* and is widespread in SE Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no cure for BBTD, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of virus-free planting material. No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in susceptibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected. ### Banana bacterial wilt Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by *Xanthomonas campestris* pv. *musacearum*. After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, *Ensete ventricosum*, in Ethiopia in the 1960s, BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda. Conservation ------------ Given the narrow range of genetic diversity present in bananas and the many threats via biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (such as drought) stress, conservation of the full spectrum of banana genetic resources is ongoing. Banana germplasm is conserved in many national and regional gene banks, and at the world's largest banana collection, the International *Musa* Germplasm Transit Centre (ITC), managed by Bioversity International and hosted at KU Leuven in Belgium. *Musa* cultivars are usually seedless, and options for their long-term conservation are constrained by the vegetative nature of the plant's reproductive system. Consequently, they are conserved by three main methods: *in vivo* (planted in field collections), *in vitro* (as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and by cryopreservation (meristems conserved in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C). At the Honduran Foundation for Agricultural Research there were attempts to exploit the rare cases of seed production to create disease-resistant varieties; 30,000 commercial banana plants were hand-pollinated with pollen from wild fertile Asian fruit, producing 400 tonnes, which contained about fifteen seeds, of which four or five germinated." Further breeding with wild bananas yielded a new seedless variety resistant to both black Sigatoka and Panama disease. Genes from wild banana species are conserved as DNA and as cryopreserved pollen and banana seeds from wild species are also conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and their crop wild relatives are conserved *in situ* (in wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so). Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars. Nutrition --------- Raw bananas (not including the peel) are 75% water, 23% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat. A 100-gram reference serving supplies 89 Calories, 31% of the US recommended Daily Value (DV) of vitamin B6, and moderate amounts of vitamin C, manganese and dietary fiber, with no other micronutrients in significant content (see table). Ripe dessert bananas are soft, bland, and easily digestible, making them ideal for those with gastrointestinal distress. Therefore, bananas are part of the BRAT diet. ### Potassium Although bananas are commonly thought to contain exceptional potassium content, their actual potassium content is not high per typical food serving, having only 8% of the US recommended Daily Value for potassium (considered a low level of the DV, see nutrition table), and their potassium-content ranking among fruits, vegetables, legumes, and many other foods is relatively moderate. Foods with higher potassium content than raw dessert bananas (326 mg per 100 g) include ground flaxseed (793 mg per 100 g), dry-roasted almonds (684 mg per 100 g), peanut butter (654 mg per 100 g), raw baby spinach (582 mg per 100 g), white button mushrooms (393 mg per 100 g), and whole grain oats (350 mg per 100 g). Raw yellow plantains contain 487 mg potassium per 100 g. Dehydrated dessert bananas (banana powder) contain 1490 mg potassium per 100 g. ### Allergen Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas. Uses ---- ### Culinary #### Fruit Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate (also known as *banana oil*), which, along with several other compounds such as butyl acetate and isobutyl acetate, is a significant contributor to banana flavor. During the ripening process, bananas produce the gas ethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affects the flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates the formation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, less ripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and, consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand, yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugar concentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the production of pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectin between the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens. In addition to being eaten raw, bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a split bamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a banana leaf. Bananas can be made into fruit preserves. Banana pancakes are popular among travelers in South Asia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expression *Banana Pancake Trail* for those places in Asia that cater to these travelers. Banana chips are a snack produced from sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Dried bananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extracting juice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, it simply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently in Philippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and desserts like *maruya*, *turón*, and *halo-halo* or *saba con yelo*. Most of these dishes use the Saba Banana or Cardaba banana cultivar. Bananas are also commonly used in cuisine in the South-Indian state of Kerala, where they are steamed (*puzhungiyathu*), made into curries, fried into chips, (*upperi*) or fried in batter (*pazhampori*). Pisang goreng, bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino *maruya* or Kerala *pazhampori*, is a popular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A similar dish is known in the United Kingdom and United States as banana fritters. Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as potatoes, such as the pazham pachadi dish prepared in Kerala. * Banana with Lemon curry made in a house in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, IndiaBanana with Lemon curry made in a house in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India * Kilawin na pusô ng saging, a Filipino dish using banana flowers*Kilawin na pusô ng saging*, a Filipino dish using banana flowers * Nicaraguan Nacatamales, in banana leaves, ready to be steamedNicaraguan Nacatamales, in banana leaves, ready to be steamed * Kaeng yuak is a northern Thai curry made with the core of the banana plant.*Kaeng yuak* is a northern Thai curry made with the core of the banana plant. * Pisang goreng fried banana coated in batter, popular snack in Indonesia*Pisang goreng* fried banana coated in batter, popular snack in Indonesia * Banana in sweet gravy, known as pengat pisang in MalaysiaBanana in sweet gravy, known as *pengat pisang* in Malaysia #### Flower Banana flowers (also called "banana hearts" or "banana blossoms") are used as a vegetable in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods. The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible. #### Leaves Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. While generally too tough to actually be eaten, they are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries. In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf is employed in cooking methods like pepes and botok; banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. Certain types of tamales are wrapped in banana leaves instead of corn husks. When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor. In South India, it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana leaf. In Tamil Nadu (India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make cups to hold liquid food items. #### Trunk The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine. Examples include the Burmese dish *mohinga*, and the Filipino dishes *inubaran* and *kadyos, manok, kag ubad*. ### Fiber #### Textiles * The packaging of Manila hemp (Musa textilis) into bales at Kali Telepak, Besoeki, East JavaThe packaging of Manila hemp (Musa textilis) into bales at Kali Telepak, Besoeki, East Java * Weaving looms processing Manila hemp fabricWeaving looms processing Manila hemp fabric * An example of a modern Manila hemp bag produced by the fashion company QWSTIONAn example of a modern Manila hemp bag produced by the fashion company QWSTION Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves of the plant has been used for textiles in Asia since at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous varieties of the banana plant have been used. In the Japanese system Kijōka-bashōfu, leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths, while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand. In India, a banana fiber separator machine has been developed, which takes the agricultural waste of local banana harvests and extracts strands of the fiber. #### Paper Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the bark of the banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is either hand-made or by industrial process. ### Cultural roles Coconut, banana and banana leaves used while worshiping River Kaveri at Tiruchirappalli, IndiaBanana flowers and leaves for sale in the Thanin market in Chiang Mai, Thailand #### Arts * The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by Frank Silver and Irving Cohn and originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages. * A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical comedy for generations. An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident: > Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of the banana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ... my foot hit the bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, and I come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up a little boy come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh mister, won't you please do that agin? My little brother didn't see you do it." > > * The poet Bashō is named after the Japanese word for a banana plant. The "bashō" planted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home. * The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground features a banana made by Andy Warhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink, peeled phallic banana on the inside. * Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan created a concept art piece titled *Comedian* involving taping a banana to a wall using silver duct tape. The piece was exhibited briefly at the Art Basel in Miami before being removed from the exhibition and eaten sans permission in another artistic stunt titled *Hungry Artist* by New York artist David Datuna. #### Religion and popular beliefs In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions of Hindus. In South Indian weddings, particularly Tamil weddings, banana trees are tied in pairs to form an arch as a blessing to the couple for a long-lasting, useful life. In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana plant may be inhabited by a spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman. Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants. In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana plants (*pokok pisang*), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day. #### Racist symbol There is a long racist history of describing people of African descent as being more like monkeys than humans, and due to the assumption in popular culture that monkeys like bananas, bananas have been used in symbolic acts of hate speech. Particularly in Europe, bananas have long been commonly thrown at black footballers by racist spectators. In April 2014, during a match at Villarreal's stadium, El Madrigal, Dani Alves was targeted by Villareal supporter David Campaya Lleo, who threw a banana at him. Alves picked up the banana, peeled it and took a bite, and the meme went viral on social media in support of him. Racist taunts are an ongoing problem in football. Bananas were hung from nooses around the campus of American University in May 2017 after the student body elected its first black woman student government president. "Banana" is also a slur aimed at some Asian people, that are said to be "yellow on the outside, white on the inside". Used primarily by East or Southeast Asians for other East/Southeast Asians or Asian Americans who are perceived as assimilated into mainstream American culture. #### Unicode The Unicode standard includes the emoji character U+1F34C 🍌 BANANA. ### Other uses * In internet culture, bananas are sometimes included in images as a reference for the size of other objects in the image. This use, often accompanied with the text "banana for scale", became an internet meme. * The large leaves may be used as umbrellas. * Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination from river water, similar to other purification materials. In 2007, banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metals and radionuclides occurring in water produced by the nuclear and fertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is naturally present in phosphates ores). When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals, and this can be repeated. * Waste bananas can be used to feed livestock. See also -------- * Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia * List of banana dishes * *United Brands Company v Commission of the European Communities* * Corporación Bananera Nacional Bibliography ------------ * Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá (1864). *Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah)* (in French). Translated by J.-J. Clement-Mullet. Paris: A. Franck. OCLC 780050566. * Nelson, S.C.; Ploetz, R.C. & Kepler, A.K. (2006). "*Musa* species (bananas and plantains)" (PDF). In Elevitch, C.R (ed.). *Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry*. Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 28, 2014. Retrieved January 10, 2013. * Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (2008). *The Biology of* Musa *L. (banana)* (PDF). Australian Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2012. Retrieved January 30, 2013. * Ploetz, R.C.; Kepler, A.K.; Daniells, J. & Nelson, S.C. (2007). "Banana and Plantain: An Overview with Emphasis on Pacific Island Cultivars" (PDF). In Elevitch, C.R (ed.). *Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry*. Hōlualoa, Hawai'i: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved January 10, 2013. * Stover, R.H. & Simmonds, N.W. (1987). *Bananas* (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-46357-8. * Valmayor, Ramón V.; Jamaluddin, S.H.; Silayoi, B.; Kusumo, S.; Danh, L.D.; Pascua, O.C. & Espino, R.R.C. (2000). *Banana cultivar names and synonyms in Southeast Asia* (PDF). Los Baños, Philippines: International Network for Improvement of Banana and Plantain – Asia and the Pacific Office. ISBN 978-971-91751-2-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 30, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2013. Further reading --------------- * Harriet Lamb, *Fighting the Banana Wars and Other Fairtrade Battles*, ISBN 978-1-84604-083-2 * *Plant Breeding Abstracts*. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. 1949. p. 162. * Denham, T.P.; Haberle, S.G.; Lentfer, C.; Fullagar, R.; Field, J.; Therin, M.; Porch, N. & Winsborough, B. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea". *Science*. **301** (5630): 189–193. doi:10.1126/science.1085255. PMID 12817084. S2CID 10644185.

Banana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana

**Cervia** (Romagnol: *Zirvia*) is a seaside resort town in the province of Ravenna, located in the northern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna. Cervia is a major seaside resort in Emilia-Romagna, North Italy. Its population was 28,983 at the 2023 census. The town it is mainly a destination for seaside tourism, with a coastline of 9 km of equipped beach. History ------- The oldest human discovery in the area occurred in the Montaletto hamlet: most likely it is a Bronze Age shepherds' camp dating back to about 3,000 - 1,000 B.C. The salt marshes were probably already active in the Etruscan age, as findings during urban planning works carried out in recent years would indicate. It is possible that lodgings, or perhaps settlements, existed for salt workers, even seasonal ones; the findings indicate a certain population density already in the first century BC. Until the Roman age, the city kept the name of "Ficocle", but its exact location is not known.   Later the centre was rebuilt in a more secure position, in the *Salina*. This medieval city grew until it was provided with three fortified entrances, a Palaces of Priors, seven churches and a castle (*Rocca*) which, according to the legend, was built by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The name also changed from Ficocle to Cervia, probably referring to the *Acervi*, great amounts of salt left in the local evaporation ponds. After a long series of events, it became part of the Papal States. As time passed, the salt pond turned into a marsh, and on 9 November 1697, Pope Innocent XII ordered it to be rebuilt in a safer location. The new city had huge silos for the storage of salt, containing up to 13,000 tons. Cervia is also mentioned in Dante's Divine Comedy (Inferno, Canto XXVII, lines 40–42). Town information ---------------- Nowadays Cervia is a seaside resort on the Adriatic Riviera thanks to its 9-kilometre (6 mi) shore characterised by sandy beaches. Unlike its neighbour Cesenatico, the buildings are subject to strict urban regulations, favouring the conservation of the pine forest and green areas between each new construction. Cervia has a large pine forest, about 260 hectares and includes the areas of Milano Marittima, Cervia, Pinarella and Tagliata. A project with the local authority of ARPA is active for the control of water, at various points between the beach in Milano Marittima and that of Pinarella. The results that are obtained show that the water quality is such that guaranteed the city the blue flag of the Foundation for Environmental Education for the ninth consecutive year (since 1997). The levels of these wastewaters have always been excellent in recent years, except some small survey of 2004 and 2002 that triggered the alarm and were provided other controls, which have verified the quality of the water, immediately returned to levels within the normal range. Housing prices in Cervia ranked second highest in the Emilia Romagna in a 2009 research, only after Bologna. With the development of the neighbourhood Milano Marittima, the presence of nightclubs and outdoor dances were banished from Cervia centre, in order to respect the comfort of residents and tourists. In Cervia, there are operating several cycling routes. In fact, the city is also famous for its large number of bicycles around the town, especially during summer. It's heavily influenced by the presence of sports, art, and cuisine. Cervia was Italy's first city to host an IRONMAN Triathlon, drawing world-class athletes from all over the world. Tortelli verdi is a typical food in Cervia. Economy ------- ### Salt extraction The salt production activity, known since Roman and Medieval times, grew in importance due to the changes made to the Po delta and the decline of the salt production of Comacchio. The artisanal production was then replaced by the industrial one in 1959. However, the ancient Camillone saltworks remains, the last of the 144 production saltworks active up to 1959, which still works for demonstration purposes to raise awareness of the activity of the salt workers. The fund can produce between 500 and 2,000 quintals of salt per season . ### Fishing The fishing activity is specialized in small-scale fishing with postal gear and in the breeding of mussels. The first activity is mainly oriented towards the direct sale of the catch and has developed in recent years allowing for a generalized renewal of the fleet. Mussel farming, which has been practiced since the 1980s, is instead favored by the environmental conditions of the Romagna coast . ### Tourism Cervia is mainly a destination for seaside tourism, with a coastline of 9 km of equipped beach , and has become one of the busiest tourist locations in Emilia Romagna. It has many restaurants, bed and breakfasts, and hotels, and is a popular vacation spot in the warm months. In 2017, it hosted a total of almost three million eight hundred thousand tourists . It is the fourth Italian center with the highest number of hotels: 371 for a total of 27,264 beds. Main sights ----------- * The Cathedral (*Santa Maria Assunta*), built in 1699–1702 * The Museum of Salt * The Communal Palace * St. Michael Tower Transportation -------------- The city is served by the road Strada statale 16 Adriatica or Romea South. It is possible reach the Autostrada A14 (Italy) at Cesena (15 km) and Rimini (24 km). Cervia is located about 103 km south of Bologna, 311 km far from Milan and 359 km from Rome. Notable people -------------- * Maria Goia (1878–1924), politician, feminist, and trade unionist Twin towns/sister cities ------------------------ * United States **Southampton, New York**, United States. * United States **Monterey**, United States. * Poland **Jelenia Góra**, Poland. * Spain **Mahón**, Spain. * Romania **Cluj-Napoca**, Romania. * Germany **Aalen**, Germany. Gallery ------- * Cervia Harbour in 2015Cervia Harbour in 2015 * HarbourHarbour * The BeachThe Beach * City HallCity Hall * The fountain of Piazza dell'Unità in PinarellaThe fountain of Piazza dell'Unità in Pinarella * Beach of Cervia Beach of Cervia See also -------- * Diocese of Cervia Notes and references -------------------- 1. ↑ "Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011". Italian National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 16 March 2019. 2. ↑ Dati statistici sulla popolazione Archived 16 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine 3. ↑ "Rinvenimenti archeologici a Cervia, antiche saline o allevamento ittico? | Ravenna24ore.it". *web.archive.org*. 16 October 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2023. 4. ↑ "Sito romano di Cervia/ Ficocle, Cervia, ambito culturale romano e bizantino, secc. III a C./ VIII d.C.,". *bbcc.ibc.regione.emilia-romagna.it* (in Italian). Retrieved 10 March 2023. 5. ↑ Elenco ufficiale delle aree protette (EUAP) 6º Aggiornamento approvato il 27 aprile 2010 e pubblicato nel Supplemento ordinario n. 115 alla Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 125 del 31 maggio 2010. 6. ↑ Turismo Comune di Cervia - Parchi e riserve naturali 7. ↑ I luoghi della pesca in Emilia-Romagna Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine p.36-51 emiliaromagnaturismo.it 8. ↑ Località turismo.comunecervia.it 9. ↑ Dati ufficiali dell'Assessorato al turismo - Gennaio-Dicembre 2017 turismo.comunecervia.it

Cervia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervia

The **pomegranate** (*Punica granatum*) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub in the family Lythraceae, subfamily Punicoideae, that grows between 5 and 10 m (16 and 33 ft) tall. The pomegranate was originally described throughout the Mediterranean region. It was introduced into Spanish America in the late 16th century and into California by Spanish settlers in 1769. The fruit is typically in season in the Southern Hemisphere from March to May, and in the Northern Hemisphere from September to February. As intact sarcotestas or as juice, pomegranates are used in baking, cooking, juice blends, meal garnishes, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine. Pomegranates are widely cultivated throughout the Middle East and Caucasus region, north and tropical Africa, Iran, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, the drier parts of Southeast Asia, and the Mediterranean Basin. Etymology --------- The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin *pōmum* "apple" and *grānātum* "seeded". Possibly stemming from the old French word for the fruit, *pomme-grenade*, the pomegranate was known in early English as "apple of Grenada"—a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing the Latin *granatus* with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, which derives from an unrelated Arabic word. Garnet derives from Old French *grenat* by metathesis, from Medieval Latin *granatum* as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated from *pomum granatum*, describing the color of pomegranate pulp, or from *granum*, referring to "red dye, cochineal". The modern French term for pomegranate, *grenade*, has given its name to the military grenade. Pomegranates were colloquially called 'wineapples' or 'wine-apples' in Ireland, although this term has somewhat fallen out of use lately. It still persists however amongst the fruit & vegetable stalls at the famous Moore Street open-air market, in central Dublin. Description ----------- A shrub or small tree growing 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft) high, the pomegranate has multiple spiny branches and is long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years. *P. granatum* leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm (1+1⁄4–2+3⁄4 in) long and 2 cm (3⁄4 in) broad. The flowers are bright red and 3 cm (1+1⁄4 in) in diameter, with three to seven petals. Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone. ### Fruit, sarcotesta and seeds Red-purple in color, the pomegranate fruit husk has two parts: an outer, hard pericarp, and an inner, spongy mesocarp (white "albedo"), which comprises the fruit inner wall where seeds attach. Membranes of the mesocarp are organized as nonsymmetric chambers that contain seeds inside sarcotestas, which are embedded without attachment to the mesocarp. Containing juice, the sarcotesta is formed as a thin membrane derived from the epidermal cells of the seeds. The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1,400. Botanically, the edible fruit is a berry with seeds and pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. The fruit is intermediate in size between a lemon and a grapefruit, 5–12 cm (2–4+1⁄2 in) in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish husk. In mature fruits, the juice obtained by compressing the seeds yields a sour flavor due to low pH (4.4) and high contents of polyphenols, which may cause a red indelible stain on fabrics. Primarily, the pigmentation of pomegranate juice results from the presence of anthocyanins and ellagitannins. Cultivation ----------- *P. granatum* is grown for its fruit crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can tolerate moderate frost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F). Insect pests of the pomegranate can include the butterflies *Virachola isocrates*, *Iraota timoleon*, *Deudorix epijarbas*, and the leaf-footed bug *Leptoglossus zonatus*, and fruit flies and ants are attracted to unharvested ripe fruit. Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25 to 50 cm (10 to 20 in) hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings. Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails. ### Varieties *P. granatum* var. *nana* is a dwarf variety of *P. granatum* popularly planted as an ornamental plant in gardens and larger containers, and used as a bonsai specimen tree. It could well be a wild form with a distinct origin. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The only other species in the genus *Punica* is the Socotran pomegranate (*P. protopunica*), which is endemic to the Socotran archipelago of four islands located in the Arabian Sea, the largest island of which is also known as Socotra. The territory is part of Yemen. It differs in having pink (not red) flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit. ### Cultivars *P. granatum* has more than 500 named cultivars, but evidently has considerable synonymy in which the same genotype is named differently across regions of the world. Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size, exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), the hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency. Production and export --------------------- The leading producers globally are India and China followed by Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan, the US, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria and Spain. During 2019, Chile, Peru, Egypt, Israel, India, and Turkey supplied pomegranates to the European market. Chile was the main supplier to the United States market, which has a limited supply from Southern California. China was self-sufficient for its pomegranate supply in 2019, while other South Asia markets were supplied mainly by India. Pomegranate production and exports in South Africa competed with South American shipments in 2012–18, with export destinations including Europe, the Middle East, the United Kingdom, and Russia. South Africa imports pomegranates mainly from Israel. History ------- The pomegranate is native to a region from modern-day Iran to northern India. Pomegranates have been cultivated throughout the Middle East, South Asia, and Mediterranean region for several millennia, and it is also cultivated in the Central Valley of California and in Arizona. Pomegranates may have been domesticated as early as the fifth millennium BC, as they were one of the first fruit trees to be domesticated in the eastern Mediterranean region. Carbonized exocarp of the fruit has been identified in early Bronze Age levels of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the West Bank, as well as late Bronze Age levels of Hala Sultan Tekke on Cyprus and Tiryns. A large, dry pomegranate was found in the tomb of Djehuty, the butler of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt; Mesopotamian cuneiform records mention pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC onwards. Waterlogged pomegranate remains have been identified at the circa 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck off the coast of Turkey. Other goods on the ship include perfume, ivory and gold jewelry, suggesting that pomegranates at this time may have been considered a luxury good. Other archaeological finds of pomegranate remains from the Late Bronze Age have been found primarily in elite residences, supporting this inference. It is also extensively grown in southern China and in Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along the route of the Silk Road or brought by sea traders. Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates. Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain. The term "balaustine" (Latin: *balaustinus*) is also used for a pomegranate-red color. Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and America (Spanish America), but in the English colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," the English Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing John Bartram in Philadelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree... Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most salutiferous to mankind." The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, by John Tradescant the Elder, but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and oranges from a correspondent in Charleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of "delitious" pomegranates with Noble Jones at Wormsloe Plantation, near Savannah, Georgia, in September 1765. Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates at Monticello in 1771; he had them from George Wythe of Williamsburg. Use --- ### Culinary Pomegranate juice can be sweet or sour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidic ellagitannins contained in the juice. Pomegranate juice has long been a popular drink in Europe and the Middle East, and is now widely distributed in the United States and Canada. Grenadine syrup originally consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice, now is usually a sales name for a syrup based on various berries, citric acid, and food coloring, mainly used in cocktail mixing. Before tomatoes (a New World fruit) arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice, molasses, and vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods, and are still found in traditional recipes such as *fesenjān*, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over duck or other poultry and rice, and in *ash-e anar* (pomegranate soup). Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as *anar dana* (from Persian: anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and Pakistani cuisine. Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days, and used as an acidic agent for chutney and curry preparation. Ground *anardana* is also used, which results in a deeper flavoring in dishes and prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild pomegranate variety known as *daru* from the Himalayas are regarded as high-quality sources for this spice. Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream. In the Caucasus, pomegranate is used mainly for juice. In Azerbaijan, a sauce from pomegranate juice *narsharab*, (from Persian: (a)nar + sharab, lit. "pomegranate wine") is usually served with fish or *tika kabab*. In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish: *nar ekşisi*) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as *güllaç*. Pomegranate syrup or molasses is used in *muhammara*, a roasted red pepper, walnut, and garlic spread popular in Syria and Turkey. In Greece, pomegranate is used in many recipes, including *kollivozoumi*, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and raisins, legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate eggplant relish, and avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a liqueur, and as a popular fruit confectionery used as ice cream topping, mixed with yogurt, or spread as jam on toast. In Mexico, they are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish *chiles en nogada*, representing the red of the Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (*nogada* sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor. In the US, pomegranate recipes consists of, "pomegranate salsa with pistachios", "pomegranate-jalapeño glazed ham", "charred eggplant with burrata and pomegranate-walnut relish", "escarole and fresh herb salad with apples and pomegranates", "seared scallops with pomegranate and meyer lemon, "pomegranate margarita", "black forest mousse cake with cherry-chile pomegranate glaze", "cauliflower salad with yogurt sauce and pomegranate", and "pomegranate-glazed salmon with oranges, olives, and herbs" to name a few. Nutrition --------- The edible portion of raw pomegranate is 78% water, 19% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 1% fat (table). A 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of pomegranate sarcotesta provides 12% of the Daily Value (DV) for vitamin C, 16% DV for vitamin K, and 10% DV for folate (table). Pomegranate seeds are a rich source of dietary fiber (20% DV) which is entirely contained in the edible seeds. Research -------- ### Phytochemicals Processing The phenolic content of pomegranate juice is degraded by processing and pasteurization techniques. Juice The most abundant phytochemicals in pomegranate juice are polyphenols, including the hydrolyzable tannins called ellagitannins formed when ellagic acid and gallic acid bind with a carbohydrate to form pomegranate ellagitannins, also known as punicalagins. The red color of the juice is attributed to anthocyanins, such as delphinidin, cyanidin, and pelargonidin glycosides. Generally, an increase in juice pigmentation occurs during fruit ripening. Peel Pomegranate peel contains high amount of polyphenols, condensed tannins, catechins, and prodelphinidins. The higher phenolic content of the peel yields extracts for use in dietary supplements and food preservatives. Seed Pomegranate seed oil contains punicic acid (65%), palmitic acid (5%), stearic acid (2%), oleic acid (6%), and linoleic acid (7%). ### Health claims Despite limited research data, manufacturers and marketers of pomegranate juice have liberally used results from preliminary research to promote products. In February 2010, the FDA issued a warning letter to one such manufacturer, POM Wonderful, for using published literature to make illegal claims of unproven anti-disease effects. In May 2016, the US Federal Trade Commission declared that POM Wonderful could not make health claims in its advertising, followed by a US Supreme Court ruling that declined a request by POM Wonderful to review the court ruling, upholding the FTC decision. Symbolism --------- ### Ancient Iran and Persia Iran is the second-largest producer and largest exporter of pomegranates in the world. In Persian, pomegranate is known as *anar*. The fruit's juice and paste have a role in Iranian cuisine, e.g. chicken, *ghormas*, and refreshment bars. Pomegranate skins may be used to stain wool and silk in the carpet industry. ### Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptians regarded the pomegranate as a symbol of prosperity and ambition. It was referred to by the Semitic names of *jnhm* or *nhm*. According to the Ebers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical writings from around 1500 BC, Egyptians used the pomegranate for treatment of tapeworm and other infections. ### Ancient and Modern Greece A pomegranate is displayed on coins from Side, as *Side* was the name for *pomegranate* in the local language, which is the city's name. The ancient Greek city of Side was in Pamphylia, a former region on the southern Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor (modern-day Antalya province, Turkey). The Greeks were familiar with the fruit far before it was introduced to Rome via Carthage, and it figures in multiple myths and artworks. In Ancient Greek mythology, the pomegranate was known as the "fruit of the dead", and believed to have sprung from the blood of Adonis. The myth of Persephone, the goddess of the underworld, prominently features her consumption of pomegranate seeds, requiring her to spend a certain number of months in the underworld every year. The number of seeds and therefore months vary. During the months that Persephone sits on the throne of the underworld beside her husband Hades, her mother Demeter mourned and no longer gave fertility to the earth. This was an ancient Greek explanation for the seasons. According to Carl A. P. Ruck and Danny Staples, the chambered pomegranate is also a surrogate for the poppy's narcotic capsule, with its comparable shape and chambered interior. On a Mycenaean seal illustrated in Joseph Campbell's *Occidental Mythology* (1964), figure 19, the seated Goddess of the double-headed axe (the labrys) offers three poppy pods in her right hand and supports her breast with her left. She embodies both aspects of the dual goddess, life-giving and death-dealing at once. The hunter Orion was represented as "marrying" Side, a name that in Boeotia means "pomegranate", thus consecrating the primal hunter to the goddess. In another Greek myth, a girl named Side ("pomegranate") killed herself on her mother's grave in order to avoid suffering rape at the hands of her own father Ictinus. Her blood transformed into a pomegranate tree. In the fifth century BC, Polycleitus took ivory and gold to sculpt the seated Argive Hera in her temple. She held a scepter in one hand and offered a pomegranate, like a "royal orb", in the other. "About the pomegranate I must say nothing," whispered the traveller Pausanias in the second century, "for its story is somewhat of a holy mystery." The pomegranate has a calyx shaped like a crown. In Jewish tradition, it has been seen as the original "design" for the proper crown. Within the Heraion at the mouth of the Sele, near Paestum, Magna Graecia, is a chapel devoted to the *Madonna del Granato*, "Our Lady of the Pomegranate", "who by virtue of her epithet and the attribute of a pomegranate must be the Christian successor of the ancient Greek goddess Hera", observes the excavator of the Heraion of Samos, Helmut Kyrieleis. In modern times, the pomegranate still holds strong symbolic meanings for the Greeks. When one buys a new home, it is conventional for a house guest to bring as a first gift a pomegranate, which is placed under/near the *ikonostasi* (home altar) of the house, as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and good luck. When Greeks commemorate their dead, they make *kollyva* as offerings, which consist of boiled wheat, mixed with sugar and decorated with pomegranate. Pomegranate decorations for the home are very common in Greece and sold in most home goods stores. ### Ancient Israel and Judaism The pomegranate has an important role in Jewish tradition. The fruit is said to have 613 seeds representing the 613 commandments of the Torah. For example, pomegranates were known in Ancient Israel as the fruits that the scouts brought to Moses to demonstrate the fertility of the "promised land". The Book of Exodus describes the *me'il* ("robe of the ephod") worn by the Hebrew high priest as having pomegranates embroidered on the hem, alternating with golden bells, which could be heard as the high priest entered and left the Holy of Holies. According to the Books of Kings, the capitals of the two pillars (Jachin and Boaz) that stood in front of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem were engraved with pomegranates. Solomon is said to have designed his coronet based on the pomegranate's "crown" (calyx). Some Jewish scholars believe the pomegranate was the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. Additionally, pomegranates are one of the Seven Species (Hebrew: שבעת המינים, *Shiv'at Ha-Minim*) of fruits and grains enumerated in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 8:8) as special products of the Land of Israel, and the Songs of Solomon mentions pomegranate six times and contains this particular quote: "Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, and thy speech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of a pomegranate within thy locks." (Song of Solomon 4:3). Consuming pomegranates on Rosh Hashana is traditional because, with its numerous seeds, it symbolizes fruitfulness. Also, it is said to have 613 seeds, which corresponds with the 613 commandments of the Torah, but it was a misconception. This particular tradition is referred to in the opening pages of Ursula Dubosarsky's novel *Theodora's Gift*. The pomegranate appeared on the ancient coins of Judea, and when not in use, the handles of Torah scrolls are sometimes covered with decorative silver globes similar in shape to pomegranates (*rimmonim*). Pomegranates symbolize the mystical experience in the Jewish mystical tradition, or *kabbalah*, with the typical reference being to entering the "garden of pomegranates" or *pardes rimonim*; this is also the title of a book by the 16th-century mystic Moses ben Jacob Cordovero. ### In European Christian motifs In the earliest incontrovertible appearance of Christ in a mosaic, a fourth-century floor mosaic from Hinton St Mary, Dorset, now in the British Museum, the bust of Christ and the chi rho are flanked by pomegranates. Pomegranates continue to be a motif often found in Christian religious decoration. They are often woven into the fabric of vestments and liturgical hangings or wrought in metalwork. Pomegranates figure in many religious paintings by the likes of Sandro Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, often in the hands of the Virgin Mary or the infant Jesus. The fruit, broken or bursting open, is a symbol of the fullness of Jesus' suffering and resurrection. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, pomegranate seeds may be used in *kolyva*, a dish prepared for memorial services, as a symbol of the sweetness of the heavenly kingdom. ### In Islam Chapter 55 of the Quran mentions the pomegranate as a "favour" among many to be offered to those fearful to the "Lord" in "two Gardens". ### Armenia The pomegranate is one of the main fruits in Armenian culture (alongside apricots and grapes). Its juice is used with Armenian food, heritage, or wine. The pomegranate is a symbol in Armenia, representing fertility, abundance, and marriage. It is also a semireligious icon. For example, the fruit played an integral role in a wedding custom widely practiced in ancient Armenia; a bride was given a pomegranate fruit, which she threw against a wall, breaking it into pieces. Scattered pomegranate seeds ensured the bride future children. Wild pomegranate can be found in Armenia, specifically in the Idjevan and Noyemberyan regions in the northeast, and in the Goris, Kapan, and Meghri regions in the southeast. They typically grow in foothill areas at elevations of 500-900m above sea level. Additionally, there are some settlements in the Ararat valley near Yerevan where wild pomegranates can be found. *The Color of Pomegranates*, a movie directed by Sergei Parajanov, is a biography of the Armenian *ashug* Sayat-Nova (King of Song) which attempts to reveal the poet's life visually and poetically rather than literally. ### Azerbaijan The pomegranate is considered one of the symbols of Azerbaijan. Annually in October, a cultural festival is held in Goychay, Azerbaijan known as the Goychay Pomegranate Festival. The festival features Azerbaijani fruit-cuisine mainly the pomegranates from Goychay, which is famous for its pomegranate growing industry. At the festival, a parade is held with traditional Azerbaijani dances and Azerbaijani music. Pomegranate was depicted on the official logo of the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan. Nar the Pomegranate was one of the two mascots of these games. Pomegranates were also featured on the jackets worn by Azerbaijani male athletes at the games' opening ceremony. ### China Introduced to China during the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the pomegranate (Chinese: 石榴; pinyin: *shíliu*), in older times, was considered an emblem of fertility and numerous progeny. This symbolism is a pun on the Chinese character 子 (*zǐ*) which, as well as meaning seed, also means "offspring", thus a fruit containing so many seeds is a sign of fecundity. Pictures of the ripe fruit with the seeds bursting forth were often hung in homes to bestow fertility and bless the dwelling with numerous offspring, an important facet of traditional Chinese culture. ### India In some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi: *anār*) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with both Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit). ### Kurdistan Pomegranate is an important fruit and symbol in Kurdish culture. It is accepted as a symbol of abundance and a sacred fruit of ancient Kurdish religions. Pomegranate is used as a symbol of abundance in Kurdish carpets. The Pomegranate Festival is an annual cultural and artistic festival held to exhibit and sell pomegranates, food products, and handicrafts. Gallery ------- * Pomegranate blossom before petal fallPomegranate blossom before petal fall * Pomegranate sepals and drying stamens after fertilization and petal fallPomegranate sepals and drying stamens after fertilization and petal fall * Unripened pomegranate fruitUnripened pomegranate fruit * Pomegranate arils affixed to sarcotestaPomegranate arils affixed to sarcotesta

Pomegranate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomegranate

The **saola** (***Pseudoryx nghetinhensis***), also called **spindlehorn**, **Asian unicorn**, or infrequently, **Vu Quang bovid**, is one of the world's rarest large mammals, a forest-dwelling bovine native to the Annamite Range in Vietnam and Laos. It was described in 1993 following a discovery of remains in Vũ Quang National Park by a joint survey of the Vietnamese Ministry of Forestry and the World Wide Fund for Nature. Saolas have since been kept in captivity multiple times, although only for short periods as they died within a matter of weeks to months. The species was first reported in 1992 by Do Tuoc, a forest ecologist, and his associates. The first photograph of a living saola was taken in captivity in 1993. The most recent one was taken in 2013 by a movement-triggered camera in the forest of central Vietnam. It is the only species in genus ***Pseudoryx***. Taxonomy -------- In May 1992, the Ministry of Forestry, Vietnam sent a survey team to examine the biodiversity of the newly established Vu Quang National Park. On this team were Do Tuoc, Le Van Cham and Vu Van Dung (of the Forest Inventory and Planning Institute); Nguyen Van Sang (of the Institute of Ecological and Biological Resources); Nguyen Thai Tu (of Vinh University); and John MacKinnon (of the World Wildlife Fund). On 21 May, the team procured a skull featuring a pair of strange, long and pointed horns from a local hunter. They came across a similar pair in the Annamite Range in the northeastern region of the reserve the following day. The team ascribed these features to a new bovid species, calling it the "saola" or the "Vu Quang ox" to avoid confusion with the sympatric serow. The WWF officially announced the discovery of the new species on 17 July 1992. According to biodiversity specialist Tony Whitten, though Vietnam boasts a variety of flora and fauna, many of which have been recently described, the discovery of as large an animal as the saola was quite unexpected. The saola was the first large mammal to be discovered in the area for 50 years. Observations of live saola have been few and far between, restricted to the Annamite Range. The scientific name of the saola is *Pseudoryx nghetinhensis*. It is the sole member of the genus *Pseudoryx* and is classified under the family Bovidae. The species was first described in 1993 by Vu Van Dung, Do Tuoc, biologists Pham Mong Giao and Nguyen Ngoc Chinh, Peter Arctander of the University of Copenhagen and John MacKinnon. The discovery of saola remains in 1992 generated huge scientific interest due to the animal's special physical traits. The saola differs significantly from all other bovid genera in appearance and morphology, enough to place it in its own genus (*Pseudoryx*). A recent sequencing study of ribosomal mitochondrial DNA of a large taxon sample divides the bovid family into two major subfamilial clades. The first clade is the subfamily Bovinae consisting of three tribes: Bovini (cattle and buffaloes, including the saola), Tragelaphini (Strepsicerotini) (African spiral-horned bovids) and Boselaphini (the nilgai and four-horned antelope). The second clade is the subfamily Antelopinae, which includes all other bovids. Antelopinae is composed of the three tribes: Caprini (goats, sheep, and muskox), Hippotragini (horse-like antelopes), and Antilopini (gazelles). Since its physical traits are so complex to classify, *Pseudoryx* had been classified variously as member of the subfamily Caprinae and as belonging to any of the three tribes of the subfamily Bovinae: Boselaphini, Bovini and Tragelaphini. DNA analysis has led scientists to place the saola as a member of the tribe Bovini. The morphology of its horns, teeth and some other features indicate it should be grouped with less-derived or more ancestral bovids. Scientific consensus may lead to classifying the saola as the sole member of a proposed new tribe, Pseudorygini. ### Etymology The name 'saola' has been translated as "spindle[-horned]", although the precise meaning is actually "spinning-wheel post horn". The name comes from a Tai language of Vietnam. The meaning is the same in Lao language (ເສົາຫລາ, also spelled ເສົາຫຼາ /sǎo-lǎː/ in Lao). The specific name *nghetinhensis* refers to the two Vietnamese provinces of Nghệ An and Hà Tĩnh, while *Pseudoryx* acknowledges the animal's similarities with the Arabian or African oryx. The Hmong people in Laos refer to the animal as *saht-supahp*, a term derived from Lao (ສັດສຸພາບ /sàt supʰáːp/) meaning "the polite animal", because it moves quietly through the forest. Other names used by minority groups in the saola's range are *lagiang* (Van Kieu), *a ngao* (Ta Oi) and *xoong xor* (Katu) In the press, saolas have been referred to as "Asian unicorns", an appellation apparently due to its rarity and reported gentle nature, and perhaps because both the saola and the oryx have been linked with the unicorn. No known link exists with the Western unicorn myth or the "Chinese unicorn", the qilin.[*verification needed*] Description ----------- In a 1998 publication, William G. Robichaud, the coordinator of the Saola Working Group, recorded physical measurements for a captive female saola he dubbed 'Martha', in a Laotian menagerie. She was observed for around 15 days until she died from unknown causes. Robichaud noted the height of the female as 84 centimetres (33 in) at the shoulder; the back was slightly elevated, nearly 12 centimetres (4.7 in) taller than the shoulder height. The head-and-body length was recorded as 150 centimetres (4.9 ft). The general characteristics of the saola, as shown by studies during 1993–5 as well as the 1998 study, include a chocolate brown coat with patches of white on the face, throat and the sides of the neck, a paler shade of brown on the neck and the belly, a black dorsal stripe, and a pair of nearly parallel horns, present on both sexes. Robichaud noted that the hair, straight and 1.5–2.5 centimetres (0.59–0.98 in) long, was soft and thin–a feature unusual for an animal that is associated with montane habitats in at least a few parts of its range. While the hair was found to be short on the head and the neck, it thickened to woolly hair on the insides of the forelegs and the belly. Studies before 1998 reported a hint of red in the inspected skins. The neck and the belly are a paler shade of brown compared to the rest of the body. A common observation in all the three aforementioned studies is a 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in) thick stripe extending from the shoulders to the tail along the middle of the back. The tail, which measured 23 centimetres (9.1 in) in Robichaud's specimen, is divided into three horizontal bands, brown at the base, black at the tip and white in the middle. Saola skin is 1–2 millimetres (0.039–0.079 in) thick over most of the body, but thickens to 5 millimetres (0.20 in) near the nape of the neck and at the upper shoulders. This adaptation is thought to protect against both predators and rivals' horns during fights. Saolas weigh between approximately 80-100 kg (176-220 lbs). The saola has round pupils with dark-brown irises that appear orange when light is shone into them; a cluster of white whiskers about 2 centimetres (0.79 in) long with a presumably tactile function protrude from the end of the chin. The specimen Robichaud observed could extend its tongue up to 16 centimetres (6.3 in) and reach its eyes and upper parts of the face; the upper surface of the tongue is covered with fine, backward-pointing barbs. Robichaud observed that either of the two maxillary glands (sinuses) had a nearly rectangular hollow with the dimensions 9×3.5×1.5 centimetres (3.54×1.38×0.59 in), covered by a 0.8 centimetres (0.31 in) thick flap. The maxillary glands of the saola are probably the largest among those of all other animals. The glands are covered by a thick, pungent, grayish green, semi-solid secretion beneath which lies a sheath of few flat hairs. Robichaud observed several pores, used probably for secretion, on the upper surface of the lid. Each white facial spot shelters one or more nodules from which originate 2–2.5 centimetres (0.79–0.98 in) long white or black hairs. These secretions are typically rubbed against the underside of vegetation, leaving a musky, pungent paste. The spoor of the forelegs measured 5–6 centimetres (2.0–2.4 in) long by 5.3–6.4 centimetres (2.1–2.5 in) wide, and 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long by 5.7–6 centimetres (2.2–2.4 in) for the hindlegs. Both sexes possess slightly divergent horns that are similar in appearance and form almost the same angle with the skull, but differ in their lengths. Horns resemble the parallel wooden posts locally used to support a spinning wheel (thus the familiar name "spindlehorn"). These are generally dark-brown or black and about 35–50 cm long; twice the length of their head. Studies in 1993 and 1995 gave the maximum distance between the horn tips of wild specimens as 20 centimetres (7.9 in), but the female observed by Robichaud showed a divergence of 25 centimetres (9.8 in) between the tips. Robichaud noted that the horns were 7.5 centimetres (3.0 in) apart at the base. While studies prior to Robichaud's claim the horns are uniformly circular in cross-section, Robichaud observed his specimen had horns with a nearly oval cross-section. The sides of the base of the horns is rugged and indented. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The saola has one of the smallest ranges of any large mammal. It inhabits wet evergreen or deciduous forests in eastern Southeast Asia, preferring river valleys. Sightings have been reported from steep river valleys at 300–1,800 metres (980–5,910 ft) above sea level. In Vietnam and Laos, the species' range appears to cover approximately 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi), including four nature reserves. During the winters, it migrates to the lowlands. In the northern Annamite Mountains, it was sighted mostly near streams at elevations of 592–1,112 metres (1,942–3,648 ft). Ecology and behaviour --------------------- Local people reported that the saola is active in the day as well as at night, but prefers resting during the hot midday hours. Robichaud noted that the captive female was active mainly during the day, but pointed out that the observation could have been influenced by the unfamiliar surroundings the animal found herself in. When she rested, she would draw her forelegs inward to her belly, extend her neck so that her chin touched the ground, and close her eyes. Though apparently solitary, saola have been reported in groups of two or three as well as up to six or seven. Grouping patterns of the saola resemble those of the bushbuck, anoa, and sitatunga. Robichaud observed that the captive female was calm in the presence of humans, but was afraid of dogs. On an encounter with a dog, she would resort to snorting and thrust her head forward, pointing her horns at her opponent. Her erect ears pointed backward, and she stood stiffly with her back arched. Meanwhile, she hardly paid any attention to her surroundings. This female was found to urinate and defecate separately, dropping her hind legs and lowering her lower body – a common observation among bovids. She would spend considerable time grooming herself with her strong tongue. Marking behaviour in the female involved opening up the flap of the maxillary gland and leaving a pungent secretion on rocks and vegetation. She would give out short bleats occasionally. ### Diet Robichaud offered spleenwort (*Asplenium*), *Homalomena*, and various species of broad-leaved shrubs or trees of the family Sterculiaceae to the captive animal. The saola fed on all plants, and showed a preference for the Sterculiaceae species. She did not pull at leaves, she would rather chew or pull them into her mouth using her long tongue. She fed mainly during the day, and rarely in the dark. The saola is also reputed to feed on *Schismatoglottis*, unlike other herbivores in its range. ### Reproduction Very little information is available about the reproductive cycle of the saola. The saola is likely to have a fixed mating season, from late August to mid-November; only single calf births have been documented, mainly during summer between mid-April and late June. In the absence of more specific data, the gestation period has been estimated as similar to that of *Tragelaphus* species, about 33 weeks. Three reports of saola killings from nearby villagers involved young accompanying mothers. One possessed 9.5 cm (3.7 in) long horns, another an estimated 15 cm (5.9 in), and the third 18.8 cm (7.4 in); these varying horn lengths suggest a birth season extending over at least two to three months. Conservation ------------ The saola is currently considered to be critically endangered. Its restrictive habitat requirements and aversion to human proximity are likely to endanger it through habitat loss and habitat fragmentation. Saola suffer losses through local hunting and the illegal trade in furs, traditional medicines, and for use of the meat in restaurants and food markets. They also sometimes get caught in snares that have been set to catch animals raiding crops, such as wild boar, sambar, and muntjac. More than 26,651 snares have so far been removed from saola habitats by conservation groups. The key feature of the area occupied by the saola is its remoteness from human disturbance. Saola are shot for their meat, but hunters also gain high esteem in the village for the production of a carcass. Due to the scarcity, the locals place much more value on the saola than more common species. Because the people in this area are traditional hunters, their attitude about killing the saola is hard to change; this makes conservation difficult. The intense interest from the scientific community has actually motivated hunters to capture live specimens. Commercial logging has been stopped in the nature reserve area of Bu Huong, and there is an official ban on forest clearance within the boundaries of the reserve. Species of conservation concern are frequently hard to study; there are often delays in implementing or identifying necessary conservation needs due to lack of data. Because the species is so rare, there is a continuous lack of adequate data; this is one of the major problems facing saola conservation. Trained scientists have never observed saola in the wild. Unfortunately, because it is unlikely that intact saola populations exist, field surveys to discover these populations are not a conservation priority. The Saola Working Group was formed by the IUCN Species Survival Commission's Asian Wild Cattle Specialist Group, in 2006 to protect the saolas and their habitat. This coalition includes about 40 experts from the forestry departments of Laos and Vietnam, Vietnam's Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, Vinh University, biologists and conservationists from Wildlife Conservation Society, and the World Wide Fund for Nature. A group of scientists from the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology in central Hanoi, within the Institute of Biotechnology, investigated a last resort effort of conserving the species by cloning, an extremely difficult approach even in the case of well-understood species. However, the lack of female saola donors of enucleated ovocytes and receptive females, as well as the interspecific barriers, greatly compromise the potential success of the cloning technique. Culture ------- The mascot of the 2021 Southeast Asian Games is *Sao La*. This design by Ngô Xuân Khôi defeated 557 other mascot submissions to emerge as the winner of the 2019 searching contest. See also -------- * Leaf muntjac (*Muntiacus putaoensis*) * Truong Son muntjac (*Muntiacus truongsonensis*) * Giant muntjac (*Muntiacus vuquangensis*) * Annamite striped rabbit (*Nesolagus timminsi*) Further reading --------------- * Shuker, Karl P.N. *The New Zoo: New and Rediscovered Animals of the Twentieth Century*, House of Stratus, 2002 ISBN 978-1842325612

Saola

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saola

A **video game** is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface or input device (such as a joystick, controller, keyboard, or motion sensing device) to generate visual feedback from a display device, most commonly shown in a video format on a television set, computer monitor, flat-panel display or touchscreen on handheld devices, or a virtual reality headset. Most modern video games are audiovisual, with audio complement delivered through speakers or headphones, and sometimes also with other types of sensory feedback (e.g., haptic technology that provides tactile sensations), and some video games also allow microphone and webcam inputs for in-game chatting and livestreaming. Video games are typically categorized according to their hardware platform, which traditionally includes arcade video games, console games, and computer (PC) games; the latter also encompasses LAN games, online games, and browser games. More recently, the video game industry has expanded onto mobile gaming through mobile devices (such as smartphones and tablet computers), virtual and augmented reality systems, and remote cloud gaming. Video games are also classified into a wide range of genres based on their style of gameplay and target audience. The first video game prototypes in the 1950s and 1960s were simple extensions of electronic games using video-like output from large, room-sized mainframe computers. The first consumer video game was the arcade video game *Computer Space* in 1971. In 1972 came the iconic hit game *Pong* and the first home console, the Magnavox Odyssey. The industry grew quickly during the "golden age" of arcade video games from the late 1970s to early 1980s but suffered from the crash of the North American video game market in 1983 due to loss of publishing control and saturation of the market. Following the crash, the industry matured, was dominated by Japanese companies such as Nintendo, Sega, and Sony, and established practices and methods around the development and distribution of video games to prevent a similar crash in the future, many of which continue to be followed. In the 2000s, the core industry centered on "AAA" games, leaving little room for riskier experimental games. Coupled with the availability of the Internet and digital distribution, this gave room for independent video game development (or "indie games") to gain prominence into the 2010s. Since then, the commercial importance of the video game industry has been increasing. The emerging Asian markets and proliferation of smartphone games in particular are altering player demographics towards casual gaming and increasing monetization by incorporating games as a service. Today, video game development requires numerous interdisciplinary skills, vision, teamwork, and liaisons between different parties, including developers, publishers, distributors, retailers, hardware manufacturers, and other marketers, to successfully bring a game to its consumers. As of 2020[update], the global video game market had estimated annual revenues of US$159 billion across hardware, software, and services, which is three times the size of the global music industry and four times that of the film industry in 2019, making it a formidable heavyweight across the modern entertainment industry. The video game market is also a major influence behind the electronics industry, where personal computer component, console, and peripheral sales, as well as consumer demands for better game performance, have been powerful driving factors for hardware design and innovation. Origins ------- Early video games use interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a "cathode-ray tube amusement device" was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U.S. Patent 2455992. Inspired by radar display technology, it consists of an analog device allowing a user to control the parabolic arc of a dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired at targets, which are paper drawings fixed to the screen. Other early examples include Christopher Strachey's draughts game, the Nimrod computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain; *OXO*, a tic-tac-toe computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952; *Tennis for Two*, an electronic interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958; and *Spacewar!*, written by Massachusetts Institute of Technology students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961. Each game has different means of display: NIMROD has a panel of lights to play the game of Nim, OXO has a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe, *Tennis for Two* has an oscilloscope to display a side view of a tennis court, and *Spacewar!* has the DEC PDP-1's vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. Ralph H. Baer (left) receiving the National Medal of Technology from U.S. President George W. Bush in 2006Nolan Bushnell giving a speech at the Game Developers Conference in 2011Nolan Bushnell in 2013 These preliminary inventions paved the way for the origins of video games today. Ralph H. Baer, while working at Sanders Associates in 1966, devised a control system to play a rudimentary game of table tennis on a television screen. With the company's approval, Baer built the prototype "Brown Box". Sanders patented Baer's inventions and licensed them to Magnavox, which commercialized it as the first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, released in 1972. Separately, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, inspired by seeing *Spacewar!* running at Stanford University, devised a similar version running in a smaller coin-operated arcade cabinet using a less expensive computer. This was released as *Computer Space*, the first arcade video game, in 1971. Bushnell and Dabney went on to form Atari, Inc., and with Allan Alcorn, created their second arcade game in 1972, the hit ping pong-style *Pong*, which was directly inspired by the table tennis game on the Odyssey. Sanders and Magnavox sued Atari for infringement of Baer's patents, but Atari settled out of court, paying for perpetual rights to the patents. Following their agreement, Atari made a home version of *Pong*, which was released by Christmas 1975. The success of the Odyssey and *Pong*, both as an arcade game and home machine, launched the video game industry. Both Baer and Bushnell have been titled "Father of Video Games" for their contributions. Terminology ----------- The term "video game" was developed to distinguish this class of electronic games that were played on some type of video display rather than on a teletype printer, audio speaker or similar device. This also distinguished from many handheld electronic games like *Merlin* which commonly used LED lights for indicators but did not use these in combination for imaging purposes. "Computer game" may also be used as a descriptor, as all these types of games essentially require the use of a computer processor, and in some cases, it is used interchangeably with "video game". Particularly in the United Kingdom and Western Europe, this is common due to the historic relevance of domestically produced microcomputers. Other terms used include digital game, for example by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. However, the term "computer game" can also be used to more specifically refer to games played primarily on personal computers or other type of flexible hardware systems (also known as a PC game), as a way distinguish them from console games, arcade games or mobile games. Other terms such as "television game" or "telegame" had been used in the 1970s and early 1980s, particularly for the home gaming consoles that rely on connection to a television set. In Japan, where consoles like the Odyssey were first imported and then made within the country by the large television manufacturers such as Toshiba and Sharp Corporation, such games are known as "TV games", or *TV geemu* or *terebi geemu*. "Electronic game" may also be used to refer to video games, but this also incorporates devices like early handheld electronic games that lack any video output. and the term "TV game" is still commonly used into the 21st century. The first appearance of the term "video game" emerged around 1973. The Oxford English Dictionary cited a 10 November 1973 *BusinessWeek* article as the first printed use of the term. Though Bushnell believed the term came from a vending magazine review of *Computer Space* in 1971, a review of the major vending magazines *Vending Times* and *Cashbox* showed that the term came much earlier, appearing first around March 1973 in these magazines in mass usage including by the arcade game manufacturers. As analyzed by video game historian Keith Smith, the sudden appearance suggested that the term had been proposed and readily adopted by those involved. This appeared to trace to Ed Adlum, who ran *Cashbox*'s coin-operated section until 1972 and then later founded *RePlay Magazine*, covering the coin-op amusement field, in 1975. In a September 1982 issue of *RePlay*, Adlum is credited with first naming these games as "video games": "RePlay's Eddie Adlum worked at 'Cash Box' when 'TV games' first came out. The personalities in those days were Bushnell, his sales manager Pat Karns and a handful of other 'TV game' manufacturers like Henry Leyser and the McEwan brothers. It seemed awkward to call their products 'TV games', so borrowing a word from *Billboard*'s description of movie jukeboxes, Adlum started to refer to this new breed of amusement machine as 'video games.' The phrase stuck." Adlum explained in 1985 that up until the early 1970s, amusement arcades typically had non-video arcade games such as pinball machines and electro-mechanical games. With the arrival of video games in arcades during the early 1970s, there was initially some confusion in the arcade industry over what term should be used to describe the new games. He "wrestled with descriptions of this type of game," alternating between "TV game" and "television game" but "finally woke up one day" and said, "what the hell... video game!" For many years, the traveling Videotopia exhibit served as the closest representation of such a vital resource. In addition to collecting home video game consoles, the Electronics Conservancy organization set out to locate and restore 400 antique arcade cabinets after realizing that the majority of these games had been destroyed and feared the loss of their historical significance. Video games have significantly began to be seen in the real-world as a purpose to present history in a way of understanding the methodology and terms that are being compared. Researchers have looked at how historical representations affect how the public perceives the past, and digital humanists encourage historians to use video games as primary materials. Video games, considering their past and age, have over time progressed as what a video game really means. Whether played through a monitor, TV, or a hand-held device, there are many ways that video games are being displayed for users to enjoy. People have drawn comparisons between flow-state-engaged video gamers and pupils in conventional school settings. In traditional, teacher-led classrooms, students have little say in what they learn, are passive consumers of the information selected by teachers, are required to follow the pace and skill level of the group (group teaching), and receive brief, imprecise, normative feedback on their work. Video games, as they continue to develop into better graphic definition and genre's, create new terminology when something unknown tends to become known. Yearly, consoles are being created to compete against other brands with similar functioning features that tends to lead the consumer into which they'd like to purchase. Now, companies have moved towards games only the specific console can play to grasp the consumer into purchasing their product compared to when video games first began, there was little to no variety. In 1989, a console war begun with Nintendo, one of the biggest in gaming was up against target, Sega with their brand new Master System which, failed to compete, allowing the Nintendo Emulator System to be one of the most consumed product in the world. More technology continued to be created, as the computer began to be used in people's houses for more than just office and daily use. Games began being implemented into computers and have progressively grown since then with coded robots to play against you. Early games like tic-tac-toe, solitaire, and Tennis for Two were great ways to bring new gaming to another system rather than one specifically meant for gaming. ### Definition While many games readily fall into a clear, well-understood definition of video games, new genres and innovations in game development have raised the question of what are the essential factors of a video game that separate the medium from other forms of entertainment. The introduction of interactive films in the 1980s with games like *Dragon's Lair*, featured games with full motion video played off a form of media but only limited user interaction. This had required a means to distinguish these games from more traditional board games that happen to also use external media, such as the *Clue VCR Mystery Game* which required players to watch VCR clips between turns. To distinguish between these two, video games are considered to require some interactivity that affects the visual display. Most video games tend to feature some type of victory or winning conditions, such as a scoring mechanism or a final boss fight. The introduction of walking simulators (adventure games that allow for exploration but lack any objectives) like *Gone Home*, and empathy games (video games that tend to focus on emotion) like *That Dragon, Cancer* brought the idea of games that did not have any such type of winning condition and raising the question of whether these were actually games. These are still commonly justified as video games as they provide a game world that the player can interact with by some means. The lack of any industry definition for a video game by 2021 was an issue during the case *Epic Games v. Apple* which dealt with video games offered on Apple's iOS App Store. Among concerns raised were games like *Fortnite Creative* and *Roblox* which created metaverses of interactive experiences, and whether the larger game and the individual experiences themselves were games or not in relation to fees that Apple charged for the App Store. Judge Yvonne Gonzalez Rogers, recognizing that there was yet an industry standard definition for a video game, established for her ruling that "At a bare minimum, videogames appear to require some level of interactivity or involvement between the player and the medium" compared to passive entertainment like film, music, and television, and "videogames are also generally graphically rendered or animated, as opposed to being recorded live or via motion capture as in films or television". Rogers still concluded that what is a video game "appears highly eclectic and diverse". ### Video game terminology The gameplay experience varies radically between video games, but many common elements exist. Most games will launch into a title screen and give the player a chance to review options such as the number of players before starting a game. Most games are divided into levels which the player must work the avatar through, scoring points, collecting power-ups to boost the avatar's innate attributes, all while either using special attacks to defeat enemies or moves to avoid them. This information is relayed to the player through a type of on-screen user interface such as a heads-up display atop the rendering of the game itself. Taking damage will deplete their avatar's health, and if that falls to zero or if the avatar otherwise falls into an impossible-to-escape location, the player will lose one of their lives. Should they lose all their lives without gaining an extra life or "1-UP", then the player will reach the "game over" screen. Many levels as well as the game's finale end with a type of boss character the player must defeat to continue on. In some games, intermediate points between levels will offer save points where the player can create a saved game on storage media to restart the game should they lose all their lives or need to stop the game and restart at a later time. These also may be in the form of a passage that can be written down and reentered at the title screen. Product flaws include software bugs which can manifest as glitches which may be exploited by the player; this is often the foundation of speedrunning a video game. These bugs, along with cheat codes, Easter eggs, and other hidden secrets that were intentionally added to the game can also be exploited. On some consoles, cheat cartridges allow players to execute these cheat codes, and user-developed trainers allow similar bypassing for computer software games. Both of which might make the game easier, give the player additional power-ups, or change the appearance of the game. Components ---------- To distinguish from electronic games, a video game is generally considered to require a platform, the hardware which contains computing elements, to process player interaction from some type of input device and displays the results to a video output display. ### Platform Video games require a platform, a specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware and associated software, to operate. The term system is also commonly used. Games are typically designed to be played on one or a limited number of platforms, and exclusivity to a platform is used as a competitive edge in the video game market. However, games may be developed for alternative platforms than intended, which are described as ports or conversions. These also may be remasters - where most of the original game's source code is reused and art assets, models, and game levels are updated for modern systems – and remakes, where in addition to asset improvements, significant reworking of the original game and possibly from scratch is performed. The list below is not exhaustive and excludes other electronic devices capable of playing video games such as PDAs and graphing calculators. Computer game Most computer games are PC games, referring to those that involve a player interacting with a personal computer (PC) connected to a video monitor. Personal computers are not dedicated game platforms, so there may be differences running the same game on different hardware. Also, the openness allows some features to developers like reduced software cost, increased flexibility, increased innovation, emulation, creation of modifications or mods, open hosting for online gaming (in which a person plays a video game with people who are in a different household) and others. A gaming computer is a PC or laptop intended specifically for gaming, typically using high-performance, high-cost components. In additional to personal computer gaming, there also exist games that work on mainframe computers and other similarly shared systems, with users logging in remotely to use the computer. Home console A console game is played on a home console, a specialized electronic device that connects to a common television set or composite video monitor. Home consoles are specifically designed to play games using a dedicated hardware environment, giving developers a concrete hardware target for development and assurances of what features will be available, simplifying development compared to PC game development. Usually consoles only run games developed for it, or games from other platform made by the same company, but never games developed by its direct competitor, even if the same game is available on different platforms. It often comes with a specific game controller. Major console platforms include Xbox, PlayStation and Nintendo. Handheld console A handheld game console is a small, self-contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a user's hands. It features the console, a small screen, speakers and buttons, joystick or other game controllers in a single unit. Like consoles, handhelds are dedicated platforms, and share almost the same characteristics. Handheld hardware usually is less powerful than PC or console hardware. Some handheld games from the late 1970s and early 1980s could only play one game. In the 1990s and 2000s, a number of handheld games used cartridges, which enabled them to be used to play many different games. The handheld console has waned in the 2010s as mobile device gaming has become a more dominant factor. Arcade video game An arcade video game generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special, large coin-operated cabinet which has one built-in console, controllers (joystick, buttons, etc.), a CRT screen, and audio amplifier and speakers. Arcade games often have brightly painted logos and images relating to the theme of the game. While most arcade games are housed in a vertical cabinet, which the user typically stands in front of to play, some arcade games use a tabletop approach, in which the display screen is housed in a table-style cabinet with a see-through table top. With table-top games, the users typically sit to play. In the 1990s and 2000s, some arcade games offered players a choice of multiple games. In the 1980s, video arcades were businesses in which game players could use a number of arcade video games. In the 2010s, there are far fewer video arcades, but some movie theaters and family entertainment centers still have them. Browser game A browser game takes advantages of standardizations of technologies for the functionality of web browsers across multiple devices providing a cross-platform environment. These games may be identified based on the website that they appear, such as with Miniclip games. Others are named based on the programming platform used to develop them, such as Java and Flash games. Mobile game With the introduction of smartphones and tablet computers standardized on the iOS and Android operating systems, mobile gaming has become a significant platform. These games may use unique features of mobile devices that are not necessary present on other platforms, such as accelerometers, global positing information and camera devices to support augmented reality gameplay. Cloud gaming Cloud gaming requires a minimal hardware device, such as a basic computer, console, laptop, mobile phone or even a dedicated hardware device connected to a display with good Internet connectivity that connects to hardware systems by the cloud gaming provider. The game is computed and rendered on the remote hardware, using a number of predictive methods to reduce the network latency between player input and output on their display device. For example, the Xbox Cloud Gaming and PlayStation Now platforms use dedicated custom server blade hardware in cloud computing centers. Virtual reality Virtual reality (VR) games generally require players to use a special head-mounted unit that provides stereoscopic screens and motion tracking to immerse a player within virtual environment that responds to their head movements. Some VR systems include control units for the player's hands as to provide a direct way to interact with the virtual world. VR systems generally require a separate computer, console, or other processing device that couples with the head-mounted unit. Emulation An emulator enables games from a console or otherwise different system to be run in a type of virtual machine on a modern system, simulating the hardware of the original and allows old games to be played. While emulators themselves have been found to be legal in United States case law, the act of obtaining the game software that one does not already own may violate copyrights. However, there are some official releases of emulated software from game manufacturers, such as Nintendo with its Virtual Console or Nintendo Switch Online offerings. Backward compatibility Backward compatibility is similar in nature to emulation in that older games can be played on newer platforms, but typically directly though hardware and build-in software within the platform. For example, the PlayStation 2 is capable of playing original PlayStation games simply by inserting the original game media into the newer console, while Nintendo's Wii could play GameCube titles as well in the same manner. ### Game media Early arcade games, home consoles, and handheld games were dedicated hardware units with the game's logic built into the electronic componentry of the hardware. Since then, most video game platforms are considered programmable, having means to read and play multiple games distributed on different types of media or formats. Physical formats include ROM cartridges, magnetic storage including magnetic-tape data storage and floppy discs, optical media formats including CD-ROM and DVDs, and flash memory cards. Furthermore digital distribution over the Internet or other communication methods as well as cloud gaming alleviate the need for any physical media. In some cases, the media serves as the direct read-only memory for the game, or it may be the form of installation media that is used to write the main assets to the player's platform's local storage for faster loading periods and later updates. Games can be extended with new content and software patches through either expansion packs which are typically available as physical media, or as downloadable content nominally available via digital distribution. These can be offered freely or can be used to monetize a game following its initial release. Several games offer players the ability to create user-generated content to share with others to play. Other games, mostly those on personal computers, can be extended with user-created modifications or mods that alter or add onto the game; these often are unofficial and were developed by players from reverse engineering of the game, but other games provide official support for modding the game. ### Input device Video game can use several types of input devices to translate human actions to a game. Most common are the use of game controllers like gamepads and joysticks for most consoles, and as accessories for personal computer systems along keyboard and mouse controls. Common controls on the most recent controllers include face buttons, shoulder triggers, analog sticks, and directional pads ("d-pads"). Consoles typically include standard controllers which are shipped or bundled with the console itself, while peripheral controllers are available as a separate purchase from the console manufacturer or third-party vendors. Similar control sets are built into handheld consoles and onto arcade cabinets. Newer technology improvements have incorporated additional technology into the controller or the game platform, such as touchscreens and motion detection sensors that give more options for how the player interacts with the game. Specialized controllers may be used for certain genres of games, including racing wheels, light guns and dance pads. Digital cameras and motion detection can capture movements of the player as input into the game, which can, in some cases, effectively eliminate the control, and on other systems such as virtual reality, are used to enhance immersion into the game. ### Display and output By definition, all video games are intended to output graphics to an external video display, such as cathode-ray tube televisions, newer liquid-crystal display (LCD) televisions and built-in screens, projectors or computer monitors, depending on the type of platform the game is played on. Features such as color depth, refresh rate, frame rate, and screen resolution are a combination of the limitations of the game platform and display device and the program efficiency of the game itself. The game's output can range from fixed displays using LED or LCD elements, text-based games, two-dimensional and three-dimensional graphics, and augmented reality displays. The game's graphics are often accompanied by sound produced by internal speakers on the game platform or external speakers attached to the platform, as directed by the game's programming. This often will include sound effects tied to the player's actions to provide audio feedback, as well as background music for the game. Some platforms support additional feedback mechanics to the player that a game can take advantage of. This is most commonly haptic technology built into the game controller, such as causing the controller to shake in the player's hands to simulate a shaking earthquake occurring in game. Classifications --------------- Video games are frequently classified by a number of factors related to how one plays them. ### Genre A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres. However, unlike film or television which use visual or narrative elements, video games are generally categorized into genres based on their gameplay interaction, since this is the primary means which one interacts with a video game. The narrative setting does not impact gameplay; a shooter game is still a shooter game, regardless of whether it takes place in a fantasy world or in outer space. An exception is the horror game genre, used for games that are based on narrative elements of horror fiction, the supernatural, and psychological horror. Genre names are normally self-describing in terms of the type of gameplay, such as action game, role playing game, or shoot 'em up, though some genres have derivations from influential works that have defined that genre, such as roguelikes from *Rogue*, Grand Theft Auto clones from *Grand Theft Auto III*, and battle royale games from the film *Battle Royale*. The names may shift over time as players, developers and the media come up with new terms; for example, first-person shooters were originally called "Doom clones" based on the 1993 game. A hierarchy of game genres exist, with top-level genres like "shooter game" and "action game" that broadly capture the game's main gameplay style, and several subgenres of specific implementation, such as within the shooter game first-person shooter and third-person shooter. Some cross-genre types also exist that fall until multiple top-level genres such as action-adventure game. ### Mode A video game's mode describes how many players can use the game at the same type. This is primarily distinguished by single-player video games and multiplayer video games. Within the latter category, multiplayer games can be played in a variety of ways, including locally at the same device, on separate devices connected through a local network such as LAN parties, or online via separate Internet connections. Most multiplayer games are based on competitive gameplay, but many offer cooperative and team-based options as well as asymmetric gameplay. Online games use server structures that can also enable massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) to support hundreds of players at the same time. A small number of video games are zero-player games, in which the player has very limited interaction with the game itself. These are most commonly simulation games where the player may establish a starting state and then let the game proceed on its own, watching the results as a passive observer, such as with many computerized simulations of Conway's Game of Life. ### Types Most video games are intended for entertainment purposes. Different game types include: Casual games Casual games are designed for ease of accessibility, simple to understand gameplay and quick to grasp rule sets, and aimed at mass market audience. They frequently support the ability to jump in and out of play on demand, such as during commuting or lunch breaks. Numerous browser and mobile games fall into the casual game area, and casual games often are from genres with low intensity game elements such as match three, hidden object, time management, and puzzle games. Causal games frequently use social-network game mechanics, where players can enlist the help of friends on their social media networks for extra turns or moves each day. Popular casual games include *Tetris* and *Candy Crush Saga*. More recent, starting in the late 2010s, are hyper-casual games which use even more simplistic rules for short but infinitely replayable games, such as *Flappy Bird*. This is as opposed to core games or hardcore games, which are designed for committed players. Their game mechanics are challenging and playing them is complex. Educational games Education software has been used in homes and classrooms to help teach children and students, and video games have been similarly adapted for these reasons, all designed to provide a form of interactivity and entertainment tied to game design elements. There are a variety of differences in their designs and how they educate the user. These are broadly split between edutainment games that tend to focus on the entertainment value and rote learning but are unlikely to engage in critical thinking, and educational video games that are geared towards problem solving through motivation and positive reinforcement while downplaying the entertainment value. Examples of educational games include *The Oregon Trail* and the *Carmen Sandiego* series. Further, games not initially developed for educational purposes have found their way into the classroom after release, such as that feature open worlds or virtual sandboxes like *Minecraft*, or offer critical thinking skills through puzzle video games like *SpaceChem*. Serious games Further extending from educational games, serious games are those where the entertainment factor may be augmented, overshadowed, or even eliminated by other purposes for the game. Game design is used to reinforce the non-entertainment purpose of the game, such as using video game technology for the game's interactive world, or gamification for reinforcement training. Educational games are a form of serious games, but other types of games include fitness games that incorporate significant physical exercise to help keep the player fit (such as *Wii Fit*), simulator games that resemble fight simulators to pilot aircraft (such as *Microsoft Flight Simulator*), advergames that are built around the advertising of a product (such as *Pepsiman*), and newsgames aimed at conveying a specific advocacy message (such as *NarcoGuerra*). Art games Although video games have been considered an art form on their own, games may be developed to try to purposely communicate a story or message, using the medium as a work of art. These art or arthouse games are designed to generate emotion and empathy from the player by challenging societal norms and offering critique through the interactivity of the video game medium. They may not have any type of win condition and are designed to let the player explore through the game world and scenarios. Most art games are indie games in nature, designed based on personal experiences or stories through a single developer or small team. Examples of art games include *Passage*, *Flower*, and *That Dragon, Cancer*. ### Content rating Video games can be subject to national and international content rating requirements. Like with film content ratings, video game ratings typing identify the target age group that the national or regional ratings board believes is appropriate for the player, ranging from all-ages, to a teenager-or-older, to mature, to the infrequent adult-only games. Most content review is based on the level of violence, both in the type of violence and how graphic it may be represented, and sexual content, but other themes such as drug and alcohol use and gambling that can influence children may also be identified. A primary identifier based on a minimum age is used by nearly all systems, along with additional descriptors to identify specific content that players and parents should be aware of. The regulations vary from country to country but generally are voluntary systems upheld by vendor practices, with penalty and fines issued by the ratings body on the video game publisher for misuse of the ratings. Among the major content rating systems include: * Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) that oversees games released in the United States. ESRB ratings are voluntary and rated along a E (Everyone), E10+ (Everyone 10 and older), T (Teen), M (Mature), and AO (Adults Only). Attempts to mandate video games ratings in the U.S. subsequently led to the landmark Supreme Court case, *Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association* in 2011 which ruled video games were a protected form of art, a key victory for the video game industry. * Pan European Game Information (PEGI) covering the United Kingdom, most of the European Union and other European countries, replacing previous national-based systems. The PEGI system uses content rated based on minimum recommended ages, which include 3+, 8+, 12+, 16+, and 18+. * Australian Classification Board (ACB) oversees the ratings of games and other works in Australia, using ratings of G (General), PG (Parental Guidance), M (Mature), MA15+ (Mature Accompanied), R18+ (Restricted), and X (Restricted for pornographic material). ACB can also deny to give a rating to game (RC – Refused Classification). The ACB's ratings are enforceable by law, and importantly, games cannot be imported or purchased digitally in Australia if they have failed to gain a rating or were given the RC rating, leading to a number of notable banned games. * Computer Entertainment Rating Organization (CERO) rates games for Japan. Their ratings include A (all ages), B (12 and older), C (15 and over), D (17 and over), and Z (18 and over). Additionally, the major content system provides have worked to create the International Age Rating Coalition (IARC), a means to streamline and align the content ratings system between different region, so that a publisher would only need to complete the content ratings review for one provider, and use the IARC transition to affirm the content rating for all other regions. Certain nations have even more restrictive rules related to political or ideological content. Within Germany, until 2018, the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (*Entertainment Software Self-Regulation*) would refuse to classify, and thus allow sale, of any game depicting Nazi imagery, and thus often requiring developers to replace such imagery with fictional ones. This ruling was relaxed in 2018 to allow for such imagery for "social adequacy" purposes that applied to other works of art. China's video game segment is mostly isolated from the rest of the world due to the government's censorship, and all games published there must adhere to strict government review, disallowing content such as smearing the image of the Chinese Communist Party. Foreign games published in China often require modification by developers and publishers to meet these requirements. Development ----------- Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment, is frequently a cross-disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Over the years this has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in the creation of any movie or television program, including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; as well as skills that are specific to video games, such as the game designer. All of these are managed by producers. In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art, programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is gone, as this is still sometimes found in the casual gaming and handheld markets, where smaller games are prevalent due to technical limitations such as limited RAM or lack of dedicated 3D graphics rendering capabilities on the target platform (e.g., some PDAs). Video games are programmed like any other piece of computer software. Prior to the mid-1970s, arcade and home consoles were programmed by assembling discrete electro-mechanical components on circuit boards, which limited games to relatively simple logic. By 1975, low-cost microprocessors were available at volume to be used for video game hardware, which allowed game developers to program more detailed games, widening the scope of what was possible. Ongoing improvements in computer hardware technology has expanded what has become possible to create in video games, coupled with convergence of common hardware between console, computer, and arcade platforms to simplify the development process. Today, game developers have a number of commercial and open source tools available for use to make games, often which are across multiple platforms to support portability, or may still opt to create their own for more specialized features and direct control of the game. Today, many games are built around a game engine that handles the bulk of the game's logic, gameplay, and rendering. These engines can be augmented with specialized engines for specific features, such as a physics engine that simulates the physics of objects in real-time. A variety of middleware exists to help developers to access other features, such as for playback of videos within games, network-oriented code for games that communicate via online services, matchmaking for online games, and similar features. These features can be used from a developers' programming language of choice, or they may opt to also use game development kits that minimize the amount of direct programming they have to do but can also limit the amount of customization they can add into a game. Like all software, video games usually undergo quality testing before release to assure there are no bugs or glitches in the product, though frequently developers will release patches and updates. With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has increased. Development studios need the best talent, while publishers reduce costs to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team ranges from 5 to 50 people, and some exceed 100. In May 2009, *Assassin's Creed II* was reported to have a development staff of 450. The growth of team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines, rushed games and the release of unfinished products. While amateur and hobbyist game programming had existed since the late 1970s with the introduction of home computers, a newer trend since the mid-2000s is indie game development. Indie games are made by small teams outside any direct publisher control, their games being smaller in scope than those from the larger "AAA" game studios, and are often experiment in gameplay and art style. Indie game development are aided by larger availability of digital distribution, including the newer mobile gaming marker, and readily-available and low-cost development tools for these platforms. ### Game theory and studies Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls "Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck, a fictional piece of technology from *Star Trek*, arguing for the video game as a medium in which the player is allowed to become another person, and to act out in another world. This image of video games received early widespread popular support, and forms the basis of films such as *Tron*, *eXistenZ* and *The Last Starfighter*. Ludologists break sharply and radically from this idea. They argue that a video game is first and foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example, Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the heroine of the game *Tomb Raider*, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it." Simply put, ludologists reject traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player. While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment, storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player." However, emergent behavior is not limited to sophisticated games. In general, any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game. ### Intellectual property for video games Most commonly, video games are protected by copyright, though both patents and trademarks have been used as well. Though local copyright regulations vary to the degree of protection, video games qualify as copyrighted visual-audio works, and enjoy cross-country protection under the Berne Convention. This typically only applies to the underlying code, as well as to the artistic aspects of the game such as its writing, art assets, and music. Gameplay itself is generally not considered copyrightable; in the United States among other countries, video games are considered to fall into the idea–expression distinction in that it is how the game is presented and expressed to the player that can be copyrighted, but not the underlying principles of the game. Because gameplay is normally ineligible for copyright, gameplay ideas in popular games are often replicated and built upon in other games. At times, this repurposing of gameplay can be seen as beneficial and a fundamental part of how the industry has grown by building on the ideas of others. For example *Doom* (1993) and *Grand Theft Auto III* (2001) introduced gameplay that created popular new game genres, the first-person shooter and the *Grand Theft Auto* clone, respectively, in the few years after their release. However, at times and more frequently at the onset of the industry, developers would intentionally create video game clones of successful games and game hardware with few changes, which led to the flooded arcade and dedicated home console market around 1978. Cloning is also a major issue with countries that do not have strong intellectual property protection laws, such as within China. The lax oversight by China's government and the difficulty for foreign companies to take Chinese entities to court had enabled China to support a large grey market of cloned hardware and software systems. The industry remains challenged to distinguish between creating new games based on refinements of past successful games to create a new type of gameplay, and intentionally creating a clone of a game that may simply swap out art assets. Industry -------- ### History The early history of the video game industry, following the first game hardware releases and through 1983, had little structure. Video games quickly took off during the golden age of arcade video games from the late 1970s to early 1980s, but the newfound industry was mainly composed of game developers with little business experience. This led to numerous companies forming simply to create clones of popular games to try to capitalize on the market. Due to loss of publishing control and oversaturation of the market, the North American home video game market crashed in 1983, dropping from revenues of around $3 billion in 1983 to $100 million by 1985. Many of the North American companies created in the prior years closed down. Japan's growing game industry was briefly shocked by this crash but had sufficient longevity to withstand the short-term effects, and Nintendo helped to revitalize the industry with the release of the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in 1985. Along with it, Nintendo established a number of core industrial practices to prevent unlicensed game development and control game distribution on their platform, methods that continue to be used by console manufacturers today. The industry remained more conservative following the 1983 crash, forming around the concept of publisher-developer dichotomies, and by the 2000s, leading to the industry centralizing around low-risk, triple-A games and studios with large development budgets of at least $10 million or more. The advent of the Internet brought digital distribution as a viable means to distribute games, and contributed to the growth of more riskier, experimental independent game development as an alternative to triple-A games in the late 2000s and which has continued to grow as a significant portion of the video game industry. ### Industry roles Video games have a large network effect that draw on many different sectors that tie into the larger video game industry. While video game developers are a significant portion of the industry, other key participants in the market include: * Publishers: Companies generally that oversee bringing the game from the developer to market. This often includes performing the marketing, public relations, and advertising of the game. Publishers frequently pay the developers ahead of time to make their games and will be involved in critical decisions about the direction of the game's progress, and then pay the developers additional royalties or bonuses based on sales performances. Other smaller, boutique publishers may simply offer to perform the publishing of a game for a small fee and a portion of the sales, and otherwise leave the developer with the creative freedom to proceed. A range of other publisher-developer relationships exist between these points. * Distributors: Publishers often are able to produce their own game media and take the role of distributor, but there are also third-party distributors that can mass-produce game media and distribute to retailers. Digital storefronts like Steam and the iOS App Store also serve as distributors and retailers in the digital space. * Retailers: Physical storefronts, which include large online retailers, department and electronic stores, and specialty video game stores, sell games, consoles, and other accessories to consumers. This has also including a trade-in market in certain regions, allowing players to turn in used games for partial refunds or credit towards other games. However, with the uprising of digital marketplaces and e-commerce revolution, retailers have been performing worse than in the past. * Hardware manufacturers: The video game console manufacturers produce console hardware, often through a value chain system that include numerous component suppliers and contract manufacturer that assemble the consoles. Further, these console manufacturers typically require a license to develop for their platform and may control the production of some games, such as Nintendo does with the use of game cartridges for its systems. In exchange, the manufacturers may help promote games for their system and may seek console exclusivity for certain games. For games on personal computers, a number of manufacturers are devoted to high-performance "gaming computer" hardware, particularly in the graphics card area; several of the same companies overlap with component supplies for consoles. A range of third-party manufacturers also exist to provide equipment and gear for consoles post-sale, such as additional controllers for console or carrying cases and gear for handheld devices. * Journalism: While journalism around video games used to be primarily print-based, and focused more on post-release reviews and gameplay strategy, the Internet has brought a more proactive press that use web journalism, covering games in the months prior to release as well as beyond, helping to build excitement for games ahead of release. * Influencers: With the rising importance of social media, video game companies have found that the opinions of influencers using streaming media to play through their games has had a significant impact on game sales, and have turned to use influencers alongside traditional journalism as a means to build up attention to their game before release. * Esports: Esports is a major function of several multiplayer games with numerous professional leagues established since the 2000s, with large viewership numbers, particularly out of southeast Asia since the 2010s. * Trade and advocacy groups: Trade groups like the Entertainment Software Association were established to provide a common voice for the industry in response to governmental and other advocacy concerns. They frequently set up the major trade events and conventions for the industry such as E3. * Gamers: Proactive hobbyists who are players and consumers of video games. While their representation in the industry is primarily seen through game sales, many companies follow gamers' comments on social media or on user reviews and engage with them to work to improve their products in addition to other feedback from other parts of the industry. Demographics of the larger player community also impact parts of the market; while once dominated by younger men, the market shifted in the mid-2010s towards women and older players who generally preferred mobile and causal games, leading to further growth in those sectors. ### Major regional markets The industry itself grew out from both the United States and Japan in the 1970s and 1980s before having a larger worldwide contribution. Today, the video game industry is predominantly led by major companies in North America (primarily the United States and Canada), Europe, and southeast Asia including Japan, South Korea, and China. Hardware production remains an area dominated by Asian companies either directly involved in hardware design or part of the production process, but digital distribution and indie game development of the late 2000s has allowed game developers to flourish nearly anywhere and diversify the field. ### Game sales According to the market research firm Newzoo, the global video game industry drew estimated revenues of over $159 billion in 2020. Mobile games accounted for the bulk of this, with a 48% share of the market, followed by console games at 28% and personal computer games at 23%. Sales of different types of games vary widely between countries due to local preferences. Japanese consumers tend to purchase much more handheld games than console games and especially PC games, with a strong preference for games catering to local tastes. Another key difference is that, though having declined in the West, arcade games remain an important sector of the Japanese gaming industry. In South Korea, computer games are generally preferred over console games, especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. Computer games are also popular in China. Effects on society ------------------ ### Culture Video game culture is a worldwide new media subculture formed around video games and game playing. As computer and video games have increased in popularity over time, they have had a significant influence on popular culture. Video game culture has also evolved over time hand in hand with internet culture as well as the increasing popularity of mobile games. Many people who play video games identify as gamers, which can mean anything from someone who enjoys games to someone who is passionate about it. As video games become more social with multiplayer and online capability, gamers find themselves in growing social networks. Gaming can both be entertainment as well as competition, as a new trend known as electronic sports is becoming more widely accepted. In the 2010s, video games and discussions of video game trends and topics can be seen in social media, politics, television, film and music. The COVID-19 pandemic during 2020–2021 gave further visibility to video games as a pastime to enjoy with friends and family online as a means of social distancing. Since the mid-2000s there has been debate whether video games qualify as art, primarily as the form's interactivity interfered with the artistic intent of the work and that they are designed for commercial appeal. A significant debate on the matter came after film critic Roger Ebert published an essay "Video Games can never be art", which challenged the industry to prove him and other critics wrong. The view that video games were an art form was cemented in 2011 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the landmark case *Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association* that video games were a protected form of speech with artistic merit. Since then, video game developers have come to use the form more for artistic expression, including the development of art games, and the cultural heritage of video games as works of arts, beyond their technical capabilities, have been part of major museum exhibits, including *The Art of Video Games* at the Smithsonian American Art Museum and toured at other museums from 2012 to 2016. Video games will inspire sequels and other video games within the same franchise, but also have influenced works outside of the video game medium. Numerous television shows (both animated and live-action), films, comics and novels have been created based on existing video game franchises. Because video games are an interactive medium there has been trouble in converting them to these passive forms of media, and typically such works have been critically panned or treated as children's media. For example, until 2019, no video game film had ever been received a "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, but the releases of *Detective Pikachu* (2019) and *Sonic the Hedgehog* (2020), both receiving "Fresh" ratings, shows signs of the film industry having found an approach to adapt video games for the large screen. That said, some early video game-based films have been highly successful at the box office, such as 1995's *Mortal Kombat* and 2001's *Lara Croft: Tomb Raider*. More recently since the 2000s, there has also become a larger appreciation of video game music, which ranges from chiptunes composed for limited sound-output devices on early computers and consoles, to fully-scored compositions for most modern games. Such music has frequently served as a platform for covers and remixes, and concerts featuring video game soundtracks performed by bands or orchestras, such as *Video Games Live*, have also become popular. Video games also frequently incorporate licensed music, particularly in the area of rhythm games, furthering the depth of which video games and music can work together. Further, video games can serve as a virtual environment under full control of a producer to create new works. With the capability to render 3D actors and settings in real-time, a new type of work machinima (short for "machine cinema") grew out from using video game engines to craft narratives. As video game engines gain higher fidelity, they have also become part of the tools used in more traditional filmmaking. Unreal Engine has been used as a backbone by Industrial Light & Magic for their StageCraft technology for shows like *The Mandalorian*. Separately, video games are also frequently used as part of the promotion and marketing for other media, such as for films, anime, and comics. However, these licensed games in the 1990s and 2000s often had a reputation for poor quality, developed without any input from the intellectual property rights owners, and several of them are considered among lists of games with notably negative reception, such as *Superman 64*. More recently, with these licensed games being developed by triple-A studios or through studios directly connected to the licensed property owner, there has been a significant improvement in the quality of these games, with an early trendsetting example of *Batman: Arkham Asylum*. ### Beneficial uses Besides their entertainment value, appropriately-designed video games have been seen to provide value in education across several ages and comprehension levels. Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education system. It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they do not realize they are learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits. Students are found to be "learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking. Video games are also believed to be beneficial to the mind and body. It has been shown that action video game players have better hand–eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than nonplayers. Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects. A 2018 systematic review found evidence that video gaming training had positive effects on cognitive and emotional skills in the adult population, especially with young adults. A 2019 systematic review also added support for the claim that video games are beneficial to the brain, although the beneficial effects of video gaming on the brain differed by video games types. Organisers of video gaming events, such as the organisers of the *D-Lux* video game festival in Dumfries, Scotland, have emphasised the positive aspects video games can have on mental health. Organisers, mental health workers and mental health nurses at the event emphasised the relationships and friendships that can be built around video games and how playing games can help people learn about others as a precursor to discussing the person's mental health. A study in 2020 from Oxford University also suggested that playing video games can be a benefit to a person's mental health. The report of 3,274 gamers, all over the age of 18, focused on the games Animal Crossing: New Horizons and Plants vs Zombies: Battle for Neighborville and used actual play-time data. The report found that those that played more games tended to report greater "wellbeing". Also in 2020, computer science professor Regan Mandryk of the University of Saskatchewan said her research also showed that video games can have health benefits such as reducing stress and improving mental health. The university's research studied all age groups – "from pre-literate children through to older adults living in long term care homes" – with a main focus on 18 to 55-year-olds. A study of gamers attitudes towards gaming which was reported about in 2018 found that millennials use video games as a key strategy for coping with stress. In the study of 1,000 gamers, 55% said that it "helps them to unwind and relieve stress ... and half said they see the value in gaming as a method of escapism to help them deal with daily work pressures". ### Controversies Video games have had controversy since the 1970s. Video games have emerged as one of the primary playthings used by young people all over the world. Parents and children's advocates have raised concerns that violent video games can influence young players into performing those violent acts in real life, and events such as the Columbine High School massacre in 1999 in which the perpetrators specifically alluded to using video games to plot out their attack, raised further fears. Medical experts and mental health professionals have also raised concerned that video games may be addictive, and the World Health Organization has included "gaming disorder" in the 11th revision of its International Statistical Classification of Diseases. Other health experts, including the American Psychiatric Association, have stated that there is insufficient evidence that video games can create violent tendencies or lead to addictive behavior, though agree that video games typically use a compulsion loop in their core design that can create dopamine that can help reinforce the desire to continue to play through that compulsion loop and potentially lead into violent or addictive behavior. Even with case law establishing that video games qualify as a protected art form, there has been pressure on the video game industry to keep their products in check to avoid over-excessive violence particularly for games aimed at younger children. The potential addictive behavior around games, coupled with increased used of post-sale monetization of video games, has also raised concern among parents, advocates, and government officials about gambling tendencies that may come from video games, such as controversy around the use of loot boxes in many high-profile games. Numerous other controversies around video games and its industry have arisen over the years, among the more notable incidents include the 1993 United States Congressional hearings on violent games like *Mortal Kombat* which lead to the formation of the ESRB ratings system, numerous legal actions taken by attorney Jack Thompson over violent games such as *Grand Theft Auto III* and *Manhunt* from 2003 to 2007, the outrage over the "No Russian" level from *Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2* in 2009 which allowed the player to shoot a number of innocent non-player characters at an airport, and the Gamergate harassment campaign in 2014 that highlighted misogamy from a portion of the player demographic. The industry as a whole has also dealt with issues related to gender, racial, and LGBTQ+ discrimination and mischaracterization of these minority groups in video games. A further issue in the industry is related to working conditions, as development studios and publishers frequently use "crunch time", required extended working hours, in the weeks and months ahead of a game's release to assure on-time delivery. Collecting and preservation --------------------------- Players of video games often maintain collections of games. More recently there has been interest in retrogaming, focusing on games from the first decades. Games in retail packaging in good shape have become collectors items for the early days of the industry, with some rare publications having gone for over US$100,000 as of 2020[update]. Separately, there is also concern about the preservation of video games, as both game media and the hardware to play them degrade over time. Further, many of the game developers and publishers from the first decades no longer exist, so records of their games have disappeared. Archivists and preservations have worked within the scope of copyright law to save these games as part of the cultural history of the industry. There are many video game museums around the world, including the National Videogame Museum in Frisco, Texas, which serves as the largest museum wholly dedicated to the display and preservation of the industry's most important artifacts. Europe hosts video game museums such as the Computer Games Museum in Berlin and the Museum of Soviet Arcade Machines in Moscow and Saint-Petersburg. The Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment in Oakland, California is a dedicated video game museum focusing on playable exhibits of console and computer games. The Video Game Museum of Rome is also dedicated to preserving video games and their history. The International Center for the History of Electronic Games at The Strong in Rochester, New York contains one of the largest collections of electronic games and game-related historical materials in the world, including a 5,000-square-foot (460 m2) exhibit which allows guests to play their way through the history of video games. The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC has three video games on permanent display: *Pac-Man*, *Dragon's Lair*, and *Pong*. The Museum of Modern Art has added a total of 20 video games and one video game console to its permanent Architecture and Design Collection since 2012. In 2012, the Smithsonian American Art Museum ran an exhibition on "The Art of Video Games". However, the reviews of the exhibit were mixed, including questioning whether video games belong in an art museum. See also -------- * Lists of video games * List of accessories to video games by system * Outline of video games Further reading --------------- * Blodget, Henry (12 April 2005). "How to Solve China's Piracy Problem". Slate.com. Archived from the original on 8 November 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2006. * Costikyan, Greg (1994). "I Have No Words & I Must Design". Archived from the original on 12 August 2008. * Crawford, Chris (1982). *The Art of Computer Game Design*. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2011. * Lieu, Tina (August 1997). "Where have all the PC games gone?". Computing Japan. Archived from the original on 12 January 1998. * Pursell, Carroll (2015). *From Playgrounds to PlayStation: The Interaction of Technology and Play*. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. * Salen, Katie; Eric Zimmerman (2005). *The Game Design Reader: A Rules of Play Anthology*. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19536-2. * Smuts, Aaron (2005). "Are Video Games Art?". Archived from the original on 14 December 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2006. * Winegarner, Beth (28 January 2005). "Game sales hit record highs". *GameSpot*. Gamespot. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2006. * John Wills (1 October 2002). "Digital Dinosaurs and Artificial Life: Exploring the Culture of Nature in Computer and Video Games". *Cultural Values (Journal for Cultural Research)*. **6** (4): 395–417. doi:10.1080/1362517022000047334. S2CID 144132612. * Williams, J.P.; Smith, J.H., eds. (2007). *The players' realm: studies on the culture of video games and gaming*. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. * *The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon--The Story Behind the Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World* by Steven L. Kent, Crown, 2001, ISBN 0761536434 * *The Ultimate History of Video Games, Volume 2: Nintendo, Sony, Microsoft, and the Billion-Dollar Battle to Shape Modern Gaming* by Steven L. Kent, Crown, 2021, ISBN 1984825437

Video game

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game

**Djerba** (/ˈdʒɜːrbə, ˈdʒɛərbə/; Arabic: جربة, romanized: *Jirba*, IPA: [ˈʒɪrbæ] (); Italian: *Meninge, Girba*), also transliterated as **Jerba** or **Jarbah**, is a Tunisian island and the largest island of North Africa at 514 square kilometers (198 sq mi), in the Gulf of Gabès, off the coast of Tunisia. It had a population of 139,544 at the 2004 census, which rose to 163,726 at the 2014 census. Citing the long and unique history of its Jewish minority in Djerba, Tunisia has sought UNESCO World Heritage status protections for the island. History ------- Legend has it that Djerba was the island of the lotus-eaters where Odysseus was stranded on his voyage through the Mediterranean Sea. The island was called *Meninx* (Ancient Greek: Μῆνιγξ) until the third century AD. Strabo writes that there was an altar of Odysseus. The island was controlled twice by the Norman Kingdom of Sicily: in 1135–1158 and in 1284–1333. During the second of these periods it was organised as a feudal lordship, with the following Lords of Jerba: * 1284–1305: Roger I * 1305–1307, and 1307–1310: Roger II (twice) * 1310: Charles * 1310: Francis-Roger III In the 14th century, the Borj El Kebir castle was built, on top of Roman ruins. The Tunisian government took possession of the castle in 1903, and later converted it into a museum. An archaeological field survey of Djerba carried out between 1995 and 2000 under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania, the American Academy in Rome and the Tunisian Institut National du Patrimoine, revealed over 400 archaeological sites, including many Punic and Roman villas and an amphitheatre. ### Jewish history According to their oral history, the Jewish minority has dwelled on the island continuously for more than 2,500 years. The first physical evidence that historians know of comes from the 11th century found in Cairo Geniza. This community is unique in the Jewish diaspora for its unusually high percentage of Kohanim (Hebrew; the Jewish priestly caste), direct patrilineal descendants of Aaron the first high priest from Mosaic times. Local tradition holds that when Nebuchadnezzar II levelled Solomon's temple and laid waste to Judah and the city of Jerusalem in the year 586 BC, the Kohanim who settled in Djerba were among the refugees who were able to avoid slavery. A key point in this oral history has been backed up by genetic tests for Cohen modal haplotype showing that the vast majority of male Jews on Djerba claiming the family status of Cohen had a common ancient male ancestor which matches that of nearly all of both historically European and Middle Eastern Jewish males with a family history of patrilineal membership in the Jewish priestly caste. Thus, the island has been known by many Jews as the island of the Kohanim. According to the legend, during the destruction of the temple, the Kohanim, who were serving the temple at the time of destruction escaped from Jerusalem and found themselves on the island of Djerba. The legend claims the Kohanim carried the door and some stones from the Temple in Jerusalem which they then incorporated into the "marvelous synagogue", also known as Ghriba, which still stands in Djerba. The Jewish community differs from others in Djerba in their dress, personal names and accents. The Jewish rabbinate of Djerba have established an eruv, which establishes the communal area in the city in which Jews can freely carry objects between their homes and community buildings on Shabbat. Some traditions that are distinctive of the Jewish Djerba community is the kiddush prayer said on the eve of Passover and a few prophetic passages on certain Shabbats of the year. One of the community's synagogues, the El Ghriba synagogue, has been in continuous use for over 2,000 years. The Jews were settled in two main communities: the Hara Kabira ("the big quarter";Arabic:"الحاره الكبيرة") and the Hara Saghira ("the small quarter";Arabic:" الحاره الصّغيرة"). The Hara Saghira identified itself with Israel, while the Hara Kabira identified with Spain and Morocco. The next influx of Jewish people to the Island of Djerba occurred during the Spanish Inquisition, when the Iberian Jewish population was expelled. The Jewish population hit its peak during the time that Tunisia was fighting for independence from France 1881–1956. In 1940, there were approximately 100,000 Jewish-Tunisians or 15% of the entire population of Tunisia. In the aftermath of World War II, the Jewish population on the island declined significantly due to emigration to Israel and France. As of 2011[update], the Jewish permanent resident community on the island numbered about 1,000, but many return annually on pilgrimage. However, once the State of Israel was established, and political unrest in the Middle East and North Africa was building up many Jewish people were expelled from Tunisia. Although the Jewish community of Tunisia was on the decline, the Jewish community of Hara Kebira witnessed an increase of population due to its traditional character. The community on Djerba remains one of the last remaining fully intact Jewish communities in an Arab majority country after most were abandoned in the face of anti-Israel and antisemitic pressure and pogroms. The most traditionally observant Jewish community is growing because of large natural families despite emigration and a new Orthodox Jewish school for girls has recently been inaugurated on the Island to serve alongside the two boys yeshiva schools. According to *The Wall Street Journal* "Relations between Jews and Muslims are complex—proper and respectful, though not especially close. Jewish men work alongside Arab merchants in the souk, for example, and enjoy amicable ties with Muslim customers." The historical conflicts between Muslims and Jewish people have been largely absent in Djerba. This is reportedly attributed due to all the people of the island being at some point Jewish, and therefore share similar practices in their ways of life. Some of these Jewish practices that can be seen in Muslim households in Djerba are the lighting of candles on Friday night, and the suspending of matzot on the ceiling from one spring to the next. The Jewish and Muslim communities have coexisted peacefully in Djerba despite political unrest regarding the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The people of Djerba say that the two communities simply pray in different places, but are still able to converse. A Jewish leader once stated "We live together, We visit our friends on their religious holidays. We work together. Muslims buy meat from our butchers. When we are forbidden to work or cook on the Shabbat, we buy bread and kosher food cooking by Muslims. Our children play together". On 11 April 2002, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for a truck bomb attack close to the famous synagogue, killing 21 people (14 German tourists, 5 Tunisians and 2 French nationals). Since the "Arab Spring", the Tunisian government has extended its protection and encouraged Jewish life on the island of Djerba. Citing the long and unique Jewish history on Djerba, Tunisia has sought UNESCO World Heritage status for the island. There are currently 14 synagogues, 2 yeshivot and 3 kosher restaurants. A Jewish school on the island was firebombed during the national protests held in 2018, while security forces in Djerba were reduced, being preoccupied with protection efforts elsewhere. This attack was among many other uprisings that were occurring throughout Tunisia at the time. ### Ecclesiastical history The city Girba in the Roman province of Tripolitania (mostly in modern Libya), which gave its name to the island, was important enough to become a suffragan bishop of its capital's archbishopric. Known Bishops of antiquity include: * Proculus (Maximus Bishop fl.393) * Quodvultdeus (Catholic Bishop fl.401–411) attending Council of Carthage (411) * Euasius (Donatist Bishop fl.411) rival at Council of Carthage * Urbanus (Catholic bishop fl.445–454) * Faustinus (Catholic bishop fl. 484), exiled by King Huneric of the Vandal Kingdom * Vincentius (Catholic bishop fl. 523–525) The 1909 *Catholic Encyclopedia* lists only two: "At least two bishops of Girba are known, Monnulus and Vincent, who assisted at the Councils, of Carthage in 255 and 525". Climate ------- Djerba has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification: *BWh*) that borders on a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh*). | Climate data for Djerba (1981–2010, extremes 1898–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 31.8(89.2) | 35.2(95.4) | 35.0(95.0) | 38.6(101.5) | 43.7(110.7) | 46.0(114.8) | 46.1(115.0) | 46.3(115.3) | 42.8(109.0) | 42.3(108.1) | 34.4(93.9) | 28.6(83.5) | 46.3(115.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 16.5(61.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 20.3(68.5) | 23.1(73.6) | 26.6(79.9) | 30.0(86.0) | 32.9(91.2) | 33.5(92.3) | 30.9(87.6) | 27.6(81.7) | 22.4(72.3) | 17.8(64.0) | 25.0(76.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.9(55.2) | 13.7(56.7) | 15.8(60.4) | 18.3(64.9) | 21.8(71.2) | 25.2(77.4) | 27.8(82.0) | 28.7(83.7) | 26.7(80.1) | 23.4(74.1) | 18.6(65.5) | 14.5(58.1) | 20.6(69.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 9.2(48.6) | 9.6(49.3) | 11.6(52.9) | 14.2(57.6) | 17.5(63.5) | 20.8(69.4) | 23.1(73.6) | 24.3(75.7) | 22.8(73.0) | 19.5(67.1) | 14.7(58.5) | 11.0(51.8) | 16.5(61.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | 0.0(32.0) | 1.0(33.8) | 4.0(39.2) | 5.0(41.0) | 6.0(42.8) | 12.0(53.6) | 15.0(59.0) | 14.0(57.2) | 14.0(57.2) | 10.0(50.0) | 3.0(37.4) | 1.0(33.8) | 0.0(32.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 27.4(1.08) | 14.3(0.56) | 15.9(0.63) | 11.8(0.46) | 5.1(0.20) | 1.4(0.06) | 0.3(0.01) | 1.3(0.05) | 20.3(0.80) | 36.2(1.43) | 27.2(1.07) | 41.3(1.63) | 202.5(7.98) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 3.4 | 3.1 | 2.7 | 1.8 | 1.1 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 2.1 | 3.5 | 2.8 | 3.5 | 24.6 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 69 | 67 | 66 | 66 | 65 | 66 | 63 | 65 | 69 | 68 | 67 | 70 | 67 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 207.7 | 207.2 | 244.9 | 264.0 | 313.1 | 321.0 | 375.1 | 350.3 | 276.0 | 248.0 | 213.0 | 204.6 | 3,224.9 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 6.7 | 7.4 | 7.9 | 8.8 | 10.1 | 10.7 | 12.1 | 11.3 | 9.2 | 8.0 | 7.1 | 6.6 | 8.8 | | Source 1: Institut National de la Météorologie (precipitation days/humidity/sun 1961–1990) | | Source 2: NOAA (humidity and sun 1961–1990), Meteo Climat (record highs and lows) | | Climate data for Djerba | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average sea temperature °C (°F) | 16.0(61.0) | 15.0(59.0) | 16.0(61.0) | 17.0(63.0) | 19.0(66.0) | 22.0(72.0) | 26.0(79.0) | 28.0(82.0) | 27.0(81.0) | 25.0(77.0) | 22.0(72.0) | 18.0(64.0) | 20.9(69.8) | | Mean daily daylight hours | 10.0 | 11.0 | 12.0 | 13.0 | 14.0 | 14.0 | 14.0 | 13.0 | 12.0 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 12.0 | | Average Ultraviolet index | 3 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 6.8 | | Source #1: Weather2Travel (sea temperature) | | Source #2: Weather Atlas | Migratory bird sanctuary ------------------------ Djerba Bin El Ouedian is a wetland and habitat for migratory birds. It is located at 33 ° 40 'N, 10 ° 55 'E. On 7 November 2007 the wetland was included on the list of Ramsar sites under the Ramsar Convention, due to its importance as a bird refuge. See also -------- * European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 * Borj El Kebir * Menachem Mazuz, former Attorney General of Israel & supreme judge * Yael Shelbia, Israeli model, descendant of Djerba inhabitants * Djerba–Zarzis International Airport * *Menzel* (Djerba)  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Girba". *Catholic Encyclopedia*. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 33°47′N 10°53′E / 33.783°N 10.883°E / 33.783; 10.883

Djerba

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djerba

**Phobos** (/ˈfoʊbɒs/; systematic designation: **Mars I**) is the innermost and larger of the two natural satellites of Mars, the other being Deimos. The two moons were discovered in 1877 by American astronomer Asaph Hall. It is named after Phobos, the Greek god of fear and panic, who is the son of Ares (Mars) and twin brother of Deimos. Phobos is a small, irregularly shaped object with a mean radius of 11 km (7 mi). Phobos orbits 6,000 km (3,700 mi) from the Martian surface, closer to its primary body than any other known planetary moon. It orbits Mars much faster than Mars rotates, and completes an orbit in just 7 hours and 39 minutes. As a result, from the surface of Mars it appears to rise in the west, move across the sky in 4 hours and 15 minutes or less, and set in the east, twice each Martian day. Phobos is one of the least reflective bodies in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.071. Surface temperatures range from about −4 °C (25 °F) on the sunlit side to −112 °C (−170 °F) on the shadowed side. The notable surface feature is the large impact crater, Stickney, which takes up a substantial proportion of the moon's surface. The surface is also home to many grooves, with there being numerous theories as to how these grooves were formed. Images and models indicate that Phobos may be a rubble pile held together by a thin crust that is being torn apart by tidal interactions. Phobos gets closer to Mars by about 2 cm per year, and it is predicted that within 30 to 50 million years it will either collide with the planet or break up into a planetary ring. Discovery --------- Phobos was discovered by astronomer Asaph Hall on 18 August 1877 at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., at about 09:14 Greenwich Mean Time. (Contemporary sources, using the pre-1925 astronomical convention that began the day at noon, give the time of discovery as 17 August at 16:06 Washington mean time, meaning 18 August 04:06 in the modern convention.) Hall had discovered Deimos, Mars's other moon, a few days earlier on 12 August 1877 at about 07:48 UTC. The names, originally spelled *Phobus* and *Deimus* respectively, were suggested by Henry Madan (1838–1901), a science master at Eton College, based on Greek mythology, in which Phobos is a companion to the god, Ares. ### Shklovsky's "Hollow Phobos" hypothesis In the late 1950s and 1960s, the unusual orbital characteristics of Phobos led to speculations that it might be hollow. Around 1958, Russian astrophysicist Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky, studying the secular acceleration of Phobos's orbital motion, suggested a "thin sheet metal" structure for Phobos, a suggestion which led to speculations that Phobos was of artificial origin. Shklovsky based his analysis on estimates of the upper Martian atmosphere's density, and deduced that for the weak braking effect to be able to account for the secular acceleration, Phobos had to be very light—one calculation yielded a hollow iron sphere 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) across but less than 6 cm thick. In a February 1960 letter to the journal *Astronautics*, Fred Singer, then science advisor to U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, said of Shklovsky's theory: > If the satellite is indeed spiraling inward as deduced from astronomical observation, then there is little alternative to the hypothesis that it is hollow and therefore Martian made. The big 'if' lies in the astronomical observations; they may well be in error. Since they are based on several independent sets of measurements taken decades apart by different observers with different instruments, systematic errors may have influenced them. > > Subsequently, the systematic data errors that Singer predicted were found to exist, and the claim was called into doubt, and accurate measurements of the orbit available by 1969 showed that the discrepancy did not exist. Singer's critique was justified when earlier studies were discovered to have used an overestimated value of 5 cm/yr for the rate of altitude loss, which was later revised to 1.8 cm/yr. The secular acceleration is now attributed to tidal effects, which create drag on the moon and therefore cause it spiral inward. The density of Phobos has now been directly measured by spacecraft to be 1.887 g/cm3. Current observations are consistent with Phobos being a rubble pile. In addition, images obtained by the *Viking* probes in the 1970s clearly showed a natural object, not an artificial one. Nevertheless, mapping by the *Mars Express* probe and subsequent volume calculations do suggest the presence of voids and indicate that it is not a solid chunk of rock but a porous body. The porosity of Phobos was calculated to be 30% ± 5%, or a quarter to a third being empty. Physical characteristics ------------------------ *Top:* The impact crater Stickney imaged by the *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter* in March 2008. The second impact crater inside Stickney is Limtoc. Highly saturated, false color image. *Bottom:* Labeled Map of Phobos – Moon of Mars (U.S. Geological Survey). Phobos has dimensions of 27 km × 22 km × 18 km, and retains too little mass to be rounded under its own gravity. Phobos does not have an atmosphere due to its low mass and low gravity. It is one of the least reflective bodies in the Solar System, with an albedo of about 0.071. Infrared spectra show that it has carbon-rich material found in carbonaceous chondrites, and its composition shows similarities to that of Mars' surface. Phobos's density is too low to be solid rock, and it is known to have significant porosity. These results led to the suggestion that Phobos might contain a substantial reservoir of ice. Spectral observations indicate that the surface regolith layer lacks hydration, but ice below the regolith is not ruled out. Unlike Deimos, Phobos is heavily cratered, with one of the craters near the equator having a central peak despite the moon's small size. The most prominent of these is the crater Stickney, a large impact crater some 9 km (5.6 mi) in diameter, which takes up a substantial proportion of the moon's surface area. As with Mimas's crater Herschel, the impact that created Stickney must have nearly shattered Phobos. Many grooves and streaks also cover the oddly shaped surface. The grooves are typically less than 30 meters (98 ft) deep, 100 to 200 meters (330 to 660 ft) wide, and up to 20 kilometers (12 mi) in length, and were originally assumed to have been the result of the same impact that created Stickney. Analysis of results from the *Mars Express* spacecraft, however, revealed that the grooves are not in fact radial to Stickney, but are centered on the leading apex of Phobos in its orbit (which is not far from Stickney). Researchers suspect that they have been excavated by material ejected into space by impacts on the surface of Mars. The grooves thus formed as crater chains, and all of them fade away as the trailing apex of Phobos is approached. They have been grouped into 12 or more families of varying age, presumably representing at least 12 Martian impact events. However, in November 2018, following further computational probability analysis, astronomers concluded that the many grooves on Phobos were caused by boulders, ejected from the asteroid impact that created Stickney crater. These boulders rolled in a predictable pattern on the surface of the moon. Faint dust rings produced by Phobos and Deimos have long been predicted but attempts to observe these rings have, to date, failed. Recent images from *Mars Global Surveyor* indicate that Phobos is covered with a layer of fine-grained regolith at least 100 meters thick; it is hypothesized to have been created by impacts from other bodies, but it is not known how the material stuck to an object with almost no gravity. The unique Kaidun meteorite that fell on a Soviet military base in Yemen in 1980 has been hypothesized to be a piece of Phobos, but couldn't be verify because little is known about the exact composition of Phobos. A person who weighs 68 kilogram-force (150 pounds) on Earth would weigh about 40 gram-force (2 ounces) standing on the surface of Phobos. ### Named geological features Geological features on Phobos are named after astronomers who studied Phobos and people and places from Jonathan Swift's *Gulliver's Travels*. #### Craters on Phobos A number of craters have been named, and are listed in the following table. | Crater | Coordinates | Diameter(km) | ApprovalYear | Eponym | Ref | Annotated map | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Clustril | 60°N 91°W / 60°N 91°W / 60; -91 (Clustril) | 3.4 | 2006 | Character in Lilliput who informed Flimnap that his wife had visited Gulliver privately in Jonathan Swift's novel *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | Phobos Crater NamesPhobos Crater Names (view • discuss) SKYRESH FLIMNAP GRILDRIG RELDRESAL CLUSTRIL GULLIVER DRUNLO STICKNEY LIMTOC KEPLER DORSUM LAPUTA REGIO? LAGADO PLANITIA? SHKLOVSKY? WENDELL? Öpik | | D'Arrest | 39°S 179°W / 39°S 179°W / -39; -179 (D'Arrest) | 2.1 | 1973 | Heinrich Louis d'Arrest; German/Danish astronomer (1822–1875) | WGPSN | | Drunlo | 36°30′N 92°00′W / 36.5°N 92°W / 36.5; -92 (Drunlo) | 4.2 | 2006 | Character in Lilliput who informed Flimnap that his wife had visited Gulliver privately in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Flimnap | 60°N 10°E / 60°N 10°E / 60; 10 (Flimnap) | 1.5 | 2006 | Treasurer of Lilliput in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Grildrig | 81°N 165°E / 81°N 165°E / 81; 165 (Grildrig) | 2.6 | 2006 | Name given to Gulliver by the farmer's daughter Glumdalclitch in the giants' country Brobdingnag in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Gulliver | 62°N 163°W / 62°N 163°W / 62; -163 (Gulliver) | 5.5 | 2006 | Lemuel Gulliver; surgeon captain and voyager in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Hall | 80°S 150°E / 80°S 150°E / -80; 150 (Hall) | 5.4 | 1973 | Asaph Hall; American astronomer discoverer of Phobos and Deimos (1829–1907) | WGPSN | | Limtoc | 11°S 54°W / 11°S 54°W / -11; -54 (Limtoc) | 2 | 2006 | General in Lilliput who prepared articles of impeachment against Gulliver in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Öpik | 7°S 63°E / 7°S 63°E / -7; 63 (Öpik) | 2 | 2011 | Ernst J. Öpik, Estonian astronomer (1893–1985) | WGPSN | | Reldresal | 41°N 39°W / 41°N 39°W / 41; -39 (Reldresal) | 2.9 | 2006 | Secretary for Private Affairs in Lilliput; Gulliver's friend in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Roche | 53°N 177°E / 53°N 177°E / 53; 177 (Roche) | 2.3 | 1973 | Édouard Roche; French astronomer (1820–1883) | WGPSN | | Sharpless | 27°30′S 154°00′W / 27.5°S 154°W / -27.5; -154 (Sharpless) | 1.8 | 1973 | Bevan Sharpless; American astronomer (1904–1950) | WGPSN | | Shklovsky | 24°N 112°E / 24°N 112°E / 24; 112 (Shklovsky) | 2 | 2011 | Iosif Shklovsky, Soviet astronomer (1916–1985) | WGPSN | | Skyresh | 52°30′N 40°00′E / 52.5°N 40°E / 52.5; 40 (Skyresh) | 1.5 | 2006 | Skyresh Bolgolam; High Admiral of the Lilliput council who opposed Gulliver's plea for freedom and accused him of being a traitor in *Gulliver's Travels* | WGPSN | | Stickney | 1°N 49°W / 1°N 49°W / 1; -49 (Stickney) | 9 | 1973 | Angeline Stickney (1830–1892); wife of American astronomer Asaph Hall (above) | WGPSN | | Todd | 9°S 153°W / 9°S 153°W / -9; -153 (Todd) | 2.6 | 1973 | David Peck Todd; American astronomer (1855–1939) | WGPSN | | Wendell | 1°S 132°W / 1°S 132°W / -1; -132 (Wendell) | 1.7 | 1973 | Oliver Wendell; American astronomer (1845–1912) | WGPSN | #### Other named features There is one named regio, *Laputa Regio*, and one named planitia, *Lagado Planitia*; both are named after places in *Gulliver's Travels* (the fictional Laputa, a flying island, and Lagado, imaginary capital of the fictional nation Balnibarbi). The only named ridge on Phobos is *Kepler Dorsum*, named after the astronomer Johannes Kepler. Orbital characteristics ----------------------- The orbital motion of Phobos has been intensively studied, making it "the best studied natural satellite in the Solar System" in terms of orbits completed. Its close orbit around Mars produces some unusual effects. With an altitude of 5,989 km (3,721 mi), Phobos orbits Mars below the synchronous orbit radius, meaning that it moves around Mars faster than Mars itself rotates. Therefore, from the point of view of an observer on the surface of Mars, it rises in the west, moves comparatively rapidly across the sky (in 4 h 15 min or less) and sets in the east, approximately twice each Martian day (every 11 h 6 min). Because it is close to the surface and in an equatorial orbit, it cannot be seen above the horizon from latitudes greater than 70.4°. Its orbit is so low that its angular diameter, as seen by an observer on Mars, varies visibly with its position in the sky. Seen at the horizon, Phobos is about 0.14° wide; at zenith it is 0.20°, one-third as wide as the full Moon as seen from Earth. By comparison, the Sun has an apparent size of about 0.35° in the Martian sky. Phobos's phases, inasmuch as they can be observed from Mars, take 0.3191 days (Phobos's synodic period) to run their course, a mere 13 seconds longer than Phobos's sidereal period. ### Solar transits An observer situated on the Martian surface, in a position to observe Phobos, would see regular transits of Phobos across the Sun. Several of these transits have been photographed by the Mars Rover *Opportunity*. During the transits, Phobos's shadow is cast on the surface of Mars; an event which has been photographed by several spacecraft. Phobos is not large enough to cover the Sun's disk, and so cannot cause a total eclipse. ### Predicted destruction Tidal deceleration is gradually decreasing the orbital radius of Phobos by approximately two meters every 100 years, and with decreasing orbital radius the likelihood of breakup due to tidal forces increases, estimated in approximately 30–50 million years, with one study's estimate being about 43 million years. Phobos's grooves were long thought to be fractures caused by the impact that formed the Stickney crater. Other modelling suggested since the 1970s support the idea that the grooves are more like "stretch marks" that occur when Phobos gets deformed by tidal forces, but in 2015 when the tidal forces were calculated and used in a new model, the stresses were too weak to fracture a solid moon of that size, unless Phobos is a rubble pile surrounded by a layer of powdery regolith about 100 m (330 ft) thick. Stress fractures calculated for this model line up with the grooves on Phobos. The model is supported with the discovery that some of the grooves are younger than others, implying that the process that produces the grooves is ongoing.[*inconsistent*] Given Phobos's irregular shape and assuming that it is a pile of rubble (specifically a Mohr–Coulomb body), it will eventually break up due to tidal forces when it reaches approximately 2.1 Mars radii. When Phobos is broken up, it will form a planetary ring around Mars. This predicted ring may last from 1 million to 100 million years. The fraction of the mass of Phobos that will form the ring depends on the unknown internal structure of Phobos. Loose, weakly bound material will form the ring. Components of Phobos with strong cohesion will escape tidal breakup and will enter the Martian atmosphere. Origin ------ The origin of the Martian moons has been disputed. Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous C-type asteroids, with spectra, albedo, and density very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids. Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured main-belt asteroids. Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's equatorial plane, and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for circularizing the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and tidal forces, although it is not clear that sufficient time is available for this to occur for Deimos. Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current Martian atmosphere is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking. Geoffrey A. Landis has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a binary asteroid that separated under tidal forces. Phobos could be a second-generation Solar System object that coalesced in orbit after Mars formed, rather than forming concurrently out of the same birth cloud as Mars. Another hypothesis is that Mars was once surrounded by many Phobos- and Deimos-sized bodies, perhaps ejected into orbit around it by a collision with a large planetesimal. The high porosity of the interior of Phobos (based on the density of 1.88 g/cm3, voids are estimated to comprise 25 to 35 percent of Phobos's volume) is inconsistent with an asteroidal origin. Observations of Phobos in the thermal infrared suggest a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates, which are well known from the surface of Mars. The spectra are distinct from those of all classes of chondrite meteorites, again pointing away from an asteroidal origin. Both sets of findings support an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars that reaccreted in Martian orbit, similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's moon. Some areas of the surface have turned out to be reddish in color, while others are bluish. The hypothesis is that gravity pull from Mars makes the reddish regolith move over the surface, exposing relatively fresh, unweathered and bluish material from the moon, while the regolith covering it over time has been weathered due to exposure of solar radiation. Because the blue rock differs from known Martian rock, it could contradict the theory that the moon is formed from leftover planetary material after the impact of a large object. Most recently, Amirhossein Bagheri (ETH Zurich), Amir Khan (ETH Zurich), Michael Efroimsky (US Naval Observatory) and their colleagues proposed a new hypothesis on the origin of the moons. By analyzing the seismic and orbital data from Mars InSight Mission and other missions, they proposed that the moons are born from disruption of a common parent body around 1 to 2.7 billion years ago. The common progenitor of Phobos and Deimos was most probably hit by another object and shattered to form both moons. Exploration ----------- ### Launched missions Phobos has been photographed in close-up by several spacecraft whose primary mission has been to photograph Mars. The first was *Mariner 7* in 1969, followed by *Mariner 9* in 1971, *Viking 1* in 1977, Phobos 2 in 1989 *Mars Global Surveyor* in 1998 and 2003, *Mars Express* in 2004, 2008, 2010 and 2019, and *Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter* in 2007 and 2008. On 25 August 2005, the *Spirit* rover, with an excess of energy due to wind blowing dust off of its solar panels, took several short-exposure photographs of the night sky from the surface of Mars, and was able to successfully photograph both Phobos and Deimos. The Soviet Union undertook the Phobos program with two probes, both launched successfully in July 1988. *Phobos 1* was accidentally shut down by an erroneous command from ground control issued in September 1988 and lost while the craft was still en route. *Phobos 2* arrived at the Mars system in January 1989 and, after transmitting a small amount of data and imagery but shortly before beginning its detailed examination of Phobos's surface, the probe abruptly ceased transmission due either to failure of the onboard computer or of the radio transmitter, already operating on the backup power. Other Mars missions collected more data, but no dedicated sample return mission has been performed. The Russian Space Agency launched a sample return mission to Phobos in November 2011, called *Fobos-Grunt*. The return capsule also included a life science experiment of The Planetary Society, called Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, or LIFE. A second contributor to this mission was the China National Space Administration, which supplied a surveying satellite called "Yinghuo-1", which would have been released in the orbit of Mars, and a soil-grinding and sieving system for the scientific payload of the Phobos lander. However, after achieving Earth orbit, the *Fobos–Grunt* probe failed to initiate subsequent burns that would have sent it to Mars. Attempts to recover the probe were unsuccessful and it crashed back to Earth in January 2012. On 1 July 2020, the Mars orbiter of the Indian Space Research Organisation was able to capture photos of the body from 4,200 km away. ### Missions considered In 1997 and 1998, the *Aladdin* mission was selected as a finalist in the NASA Discovery Program. The plan was to visit both Phobos and Deimos, and launch projectiles at the satellites. The probe would collect the ejecta as it performed a slow flyby (~1 km/s). These samples would be returned to Earth for study three years later. The Principal Investigator was Dr. Carle Pieters of Brown University. The total mission cost, including launch vehicle and operations was $247.7 million. Ultimately, the mission chosen to fly was *MESSENGER*, a probe to Mercury. In 2007, the European aerospace subsidiary EADS Astrium was reported to have been developing a mission to Phobos as a technology demonstrator. Astrium was involved in developing a European Space Agency plan for a sample return mission to Mars, as part of the ESA's Aurora programme, and sending a mission to Phobos with its low gravity was seen as a good opportunity for testing and proving the technologies required for an eventual sample return mission to Mars. The mission was envisioned to start in 2016, was to last for three years. The company planned to use a "mothership", which would be propelled by an ion engine, releasing a lander to the surface of Phobos. The lander would perform some tests and experiments, gather samples in a capsule, then return to the mothership and head back to Earth where the samples would be jettisoned for recovery on the surface. ### Proposed missions In 2007, the Canadian Space Agency funded a study by Optech and the Mars Institute for an uncrewed mission to Phobos known as *Phobos Reconnaissance and International Mars Exploration* (PRIME). A proposed landing site for the PRIME spacecraft is at the "Phobos monolith", a prominent object near Stickney crater. The PRIME mission would be composed of an orbiter and lander, and each would carry 4 instruments designed to study various aspects of Phobos's geology. In 2008, NASA Glenn Research Center began studying a Phobos and Deimos sample return mission that would use solar electric propulsion. The study gave rise to the "Hall" mission concept, a New Frontiers-class mission under further study as of 2010. Another concept of a sample return mission from Phobos and Deimos is OSIRIS-REx II, which would use heritage technology from the first OSIRIS-REx mission. As of January 2013, a new *Phobos Surveyor* mission is currently under development by a collaboration of Stanford University, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The mission is currently in the testing phases, and the team at Stanford plans to launch the mission between 2023 and 2033. In March 2014, a Discovery class mission was proposed to place an orbiter in Mars orbit by 2021 to study Phobos and Deimos through a series of close flybys. The mission is called Phobos And Deimos & Mars Environment (PADME). Two other Phobos missions that were proposed for the Discovery 13 selection included a mission called *Merlin*, which would flyby Deimos but actually orbit and land on Phobos, and another one is *Pandora* which would orbit both Deimos and Phobos. The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) unveiled on 9 June 2015 the Martian Moons Exploration (MMX), a sample return mission targeting Phobos. MMX will land and collect samples from Phobos multiple times, along with conducting Deimos flyby observations and monitoring Mars's climate. By using a corer sampling mechanism, the spacecraft aims to retrieve a minimum 10 g amount of samples. NASA, ESA, DLR, and CNES are also participating in the project, and will provide scientific instruments. The U.S. will contribute the Neutron and Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (NGRS), and France the Near IR Spectrometer (NIRS4/MacrOmega). Although the mission has been selected for implementation and is now beyond proposal stage, formal project approval by JAXA has been postponed following the Hitomi mishap. Development and testing of key components, including the sampler, is currently ongoing. As of 2017[update], MMX is scheduled to be launched in 2024, and will return to Earth five years later. Russia plans to repeat Fobos-Grunt mission in the late 2020s, and the European Space Agency is assessing a sample-return mission for 2024 called Phootprint. ### Human missions Phobos has been proposed as an early target for a human mission to Mars. The teleoperation of robotic scouts on Mars by humans on Phobos could be conducted without significant time delay, and planetary protection concerns in early Mars exploration might be addressed by such an approach. Phobos has been proposed as an early target for a crewed mission to Mars because a landing on Phobos would be considerably less difficult and expensive than a landing on the surface of Mars itself. A lander bound for Mars would need to be capable of atmospheric entry and subsequent return to orbit without any support facilities, or would require the creation of support facilities in-situ. A lander instead bound for Phobos could be based on equipment designed for lunar and asteroid landings. Furthermore, due to Phobos's very weak gravity, the delta-v required to land on Phobos and return is only 80% of that required for a trip to and from the surface of the Moon. It has been proposed that the sands of Phobos could serve as a valuable material for aerobraking during a Mars landing. A relatively small amount of chemical fuel brought from Earth could be used to lift a large amount of sand from the surface of Phobos to a transfer orbit. This sand could be released in front of a spacecraft during the descent maneuver causing a densification of the atmosphere just in front of the spacecraft. While human exploration of Phobos could serve as a catalyst for the human exploration of Mars, it could be scientifically valuable in its own right. Phobos as a space elevator for Mars ----------------------------------- Phobos is synchronously orbiting Mars, where the same face stays facing the planet at 6,000 km (3,700 mi) above the Martian surface. A space elevator could extend down from Phobos to Mars 6,000 km, about 28 kilometers from the surface, and just out of the atmosphere of Mars. A similar space elevator cable could extend out 6,000 km the opposite direction that would counterbalance Phobos. In total the space elevator would extend out over 12,000 km which would be below areostationary orbit of Mars (17,032 km). A rocket launch would still be needed to get the rocket and cargo to the beginning of the space elevator 28 km above the surface. The surface of Mars is rotating at 0.25 km/s at the equator and the bottom of the space elevator would be rotating around Mars at 0.77 km/s, so only 0.52 km/s of delta-v would be needed to get to the space elevator. Phobos orbits at 2.15 km/s and the outermost part of the space elevator would rotate around Mars at 3.52 km/s. See also -------- * List of natural satellites * List of missions to the moons of Mars * Phobos and Deimos in fiction * Phobos monolith * Transit of Phobos from Mars

Phobos (moon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon)

**Nineveh** (/ˈnɪnɪvə/; Akkadian: 𒌷𒉌𒉡𒀀 *URUNI.NU.A, Ninua*; Biblical Hebrew: נִינְוֶה‎ **Nīnəwe**; Arabic: نَيْنَوَىٰ **Naynawā**; Syriac: ܢܝܼܢܘܹܐ, romanized: *Nīnwē*), also known in early modern times as **Kouyunjik**, was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul in northern Iraq. It is located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River and was the capital and largest city of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, as well as the largest city in the world for several decades. Today, it is a common name for the half of Mosul that lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and the country's Nineveh Governorate takes its name from it. It was the largest city in the world for approximately fifty years until the year 612 BC when, after a bitter period of civil war in Assyria, it was sacked by a coalition of its former subject peoples including the Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. The city was never again a political or administrative centre, but by Late Antiquity it was the seat of a Christian bishop. It declined relative to Mosul during the Middle Ages and was mostly abandoned by the 13th century AD. Its ruins lie across the river from the historical city center of Mosul, in Iraq's Nineveh Governorate. The two main tells, or mound-ruins, within the walls are Tell Kuyunjiq and Tell Nabī Yūnus, site of a shrine to Jonah, the prophet who preached to Nineveh. Large amounts of Assyrian sculpture and other artifacts have been excavated there, and are now located in museums around the world. Name ---- The English placename Nineveh comes from Latin **Nīnevē** and Septuagint Greek *Nineuḗ* (Νινευή) under influence of the Biblical Hebrew *Nīnəweh* (נִינְוֶה), from the Akkadian **Ninua** (var. *Ninâ*) or Old Babylonian **Ninuwā**. The original meaning of the name is unclear but may have referred to a patron goddess. The cuneiform for *Ninâ* (𒀏) is a fish within a house (cf. Aramaic *nuna*, "fish"). This may have simply intended "Place of Fish" or may have indicated a goddess associated with fish or the Tigris, possibly originally of Hurrian origin. The city was later said to be devoted to "the goddess Ishtar of Nineveh" and *Nina* was one of the Sumerian and Assyrian names of that goddess. Additionally, the word נון/נונא in Old Babylonian refers to the Anthiinae genus of fish, further indicating the possibility of an association between the name Nineveh and fish. The city was also known as *Ninuwa* in Mari; *Ninawa* in Aramaic; Ninwe (ܢܸܢܘܵܐ) in Syriac; and *Nainavā* (نینوا) in Persian. *Nabī Yūnus* is the Arabic for "Prophet Jonah". *Kuyunjiq* was, according to Layard, a Turkish name (Layard used the form "kouyunjik", diminutive of "koyun", "sheep" in Turkish), and it was known as *Armousheeah* by the Arabs, and is thought to have some connection with the Kara Koyunlu dynasty. These toponyms refer to the areas to the North and South of the Khosr stream, respectively: Kuyunjiq is the name for the whole northern sector enclosed by the city walls and is dominated by the large (35 ha) mound of Tell Kuyunjiq, while Nabī (or more commonly Nebi) Yunus is the southern sector around of the mosque of Prophet Yunus/Jonah, which is located on Tell Nebi Yunus. Geography --------- The remains of ancient Nineveh, the areas of Kuyunjiq and Nabī Yūnus with their mounds, are located on a level part of the plain at the junction of the Tigris and the Khosr Rivers within an area of 750 hectares (1,900 acres) circumscribed by a 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) fortification wall. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid by c. one third by the Nebi Yunus suburbs of the city of eastern Mosul. The site of ancient Nineveh is bisected by the Khosr river. North of the Khosr, the site is called Kuyunjiq, including the acropolis of Tell Kuyunjiq; the illegal village of Rahmaniye lay in eastern Kuyunjiq. South of the Khosr, the urbanized area is called Nebi Yunus (also Ghazliya, Jezayr, Jammasa), including Tell Nebi Yunus where the mosque of the Prophet Jonah and a palace of Esarhaddon/Ashurbanipal below it are located. South of the street Al-'Asady (made by Daesh destroying swaths of the city walls) the area is called Jounub Ninawah or Shara Pepsi. Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris on the great roadway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West, it received wealth from many sources, so that it became one of the greatest of all the region's ancient cities, and the last capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. History ------- ### Early history Nineveh was one of the oldest and greatest cities in antiquity. Texts from the Hellenistic period later offered an eponymous Ninus as the founder of Νίνου πόλις (Ninopolis), although there is no historical basis for this. Book of Genesis 10:11 says "Nimrod" or Ashur, depending on the version, built Nineveh. The context of Nineveh was as one of many centers within the regional development of Upper Mesopotamia. This area is defined as the plains which can support rain-fed agriculture. It exists as a narrow band from the Syrian coast to the Zagros mountains. It is bordered by deserts to the south and mountains to the north. The cultural practices, technology, and economy in this region were shared and they followed a similar trajectory out of the neolithic. #### Neolithic Caves in the Zagros Mountains adjacent to the north side of the Nineveh Plains were used as PPNA settlements, most famously Shanidar Cave. Nineveh itself was founded as early as 6000 BC during the late Neolithic period. Deep sounding at Nineveh uncovered soil layers that have been dated to early in the era of the Hassuna archaeological culture. The development and culture of Nineveh paralleled Tepe Gawra and Tell Arpachiyah a few kilometers to the northeast. Nineveh was a typical farming village in the Halaf Period. #### Chalcolithic In 5000 BC, Nineveh transitioned from a Halaf village to an Ubaid village. During the Late Chalcolithic period Nineveh was part one of the few Ubaid villages in Upper Mesopotamia which became a proto-city Ugarit, Brak, Hamoukar, Arbela, Alep, and regionally at Susa, Eridu, Nippur. During the period between 4500 and 4000 BC it grew to 40ha. The greater Nineveh area is notable in the diffusion of metal technology across the near east as the first location outside of Anatolia to smelt copper. Tell Arpachiyah has the oldest copper smelting remains, and Tepe Gawa has the oldest metal work. The copper came from the mines at Ergani. ### Early Bronze Age Nineveh became a trade colony of Uruk during the Uruk Expansion because of its location as the highest navigable point on the Tigris. It was contemporary and had a similar function to Habuba Kabira on the Euphrates. By 3000 BC, Kish civilization had expanded into Nineveh. At this time, the main temple of Nineveh becomes known as Ishtar temple, re-dedicated to the Semite goddess Ishtar, in the form of Ishtar of Nineveh. Ishtar of Nineveh was conflated with Šauška from the Hurro-Urartian pantheon. This temple was called 'House of Exorcists' (Cuneiform: 𒂷𒈦𒈦 GA2.MAŠ.MAŠ; Sumerian: e2 mašmaš). The context of the etymology surrounding the name is the Exorcist called a Mashmash in Sumerian, was a freelance magician who operated independent of the official priesthood, and was in part a medical professional via the act of expelling demons. #### Ninevite 5 period The regional influence of Nineveh became particularly pronounced during the archaeological period known as *Ninevite 5*, or *Ninevite V* (2900–2600 BC). This period is defined primarily by the characteristic pottery that is found widely throughout Upper Mesopotamia. Also, for the Upper Mesopotamian region, the *Early Jezirah* chronology has been developed by archaeologists. According to this regional chronology, 'Ninevite 5' is equivalent to the Early Jezirah I–II period. Ninevite 5 was preceded by the Late Uruk period. Ninevite 5 pottery is roughly contemporary to the Early Transcaucasian culture ware, and the Jemdet Nasr period ware. Iraqi *Scarlet Ware* culture also belongs to this period; this colourful painted pottery is somewhat similar to Jemdet Nasr ware. Scarlet Ware was first documented in the Diyala River basin in Iraq. Later, it was also found in the nearby Hamrin Basin, and in Luristan. It is also contemporary with the Proto-Elamite period in Susa. * Styles related to Nineveh 5 * Painted jar – Ninevite 5Painted jar – Ninevite 5 * Painted bowl – Uruk-Nineveh 5 transitionPainted bowl – Uruk-Nineveh 5 transition * Jemdet Nasr wareJemdet Nasr ware * Proto-Elamite ware 3100 BCProto-Elamite ware 3100 BC * Pottery jar, Tepeyatagi, Khudat district, Kura-Araxtes culturePottery jar, Tepeyatagi, Khudat district, Kura-Araxtes culture #### Akkadian period At this time Nineveh was still an autonomous city-state. It was incorporated into the Akkadian Empire. The early city (and subsequent buildings) was constructed on a fault line and, consequently, suffered damage from a number of earthquakes. One such event destroyed the first temple of Ishtar, which was rebuilt in 2260 BC by the Akkadian king Manishtushu. #### Ur III period In the final phase of the Early Bronze, Mesopotamia was dominated by the Ur III empire. ### Middle Bronze After the fall of Ur in 2000 BC, with the transition into the Middle Bronze, Nineveh was absorbed into the rising power of Assyria. #### Old Assyrian period The historic Nineveh is mentioned in the Old Assyrian Empire during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I (1809-1775) in about 1800 BC as a centre of worship of Ishtar, whose cult was responsible for the city's early importance. ### Late Bronze #### Mitanni period The goddess's statue was sent to Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in the 14th century BC, by orders of the king of Mitanni. The Assyrian city of Nineveh became one of Mitanni's vassals for half a century until the early 14th century BC. #### Middle Assyrian period The Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I reclaimed it in 1365 BC while overthrowing the Mitanni Empire and creating the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC). There is a large body of evidence to show that Assyrian monarchs built extensively in Nineveh during the late 3rd and 2nd millenniums BC; it appears to have been originally an "Assyrian provincial town". Later monarchs whose inscriptions have appeared on the high city include the Middle Assyrian Empire kings Shalmaneser I (1274–1245 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I (1114–1076 BC), both of whom were active builders in Assur (Ashur). ### Iron Age #### Neo-Assyrians During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, particularly from the time of Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883–859 BC) onward, there was considerable architectural expansion. Successive monarchs such as Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal maintained and founded new palaces, as well as temples to Sîn, Ashur, Nergal, Shamash, Ninurta, Ishtar, Tammuz, Nisroch and Nabu. #### Sennacherib's development of Nineveh It was Sennacherib who made Nineveh a truly magnificent city (c. 700 BC). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the South West Palace, or "palace without a rival", the plan of which has been mostly recovered and has overall dimensions of about 503 by 242 metres (1,650 ft × 794 ft). It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks; it was 22 metres (72 ft) tall. In total, the foundation is made of roughly 2,680,000 cubic metres (3,505,308 cu yd) of brick (approximately 160 million bricks). The walls on top, made out of mud brick, were an additional 20 metres (66 ft) tall. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone *lamassu* door figures weighing up to 30,000 kilograms (30 t); these were winged Mesopotamian lions or bulls, with human heads. These were transported 50 kilometres (31 mi) from quarries at Balatai, and they had to be lifted up 20 metres (66 ft) once they arrived at the site, presumably by a ramp. There are also 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) of stone Assyrian palace reliefs, that include pictorial records documenting every construction step including carving the statues and transporting them on a barge. One picture shows 44 men towing a colossal statue. The carving shows three men directing the operation while standing on the Colossus. Once the statues arrived at their destination, the final carving was done. Most of the statues weigh between 9,000 and 27,000 kilograms (19,842 and 59,525 lb). The stone carvings in the walls include many battle scenes, impalings and scenes showing Sennacherib's men parading the spoils of war before him. The inscriptions boasted of his conquests: he wrote of Babylon: "Its inhabitants, young and old, I did not spare, and with their corpses I filled the streets of the city." A full and characteristic set shows the campaign leading up to the siege of Lachish in 701; it is the "finest" from the reign of Sennacherib, and now in the British Museum. He later wrote about a battle in Lachish: "And Hezekiah of Judah who had not submitted to my yoke...him I shut up in Jerusalem his royal city like a caged bird. Earthworks I threw up against him, and anyone coming out of his city gate I made pay for his crime. His cities which I had plundered I had cut off from his land." At this time, the total area of Nineveh comprised about 7 square kilometres (1,730 acres), and fifteen great gates penetrated its walls. An elaborate system of eighteen canals brought water from the hills to Nineveh, and several sections of a magnificently constructed aqueduct erected by Sennacherib were discovered at Jerwan, about 65 kilometres (40 mi) distant. The enclosed area had more than 100,000 inhabitants (maybe closer to 150,000), about twice as many as Babylon at the time, placing it among the largest settlements worldwide. Some scholars such as Stephanie Dalley at Oxford believe that the garden which Sennacherib built next to his palace, with its associated irrigation works, were the original Hanging Gardens of Babylon; Dalley's argument is based on a disputation of the traditional placement of the Hanging Gardens attributed to Berossus together with a combination of literary and archaeological evidence. #### After Ashurbanipal The greatness of Nineveh was short-lived. In around 627 BC, after the death of its last great king Ashurbanipal, the Neo-Assyrian Empire began to unravel through a series of bitter civil wars between rival claimants for the throne, and in 616 BC Assyria was attacked by its own former vassals, the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. In about 616 BC Kalhu was sacked, the allied forces eventually reached Nineveh, besieging and sacking the city in 612 BC, following bitter house-to-house fighting, after which it was razed. Most of the people in the city who could not escape to the last Assyrian strongholds in the north and west were either massacred or deported out of the city and into the countryside where they founded new settlements. Many unburied skeletons were found by the archaeologists at the site. The Assyrian Empire then came to an end by 605 BC, the Medes and Babylonians dividing its colonies between themselves. It is not clear whether Nineveh came under the rule of the Medes or the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 612. The Babylonian *Chronicle Concerning the Fall of Nineveh* records that Nineveh was "turned into mounds and heaps", but this is literary hyperbole. The complete destruction of Nineveh has traditionally been seen as confirmed by the Hebrew *Book of Ezekiel* and the Greek *Retreat of the Ten Thousand* of Xenophon (d. 354 BC). There are no later cuneiform tablets in Akkadian from Nineveh. Although devastated in 612, the city was not completely abandoned. Yet, to the Greek historians Ctesias and Herodotus (c. 400 BC), Nineveh was a thing of the past; and when Xenophon passed the place in the 4th century BC he described it as abandoned. ### Later history The earliest piece of written evidence for the persistence of Nineveh as a settlement is possibly the Cyrus Cylinder of 539/538 BC, but the reading of this is disputed. If correctly read as Nineveh, it indicates that Cyrus the Great restored the temple of Ishtar at Nineveh and probably encouraged resettlement. A number of cuneiform Elamite tablets have been found at Nineveh. They probably date from the time of the revival of Elam in the century following the collapse of Assyria. The Hebrew *Book of Jonah*, which Stephanie Dalley asserts was written in the 4th century BC, is an account of the city's repentance and God's mercy which prevented destruction. Archaeologically, there is evidence of repairs at the temple of Nabu after 612 and for the continued use of Sennacherib's palace. There is evidence of syncretic Hellenistic cults. A statue of Hermes has been found and a Greek inscription attached to a shrine of the Sebitti. A statue of Herakles Epitrapezios dated to the 2nd century AD has also been found. The library of Ashurbanipal may still have been in use until around the time of Alexander the Great.[*contradictory*] The city was actively resettled under the Seleucid Empire. There is evidence of more changes in Sennacherib's palace under the Parthian Empire. The Parthians also established a municipal mint at Nineveh coining in bronze. According to Tacitus, in AD 50 Meherdates, a claimant to the Parthian throne with Roman support, took Nineveh. By Late Antiquity, Nineveh was restricted to the east bank of the Tigris and the west bank was uninhabited. Under the Sasanian Empire, Nineveh was not an administrative centre. By the 2nd century AD there were Christians present and by 554 it was a bishopric of the Church of the East. King Khosrow II (591–628) built a fortress on the west bank, and two Christian monasteries were constructed around 570 and 595. This growing settlement was not called Mosul until after the Arab conquests. It may have been called Hesnā ʿEbrāyē (Jews' Fort). In 627, the city was the site of the Battle of Nineveh between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanians. In 641, it was conquered by the Arabs, who built a mosque on the west bank and turned it into an administrative centre. Under the Umayyad dynasty, it eclipsed Nineveh, which was reduced to a Christian suburb with limited new construction. By the 13th century, Nineveh was mostly ruins. A church was converted into a Muslim shrine to the prophet Jonah, which continued to attract pilgrims until its destruction by ISIL in 2014. Biblical Nineveh ---------------- In the Hebrew Bible, Nineveh is first mentioned in Genesis 10:11: "Ashur left that land, and built Nineveh". Some modern English translations interpret "Ashur" in the Hebrew of this verse as the country "Assyria" rather than a person, thus making Nimrod, rather than Ashur, the founder of Nineveh. Sir Walter Raleigh's notion that Nimrod built Nineveh, and the cities in Genesis 10:11–12, has also been refuted by scholars. The discovery of the fifteen Jubilees texts found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls has since shown that, according to the Jewish sects of Qumran, Genesis 10:11 affirms the apportionment of Nineveh to Ashur. The attribution of Nineveh to Ashur is also supported by the Greek Septuagint, King James Bible, Geneva Bible, and by Roman historian Flavius Josephus in his *Antiquities of the Jews* (Antiquities, i, vi, 4). Nineveh was the flourishing capital of the Assyrian Empire and was the home of King Sennacherib, King of Assyria, during the Biblical reign of King Hezekiah (יְחִזְקִיָּהוּ) and the lifetime of Judean prophet Isaiah (ישעיה). As recorded in Hebrew scripture, Nineveh was also the place where Sennacherib died at the hands of his two sons, who then fled to the vassal land of *`rrt* (Urartu). The book of the prophet Nahum is almost exclusively taken up with prophetic denunciations against Nineveh. Its ruin and utter desolation are foretold. Its end was strange, sudden, and tragic. According to the Bible, it was God's doing, his judgment on Assyria's pride. In fulfillment of prophecy, God made "an utter end of the place". It became a "desolation". The prophet Zephaniah also predicts its destruction along with the fall of the empire of which it was the capital. Nineveh is also the setting of the Book of Tobit. The Book of Jonah, set in the days of the Assyrian Empire, describes it as an "exceedingly great city of three days' journey in breadth", whose population at that time is given as "more than 120,000". Genesis 10:11–12 lists four cities "Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen", ambiguously stating that either Resen or Calah is "the great city". The ruins of Kuyunjiq, Nimrud, Karamlesh and Khorsabad form the four corners of an irregular quadrilateral. The ruins of the "great city" Nineveh, with the whole area included within the parallelogram they form by lines drawn from the one to the other, are generally regarded as consisting of these four sites. The description of Nineveh in Jonah likely was a reference to greater Nineveh, including the surrounding cities of Rehoboth, Calah and Resen The Book of Jonah depicts Nineveh as a wicked city worthy of destruction. God sent Jonah to preach to the Ninevites of their coming destruction, and they fasted and repented because of this. As a result, God spared the city; when Jonah protests against this, God states he is showing mercy for the population who are ignorant of the difference between right and wrong ("who cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand") and mercy for the animals in the city. Nineveh's repentance and salvation from evil can be found in the Hebrew Tanakh, also known as the Old Testament), and referred to in the Christian New Testament and Muslim Quran. To this day, Syriac and Oriental Orthodox churches commemorate the three days Jonah spent inside the fish during the Fast of Nineveh. Some Christians observe this holiday fast by refraining from food and drink, with churches encouraging followers to refrain from meat, fish and dairy products. Archaeology ----------- The location of Nineveh was known, to some, continuously through the Middle Ages. Benjamin of Tudela visited it in 1170; Petachiah of Regensburg soon after. Carsten Niebuhr recorded its location during the 1761–1767 Danish expedition. Niebuhr wrote afterwards that "I did not learn that I was at so remarkable a spot, till near the river. Then they showed me a village on a great hill, which they call Nunia, and a mosque, in which the prophet Jonah was buried. Another hill in this district is called Kalla Nunia, or the Castle of Nineveh. On that lies a village Koindsjug." ### Excavation history In 1842, the French Consul General at Mosul, Paul-Émile Botta, began to search the vast mounds that lay along the opposite bank of the river. While at Tell Kuyunjiq he had little success, the locals whom he employed in these excavations, to their great surprise, came upon the ruins of a building at the 20 km far-away mound of Khorsabad, which, on further exploration, turned out to be the royal palace of Sargon II, in which large numbers of reliefs were found and recorded, though they had been damaged by fire and were mostly too fragile to remove. In 1847 the young British diplomat Austen Henry Layard explored the ruins. Layard did not use modern archaeological methods; his stated goal was "to obtain the largest possible number of well preserved objects of art at the least possible outlay of time and money". In the Kuyunjiq mound, Layard rediscovered in 1849 the lost palace of Sennacherib with its 71 rooms and colossal bas-reliefs. He also unearthed the palace and famous library of Ashurbanipal with 22,000 cuneiform clay tablets. Most of Layard's material was sent to the British Museum, but others were dispersed elsewhere as two large pieces which were given to Lady Charlotte Guest and eventually found their way to the Metropolitan Museum. The study of the archaeology of Nineveh reveals the wealth and glory of ancient Assyria under kings such as Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (669–626 BC). The work of exploration was carried on by Hormuzd Rassam (an Assyrian), George Smith and others, and a vast treasury of specimens of Assyria was incrementally exhumed for European museums. Palace after palace was discovered, with their decorations and their sculptured slabs, revealing the life and manners of this ancient people, their arts of war and peace, the forms of their religion, the style of their architecture, and the magnificence of their monarchs. The mound of Kuyunjiq was excavated again by the archaeologists of the British Museum, led by Leonard William King, at the beginning of the 20th century. Their efforts concentrated on the site of the Temple of Nabu, the god of writing, where another cuneiform library was supposed to exist. However, no such library was ever found: most likely, it had been destroyed by the activities of later residents. The excavations started again in 1927, under the direction of Campbell Thompson, who had taken part in King's expeditions. Some works were carried out outside Kuyunjiq, for instance on the mound of Tell Nebi Yunus, which was the ancient arsenal of Nineveh, or along the outside walls. Here, near the northwestern corner of the walls, beyond the pavement of a later building, the archaeologists found almost 300 fragments of prisms recording the royal annals of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal, beside a prism of Esarhaddon which was almost perfect. After the Second World War, several excavations were carried out by Iraqi archaeologists. From 1951 to 1958, Mohammed Ali Mustafa worked the site. The work was continued from 1967 through 1971 by Tariq Madhloom. Some additional excavation occurred by Manhal Jabur from the early 1970s to 1987. For the most part, these digs focused on Tell Nebi Yunus. The British archaeologist and Assyriologist Professor David Stronach of the University of California, Berkeley conducted a series of surveys and digs at the site from 1987 to 1990, focusing his attentions on the several gates and the existent mudbrick walls, as well as the system that supplied water to the city in times of siege. The excavation reports are in progress. Most recently, an Iraqi–Italian Archaeological Expedition by the Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna and the Iraqi SBAH, led by Nicolò Marchetti, began (with four campaigns having taken place thus far between 2019 and 2022) a project aiming at the excavation, conservation and public presentation of the lower town of Nineveh. Work was carried out in eighteen excavation areas, from the Adad Gate – now completely repaired (after removing hundreds of tons of debris from ISIL's 2016 destructions), explored and protected with a new roof – deep into the Nebi Yunus town. In a few areas a thick later stratigraphy was encountered, but the late 7th century BC stratum was reached everywhere (actually in two areas in the pre-Sennacherib lower town the excavations already exposed older strata, up to the 11th century BC until now, aiming in the future at exploring the first settlement therein). The site is greatly endangered with dumping of debris, illegal settlements and quarrying as the main threats. ### Archaeological remains Today, Nineveh's location is marked by two large mounds, Tell Kuyunjiq and Tell *Nabī Yūnus* "Prophet Jonah", and the remains of the city walls (about 12 kilometres (7 mi) in circumference). The Neo-Assyrian levels of Kuyunjiq have been extensively explored. The other mound, *Nabī Yūnus*, has not been as extensively explored because there was an Arab Muslim shrine dedicated to that prophet on the site. On July 24, 2014, the Islamic State destroyed the shrine as part of a campaign to destroy religious sanctuaries it deemed "un-Islamic", but also to loot that site through tunneling. The ruin mound of Kuyunjiq rises about 20 metres (66 ft) above the surrounding plain of the ancient city. It is quite broad, measuring about 800 by 500 metres (2,625 ft × 1,640 ft). Its upper layers have been extensively excavated, and several Neo-Assyrian palaces and temples have been found there. A deep sounding by Max Mallowan revealed evidence of habitation as early as the 6th millennium BC. Today, there is little evidence of these old excavations other than weathered pits and earth piles. In 1990, the only Assyrian remains visible were those of the entry court and the first few chambers of the Palace of Sennacherib. Since that time, the palace chambers have received significant damage by looters. Portions of relief sculptures that were in the palace chambers in 1990 were seen on the antiquities market by 1996. Photographs of the chambers made in 2003 show that many of the fine relief sculptures there have been reduced to piles of rubble. Tell Nebi Yunus is located about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) south of Kuyunjiq and is the secondary ruin mound at Nineveh. On the basis of texts of Sennacherib, the site has traditionally been identified as the "armory" of Nineveh, and a gate and pavements excavated by Iraqis in 1954 have been considered to be part of the "armory" complex. Excavations in 1990 revealed a monumental entryway consisting of a number of large inscribed orthostats and "bull-man" sculptures, some apparently unfinished. Following the liberation of Mosul, the tunnels under Tell Nebi Yunus were explored in 2018, in which a 3000-year-old palace was discovered, including a pair of reliefs, each showing a row of women, along with reliefs of *lamassu*. #### City wall and gates The ruins of Nineveh are surrounded by the remains of a massive stone and mudbrick wall dating from about 700 BC. About 12 km in length, the wall system consisted of an ashlar stone retaining wall about 6 metres (20 ft) high surmounted by a mudbrick wall about 10 metres (33 ft) high and 15 metres (49 ft) thick. The stone retaining wall had projecting stone towers spaced about every 18 metres (59 ft). The stone wall and towers were topped by three-step merlons. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists: * Mashki Gate (ماشکی دروازه): Translated "Gate of the Water Carriers" (*Mashki* from Persian root word *Mashk*, meaning waterskin), also *Masqi Gate* (Arabic: بوابة مسقي), it was perhaps used to take livestock to water from the Tigris which currently flows about 1.5 kilometres (0.9 mi) to the west. It has been reconstructed in fortified mudbrick to the height of the top of the vaulted passageway. The Assyrian original may have been plastered and ornamented. It was bulldozed along with the Nergal and Adad Gates during ISIL occupation. During the restoration project, seven damaged alabaster carvings from the time of Sennacherib were found at the gate in 2022. * Nergal Gate: Named for the god Nergal, it may have been used for some ceremonial purpose, as it is the only known gate flanked by stone sculptures of winged bull-men (*lamassu*). The reconstruction is conjectural, as the gate was excavated by Layard in the mid-19th century and reconstructed in the mid-20th century. The lamassu on this gate were defaced with a jackhammer by ISIL forces and the gate was utterly destroyed. * Adad Gate: Named for the god Adad. A roofing above it was begun in the late 1960s by Iraqis but was not completed. The result was a mixture of concrete and eroding mudbrick, which nonetheless does give some idea of the original structure. The excavator left some features unexcavated, allowing a view of the original Assyrian construction. The original brickwork of the outer vaulted passageway was well exposed, as was the entrance of the vaulted stairway to the upper levels. The actions of Nineveh's last defenders could be seen in the hastily built mudbrick construction which narrowed the passageway from 4 to 2 metres (13 to 7 ft). Around April 13, 2016, ISIL demolished both the gate and the adjacent wall by flattening them with a bulldozer. It has been restored by the Iraqi-Italian expedition. * Shamash Gate: Named for the sun god Shamash, it opens to the road to Erbil. It was excavated by Layard in the 19th century. The stone retaining wall and part of the mudbrick structure were reconstructed in the 1960s. The mudbrick reconstruction has deteriorated significantly. The stone wall projects outward about 20 metres (66 ft) from the line of main wall for a width of about 70 metres (230 ft). It is the only gate with such a significant projection. The mound of its remains towers above the surrounding terrain. Its size and design suggest it was the most important gate in Neo-Assyrian times. * Halzi Gate: Near the south end of the eastern city wall. Exploratory excavations were undertaken here by the University of California, Berkeley expedition of 1989–1990 and again in 2022 by the Iraqi-Italian Expedition. There is an outward projection of the city wall, though not as pronounced as at the Shamash Gate. The entry passage had been narrowed with mudbrick to about 2 metres (7 ft) as at the Adad Gate. Human remains from the final battle of Nineveh were found in the passageway. Located in the eastern wall, it is the southernmost and largest of all the remaining gates of ancient Nineveh. * Besides the possible Sin Gate at the north-west end of the site, a new gate has been discovered in 2021 to the north of the Shamash Gate and south of the Khosr river (in the area labeled as N by the Iraqi-Italian expedition). Threats to the site ------------------- By 2003, the site of Nineveh was exposed to decay of its reliefs by a lack of proper protective roofing, vandalism and looting holes dug into chamber floors. Future preservation is further compromised by the site's proximity to expanding suburbs. The ailing Mosul Dam is a persistent threat to Nineveh as well as the city of Mosul. This is in no small part due to years of disrepair (in 2006, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers cited it as the most dangerous dam in the world), the cancellation of a second dam project in the 1980s to act as flood relief in case of failure, and occupation by ISIL in 2014 resulting in fleeing workers and stolen equipment. If the dam fails, the entire site could be under as much as 45 feet (14 m) of water. In an October 2010 report titled *Saving Our Vanishing Heritage*, Global Heritage Fund named Nineveh one of 12 sites most "on the verge" of irreparable destruction and loss, citing insufficient management, development pressures and looting as primary causes. By far, the greatest threat to Nineveh has been purposeful human actions by ISIL, which first occupied the area in 2014. In early 2015, they announced their intention to destroy the walls of Nineveh if the Iraqis tried to liberate the city. They also threatened to destroy artifacts. On February 26 they destroyed several items and statues in the Mosul Museum and are believed to have plundered others to sell overseas. The items were mostly from the Assyrian exhibit, which ISIL declared blasphemous and idolatrous. There were 300 items remaining in the museum out of a total of 1,900, with the other 1,600 being taken to the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad for security reasons prior to the 2014 Fall of Mosul.[*according to whom?*] Some of the artifacts sold and/or destroyed were from Nineveh. Just a few days after the destruction of the museum pieces, ISIL terrorists demolished parts of three other major UNESCO world heritage sites, at Khorsabad, Nimrud, and Hatra. In 2016 Daesh effectively destroyed the Adad Gate with the adjoining northern city walls, as well as the Mashki Gate with the eastern fortifications (both gates have since been salvaged). Daesh also called for intensive new housing in the Kuyunjiq part and opened a large road across the southern part of the site (currently known as Al Asady Road). Rogation of the Ninevites (Nineveh's Wish) ------------------------------------------ Assyrians of the Ancient Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of the East and Saint Thomas Christians of the Syro-Malabar Church observe a fast called *Ba'uta d-Ninwe* (ܒܥܘܬܐ ܕܢܝܢܘܐ) which means *Nineveh's Prayer*. Copts and Ethiopian Orthodox also maintain this fast. Popular culture --------------- The English Romantic poet Edwin Atherstone wrote an epic *The Fall of Nineveh*. The work tells of an uprising against its king Sardanapalus of all the nations that were dominated by the Assyrian Empire. He is a great criminal. He has had one hundred prisoners of war executed. After a long struggle the town is conquered by Median and Babylonian troops led by prince Arbaces and priest Belesis. The king sets his own palace on fire and dies inside together with all his concubines. Atherstone's friend, the artist John Martin, created a painting of the same name inspired by the poem. The English poet John Masefield's well-known, fanciful 1903 poem *Cargoes* mentions Nineveh in its first line. Nineveh is also mentioned in Rudyard Kipling's 1897 poem *Recessional* and in Arthur O'Shaughnessy's 1873 poem *Ode*. The 1962 Italian peplum film *War Gods of Babylon*, is based on the sacking and fall of Nineveh by the combined rebel armies led by the Babylonians. In *Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie*, Jonah, much like his biblical counterpart, must travel to Nineveh due to God’s demands. In the 1973 film *The Exorcist*, Father Lankester Merrin was on an archeological dig near Nineveh prior to returning to the United States and leading the exorcism of Reagan MacNiel. See also -------- * Cities of the ancient Near East * Destruction of cultural heritage by the Islamic State * Historical urban community sizes * Isaac of Nineveh * List of megalithic sites * Nanshe * Short chronology timeline * Tel Keppe Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Nineveh". *Easton's Bible Dictionary* (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons. * Russell, John Malcolm (1992), *Sennacherib's "Palace without Rival" at Nineveh*, University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-73175-8 * Barnett, Richard David (1976), *Sculptures from the north palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (668-627 B.C.)*, British Museum Publications Ltd, ISBN 0-7141-1046-9 * Campbell Thompson, R.; Hutchinson, R. W. (1929), *A century of exploration at Nineveh*, Luzac * Bezold, Carl, *Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum* + *Volume I*, 1889 + *Volume II*, Printed by order of the Trustees, 1891 + *Volume III*, 1893 + *Volume IV*, 1896 + *Volume V*, Printed by order of the Trustees, 1899 * *Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum*, British Museum + King, W. L. (1914), *Supplement I* + Lambert, W. G. (1968), *Supplement II* + Lambert, W. G. (1992), *Supplement III*, ISBN 0-7141-1131-7 * Liverani, Mario (2016) [2013], *Immaginare Babele* [*Imagining Babylon: The Modern Story of an Ancient City*], translated by Campbell, Alisa, De Gruyter, ISBN 978-1-61451-602-6 * Scott, M. Louise; MacGinnis, John (1990), *Notes on Nineveh, Iraq*, vol. 52, pp. 63–73 * Trümpler, C., ed. (2001), *Agatha Christie and Archaeology*, The British Museum Press, ISBN 978-0714111483 - Nineveh 5, Vessel Pottery 2900 BC * Leick, Gwendolyn (2010), *The A to Z of Mesopotamia*, Scarecrow Press - Early worship of Ishtar, Early / Prehistoric Nineveh * Durant, Will (1954), *Our oriental heritage*, Simon & Schuster – Early / Prehistoric Nineveh

Nineveh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineveh

Clockwise from top left: a homeless man in Toronto, Canada; a disabled man begging in the streets of Beijing, China; waste pickers in Lucknow, India; a mother with her malnourished child in a clinic near Dadaab, Kenya **Poverty** is a state or condition in which one lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: *absolute poverty* compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter; *relative poverty* measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of *relative poverty* varies from one country to another, or from one society to another. Statistically, as of 2019[update], most of the world's population live in poverty: in PPP dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day now changed to $2.15/day.(extreme poverty). According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries. Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty. Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty". Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic conflict. For this reason, the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals. Definitions and etymology ------------------------- The word *poverty* comes from the old (Norman) French word *poverté* (Modern French: *pauvreté),* from Latin *paupertās* from *pauper* (poor). There are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and usually references a state or condition in which a person or community lacks the financial resources and essentials for a certain standard of living. United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one's food or a job to earn one's living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one's life. European Union (EU): The European Union's definition of poverty is significantly different from definitions in other parts of the world, and consequently policy measures introduced to combat poverty in EU countries also differ from measures in other nations. Poverty is measured in relation to the distribution of income in each member country using relative income poverty lines. Relative-income poverty rates in the EU are compiled by the Eurostat, in charge of coordinating, gathering, and disseminating member country statistics using European Union Survey of Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) surveys. Measuring poverty ----------------- ### Absolute poverty Absolute poverty, often synonymous with 'extreme poverty' or 'abject poverty', refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. This set standard usually refers to "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services." Having an income below the poverty line, which is defined as an income needed to purchase basic needs, is also referred to as *primary poverty*. The "dollar a day" poverty line was first introduced in 1990 as a measure to meet such standards of living. For nations that do not use the US dollar as currency, "dollar a day" does not translate to living a day on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined by the exchange rate. Rather, it is determined by the purchasing power parity rate, which would look at how much local currency is needed to buy the same things that a dollar could buy in the United States. Usually, this would translate to having less local currency than if the exchange rate were used. From 1993 through 2005, the World Bank defined absolute poverty as $1.08 a day on such a purchasing power parity basis, after adjusting for inflation to the 1993 US dollar and in 2008, it was updated as $1.25 a day (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices) and in 2015, it was updated as living on less than US$1.90 per day, and *moderate poverty* as less than $2 or $5 a day. Similarly, 'ultra-poverty' is defined by a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy Research Institute as living on less than 54 cents per day. The poverty line threshold of $1.90 per day, as set by the World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States, for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four), while in India it was US$1.0 per day and in China the absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP basis in 2010. These different poverty lines make data comparison between each nation's official reports qualitatively difficult. Some scholars argue that the World Bank method sets the bar too high, others argue it is too low. There is disagreement among experts as to what would be considered a realistic poverty rate with one considering it "an inaccurately measured and arbitrary cut off". Some contend that a higher poverty line is needed, such as a minimum of $7.40 or even $10 to $15 a day. They argue that these levels are a minimum for basic needs and to achieve normal life expectancy. One estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people (59% of the world's population) living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. Philip Alston, a UN special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, stated the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.90 a day is fundamentally flawed, and has allowed for "self congratulatory" triumphalism in the fight against extreme global poverty, which he asserts is "completely off track" and that nearly half of the global population, or 3.4 billion, lives on less than $5.50 a day, and this number has barely moved since 1990. Still others suggest that poverty line misleads because many live on far less than that line. Other measures of absolute poverty without using a certain dollar amount include the standard defined as receiving less than 80% of minimum caloric intake whilst spending more than 80% of income on food, sometimes called ultra-poverty. ### Relative poverty Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context. It is argued that the needs considered fundamental is not an objective measure and could change with the custom of society. For example, a person who cannot afford housing better than a small tent in an open field would be said to live in relative poverty if almost everyone else in that area lives in modern brick homes, but not if everyone else also lives in small tents in open fields (for example, in a nomadic tribe). Since richer nations would have lower levels of absolute poverty, relative poverty is considered the "most useful measure for ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed nations" and is the "most prominent and most-quoted of the EU social inclusion indicators". Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. This is a calculation of the percentage of people whose family household income falls below the Poverty Line. The main poverty line used in the OECD and the European Union is based on "economic distance", a level of income set at 60% of the median household income. The United States federal government typically regulates this line to three times the cost of an adequate meal. There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example, the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index. ### Other aspects Rather than income, poverty is also measured through individual basic needs at a time. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and is starting to close the gap to the developed world. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world. The proportion of the world's population living in countries where the daily per-capita supply of food energy is less than 9,200 kilojoules (2,200 kilocalories) decreased from 56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean water and electricity and basic consumer items. Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal social status and inequitable social relationships, experienced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society. Such social exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing poverty. The World Bank's "Voices of the Poor", based on research with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, identifies a range of factors which poor people identify as part of poverty. These include abuse by those in power, dis-empowering institutions, excluded locations, gender relationships, lack of security, limited capabilities, physical limitations, precarious livelihoods, problems in social relationships, weak community organizations and discrimination. Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a function of the diminished "capability" of people to live the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty may include lack of access to information, education, health care, social capital or political power. Relational poverty is the idea that societal poverty exists if there is a lack of human relationships. Relational poverty can be the result of a lost contact number, lack of phone ownership, isolation, or deliberate severing of ties with an individual or community. Relational poverty is also understood "by the social institutions that organize those relationships...poverty is importantly the result of the different terms and conditions on which people are included in social life". In the United Kingdom, the second Cameron ministry came under attack for its redefinition of poverty; poverty is no longer classified by a family's income, but as to whether a family is in work or not. Considering that two-thirds of people who found work were accepting wages that are below the living wage (according to the Joseph Rowntree Foundation) this has been criticised by anti-poverty campaigners as an unrealistic view of poverty in the United Kingdom. #### Secondary poverty Secondary poverty refers to those that earn enough income to not be impoverished, but who spend their income on unnecessary pleasures, such as alcoholic beverages, thus placing them below it in practice. In 18th- and 19th-century Great Britain, the practice of temperance among Methodists, as well as their rejection of gambling, allowed them to eliminate secondary poverty and accumulate capital. Factors that contribute to secondary poverty includes but are not limited to: alcohol, gambling, tobacco and drugs. Substance abuse means that the poor typically spend about 2% of their income educating their children but larger percentages of alcohol and tobacco (for example, 6% in Indonesia and 8% in Mexico). ### Variability Poverty levels are snapshot pictures in time that omits the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statistics supply additional information about the fraction who leave the poverty level. For example, one study finds that in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the US) only 5% of those in the lower fifth of the income level were still at that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income category. Poverty levels can remain the same while those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The transient poor and chronic poor differ in each society. In a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the US, 50% of the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile. ### Global prevalence According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in developing world lived *above* $1.25 per day and 1.9 billion people lived *below* $1.25 per day in 1981. In 2005, about 4.09 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below $1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on inflation adjusted basis). The share of the world's population living in absolute poverty fell from 43% in 1981 to 14% in 2011. The absolute number of people in poverty fell from 1.95 billion in 1981 to 1.01 billion in 2011. The economist Max Roser estimates that the number of people in poverty is therefore roughly the same as 200 years ago. This is the case since the world population was just little more than 1 billion in 1820 and the majority (84% to 94%) of the world population was living in poverty. According to one study, the percentage of the world population in hunger and poverty fell in absolute percentage terms from 50% in 1950 to 30% in 1970. According to another study the number of people worldwide living in absolute poverty fell from 1.18 billion in 1950 to 1.04 billion in 1977. According to another study, the number of people worldwide estimated to be starving fell from almost 920 million in 1971 to below 797 million in 1997.[*unreliable source?*] The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28% in 1990 to 21% in 2001. Most of this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia. In 2012 it was estimated that, using a poverty line of $1.25 a day, 1.2 billion people lived in poverty. Given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would take 100 years to bring the world's poorest up to the poverty line of $1.25 a day. UNICEF estimates half the world's children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty. The World Bank forecasted in 2015 that 702.1 million people were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990. Extreme poverty is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling below 10% for the first time. During the 2013 to 2015 period, the World Bank reported that extreme poverty fell from 11% to 10%, however they also noted that the rate of decline had slowed by nearly half from the 25 year average with parts of sub-saharan Africa returning to early 2000 levels. The World Bank attributed this to increasing violence following the Arab Spring, population increases in Sub-Saharan Africa, and general African inflationary pressures and economic malaise were the primary drivers for this slow down. Many wealthy nations have seen an increase in relative poverty rates ever since the Great Recession, in particular among children from impoverished families who often reside in substandard housing and find educational opportunities out of reach. It has been argued by some academics that the neoliberal policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and poverty. In East Asia the World Bank reported that "The poverty headcount rate at the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27 percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and 69 percent in 1990." The People's Republic of China accounts for over three quarters of global poverty reduction from 1990 to 2005, which according to the World Bank is "historically unprecedented". China accounted for nearly half of all extreme poverty in 1990. In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme poverty went up from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001, which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty from 231 million to 318 million. Statistics of 2018 shows population living in extreme conditions has declined by more than 1 billion in the last 25 years. As per the report published by the world bank on 19 September 2018 world poverty falls below 750 million. In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experienced a sharp drop in income. The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita, of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the through year of 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result, poverty rates tripled, excess mortality increased, and life expectancy declined. Russian President Boris Yeltsin's IMF-backed rapid privatization and austerity policies resulted in unemployment rising to double digits and half the Russian population falling into destitution by the early to mid 1990s. By 1999, during the peak of the poverty crisis, 191 million people were living on less than $5.50 a day. In subsequent years as per capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from 31.4% of the population to 19.6%. The average post-communist country had returned to 1989 levels of per-capita GDP by 2005, although as of 2015 some are still far behind that. According to the World Bank in 2014, around 80 million people were still living on less than $5.00 a day. World Bank data shows that the percentage of the population living in households with consumption or income per person below the poverty line has decreased in each region of the world except Middle East and North Africa since 1990: | **Region** | $2.15 per day | | --- | --- | | 1981 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2018 | 2019 | | East Asia and Pacific | 83.5% | 65.8% | 39.5% | 13.3% | 1.6% | 1.2% | | Europe and Central Asia | — | — | 9.1% | 4.1% | 2.3% | 2.3% | | Latin America and the Caribbean | 15.1% | 16.8% | 13.5% | 6.4% | 4.3% | 4.3% | | Middle East and North Africa | — | 6.5% | 3.5% | 1.9% | 9.6% | — | | South Asia | 58% | 49.8% | — | 26% | 10.1% | 8.6% | | Sub-Saharan Africa | — | 53.8% | 56.5% | 42.2% | 35.4% | 34.9% | | World | 43.6% | 37.9% | 29.3% | 16.3% | 9% | 8.5% | Characteristics --------------- The effects of poverty may also be causes as listed above, thus creating a "poverty cycle" operating across multiple levels, individual, local, national and global. ### Health One-third of deaths around the world—some 18 million people a year or 50,000 per day—are due to poverty-related causes. People living in developing nations, among them women and children, are over represented among the global poor and these effects of severe poverty. Those living in poverty suffer disproportionately from hunger or even starvation and disease, as well as lower life expectancy. According to the World Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the world's public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Almost 90% of maternal deaths during childbirth occur in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than 1% in the developed world. Those who live in poverty have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of having or incurring a disability within their lifetime. Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.3–1.5% annually. Studies have shown that poverty impedes cognitive function although some of these findings could not be replicated in follow-up studies. One hypothesised mechanism is that financial worries put a severe burden on one's mental resources so that they are no longer fully available for solving complicated problems. The reduced capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty. Many other pathways from poverty to compromised cognitive capacities have been noted, from poor nutrition and environmental toxins to the effects of stress on parenting behavior, all of which lead to suboptimal psychological development. Neuroscientists have documented the impact of poverty on brain structure and function throughout the lifespan. Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor across the world. 36.8 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, with 954,492 deaths in 2017. Poor people often are more prone to severe diseases due to the lack of health care, and due to living in non-optimal conditions. Among the poor, girls tend to suffer even more due to gender discrimination. Economic stability is paramount in a poor household; otherwise they go in an endless loop of negative income trying to treat diseases. Often when a person in a poor household falls ill it is up to the family members to take care of them due to limited access to health care and lack of health insurance. The household members often have to give up their income or stop seeking further education to tend to the sick member. There is a greater opportunity cost imposed on the poor to tend to someone compared to someone with better financial stability. Increased access to healthcare and improved health outcomes help prevent individuals from falling into poverty due to medical expenses. #### Hunger Rises in the costs of living make poor people less able to afford items. Poor people spend a greater portion of their budgets on food than wealthy people. As a result, poor households and those near the poverty threshold can be particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains led to food riots in some countries. The World Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty. Threats to the supply of food may also be caused by drought and the water crisis. Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to United Nations University's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa. Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fifth birthday. 1.02 billion people go to bed hungry every night. According to the Global Hunger Index, Sub-Saharan Africa had the highest child malnutrition rate of the world's regions over the 2001–2006 period. Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals is the elimination of hunger and undernutrition by 2030. #### Mental health A psychological study has been conducted by four scientists during inaugural Convention of Psychological Science. The results find that people who thrive with financial stability or fall under low socioeconomic status (SES) tend to perform worse cognitively due to external pressure imposed upon them. The research found that stressors such as low income, inadequate health care, discrimination, and exposure to criminal activities all contribute to mental disorders. This study also found that children exposed to poverty-stricken environments have slower cognitive thinking. It is seen that children perform better under the care of their parents and that children tend to adopt speaking language at a younger age. Since being in poverty from childhood is more harmful than it is for an adult, it is seen that children in poor households tend to fall behind in certain cognitive abilities compared to other average families. For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children under three need "A strong, reliable primary caregiver who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement, is most crucial during the first 6–24 months of infants' lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy. Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex activities". In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33% reported witnessing a homicide. 51% of fifth graders from New Orleans (median income for a household: $27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a household: $40,127). Studies have shown that poverty changes the personalities of children who live in it. The Great Smoky Mountains Study was a ten-year study that was able to demonstrate this. During the study, about one-quarter of the families saw a dramatic and unexpected increase in income. The study showed that among these children, instances of behavioral and emotional disorders decreased, and conscientiousness and agreeableness increased. ### Education Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school. Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in most other countries, tends to be geared towards those students who come from more advantaged backgrounds. As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than advantaged children for retention in their grade, special deleterious placements during the school's hours and not completing their high school education. Advantage breeds advantage. There are many explanations for why students tend to drop out of school. One is the conditions in which they attend school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions that hinder children from learning in a safe environment. Researchers have developed a name for areas like this: an *urban war zone* is a poor, crime-laden district in which deteriorated, violent, even warlike conditions and underfunded, largely ineffective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior. Because of poverty, "Students from low-income families are 2.4 times more likely to drop out than middle-income kids, and over 10 times more likely than high-income peers to drop out." For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy, and economic dependency upon their low-income parent or parents. Families and society who submit low levels of investment in the education and development of less fortunate children end up with less favorable results for the children who see a life of parental employment reduction and low wages. Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected risks to family, health and well-being are major issues to address since education from preschool to high school is identifiably meaningful in a life. Poverty often drastically affects children's success in school. A child's "home activities, preferences, mannerisms" must align with the world and in the cases that they do not do these, students are at a disadvantage in the school and, most importantly, the classroom. Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below the poverty level will have far less success educationally than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately results in many absences from school. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, flu, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a student's focus and concentration. In general, the interaction of gender with poverty or location tends to work to the disadvantage of girls in poorer countries with low completion rates and social expectations that they marry early, and to the disadvantage of boys in richer countries with high completion rates but social expectations that they enter the labour force early. At the primary education level, most countries with a completion rate below 60% exhibit gender disparity at girls' expense, particularly poor and rural girls. In Mauritania, the adjusted gender parity index is 0.86 on average, but only 0.63 for the poorest 20%, while there is parity among the richest 20%. In countries with completion rates between 60% and 80%, gender disparity is generally smaller, but disparity at the expense of poor girls is especially marked in Cameroon, Nigeria and Yemen. Exceptions in the opposite direction are observed in countries with pastoralist economies that rely on boys' labour, such as the Kingdom of Eswatini, Lesotho and Namibia. ### Shelter The right to housing is argued to be a human right. Higher density and lower cost housing affords low-income families and first-time homebuyers with more and less expensive shelter opportunities, reducing economic inequality. The geographic concentration of poverty is argued to be a factor in entrenching poverty. William J. Wilson's "concentration and isolation" hypothesis states that the economic difficulties of the very poorest African Americans are compounded by the fact that as the better-off African Americans move out, the poorest are more and more concentrated, having only other very poor people as neighbors. This concentration causes social isolation, Wilson suggests, because the very poor are now isolated from access to the job networks, role models, institutions, and other connections that might help them escape poverty. Gentrification means converting an aging neighborhood into a more affluent one, as by remodeling homes. Landlords then increase rent on newly renovated real estate; the poor people cannot afford to pay high rent, and may need to leave their neighborhood to find affordable housing. The poor also get more access to income and services, while studies suggest poor residents living in gentrifying neighbourhoods are actually less likely to move than poor residents of non-gentrifying areas. Poverty increases the risk of homelessness. Slum-dwellers, who make up a third of the world's urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in the developing world, according to a report by the United Nations. There are over 100 million street children worldwide. Most of the children living in institutions around the world have a surviving parent or close relative, and they most commonly entered orphanages because of poverty. It is speculated that, flush with money, for-profit orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families usually take in children whose parents have died. Many child advocates maintain that this can harm children's development by separating them from their families and that it would be more effective and cheaper to aid close relatives who want to take in the orphans. ### Utilities The poor tend to pay more for access to utilities and ensuring the availability of water, sanitation, energy, and telecommunication services such as broadband internet service help in reducing poverty in general. #### Water and sanitation As of 2012, 2.5 billion people lack access to sanitation services and 15% practice open defecation. Even while providing latrines is a challenge, people still do not use them even when available. Bangladesh had half the GDP per capita of India but has a lower mortality from diarrhea than India or the world average, with diarrhea deaths declining by 90% since the 1990s. By strategically providing pit latrines to the poorest, charities in Bangladesh sparked a cultural change as those better off perceived it as an issue of status to not use one. The vast majority of the latrines built were then not from charities but by villagers themselves. Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consumption by those connected to the supply grid, which is typically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of the population and those outside informal housing. As a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is covered. This results in a lack of incentive to maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks annually that are enough for 200 million people. This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy water from water vendors for, on average, about 5 to 16 times the metered price. However, subsidies for laying new connections to the network rather than for consumption have shown more promise for the poor. #### Energy Energy poverty is lack of access to modern energy services. It refers to the situation of large numbers of people in developing countries and some people in developed countries whose well-being is negatively affected by very low consumption of energy, use of dirty or polluting fuels, and excessive time spent collecting fuel to meet basic needs. Today, 759 million people lack access to consistent electricity and 2.6 billion people use dangerous and inefficient cooking systems. It is inversely related to access to modern energy services, although improving access is only one factor in efforts to reduce energy poverty. Energy poverty is distinct from fuel poverty, which primarily focuses solely on the issue of affordability. The term “energy poverty” came into emergence through the publication of Brenda Boardman’s book, *Fuel Poverty: From Cold Homes to Affordable Warmth* (1991). Naming the intersection of energy and poverty as “energy poverty” motivated the need to develop public policy to address energy poverty and also study its causes, symptoms, and effects in society. When energy poverty was first introduced in Boardman's book, energy poverty was described as not having enough power to heat and cool homes. Today, energy poverty is understood to be the result of complex systemic inequalities which create barriers to access modern energy at an affordable price. Energy poverty is challenging to measure and thus analyze because it is privately experienced within households, specific to cultural contexts, and dynamically changes depending on the time and space. According to the Energy Poverty Action initiative of the World Economic Forum, "Access to energy is fundamental to improving quality of life and is a key imperative for economic development. In the developing world, energy poverty is still rife.". As a result of this situation, the United Nations (UN) launched the Sustainable Energy for All Initiative and designated 2012 as the *International Year for Sustainable Energy for All*, which had a major focus on reducing energy poverty. The UN further recognizes the importance of energy poverty through Goal 7 of its Sustainable Development Goals to "ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all." ### Prejudice and exploitation Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds, can negatively affect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping, discrimination against people with physical disability, gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination. Children are more than twice as likely to live in poverty as adults. Women are the group suffering from the highest rate of poverty after children, in what is referred to as the feminization of poverty. In addition, the fact that women are more likely to be caregivers, regardless of income level, to either the generations before or after them, exacerbates the burdens of their poverty. Those in poverty have increased chances of incurring a disability which leads to a cycle where disability and poverty are mutually reinforcing. Max Weber and some schools of modernization theory suggest that cultural values could affect economic success. However, researchers[*who?*] have gathered evidence that suggest that values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values. A 2018 report on poverty in the United States by UN special rapporteur Philip Alston asserts that caricatured narratives about the rich and the poor (that "the rich are industrious, entrepreneurial, patriotic and the drivers of economic success" while "the poor are wasters, losers and scammers") are largely inaccurate, as "the poor are overwhelmingly those born into poverty, or those thrust there by circumstances largely beyond their control, such as physical or mental disabilities, divorce, family breakdown, illness, old age, unlivable wages or discrimination in the job market." Societal perception of people experiencing economic difficulty has historically appeared as a conceptual dichotomy: the "good" poor (people who are physically impaired, disabled, the "ill and incurable," the elderly, pregnant women, children) vs. the "bad" poor (able-bodied, "valid" adults, most often male). According to experts, many women become victims of trafficking, the most common form of which is prostitution, as a means of survival and economic desperation. Deterioration of living conditions can often compel children to abandon school to contribute to the family income, putting them at risk of being exploited. For example, in Zimbabwe, a number of girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty. According to studies, as poverty decreases there will be fewer and fewer instances of violence. Poverty reduction ----------------- Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categorized based on whether they make more of the basic human needs available or whether they increase the disposable income needed to purchase those needs. Some strategies such as building roads can both bring access to various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets. Reducing relative poverty would also involve reducing inequality. Oxfam, among others, has called for an international movement to end extreme wealth concentration arguing that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else—particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder. And they say that the gains of the world's billionaires in 2017, which amounted to $762 billion, were enough to end extreme global poverty seven times over. Methods to reduce inequality and relative poverty include progressive taxation, which involves increasing tax rates on high-income earners, wealth taxes, which involve taxing a portion of an individual's net worth above a certain threshold, reducing payroll taxes, which are taxes on employees and employers and reducing this provides workers greater take-home pay and allows employers to spend more on wages and salaries, and increasing the labor share, which is the proportion of business income paid as wages and salaries instead of allocated to shareholders as profit. ### Increasing the supply of basic needs #### Improving technology Agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern times by boosting yields past previous constraints. Before the Industrial Revolution, poverty had been mostly accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce. Geoffrey Parker wrote that "In Antwerp and Lyon, two of the largest cities in western Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need relief in times of crisis." The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed world. Mass production of goods in places such as rapidly industrializing China has made what were once considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to afford them. Other than technology, advancements in sciences such as medicine help provide basic needs better. For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of 2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today, but reduced it to 0.5–0.6% in the 1950s and to 0.6% in 2006 while spending less each year on maternal health because it learned what worked and what did not. Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive and educational measures have been made to disseminate what works, such as the Copenhagen Consensus. Cheap water filters and promoting hand washing are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut deaths from diarrhea and pneumonia. Fortification with micronutrients was ranked the most cost effective aid strategy by the Copenhagen Consensus. For example, iodised salt costs 2 to 3 cents per person a year while even moderate iodine deficiency in pregnancy shaves off 10 to 15 IQ points. #### State funding Certain basic needs are argued to be better provided by the state. Universal healthcare can reduce the overall cost of providing healthcare by having a single payer negotiating with healthcare providers and minimizing administrative costs. It is also argued that subsidizing essential goods such as fuel is less efficient in helping the poor than providing that same money as income grants to the poor. Government revenue can be diverted away from basic services by corruption. Funds from aid and natural resources are often sent by government individuals for money laundering to overseas banks which insist on bank secrecy, instead of spending on the poor. A Global Witness report asked for more action from Western banks as they have proved capable of stanching the flow of funds linked to terrorism. Illicit capital flight, such as corporate tax avoidance, from the developing world is estimated at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt service it pays, with one estimate that most of Africa would be developed if the taxes owed were paid. About 60 per cent of illicit capital flight from Africa is from transfer mispricing, where a subsidiary in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or shell company in a tax haven at an artificially low price to pay less tax. An African Union report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africa's GDP has been moved to tax havens. Solutions include corporate "country-by-country reporting" where corporations disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit the use of tax havens where no effective economic activity occurs. Developing countries' debt service to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government spending on the poor. For example, Zambia spent 40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only 7% for basic state services in 1997. One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief. Zambia began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of debt relief. Since that round of debt relief, private creditors accounted for an increasing share of poor countries' debt service obligations. This complicated efforts to renegotiate easier terms for borrowers during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic because the multiple private creditors involved say they have a fiduciary obligation to their clients such as the pension funds. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, as primary holders of developing countries' debt, attach structural adjustment conditionalities in return for loans which are generally geared toward loan repayment with austerity measures such as the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot afford them at market prices. In Malawi, almost 5 million of its 13 million people used to need emergency food aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007 as Malawi became a major food exporter. A major proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise originating only from the donor country. US law requires food aid be spent on buying food at home, instead of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is spent is used on transport. Distressed securities funds, also known as *vulture funds*, buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which can be ten or 100 times what they paid. They may pursue any companies which do business with their target country to force them to pay to the fund instead. Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases. For example, a court in Jersey ordered the Democratic Republic of the Congo to pay an American speculator $100 million in 2010. Now, the UK, Isle of Man and Jersey have banned such payments. #### Improving access to available basic needs Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor still require access to these products. Improving road and transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from an African seaport 100 kilometres (60 mi) inland than to ship it from the United States to Africa because of sparse, low-quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the world average. Microfranchising models such as door-to-door distributors who earn commission-based income or Coca-Cola's successful distribution system are used to disseminate basic needs to remote areas for below market prices. The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging effect. As of 2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in Chicago than in Ethiopia and this often leaves inadequately less skilled doctors to remain in their home countries. Proposals to mitigate the problem include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools and promoting medical tourism so that health care personnel have more incentive to practice in their home countries. Telehealth is the use of telecommunication technologies to deliver health services. For remotes communities in Alaska, telehealth has been found to reduce travel costs alone for the state by $13 million in 2021 and, according to one study, reduced the life expectancy gap between whites and American Indian population in Alaska from eight to five years. #### Preventing overpopulation Poverty and lack of access to birth control can lead to population increases that put pressure on local economies and access to resources, amplifying other economic inequality and creating increase poverty. Better education for both men and women, and more control of their lives, reduces population growth due to family planning. According to United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), those who receive better education can earn money for their lives, thereby strengthening economic security. ### Increasing personal income The following are strategies used or proposed to increase personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes is described as the core of the antipoverty effort as three-quarters of the poor today are farmers. Estimates show that growth in the agricultural productivity of small farmers is, on average, at least twice as effective in benefiting the poorest half of a country's population as growth generated in nonagricultural sectors. #### Income grants A guaranteed minimum income ensures that every citizen will be able to purchase a desired level of basic needs. One method is through a basic income (or negative income tax), which is a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sufficient to live on. Studies of large cash-transfer programs in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs can be effective in increasing consumption, schooling, and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions or not. Employment subsidies are conditional subsidies that go to those already employed and this has shown to have little effect on those at the lowest income levels. Proponents argue that a basic income is more economically efficient than a minimum wage and unemployment benefits, as the minimum wage effectively imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses in efficiency. In 1968, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth Galbraith and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system of income guarantees. Winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics, with often diverse political convictions, who support a basic income include Herbert A. Simon, Friedrich Hayek, Robert Solow, Milton Friedman, Jan Tinbergen, James Tobin and James Meade. Income grants are argued to be vastly more efficient in extending basic needs to the poor than subsidizing supplies whose effectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices. With cars and other appliances, the wealthiest 20% of Egypt uses about 93% of the country's fuel subsidies. In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the budget than health and education. A 2008 study concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in India in a year could lift all India's poor out of poverty for that year if transferred directly. The primary obstacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractically for poor countries of such large and direct transfers. In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanning are used by war-torn Democratic Republic of Congo and Afghanistan, while India is phasing out its fuel subsidies in favor of direct transfers. Additionally, in aid models, the famine relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries, often required by law, as it wastes money on transport costs. #### Economic freedoms Corruption often leads to many civil services being treated by governments as employment agencies to loyal supporters and so it could mean going through 20 procedures, paying $2,696 in fees, and waiting 82 business days to start a business in Bolivia, while in Canada it takes two days, two registration procedures, and $280 to do the same. Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created. Often, businesses have to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which is, in effect, a tax on business. Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the ending of the central planning model known as the License Raj in India. The World Bank concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right to the land that they live and use are 'the key to reducing poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor people's wealth, in some cases doubling it. Providing secure tenure to land ownership creates incentives to improve the land and thus improves the welfare of the poor. It is argued that those in power have an incentive to not secure property rights as they are able to then more easily take land or any small business that does well to their supporters. Greater access to markets brings more income to the poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on poverty. Additionally, migration from poorer countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in official aid flows from OECD members. In 2011, India got $52 billion from its diaspora, more than it took in foreign direct investment. #### Financial services For low-income individuals and families, access to credit can be limited, predatory, or both, making it difficult to find the financial resources they need to invest in their futures. Microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, is where small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to increase their economic rewards. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprofits off the poor even from its founder, Muhammad Yunus, and in India, Arundhati Roy asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have been driven to suicide. Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans. Additionally, a large part of microfinance loans are spent not on investments but on products that would usually be paid by a checking or savings account. Microsavings are designs to make savings products available for the poor, who make small deposits. Mobile banking uses the wide availability of mobile phones to address the problem of the heavy regulation and costly maintenance of saving accounts. This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash and translate these onto a virtual account on customers' phones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and issued back in cash with a small commission, making remittances safer. #### Education and vocational training Free education through public education or charitable organizations rather than through tuition, from early childhood education through the tertiary level provides children from low-income families who may not otherwise have the financial resources with better job prospects and higher earnings and promotes social mobility. Job training and vocational education programs that target training in technical skills in specific industries or occupations that are in high demand can reduce poverty and wealth concentration. Strategies to provide education cost effectively include deworming children, which costs about 50 cents per child per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fifth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing schools. Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half by simply providing free sanitary towels. Paying for school meals is argued to be an efficient strategy in increasing school enrollment, reducing absenteeism and increasing student attention. Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of aid known as conditional cash transfers. In Mexico, for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an inch in height. Initial fears that the program would encourage families to stay at home rather than work to collect benefits have proven to be unfounded. Instead, there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from the program. Antipoverty institutions ------------------------ ### United Nations In 2015 all UN Member States adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals as part of the Post-2015 Development Agenda, which sought to create a future global development framework to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, which were goals set in 2000 and were meant to be achieved by 2015. Most targets are to be achieved by 2030, although some have no end date. Goal 1 is to "end poverty in all its forms everywhere". It aims to eliminate extreme poverty for all people measured by daily wages less than $1.25 and at least half the total number of men, women, and children living in poverty. In addition, social protection systems must be established at the national level and equal access to economic resources must be ensured. Strategies have to be developed at the national, regional and international levels to support the eradication of poverty. ### Development banks A *development financial institution*, also known as a *development bank*, is a financial institution that provides risk capital for economic development projects on a non-commercial basis. They are often established and owned by governments to finance projects that would otherwise not be able to get financing from commercial lenders. These include international financial institutions such as the World Bank, which is the largest development bank. ### Private sector The private sector includes nonprofit nongovernmental organizations as well as for-profit institutions involved in combating poverty. In recent decades, the number of nongovernmental organizations has increased dramatically. The High level forums on aid effectiveness that was coordinated by the OECD found that this leads to fragmentation where too many agencies were financing too many small projects using too many different procedures and that the civil service of the donor countries were overstretched producing reports for each. Perspectives ------------ ### Economic theories The cause of poverty is a highly ideologically charged subject, as different causes point to different remedies. Very broadly speaking, the socialist tradition locates the roots of poverty in problems of distribution and the use of the means of production as capital benefiting individuals, and calls for redistribution of wealth as the solution, whereas the neoliberal school of thought holds that creating conditions for profitable private investment is the solution. Neoliberal think tanks have received extensive funding, and the ability to apply many of their ideas in highly indebted countries in the global South as a condition for receiving emergency loans from the International Monetary Fund. The existence of inequality is in part due to a set of self-reinforcing behaviors that all together constitute one aspect of the cycle of poverty. These behaviors, in addition to unfavorable, external circumstances, also explain the existence of the Matthew effect, which not only exacerbates existing inequality, but is more likely to make it multigenerational. Widespread, multigenerational poverty is an important contributor to civil unrest and political instability. For example, Raghuram G. Rajan, former governor of the Reserve Bank of India and former chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, has blamed the ever-widening gulf between the rich and the poor, especially in the US, to be one of the main fault lines which caused the financial institutions to pump money into subprime mortgages—on political behest, as a palliative and not a remedy, for poverty—causing the financial crisis of 2007–2009. In Rajan's view the main cause of the increasing gap between high income and low income earners was lack of equal access to higher education for the latter. A data based scientific empirical research, which studied the impact of dynastic politics on the level of poverty of the provinces, found a positive correlation between dynastic politics and poverty; i.e. the higher proportion of dynastic politicians in power in a province leads to higher poverty rate. There is significant evidence that these political dynasties use their political dominance over their respective regions to enrich themselves, using methods such as graft or outright bribery of legislators. Most economic historians believe that throughout most of human history, extreme poverty was the norm for roughly 90% of the population, and only with the emergence of industrialization in the 19th century were the masses of people lifted out of it. This narrative is advanced by, among others, Martin Ravallion, Nicholas Kristof, and Steven Pinker. Some academics, including Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel have challenged this contemporary mainstream narrative on poverty, arguing that extreme poverty was not the norm throughout human history, but emerged during "periods of severe social and economic dislocation," including high European feudalism and the apex of the Roman Empire, and that it expanded significantly after 1500 with the emergence of colonialism and the beginnings of capitalism, stating that "the expansion of the capitalist world-system caused a dramatic and prolonged process of impoverishment on a scale unparalleled in recorded history." Sullivan and Hickel assert that only with the rise of anti-colonial and socialist political movements in the 20th century did human welfare begin to see significant improvement. However, all scholars and intellectuals, including Hickel, agree that the incomes of the poorest people in the world have increased since 1981. Nevertheless, Sullivan and Hickel argue that poverty persists under contemporary global capitalism (in spite of it being highly productive) because masses of working people are cut off from common land and resources, have no ownership or control over the means of production, and have their labor power "appropriated by a ruling class or an external imperial power," thereby maintaining extreme inequality. ### Environmentalism Important studies such as the Brundtland Report concluded that poverty causes environmental degradation, while other theories like environmentalism of the poor conclude that the global poor may be the most important force for sustainability. Either way, the poor suffer most from environmental degradation caused by reckless exploitation of natural resources by the rich. This unfair distribution of environmental burdens and benefits has generated the global environmental justice movement. A report published in 2013 by the World Bank, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, found that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty. The report presented the likely impacts of present day, 2 °C and 4 °C warming on agricultural production, water resources, coastal ecosystems and cities across Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and South East Asia. The impacts of a temperature rise of 2 °C included: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan Africa; shifting rain patterns in South Asia leaving some parts under water and others without enough water for power generation, irrigation or drinking; degradation and loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced fish stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms. In 2016, a UN report claimed that by 2030, an additional 122 million more people could be driven to extreme poverty because of climate change. Global warming can also lead to a deficiency in water availability; with higher temperatures and CO2 levels, plants consume more water leaving less for people. By consequence, water in rivers and streams will decline in the mid-altitude regions like Central Asia, Europe and North America. And if CO2 levels continue to rise, or even remain the same, droughts will be happening much faster and will be lasting longer. According to a 2016 study led by Professor of Water Management, Arjen Hoekstra, four billion people are affected by water scarcity at least one month per year. ### Spirituality Among some individuals, poverty is considered a necessary or desirable condition, which must be embraced to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states. Poverty is often understood to be an essential element of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism (only for monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Christianity, in particular Roman Catholicism, it is one of the evangelical counsels. The main aim of giving up things of the materialistic world is to withdraw oneself from sensual pleasures (as they are considered illusionary and only temporary in some religions—such as the concept of dunya in Islam). This self-invited poverty (or giving up pleasures) is different from the one caused by economic imbalance. Some Christian communities, such as the Simple Way, the Bruderhof, and the Amish value voluntary poverty; some even take a vow of poverty, similar to that of the traditional Catholic orders, in order to live a more complete life of discipleship. Benedict XVI distinguished "poverty *chosen*" (the poverty of spirit proposed by Jesus), and "poverty *to be fought*" (unjust and imposed poverty). He considered that the moderation implied in the former favors solidarity, and is a necessary condition so as to fight effectively to eradicate the abuse of the latter. As it was indicated above the reduction of poverty results from religion, but also can result from solidarity. Charts and tables ----------------- See also -------- * Accumulation by dispossession * Aporophobia * Bottom of the pyramid * Environmental racism * Food bank * Income disparity * International development * International inequality * Involuntary unemployment * Juvenilization of poverty * List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty * Millennium Development Goals * Poverty trap * Redistribution of income and wealth * Social programs * Social protection floor * Social safety net * United Nations Millennium Declaration * Universal basic income * World Poverty Clock References ---------- ### Sources * This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from *Global education monitoring report 2019: gender report: Building bridges for gender equality​*, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. Further reading --------------- * Allen, Robert C. 2020. "Poverty and the Labor Market: Today and Yesterday. Archived 24 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine" Annual Review of Economomics. * Half of the world’s poor live in just 5 countries Roy Katayama & Divinshi Wadha. World Bank Blogs. * Atkinson, Anthony. *Poverty in Europe* 1998 * Babb, Sarah (2009). *Behind the Development Banks: Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth of Nations*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-03365-5. * Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duflo, Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011) * Bergmann, Barbara. "Deciding Who's Poor" Archived 20 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000 * Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. "Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty." *American Economic Review* 88:348–51. 1998. * Brady, David "Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty" *Social Forces* 81#3 2003, pp. 715–751 Online in Project Muse. * Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. "Equivalence Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database." Review of Income and Wealth 34:115–142. * Chase, Elaine; Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, Grace (2015). *Poverty and Shame. Global Experiences*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968672-8. * Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. "The Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty." pp. 18–50 in *Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change,* edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H. Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994. * Desmond, Matthew (2023). *Poverty, by America*. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 9780593239919. * Firebaugh, Glenn. "Empirics of World Income Inequality." *American Journal of Sociology* (2000) 104:1597–1630. in JSTOR * Gans, Herbert J., "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All" Archived 5 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20–24 * Gordon, David M. *Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor Market Perspectives.* 1972. * Haveman, Robert H. *Poverty Policy and Poverty Research.* University of Wisconsin Press 1987 ISBN 978-0-299-11150-2 * Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds). *The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States Archived 17 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine.* Routledge, 2015. ISBN 978-0-415-67344-0. * Iceland, John *Poverty in America: a handbook* University of California Press, 2003 * Lee, Dwight R. (2008). "Wealth and Poverty". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism*. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 537–539. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n326. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. * McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. *Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 1600–1850* (Palgrave Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried mothers, and almshouse dwellers. * O'Connor, Alice (2000). "Poverty Research and Policy for the Post-Welfare Era". *Annual Review of Sociology*. **26**: 547–562. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.547. * Osberg, Lars; Xu, Kuan. "International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and bootstrap inference". *The Journal of Human Resources*. **2000** (35): 51–81. * Paugam, Serge. "Poverty and Social Exclusion: a sociological view." pp. 41–62 in *The Future of European Welfare*, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves Meny, 1998. * Philippou, Lambros (2010). "Public Space, Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty". *Philosophical Inquiry*. **32** (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218. * Prashad, Vijay. *The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South.* Verso Books, June 2014. ISBN 978-1-78168-158-9 * Pressman, Steven, *Poverty in America: an annotated bibliography.* Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994 ISBN 978-0-8108-2833-9 * Robinson, Marilynne, "Is Poverty Necessary? An idea that won't go away", *Harper's Magazine*, vol. 338, no. 2029 (June 2019), pp. 25–33. "To bring up the subject of providing a better life is to lean too far left, to flirt with socialism.... 'Why... do wages tend to a minimum which will give but a bare living?' A short answer would be: because they can.... Insofar as the public is barred from taking a central role in society, we lose wisdom to stealth, stupidity, parochialism." * Rothman, David J., (editor). *The Almshouse Experience* (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record). New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 978-0-405-03092-5Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Court's Committee on Pauper Laws (published in [Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor (from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board of Charities, 1901). * Roy, Arundhati, *Capitalism: A Ghost Story*, Haymarket Books, 2014, ISBN 978-1-60846-385-5. * Sen, Amartya, *Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation*, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981. * Sen, Amartya, *Development as Freedom*, New York, Knopf, 1999. * Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael & Rainwater, Lee. *Poverty, Inequality and Income Distribution in Comparative Perspective.* Urban Institute Press 1990. * Smith, Stephen C., *Ending Global Poverty: a guide to what works*, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 * Triest, Robert K. (1998). "Has Poverty Gotten Worse?". *Journal of Economic Perspectives*. **12**: 97–114. doi:10.1257/jep.12.1.97. * Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. *The Spirit Level*, London: Allen Lane, 2009 * World Bank: "Can South Asia End Poverty in a Generation?" Archived 15 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine * World Bank, "World Development Report 2004: Making Services Work For Poor People", 2004

Poverty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty

**Irenaeus** (/ɪrɪˈneɪəs/; Greek: Εἰρηναῖος *Eirēnaios*; c. 130 – c. 202 AD) was a Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christian communities in the southern regions of present-day France and, more widely, for the development of Christian theology by combating heterodox or Gnostic interpretations of Scripture as heresy and defining proto-orthodoxy. Originating from Smyrna, he had seen and heard the preaching of Polycarp, who in turn was said to have heard John the Evangelist, and thus was the last-known living connection with the Apostles. Chosen as bishop of Lugdunum, now Lyon, his best-known work is *Against Heresies*, often cited as *Adversus Haereses*, a refutation of gnosticism, in particular that of Valentinus. To counter the doctrines of the gnostic sects claiming secret wisdom, he offered three pillars of orthodoxy: the scriptures, the tradition handed down from the apostles, and the teaching of the apostles' successors. Intrinsic to his writing is that the surest source of Christian guidance is the Church of Rome, and he is the earliest surviving witness to regard all four of the now-canonical gospels as essential. He is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, which celebrates his feast on 28 June, and in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, which celebrates the feast on 23 August. Irenaeus is honored in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 28 June. Pope Francis declared Irenaeus the 37th Doctor of the Church on 21 January 2022. Biography --------- Irenaeus was a Greek from Polycarp's hometown of Smyrna in Asia Minor, now İzmir, Turkey, born during the first half of the 2nd century. The exact date is thought to be between the years 120 and 140. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he was brought up in a Christian family rather than converting as an adult. During the persecution of Christians by Marcus Aurelius, the Roman emperor from 161 to 180, Irenaeus was a priest of the Church of Lyon. The clergy of that city, many of whom were suffering imprisonment for the faith, sent him in 177 to Rome with a letter to Pope Eleutherius concerning the heresy of Montanism, and that occasion bore emphatic testimony to his merits. While Irenaeus was in Rome, a persecution took place in Lyon. Returning to Gaul, Irenaeus succeeded the martyr Saint Pothinus and became the second bishop of Lyon. During the religious peace which followed the persecution by Marcus Aurelius, the new bishop divided his activities between the duties of a pastor and of a missionary (as to which we have but brief data, late and not very certain). Almost all his writings were directed against Gnosticism. The most famous of these writings is *Adversus haereses* (*Against Heresies*). Irenaeus alludes to coming across Gnostic writings, and holding conversations with Gnostics, and this may have taken place in Asia Minor or in Rome. However, it also appears that Gnosticism was present near Lyon: he writes that there were followers of 'Marcus the Magician' living and teaching in the Rhone valley. Little is known about the career of Irenaeus after he became bishop. The last action reported of him (by Eusebius, 150 years later) is that in 190 or 191, he exerted influence on Pope Victor I not to excommunicate the Christian communities of Asia Minor which persevered in the practice of the Quartodeciman celebration of Easter. Nothing is known of the date of his death, which must have occurred at the end of the second or the beginning of the third century. He is regarded as a martyr by the Catholic Church and by some within the Orthodox Church. He was buried under the Church of Saint John in Lyon, which was later renamed St Irenaeus in his honour. The tomb and his remains were utterly destroyed in 1562 by the Huguenots. Writings -------- Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the most important that survives is the *Against Heresies* (or, in its Latin title, *Adversus haereses*). In Book I, Irenaeus talks about the Valentinian Gnostics and their predecessors, who he says go as far back as the magician Simon Magus. In Book II he attempts to provide proof that Valentinianism contains no merit in terms of its doctrines. In Book III Irenaeus purports to show that these doctrines are false, by providing counter-evidence gleaned from the Gospels. Book IV consists of Jesus's sayings, and here Irenaeus also stresses the unity of the Old Testament and the Gospel. In the final volume, Book V, Irenaeus focuses on more sayings of Jesus plus the letters of Paul the Apostle. Irenaeus wrote: "One should not seek among others the truth that can be easily gotten from the Church. For in her, as in a rich treasury, the apostles have placed all that pertains to truth, so that everyone can drink this beverage of life. She is the door of life." But he also said, "Christ came not only for those who believed from the time of Tiberius Caesar, nor did the Father provide only for those who are now, but for absolutely all men from the beginning, who, according to their ability, feared and loved God and lived justly. . . and desired to see Christ and to hear His voice." The purpose of "Against Heresies" was to refute the teachings of various Gnostic groups; apparently, several Greek merchants had begun an oratorial campaign in Irenaeus's bishopric, teaching that the material world was the accidental creation of an evil god, from which we are to escape by the pursuit of *gnosis*. Irenaeus argued that the true gnosis is in fact knowledge of Christ, which redeems rather than escapes from bodily existence. Until the discovery of the Library of Nag Hammadi in 1945, *Against Heresies* was the best-surviving description of Gnosticism. Some religious scholars have argued the findings at Nag Hammadi have shown Irenaeus's description of Gnosticism to be inaccurate and polemic in nature. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Irenaeus was fairly accurate in his transmission of gnostic beliefs, and that the Nag Hammadi texts have raised no substantial challenges to the overall accuracy of Irenaeus's information. Religious historian Elaine Pagels criticizes Irenaeus for describing Gnostic groups as sexual libertines, for example, when some of their own writings advocated chastity more strongly than did orthodox texts. However, the Nag Hammadi texts do not present a single, coherent picture of any unified gnostic system of belief, but rather divergent beliefs of multiple Gnostic sects. Some of these sects were indeed libertine because they considered bodily existence meaningless; others praised chastity, and strongly prohibited any sexual activity, even within marriage. Irenaeus also wrote *The Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching* (also known as *Proof of the Apostolic Preaching*), an Armenian copy of which was discovered in 1904. This work seems to have been an instruction for recent Christian converts. Eusebius attests to other works by Irenaeus, today lost, including *On the Ogdoad,* an untitled letter to Blastus regarding schism, *On the Subject of Knowledge*, *On the Monarchy* or *How God is not the Cause of Evil*, *On Easter*. Irenaeus exercised wide influence on the generation which followed. Both Hippolytus and Tertullian freely drew on his writings. However, none of his works aside from *Against Heresies* and *The Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching* survive today, perhaps because his literal hope of an earthly millennium may have made him uncongenial reading in the Greek East. Even though no complete version of *Against Heresies* in its original Greek exists, we possess the full ancient Latin version, probably of the third century, as well as thirty-three fragments of a Syrian version and a complete Armenian version of books 4 and 5. Irenaeus's works were first translated into English by John Keble and published in 1872 as part of the Library of the Fathers series. Scripture --------- Irenaeus pointed to the public rule of faith, authoritatively articulated by the preaching of bishops and inculcated in Church practice, especially worship, as an authentic apostolic tradition by which to read Scripture truly against heresies. He classified as Scripture not only the Old Testament but most of the books now known as the New Testament, while excluding many works, a large number by Gnostics, that flourished in the 2nd century and claimed scriptural authority. Oftentimes, Irenaeus, as a student of Polycarp, who was a direct disciple of the Apostle John, believed that he was interpreting scriptures in the same hermeneutic as the Apostles. This connection to Jesus was important to Irenaeus because both he and the Gnostics based their arguments on Scripture. Irenaeus argued that since he could trace his authority to Jesus and the Gnostics could not, his interpretation of Scripture was correct. He also used "the Rule of Faith", a "proto-creed" with similarities to the Apostles' Creed, as a hermeneutical key to argue that his interpretation of Scripture was correct. Before Irenaeus, Christians differed as to which gospel they preferred. The Christians of Asia Minor preferred the Gospel of John. The Gospel of Matthew was the most popular overall. Irenaeus asserted that all four of the Gospels, John, Luke, Matthew, and Mark (which is the order presented in his four pillar narrative in *Adversus haereses* (*Against Heresies*) III 11,8), were canonical scripture. Thus Irenaeus provides the earliest witness to the assertion of the four canonical Gospels, possibly in reaction to Marcion's edited version of the Gospel of Luke, which Marcion asserted was the one and only true gospel. Based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the *fourfold Gospel* must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus's time. *Against Heresies* 3.11.7 acknowledges that many heterodox Christians use only one gospel while 3.11.9 acknowledges that some use more than four. The success of Tatian's Diatessaron in about the same time period is "... a powerful indication that the fourfold Gospel contemporaneously sponsored by Irenaeus was not broadly, let alone universally, recognized." (The apologist and ascetic Tatian had previously harmonized the four gospels into a single narrative, the *Diatesseron* circa 150–160) Irenaeus is also the earliest attestation that the Gospel of John was written by John the Apostle, and that the Gospel of Luke was written by Luke, the companion of Paul. Scholars contend that Irenaeus quotes from 21 of the 27 New Testament books, such as: * Matthew 3:16 * Mark 3:10 * Luke 3:14 * John 3:11 * Acts of the Apostles 3:14 * Romans 3:16 * 1 Corinthians 1:3 * 2 Corinthians 3:7 * Galatians 3:22 * Ephesians 5:2 * Philippians 4:18 * Colossians 1:3 * 1 Thessalonians 5:6 * 2 Thessalonians 5:25 * 1 Timothy (*Preface*) * 2 Timothy 3:14 * Titus 3:3 * 1 Peter 4:9 * 1 John 3:16 * 2 John 1:16 * Revelation 4:20 He may refer to Hebrews 2:30 and James 4:16 and maybe even 2 Peter 5:28, but does not cite Philemon. Irenaeus cited the New Testament approximately 1,000 times. About one third of his citations are made to Paul's letters. Irenaeus considered all 13 letters belonging to the Pauline corpus to have been written by Paul himself. Apostolic authority ------------------- In his writing against the Gnostics, who claimed to possess a secret oral tradition from Jesus himself, Irenaeus maintained that the bishops in different cities are known as far back as the Apostles and that the oral tradition he lists from the Apostles is a safe guide to the interpretation of Scripture. In a passage that became a locus classicus of Catholic-Protestant polemics, he cited the Roman church as an example of the unbroken chain of authority, which text Catholic polemics would use to assert the primacy of Rome over Eastern churches by virtue of its *preeminent authority*. The succession of bishops and presbyters was important to establish a chain of custody for orthodoxy. Irenaeus's point when refuting the Gnostics was that all of the Apostolic churches had preserved the same traditions and teachings in many independent streams. It was the unanimous agreement between these many independent streams of transmission that proved the orthodox faith, current in those churches, to be true. Theology and contrast with Gnosticism ------------------------------------- The central point of Irenaeus's theology is the unity and the goodness of God, in opposition to the Gnostics' theory of God; a number of divine emanations (Aeons) along with a distinction between the Monad and the Demiurge. Irenaeus uses the Logos theology he inherited from Justin Martyr. Irenaeus was a student of Polycarp, who was said to have been tutored by John the Apostle. (John had used Logos terminology in the Gospel of John and the letter of 1 John). Irenaeus often spoke of the Son and the Spirit as the "hands of God," though he also spoke of the Son as the "Logos." ### Unity of salvation history Irenaeus's emphasis on the unity of God is reflected in his corresponding emphasis on the unity of salvation history. Irenaeus repeatedly insists that God began the world and has been overseeing it ever since this creative act; everything that has happened is part of his plan for humanity. The essence of this plan is a process of maturation: Irenaeus believes that humanity was created immature, and God intended his creatures to take a long time to grow into or assume the divine likeness. Everything that has happened since has therefore been planned by God to help humanity overcome this initial mishap and achieve spiritual maturity. The world has been intentionally designed by God as a difficult place, where human beings are forced to make moral decisions, as only in this way can they mature as moral agents. Irenaeus likens death to the big fish that swallowed Jonah: it was only in the depths of the whale's belly that Jonah could turn to God and act according to the divine will. Similarly, death and suffering appear as evils, but without them we could never come to know God. According to Irenaeus, the high point in salvation history is the advent of Jesus. For Irenaeus, the Incarnation of Christ was intended by God before he determined that humanity would be created. Irenaeus develops this idea based on Rom. 5:14, saying "Forinasmuch as He had a pre-existence as a saving Being, it was necessary that what might be saved should also be called into existence, in order that the Being who saves should not exist in vain." Some theologians maintain that Irenaeus believed that Incarnation would have occurred even if humanity had never sinned; but the fact that they did sin determined his role as the savior. Irenaeus sees Christ as the new Adam, who systematically *undoes* what Adam did: thus, where Adam was disobedient concerning God's edict concerning the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil, Christ was obedient even to death on the wood of a tree. Irenaeus is the first to draw comparisons between Eve and Mary, contrasting the faithlessness of the former with the faithfulness of the latter. In addition to reversing the wrongs done by Adam, Irenaeus thinks of Christ as "recapitulating" or "summing up" human life. Irenaeus conceives of our salvation as essentially coming about through the incarnation of God as a man. He characterizes the penalty for sin as death and corruption. God, however, is immortal and incorruptible, and simply by becoming united to human nature in Christ he conveys those qualities to us: they spread, as it were, like a benign infection. Irenaeus emphasizes that salvation occurs through Christ's Incarnation, which bestows incorruptibility on humanity, rather than emphasizing His Redemptive death in the crucifixion, although the latter event is an integral part of the former. #### Christ's life Part of the process of recapitulation is for Christ to go through every stage of human life, from infancy to old age, and simply by living it, sanctify it with his divinity. Although it is sometimes claimed that Irenaeus believed Christ did not die until he was older than is conventionally portrayed, the bishop of Lyon simply pointed out that because Jesus turned the permissible age for becoming a rabbi (30 years old and above), he recapitulated and sanctified the period between 30 and 50 years old, as per the Jewish custom of periodization on life, and so touches the beginning of old age when one becomes 50 years old. (see Adversus Haereses, book II, chapter 22). In the passage of *Adversus Haereses* under consideration, Irenaeus is clear that after receiving baptism at the age of thirty, citing Luke 3:23, Gnostics then falsely assert that "He [Jesus] preached only one year reckoning from His baptism," and also, "On completing His thirtieth year He [Jesus] suffered, being in fact still a young man, and who had by no means attained to advanced age." Irenaeus argues against the Gnostics by using scripture to add several years after his baptism by referencing 3 distinctly separate visits to Jerusalem. The first is when Jesus makes wine out of water, he goes up to the Paschal feast-day, after which he withdraws and is found in Samaria. The second is when Jesus goes up to Jerusalem for Passover and cures the paralytic, after which he withdraws over the sea of Tiberias. The third mention is when he travels to Jerusalem, eats the Passover, and suffers on the following day. Irenaeus quotes scripture (John 8:57), to suggest that Jesus ministers while in his 40s. In this passage, Jesus's opponents want to argue that Jesus has not seen Abraham, because Jesus is too young. Jesus's opponents argue that Jesus was not yet 50 years old. Irenaeus argues that if Jesus were in his thirties, his opponents would have argued that he was not yet 40 years old, since that would make him even younger. Irenaeus's argument is that they would not weaken their own argument by adding years to Jesus's age. Irenaeus also writes: "The Elders witness to this, who in Asia conferred with John the Lord's disciple, to the effect that John had delivered these things unto them: for he abode with them until the times of Trajan. And some of them saw not only John, but others also of the Apostles, and had this same account from them, and witness to the aforesaid relation." In Demonstration (74) Irenaeus notes "For Pontius Pilate was governor of Judæa, and he had at that time resentful enmity against Herod the king of the Jews. But then, when Christ was brought to him bound, Pilate sent Him to Herod, giving command to enquire of him, that he might know of a certainty what he should desire concerning Him; making Christ a convenient occasion of reconciliation with the king." Pilate was the prefect of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36. He served under Emperor Tiberius Claudius Nero. Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, a client state of the Roman Empire. He ruled from 4 BC to 39 AD. In refuting Gnostic claims that Jesus preached for only one year after his baptism, Irenaeus used the "recapitulation" approach to demonstrate that by living beyond the age of thirty Christ sanctified even old age. ### Use of Paul's Epistles Many aspects of Irenaeus's presentation of salvation history depend on Paul's Epistles. Irenaeus's conception of salvation relies heavily on the understanding found in Paul's letters. Irenaeus first brings up the theme of victory over sin and evil that is afforded by Jesus's death. God's intervention has saved humanity from the Fall of Adam and the wickedness of Satan. Human nature has become joined with God's in the person of Jesus, thus allowing human nature to have victory over sin. Paul writes on the same theme, that Christ has come so that a new order is formed, and being under the Law, is being under the sin of Adam. Reconciliation is also a theme of Paul's that Irenaeus stresses in his teachings on Salvation. Irenaeus believes Jesus coming in flesh and blood sanctified humanity so that it might again reflect the perfection associated with the likeness of the Divine. This perfection leads to a new life, in the lineage of God, which is forever striving for eternal life and unity with the Father. This is a carryover from Paul, who attributes this reconciliation to the actions of Christ: "For since death came through a human being, the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being; for as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ". A third theme in both Paul's and Irenaeus's conceptions of salvation is the sacrifice of Christ being necessary for the new life given to humanity in the triumph over evil. It is in this obedient sacrifice that Jesus is victor and reconciler, thus erasing the marks that Adam left on human nature. To argue against the Gnostics on this point, Irenaeus uses Colossians in showing that the debt which came by a tree has been paid for us in another tree. Furthermore, the first chapter of Ephesians is picked up in Irenaeus's discussion of the topic when he asserts, "By His own blood He redeemed us, as also His apostle declares, 'In whom we have redemption through His blood, even the remission of sins.'" The frequencies of quotations and allusions to the Pauline Epistles in *Against Heresies* are: | Epistle | frequency | | --- | --- | | Romans | 84 | | 1 Corinthians | 102 | | 2 Corinthians | 18 | | Galatians | 27 | | Ephesians | 37 | | Philippians | 13 | | Colossians | 18 | | 1 Thessalonians | 2 | | 2 Thessalonians | 9 | | 1 Timothy | 5 | | 2 Timothy | 5 | | Titus | 4 | | Philemon | 0 | #### Christ as the New Adam To counter his Gnostic opponents, Irenaeus significantly develops Paul's presentation of Christ as the Last Adam. Irenaeus's presentation of Christ as the New Adam is based on Paul's Christ-Adam parallel in Romans 5:12–21. Irenaeus uses this parallel to demonstrate that Christ truly took human flesh. Irenaeus considered it important to emphasize this point because he understands the failure to recognize Christ's full humanity the bond linking the various strains of Gnosticism together, as seen in his statement that "according to the opinion of no one of the heretics was the Word of God made flesh." Irenaeus believes that unless the Word became flesh, humans were not fully redeemed. He explains that by becoming man, Christ restored humanity to being in the image and likeness of God, which they had lost in the Fall of man. Just as Adam was the original head of humanity through whom all sinned, Christ is the new head of humanity who fulfills Adam's role in the Economy of Salvation. Irenaeus calls this process of restoring humanity recapitulation. For Irenaeus, Paul's presentation of the Old Law (the Mosaic covenant) in this passage indicates that the Old Law revealed humanity's sinfulness but could not save them. He explains that "For as the law was spiritual, it merely made sin to stand out in relief, but did not destroy it. For sin had no dominion over the spirit, but over man." Since humans have a physical nature, they cannot be saved by a spiritual law. Instead, they need a human Savior. This is why it was necessary for Christ to take human flesh. Irenaeus summarizes how Christ's taking human flesh saves humanity with a statement that closely resembles Romans 5:19, "For as by the disobedience of the one man who was originally moulded from virgin soil, the many were made sinners, and forfeited life; so was it necessary that, by the obedience of one man, who was originally born from a virgin, many should be justified and receive salvation." The physical creation of Adam and Christ is emphasized by Irenaeus to demonstrate how the Incarnation saves humanity's physical nature. Irenaeus emphasizes the importance of Christ's reversal of Adam's action. Through His obedience, Christ undoes Adam's disobedience. Irenaeus presents the Passion as the climax of Christ's obedience, emphasizing how this obedience on the tree of the Cross undoes the disobedience that occurred through a tree. Irenaeus's interpretation of Paul's discussion of Christ as the New Adam is significant because it helped develop the recapitulation theory of atonement. Irenaeus emphasizes that it is through Christ's reversal of Adam's action that humanity is saved, rather than considering the Redemption to occur in a cultic or juridical way. The biblical passage, "Death has been swallowed up in victory", implied for Irenaeus that the Lord will surely resurrect the first human, i.e. Adam, as one of the saved. According to Irenaeus, those who deny Adam's salvation are “shutting themselves out from life for ever” and the first one who did so was Tatian. The notion that the Second Adam saved the first Adam was advocated not only by Irenaeus, but also by Gregory Thaumaturgus, which suggests that it was popular in the Early Church. ### Valentinian Gnosticism Valentinian Gnosticism was one of the major forms of Gnosticism that Irenaeus opposed. According to the Gnostic view of Salvation, creation was perfect to begin with; it did not need time to grow and mature. For the Valentinians, the material world is the result of the loss of perfection which resulted from Sophia's desire to understand the Forefather. Therefore, one is ultimately redeemed, through secret knowledge, to enter the pleroma of which the Achamoth originally fell. According to the Valentinian Gnostics, there are three classes of human beings. They are the material, who cannot attain salvation; the psychic, who are strengthened by works and faith (they are part of the church); and the spiritual, who cannot decay or be harmed by material actions. Essentially, ordinary humans—those who have faith but do not possess the special knowledge—will not attain salvation. Spirituals, on the other hand—those who obtain this great gift—are the only class that will eventually attain salvation. In his article entitled "The Demiurge", J.P. Arendzen sums up the Valentinian view of the salvation of man. He writes, "The first, or carnal men, will return to the grossness of matter and finally be consumed by fire; the second, or psychic men, together with the Demiurge as their master, will enter a middle state, neither heaven (pleroma) nor hell (whyle); the purely spiritual men will be completely freed from the influence of the Demiurge and together with the Saviour and Achamoth, his spouse, will enter the pleroma divested of body (húle) and soul (psuché)." In this understanding of salvation, the purpose of the Incarnation was to redeem the Spirituals from their material bodies. By taking a material body, the Son becomes the Savior and facilitates this entrance into the pleroma by making it possible for the Spirituals to receive his spiritual body. However, in becoming a body and soul, the Son Himself becomes one of those needing redemption. Therefore, the Word descends onto the Savior at His Baptism in the Jordan, which liberates the Son from his corruptible body and soul. His redemption from the body and soul is then applied to the Spirituals. In response to this Gnostic view of Christ, Irenaeus emphasized that the Word became flesh and developed a soteriology that emphasized the significance of Christ's material Body in saving humanity, as discussed in the sections above. In his criticism of Gnosticism, Irenaeus made reference to a Gnostic gospel which portrayed Judas in a positive light, as having acted in accordance with Jesus's instructions. The recently discovered Gospel of Judas dates close to the period when Irenaeus lived (late 2nd century), and scholars typically regard this work as one of many Gnostic texts, showing one of many varieties of Gnostic beliefs of the period. Quartodeciman Controversy ------------------------- Irenaeus took part in the Quartodeciman Controversy. When Victor I of Rome tried to force a universal practice of feasting until Easter to supersede the Jewish practice and prevent Christians from partaking of the Passover, Polycrates who led the Churches of Asia Minor continued to hold old traditions of the paschal feast. For this reason Victor I wanted to excommunicate Polycrates and his supporters, but this was a step too far for Irenaeus and other bishops. See also -------- * Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross * POxy 405 – 3rd century papyrus portion of *Against Heresies* References ---------- ### Sources * Arendzen, John P. (1908). "Demiurge". 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"The Wonderous Exchange: Irenaeus and Eastern Valentinians on the Soteriology of Interchange". *Journal of Early Christian Studies*. **22** (3): 311–340. doi:10.1353/earl.2014.0029. S2CID 170888989. * Most, William G. (1991). *The Holy Spirit and the Church*. Notre Dame Institute Press. * McDonald, Lee Martin; Sanders, James A. (2001). *The Canon Debate*. Baker. ISBN 978-1-4412-4163-4. * Nielsen, J.T. (1968). *Adam and Christ in the Theology of Irenaeus of Lyons: An Examination of the function of the Adam-Christ Typology in the Adversus Haereses of Ireaneus, against the Background of the Gnosticism of His Time*. Van Gorcum's Theologische Bibliotheek. Asen, The Netherlands: Koninkliijke Van Gorcum 7 Comp. N.V. * Norris, Richard A (2004). "Irenaeus of Lyons". In Frances Young; Lewis Ayres; Andrew Louth (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46083-5. * Pagels, Elaine (1979). *The Gnostc Gospels*. Vintage Books. * Pagels, Elaine (2005). *Beyond Belief*. Pan. * Parvis, Paul (2012). "Who was Irenaeus? An Introduction to the Man and His Work". In Sara Parvis; Paul Foster (eds.). *Irenaeus: Life, Scripture, Legacy*. Minneanpolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-9796-9. * Poncelet, Albert (1910). "St. Irenaeus". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). *Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. * Stark, Rodney (2007). *Cities of God*. HarperCollins. * Steenberg, Ireaneus M.C. "The Role of Mary as Co-Recapitulator in St. Irenaeus of Lyons." *Vigilae Christianae* 58 (2004):117–137. * Tixeront, Rev. J. (1920). "Section IV: The Opponents of Heresy in the Second Century". *A Handbook of Patrology*. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. * Wingren, Gustaf (n.d.), "Saint Irenaeus", *Encyclopædia Britannica* ### Further reading * Irenaeus, *Proof of the Apostolic Preaching*, trans JP Smith, (ACW 16, 1952) * Irenaeus, *Proof of the Apostolic Preaching*, trans John Behr (PPS, 1997) * Irenaeus, *Against Heresies* Archived 16 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, trans. Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut, in *Ante-Nicene Fathers*, vol. 1, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Co., 1885). * Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, ed. (1885). *The Ante-Nicene Fathers*. Buffalo, NY: The Christian Literature Company. ISBN 9780802880871. * Edwards, Mark (2009). *Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church*. Ashgate. ISBN 9780754662914. * Eusebius (1932). *The Ecclesiastical History*. Kirsopp Lake and John E.L. Oulton, trans. New York: Putnam. * Hägglund, Bengt (1968). *History of Theology*. Gene J.Lund, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing. * Minns, Denis (1994). *Irenaeus*. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-553-4. * Payton Jr., James R. *Irenaeus on the Christian Faith: A Condensation of 'Against Heresies* (Cambridge, James Clarke and Co Ltd, 2012). * Quasten, J. (1960). *Patrology: The Beginnings of Patristic Literature*. Westminster, MD: Newman Press. * Schaff, Philip (1980). *History of the Christian Church: Ante-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 100–325*. Grand Rapids, Mich: Wm. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-8047-9. * Tyson, Joseph B. (1973). *A Study of Early Christianity*. New York: Macmillan. * Wolfson, Henry Austryn (1970). *The Philosophy of the Church Fathers: Faith, Trinity, Incarnation*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. | Catholic Church titles | | --- | | | Preceded byPothinus | **Bishop of Lyon** 2nd century | Succeeded byZechariah |

Irenaeus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus

***Amaranthus*** is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as **amaranths**. Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from 1 to 2.5 metres (3 to 8 feet) tall with a cylindrical, succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and bracteoles when mature. There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which are dioecious and native to North America with the remaining 65 monoecious species endemic to every continent (except Antarctica) from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus *Celosia*. Amaranth grain is collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten. Description ----------- Amaranth is a herbaceous plant or shrub that is either annual or perennial across the genus. Flowers vary interspecifically from the presence of 3 or 5 tepals and stamens, whereas a 7-porate pollen grain structure remains consistent across the family. Species across the genus contain concentric rings of vascular bundles, and fix carbon efficiently with a C4 photosynthetic pathway. Leaves are approximately 6.5–15 centimetres (2+1⁄2–6 inches) and of oval or elliptical shape that are either opposite or alternate across species, although most leaves are whole and simple with entire margins. Amaranth has a primary root with deeper spreading secondary fibrous root structures. Inflorescences are in the form a large panicle that varies from terminal to axial, color, and sex. The tassel of fluorescence is either erect or bent and varies in width and length between species. Flowers are radially symmetric and either bisexual or unisexual with very small, bristly perianth and pointy bracts. Species in this genus are either monecious (e.g. *A. hybridus,*) or dioecious (e.g. *A. palmeri*). Fruits are in the form of capsules referred to as a *unilocular pixdio* that opens at maturity. The top (operculum) of the unilocular pixdio releases the urn that contains the seed. Seeds are circular form from 1 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter and range in color with a shiny, smooth seed coat. The panicle is harvested 200 days after cultivation with approximately 1,000 to 3,000 seeds harvested per gram. ### Chemistry Amaranth grain contains phytochemicals that are not defined as nutrients and may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and oxalates. These compounds are reduced in content and antinutrient effect by cooking. Taxonomy -------- *Amaranthus* shows a wide variety of morphological diversity among and even within certain species. *Amaranthus* is part of the Amaranthaceae that is part of the larger grouping of the Carophyllales. Although the family (Amaranthaceae) is distinctive, the genus has few distinguishing characters among the 75 species present across six continents. This complicates taxonomy and *Amaranthus* has generally been considered among systematists as a "difficult" genus and to hybridize often. In 1955, Sauer classified the genus into two subgenera, differentiating only between monoecious and dioecious species: *Acnida* (L.) Aellen ex K.R. Robertson and *Amaranthus*. Although this classification was widely accepted, further infrageneric classification was (and still is) needed to differentiate this widely diverse group. Mosyakin and Robertson 1996 later divided into three subgenera: Acnida, Amaranthus, and Albersia. The support for the addition of the subdivision Albersia because of its circumcise,[*clarify*] indehiscent fruits coupled with three elliptic to linear tepals to be exclusive characters to members of this subgenus. The classification of these groups are further supported with a combination of floral characters, reproductive strategies, geographic distribution, and molecular evidence. The phylogenies of *Amaranthus* using maximum parsimony and Bayesian analysis of nuclear and chloroplast genes suggest five clades within the genus: Diecious / Pumilus, Hybris, Galapagos, Eurasian/ South African, Australian (ESA), ESA + South American. *Amaranthus* includes three recognised subgenera and 75 species, although species numbers are questionable due to hybridisation and species concepts. Infrageneric classification focuses on inflorescence, flower characters and whether a species is monoecious/dioecious, as in the Sauer (1955) suggested classification. Bracteole morphology present on the stem is used for taxonomic classification of Amaranth. Wild species have longer bracteoles compared to cultivated species. A modified infrageneric classification of *Amaranthus* includes three subgenera: *Acnida*, *Amaranthus*, and *Albersia*, with the taxonomy further differentiated by sections within each of the subgenera. There is near certainty that *A. hypochondriacus* is the common ancestor to the cultivated grain species, however the later series of domestication to follow remains unclear. There has been opposing hypotheses of a single as opposed to multiple domestication events of the three grain species. There is evidence of phylogenetic and geographical support for clear groupings that indicate separate domestication events in South America and Central America. *A. hybridus* may derive from South America, whereas *A. caudatus*, *A. hypochondriacus*, and *A. quentiensis* are native to Central and North America. ### Species Species include: * *Amaranthus acanthochiton* – greenstripe * *Amaranthus acutilobus* – a synonym of *Amaranthus viridis* * *Amaranthus albus* – white pigweed, tumble pigweed * *Amaranthus anderssonii* * *Amaranthus arenicola* – sandhill amaranth * *Amaranthus australis* – southern amaranth * *Amaranthus bigelovii* – Bigelow's amaranth * *Amaranthus blitoides* – mat amaranth, prostrate amaranth, prostrate pigweed * *Amaranthus blitum* – purple amaranth * *Amaranthus brownii* – Brown's amaranth * *Amaranthus californicus* – California amaranth, California pigweed * *Amaranthus cannabinus* – tidal-marsh amaranth * *Amaranthus caudatus* – love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, *quilete* * *Amaranthus chihuahuensis* – Chihuahuan amaranth * *Amaranthus crassipes* – spreading amaranth * *Amaranthus crispus* – crispleaf amaranth * *Amaranthus cruentus* – purple amaranth, red amaranth, Mexican grain amaranth * *Amaranthus deflexus* – large-fruit amaranth * *Amaranthus dubius* – spleen amaranth, *khada sag* * *Amaranthus fimbriatus* – fringed amaranth, fringed pigweed * *Amaranthus floridanus* – Florida amaranth * *Amaranthus furcatus* * *Amaranthus graecizans* * *Amaranthus grandiflorus* * *Amaranthus greggii* – Gregg's amaranth * *Amaranthus hybridus* – smooth amaranth, smooth pigweed, red amaranth * *Amaranthus hypochondriacus* – Prince-of-Wales feather, prince's feather * *Amaranthus interruptus* – Australian amaranth * *Amaranthus minimus* * *Amaranthus mitchellii* * *Amaranthus muricatus* – African amaranth * *Amaranthus obcordatus* – Trans-Pecos amaranth * *Amaranthus palmeri* – Palmer's amaranth, Palmer pigweed, careless weed * *Amaranthus polygonoides* – tropical amaranth * *Amaranthus powellii* – green amaranth, Powell amaranth, Powell pigweed * *Amaranthus pringlei* – Pringle's amaranth * *Amaranthus pumilus* – seaside amaranth * *Amaranthus quitensis* - Mucronate Amaranth * *Amaranthus retroflexus* – red-root amaranth, redroot pigweed, common amaranth * Amaranthus saradhiana * *Amaranthus scleranthoides* – variously *Amaranthus sclerantoides* * *Amaranthus scleropoides* – bone-bract amaranth * *Amaranthus spinosus* – spiny amaranth, prickly amaranth, thorny amaranth * *Amaranthus standleyanus* * *Amaranthus thunbergii* – Thunberg's amaranth * *Amaranthus torreyi* – Torrey's amaranth * *Amaranthus tricolor* – Joseph's-coat * *Amaranthus tuberculatus* – rough-fruit amaranth, tall waterhemp * *Amaranthus viridis* – slender amaranth, green amaranth * *Amaranthus watsonii* – Watson's amaranth * *Amaranthus wrightii* – Wright's amaranth ### Etymology "Amaranth" derives from Greek ἀμάραντος (*amárantos*), "unfading", with the Greek word for "flower", ἄνθος (*ánthos*), factoring into the word's development as *amaranth, the unfading flower*. *Amarant* is an archaic variant. The name was first applied to the related *Celosia* (*Amaranthus* and *Celosia* share long-lasting dried flowers), as *Amaranthus* plants were not yet known in Europe. Ecology ------- Amaranth weed species have an extended period of germination, rapid growth, and high rates of seed production, and have been causing problems for farmers since the mid-1990s. This is partially due to the reduction in tillage, reduction in herbicidal use and the evolution of herbicidal resistance in several species where herbicides have been applied more often. The following 9 species of *Amaranthus* are considered invasive and noxious weeds in the U.S and Canada: *A. albus*, *A. blitoides*, *A. hybridus*, *A. palmeri*, *A. powellii*, *A. retroflexus*, *A. spinosus*, *A. tuberculatus*, and *A. viridis*. A new herbicide-resistant strain of *A. palmeri* has appeared; it is glyphosate-resistant and so cannot be killed by herbicides using the chemical. Also, this plant can survive in tough conditions. The species *Amaranthus palmeri* (Palmer amaranth) causes the greatest reduction in soybean yields and has the potential to reduce yields by 17-68% in field experiments. Palmer amaranth is among the "top five most troublesome weeds" in the southeast of the United States and has already evolved resistances to dinitroaniline herbicides and acetolactate synthase inhibitors. This makes the proper identification of *Amaranthus* species at the seedling stage essential for agriculturalists. Proper weed control needs to be applied before the species successfully colonizes in the crop field and causes significant yield reductions. An evolutionary lineage of around 90 species within the genus has acquired the C4 carbon fixation pathway, which increases their photosynthetic efficiency. This probably occurred in the Miocene. Uses ---- All parts of the plant are considered edible, though some may have sharp spines that need to be removed before consumption. * Amaranth being roasted in a comalAmaranth being roasted in a comal * Amaranth muesli mixAmaranth muesli mix * Skull shapes made of amaranth and honey for Day of the Dead in MexicoSkull shapes made of amaranth and honey for Day of the Dead in Mexico * Alegría, traditional Mexican candy made with amaranthAlegría, traditional Mexican candy made with amaranth ### Nutrition Uncooked amaranth grain by weight is 12% water, 65% carbohydrates (including 7% dietary fiber), 14% protein, and 7% fat (table). A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of uncooked amaranth grain provides 1,550 kilojoules (371 kilocalories) of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate, and several dietary minerals (table). Uncooked amaranth is particularly rich in manganese (159% DV), phosphorus (80% DV), magnesium (70% DV), iron (59% DV), and selenium (34% DV). Cooking decreases its nutritional value substantially across all nutrients, with only dietary minerals remaining at moderate levels. Cooked amaranth leaves are a rich source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and manganese, with moderate levels of folate, iron, magnesium, and potassium. Amaranth does not contain gluten. ### History The native range of the genus is cosmopolitan. In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize. Known to the Aztecs as *huāuhtli*, amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest. Another important use of amaranth throughout Mesoamerica was in ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like popcorn and mixed with honey, molasses, or chocolate to make a treat called *alegría*, meaning "joy" in Spanish. While all species are believed to be native to the New World, several have been cultivated and introduced to warm regions worldwide. Amaranth's cosmopolitan distribution makes it one of many plants providing evidence of pre-Columbian oceanic contact. The earliest archeological evidence for amaranth in the Old World was found in an excavation in Narhan, India, dated to 1000–800 BCE.[*dubious – discuss*] Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, its palatability, ease of cooking, and a protein that is particularly well-suited to human nutritional needs, interest in amaranth seeds (especially *A. cruentus* and *A. hypochondriacus*) revived in the 1970s. It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated. It is a popular snack in Mexico, sometimes mixed with chocolate or puffed rice, and its use has spread to Europe and other parts of North America. ### Seed Several species are raised for amaranth "grain" in Asia and the Americas. Amaranth and its relative quinoa are considered pseudocereals because of their similarities to cereals in flavor and cooking. The spread of *Amaranthus* is of a joint effort of human expansion, adaptation, and fertilization strategies. Grain amaranth has been used for food by humans in several ways. The grain can be ground into a flour for use like other grain flours. It can be popped like popcorn, or flaked like oatmeal. Seeds of Amaranth grain have been found in Antofagasta de la Sierra Department, Catamarca, Argentina in the southern Puna desert of the north of Argentina dating from 4,500 years ago, with evidence suggesting earlier use. Archeological evidence of seeds from *A. hypochondriacus* and *A. cruentus*[*verification needed*] found in a cave in Tehuacán, Mexico, suggests amaranth was part of Aztec civilization in the 1400s. Ancient amaranth grains still used include the three species *Amaranthus caudatus*, *A. cruentus*, and *A. hypochondriacus*. Evidence from single-nucleotide polymorphisms and chromosome structure supports *A. hypochondriacus* as the common ancestor of the three grain species. It has been proposed as an inexpensive native crop that could be cultivated by indigenous people in rural areas for several reasons: * A small amount of seed plants a large area (seeding rate 1 kg/ha). * Yields are high compared to the seeding rate: 1,000 kg or more per hectare. * It is easily harvested and easily processed, post harvest, as there are no hulls to remove. * Its seeds are a source of protein. * It has rich content of the dietary minerals, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium. * In cooked and edible forms, amaranth retains adequate content of several dietary minerals. * It is easy to cook. Boil in water with twice the amount of water as grain by volume (or 2.4 times as much water by weight). Amaranth seed can also be popped one tablespoon at a time in a hot pan without oil, shaken every few seconds to avoid burning. * It grows fast and, in three cultivated species, the large seedheads can weigh up to 1 kg and contain a half-million small seeds. In the United States, the amaranth crop is mostly used for seed production. Most amaranth in American food products starts as a ground flour, blended with wheat or other flours to create cereals, crackers, cookies, bread or other baked products. Despite utilization studies showing that amaranth can be blended with other flours at levels above 50% without affecting functional properties or taste, most commercial products use amaranth only as a minor portion of their ingredients despite them being marketed as "amaranth" products. ### Leaves, roots, and stems Amaranth species are cultivated and consumed as a leaf vegetable in many parts of the world. Four species of *Amaranthus* are documented as cultivated vegetables in eastern Asia: *Amaranthus cruentus*, *Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius*, and *Amaranthus tricolor*. #### Asia In Indonesia and Malaysia, leaf amaranth is called *bayam* (although the word has since been loaned to refer to spinach, in a different genus). In the Philippines, the Ilocano word for the plant is *kalunay*; the Tagalog word for the plant is *kilitis* or *kulitis*. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India, it is called **chaulai** and is a popular red leafy vegetable (referred to in the class of vegetable preparations called **laal saag**). It is called *chua* in Kumaun area of Uttarakhand, where it is a popular red-green vegetable. In Karnataka in India, it is called **harive soppu* (ಹರಿವೆ ಸೊಪ್ಪು)* . It is used to prepare curries such as *hulee, palya, majjigay-hulee*, and so on. In Kerala, it is called *cheera* and is consumed by stir-frying the leaves with spices and red chili peppers to make a dish called *cheera thoran*. In Tamil Nadu, it is called **mulaikkira** and is regularly consumed as a favourite dish, where the greens are steamed and mashed with light seasoning of salt, red chili pepper, and cumin. It is called **keerai masial**. In the states of *Andhra Pradesh and Telangana* and other Telugu speaking regions of the country, this leaf is called as "*Thotakura*" and is cooked as a standalone curry, added as a part of mix leafy vegetable curry or added in preparation of a popular *dal* called *thotakura pappu* in (Telugu). In Maharashtra, it is called **shravani maath** and is available in both red and white colour. In Orissa, it is called **khada saga**, it is used to prepare **saga bhaja**, in which the leaf is fried with chili and onions. In West Bengal, the green variant is called **Notey Shaak* (নটে শাক) and the red variant is called* *Laal Shaak* (লাল শাক). In China, the leaves and stems are used as a stir-fry vegetable, or in soups. In Vietnam, it is called *rau dền* and is used to make soup. Two species are popular as edible vegetable in Vietnam: *dền đỏ* (*Amaranthus tricolor*) and *dền cơm* or *dền trắng* (*Amaranthus viridis*). #### Africa A traditional food plant in Africa, amaranth has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care. In Bantu regions of Uganda and western Kenya, it is known as *doodo* or *litoto*. It is also known among the Kalenjin as a drought crop (*chepkerta*). In Lingala (spoken in the Congo), it is known as *lɛngalɛnga* or *bítɛkutɛku*. In Nigeria, it is a common vegetable and goes with all Nigerian starch dishes. It is known in Yoruba as *shoko*, a short form of *shokoyokoto* (meaning "make the husband fat"), or *arowo jeja* (meaning "we have money left over for fish"). In Botswana, it is referred to as *morug* and cooked as a staple green vegetable. #### Europe In Greece, purple amaranth (*Amaranthus Blitum*) is a popular dish called βλήτα, *vlita* or *vleeta*. It is boiled, then served with olive oil and lemon juice like a salad, sometimes alongside fried fish. Greeks stop harvesting the plant (which also grows wild) when it starts to bloom at the end of August. #### Americas In Brazil, green amaranth was, and to a degree still is, often considered an invasive species as all other species of amaranth (except the generally imported *A. caudatus* cultivar), though some have traditionally appreciated it as a leaf vegetable, under the names of *caruru* or *bredo*, which is consumed cooked, generally accompanying the staple food, rice and beans. In the Caribbean, the leaves are called *bhaji* in Trinidad and *callaloo* in Jamaica, and are sautéed with onions, garlic, and tomatoes, or sometimes used in a soup called pepperpot soup. ### Oil Making up about 5% of the total fatty acids of amaranth, squalene is extracted as a vegetable-based alternative to the more expensive shark oil for use in dietary supplements and cosmetics. ### Dyes The flowers of the 'Hopi Red Dye' amaranth were used by the Hopi (a tribe in the western United States) as the source of a deep red dye. Also a synthetic dye was named "amaranth" for its similarity in color to the natural amaranth pigments known as betalains. This synthetic dye is also known as Red No. 2 in North America and E123 in the European Union. ### Ornamentals The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as *Amaranthus caudatus* (love-lies-bleeding), a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, *A. hypochondriacus* (prince's feather), has deeply veined, lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes. Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the nutmeg moth and various case-bearer moths of the genus *Coleophora*: *C. amaranthella*, *C. enchorda* (feeds exclusively on *Amaranthus*), *C. immortalis* (feeds exclusively on *Amaranthus*), *C. lineapulvella*, and *C. versurella* (recorded on *A. spinosus*). Culture ------- Diego Durán described the festivities for the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli. The Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (7 December to 26 December) was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. People decorated their homes and trees with paper flags; ritual races, processions, dances, songs, prayers, and finally human sacrifices were held. This was one of the more important Aztec festivals, and the people prepared for the whole month. They fasted or ate very little; a statue of the god was made out of amaranth seeds and honey, and at the end of the month, it was cut into small pieces so everybody could eat a piece of the god. After the Spanish conquest, cultivation of amaranth was outlawed, while some of the festivities were subsumed into the Christmas celebration. Amaranth is associated with longevity and, poetically, with death and immortality. Amaranth garlands were used in the mourning of Achilles. John Milton's *Paradise Lost* portrays a showy amaranth in the Garden of Eden, "remov'd from Heav'n" when it blossoms because the flowers "shade the fountain of life". He describes amaranth as "immortal" in reference to the flowers that generally do not wither and retain bright reddish tones of color, even when deceased; referred to in one species as "love-lies-bleeding." Gallery ------- * Love-lies-bleeding (A. caudatus)Love-lies-bleeding (*A. caudatus*) * Green amaranth (A. hybridus)Green amaranth (*A. hybridus*) * Seabeach amaranth (A. pumilus), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species ListSeabeach amaranth (*A. pumilus*), an amaranth on the Federal Threatened species List * Red-root amaranth (A. retroflexus)—from Thomé, Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz 1885Red-root amaranth (*A. retroflexus*)—from Thomé, *Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz* 1885 * Spiny amaranth (A. spinosus)Spiny amaranth (*A. spinosus*) * Green amaranth (A. viridis)Green amaranth (*A. viridis*) * Popping amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) Popping amaranth (*Amaranthus sp.*) * Amaranth from ChilpancingoAmaranth from Chilpancingo See also -------- * Ancient grains Further reading --------------- * Howard, Brian Clark. "Amaranth: Another Ancient Wonder Food, But Who Will Eat It?". National Geographic Online, August 12, 2013. * Fanton M., Fanton J. *Amaranth* The Seed Savers' Handbook. (1993) * Assad, R., Reshi, Z. A., Jan, S., & Rashid, I. (2017). Biology of amaranths. The Botanical Review, 83(4), 382–436.

Amaranth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth

**Afar** (Afar: *Qafaraf*; also known as **’Afar Af**, **Afaraf**, **Qafar af**) is an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic branch. It is spoken by the Afar people inhabiting Djibouti, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Classification -------------- Afar is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. It is further categorized in the Lowland East Cushitic sub-group, along with Saho and Somali. Its closest relative is the Saho language. Geographic distribution ----------------------- The Afar language is spoken as a mother tongue by the Afar people in Djibouti, Eritrea, and the Afar Region of Ethiopia. According to *Ethnologue*, there are 2,600,000 total Afar speakers. Of these, 1,280,000 were recorded in the 2007 Ethiopian census, with 906,000 monolinguals registered in the 1994 census. Official status --------------- In Djibouti, Afar is a recognized national language. It is also one of the broadcasting languages of the Radio Television of Djibouti public network. In Eritrea, Afar is recognized as one of nine national languages which formally enjoy equal status although Tigrinya and Arabic are by far of greatest significance in official usage. There are daily broadcasts on the national radio and a translated version of the Eritrean constitution. In education, however, Afar speakers prefer Arabic – which many of them speak as a second language – as the language of instruction. In the Afar Region of Ethiopia, Afar is also recognized as an official working language. Since 2020, Afar is one of the five official working languages of Ethiopia. Phonology --------- ### Consonants The consonants of the Afar language in the standard orthography are listed below (with IPA notation in brackets): | | Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Pharyngeal | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Plosive | voiceless | | t ⟨t⟩ | | | k ⟨k⟩ | | | | voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | | | ɡ ⟨g⟩ | | | | Fricative | voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ | s ⟨s⟩ | | | | ħ ⟨c⟩ | h ⟨h⟩ | | voiced | | | | | | ʕ ⟨q⟩ | | | Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | | | | | | | Approximant | w ⟨w⟩ | l ⟨l⟩ | | j ⟨y⟩ | | | | | Tap | | ɾ ⟨r⟩ | ɖ ⟨x⟩ | | | | | Voiceless stop consonants which close syllables are released, e.g., [ʌkʰˈme]. ### Vowels and stress | | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | short | long | long | short | long | | Close | i ⟨i⟩ | iː ⟨ii⟩ | | u ⟨u⟩ | uː ⟨uu⟩ | | Mid | e ⟨e⟩ | eː ⟨ee⟩ | | o ⟨o⟩ | oː ⟨oo⟩ | | Open | | | aː ⟨aa⟩ | ʌ ⟨a⟩ | | Sentence final vowels of affirmative verbs are aspirated (and stressed), e.g. * ***abeh*** = /aˈbeʰ/ 'He did.' Sentence final vowels of negative verbs are not aspirated (nor stressed), e.g. * ***maabinna*** = /ˈmaabinna/ 'He did not do.' Sentence final vowels of interrogative verbs are lengthened (and stressed), e.g. * ***abee?*** = /aˈbeː/ 'Did he do?' Otherwise, stress in word-final. ### Phonotactics Possible syllable shapes are V, VV, VC, VVC, CV, CVV and CVVC. Syntax ------ As in most other Cushitic languages, the basic word order in Afar is subject–object–verb. Writing system -------------- In Ethiopia, Afar used to be written with the Ge'ez script (Ethiopic script). Since around 1849, the Latin script has been used in other areas to transcribe the language. Additionally, Afar is also transcribed using the Arabic script. In the early 1970s, two Afar intellectuals and nationalists, Dimis and Redo, formalized the Afar alphabet. Known as *Qafar Feera*, the orthography is based on the Latin script. Officials from the Institut des Langues de Djibouti, the Eritrean Ministry of Education, and the Ethiopian Afar Language Studies and Enrichment Center have since worked with Afar linguists, authors and community representatives to select a standard orthography for Afar from among the various existing writing systems used to transcribe the language. ### Latin alphabet | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | | a | ba | ca | da | e | fa | ga | ha | i | ja | ka | la | ma | na | o | pa | qa | ra | sa | ta | u | va | wa | xa | ya | za | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | A | B | T | S | E | C | K | X | I | D | Q | R | F | G | O | L | M | N | U | W | H | Y | | a | ba | ta | sa | e | ca | ka | xa | i | da | qa | ra | fa | ga | o | la | ma | na | u | wa | ha | ya | See also -------- * Afar people * Afar Region

Afar language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afar_language

The national **flag of Bangladesh** was adopted officially on 17 January 1972. It consists of a red disc or sun on top of a dark green banner. The red disc is offset slightly toward the hoist so that it appears centered when the flag is flying. While there are many interpretations, according to Shib Narayan Das who put the map on the first flag design, green on the flag represented the landscape and the red circle represented the sun, symbolising a new day and end of oppression. The flag is based on a similar flag used during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, which had a yellow map of the country inside the red disc. In 1972 this map was removed from the flag. One reason given was the difficulty for rendering the map correctly on both sides of the flag. The civil ensign and naval ensign place it in the canton of a red or white field, respectively. Origin ------ The first version of the flag was designed and made by a section of student leaders and activists of Swadheen Bangla Nucleus on 6 June 1970, at room 108 of Iqbal Hall (now Sergeant Zahurul Haq hall), Dhaka University; students involved with the design were namely Kazi Aref Ahmed, ASM Abdur Rab, Shahjahan Siraj, Manirul Islam (Marshal Moni), Swapan Kumar Choudhury, Quamrul Alam Khan Khasru, Hasanul Haq Inu, and Yousuf Salahuddin Ahmed. The flag was made from clothes donated by Bazlur Rahman Lasker, the owner of Apollo Tailors, Dhaka New Market. A map of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was first traced on a tracing paper from an atlas by Hasanul Haq Inu, Yousuf Salahuddin Ahmed and Enamul Haq, at Enamul's room (312) in Quaid-I Azam Hall (now Titumir Hall), EPUET (now BUET). Later the map was painted in the red circle by Shib Narayan Das. On 2 March 1971, this initial version of the flag was hoisted in Bangladesh for the first time at Dhaka University, by student leader A. S. M. Abdur Rab, the then Vice President of Dhaka University Students' Union (DUCSU) The flag was conceived so as to exclude the star and crescent considered as symbols of West Pakistan (now Pakistan). On 26 July 1971, Zakaria Pintoo the captain of the Shadhin Bangla Football Team became the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign land, before a match in Nadia district of West Bengal. On 13 January 1972 the flag was modified. The map from the center was removed, and the red disk moved towards the hoist so as to be visually centered when the flag is in flight on a mast. Symbolism --------- According to *CIA World Fact Book* and official descriptions, the green used in the flag represents the lushness of the green landscape of the country and the red disk of the flag represents the blood the Bengalis shed during the Bangladesh Liberation War and the blood of those who died for the independence of Bangladesh. An alternative description says that the green background represents the youth power and progress, while the red disk represents the revolution and renaissance. The circularity of the red design indicates the rising sun, similar to the Japanese flag. Design ------ According to Bangladeshi government specifications, following is the specification of the national flag: * The flag will be in bottle green and rectangular in size in the proportion of length to width of 10:6, with a red circle in near middle. * The red circle will have a radius of one-fifth of the length of the flag. Its centre will be placed on the intersecting point of the perpendicular drawn from the nine-twentieth part of the length of the flag, and the horizontal line drawn through the middle of its width. * The green base of the flag will be of Procion Brilliant Green H-2RS 50 parts per 1000. The red circular part will be of Procion Brilliant Orange H-2RS 60 parts per 1000. * Depending on the size of the building the flag sizes will be 10 ft × 6 ft (3.0 m × 1.8 m); 5 ft × 3 ft (1.52 m × 0.91 m); 2+1⁄2 ft × 1+1⁄2 ft (760 mm × 460 mm). The size of the flag for cars is 12+1⁄2 in × 7+1⁄2 in (320 mm × 190 mm), and the size of the table flag for bilateral conferences is 10 in × 6 in (250 mm × 150 mm). Protocol -------- The national flag of Bangladesh is flown on all working days on important government buildings and offices, e.g., the president house, legislative assembly buildings, etc. All ministries and the secretariat buildings of Bangladesh, offices of the high court, courts of district and session judges, offices of the commissioners of divisions, deputy commissioner/collectors, chairman, upazila parishad, central and district jails, police stations, primary, secondary and higher secondary level educational institutions and other buildings notified by the government from time to time. Ministers of state and persons accorded the status of a minister of state, deputy ministers and persons accorded the status of a deputy minister while on tour outside the capital within the country or abroad are entitled to fly the flag on their motor vehicles and vessels. ### Official residences The following persons must fly the flag on their official residence: * The President of Bangladesh * The Prime Minister of Bangladesh * The Speaker of the Parliament of Bangladesh * The Chief Justice of Bangladesh * All Cabinet Ministers * Chief Whip of Bangladesh * Deputy Speaker of the Parliament * The leader of the Opposition in Parliament * Ministers of States * Deputy Ministers * Heads of Bangladeshi Diplomatic or Consular Missions in foreign countries * Chairmen of Chittagong hill tracts (district offices of Rangamati, Khagrachari and Bandarban) ### Motor vehicles and vessels The following persons are entitled to fly the flag on their motor vehicles and vessels: * The President of Bangladesh * The Prime Minister of Bangladesh * The Speaker of the Parliament * The Chief of Justice of Bangladesh * All Cabinet Ministers * Chief Whip * Deputy Speaker of the Parliament * The leader of the Opposition in Parliament * Heads of Bangladeshi Diplomatic or Consular Missions in foreign countries ### Display The national flag of Bangladesh is flown on public and private buildings throughout Bangladesh and the office premises of Bangladeshi diplomatic missions and consular posts on the following days and occasions: * Independence Day on 26 March. * Victory Day on 16 December. * Birthday of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. * Any other day notified by the Government of Bangladesh. ### Half-mast The national flag of Bangladesh is flown at half-mast on the following days: * National Shaheed Day, now the International Mother Language Day, on 21 February * National Mourning Day of Bangladesh on 15 August. * All other days notified by the Government of Bangladesh. World record ------------ On 16 December 2013, the 42nd Victory Day of Bangladesh, 27,117 people gathered at the National Parade Ground in Dhaka's Sher-e-Bangla Nagar and created a "human flag" which was recorded in *Guinness Book of World Records* as the world's largest human national flag. This feat was short, however, as India topped the record on 7 December 2014 with 43,830 people participating to achieve the new world record for largest human national flag. In July 2021, Saimon Imran Hayder used 16,000 envelopes to create a 240m2 Bangladesh flag at the InterContinental Dhaka which was also a Guinness World Records attempt. Historical flags ---------------- ### Pre-colonial states | Flag | Date | Use | Description | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 1206–1352 | Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the Catalan Atlas (1375) | A dark grey flag with a black strip left of center. | | | 1352–1576 | Flag of the Bengal Sultanate | A white flag with two red strips at the top and bottom. | | | 1576–1858 | Flag of the Mughal Empire | Mughal Empire Alam flag that was primarily moss green.[*failed verification*] | | | –1757 | Flag of the Bengal Subah | A white flag with three red barrels and a red sword. | ### British India and independence | Flag | Date | Use | Description | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 1858–1947 | The official state flag of the British Empire for use in India | The Flag of the United Kingdom. | | | 1885–1947 | Flag of the Viceroy of India | The Union Jack with the insignia of the Order of the Star of India beneath the Imperial Crown of India. | | | 1880–1947 | Flag of the British Raj: A civilian flag used to represent British India internationally. | A Red Ensign with the Union Flag at the canton, and the Star of India displayed in the fly. | | | –1947 | Flag of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal Presidency, later Bengal Province) | A Blue Ensign with the Union Flag at the canton, and the Bengal Presidency Emblem displayed in the fly. | | | 1947-1971 | Flag of Pakistan | Green flag with a white crescent and star on it, and a white strip to its left. See List of Pakistani flags for more. | | | March – December 1971 | Flag of Mukti Bahini (Liberation Forces) | A flag with a red background, a white disk and a hand holding a rifle- bayonet in the middle. | | | 1971– 1972 | Flag of Provisional Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, used after independence too. | A flag with a green background, a red disk and a yellow map of the country in the middle | | | 1972–present | National flag of Bangladesh | A red disc on top of a green field, offset slightly toward the hoist. | See also -------- * List of Bangladeshi flags * National symbols of Bangladesh

Flag of Bangladesh

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Bangladesh

**Swiss International Air Lines AG**, colloquially known as **SWISS**, is the flag carrier of Switzerland and a subsidiary of the Lufthansa Group. It operates scheduled services in Europe and to North America, South America, Africa and Asia. Zurich Airport serves as its sole hub and Geneva Airport as a focus city. The airline was formed following the bankruptcy in 2002 of Swissair, Switzerland's then-flag carrier. The new airline was built around what had been Swissair's regional subsidiary, Crossair. *Swiss* retains Crossair's IATA code *LX* (Swissair's code was *SR*). It assumed Swissair's old ICAO code of *SWR* (Crossair's was *CRX*), to maintain international traffic rights. It is a member of Star Alliance and a subsidiary of the Lufthansa Group. Its headquarters are at EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg near Basel, Switzerland, and an office at Zurich Airport in Kloten, Switzerland. The company's registered office is in Basel. On 18 November 2020, it was announced that Dieter Vranckx would assume the position of CEO as of 1 January 2021. Vranckx has 20 years of experience within the Lufthansa Group and is currently CEO of Lufthansa Group member Brussels Airlines, a position he has held since the start of 2020. History ------- ### Beginnings Swiss was formed after the 2002 bankruptcy of Swissair, Switzerland's former flag carrier. Forty percent of Crossair's income came from Swissair. The new airline lost US$1.6 billion from 2002 to 2005. Swissair's biggest creditors, Credit Suisse and UBS, sold part of Swissair's assets to Crossair, which had been Swissair's regional counterpart. At the time, both Swissair and Crossair were part of the same holding company, SAirGroup. Crossair later changed its name to *Swiss International Air Lines*, and the new national airline officially started operations on 31 March 2002. The airline was initially owned by institutional investors (61.3%), the Swiss Confederation (20.3%), cantons and communities (12.2%), and others (6.2%). Swiss also owns subsidiaries Swiss Sun (100%) and Crossair Europe (99.9%). It has a total of 7,383 employees. According to Marcel Biedermann, the managing director of intercontinental markets for Swiss, there were three possibilities: stay independent as a niche carrier, shrink to an unrecognisable level, or attach to another airline group. The last choice was taken. Swiss talked to Air France–KLM, British Airways, and Lufthansa. However, Swiss was tied up with debt and an uncertain future and seemed to be an unattractive investment. After merging with KLM, Air France said they were too busy to deal with the Swiss joining them[*dubious – discuss*]. British Airways was open, and Oneworld partners thought Zurich Airport would be a viable alternative hub for London Heathrow. After almost a year of disputes, Swiss was finally accepted into the Oneworld airline alliance, after having been blocked by British Airways, which competes with Swiss on many long-haul routes. On 3 June 2004, Swiss announced its decision not to join Oneworld because they did not want to integrate their current frequent flyer program into British Airways' Executive Club. Furthermore, Swiss thought the relationship was one-sided, where British Airways sapped out the benefits of the airline, but they would get no return. ### Recovery The airline annually halved its losses, and in 2006 recorded a net profit of $220 million. The net profit for 2007 was $570 million. Biedermann stated in the March 2008 edition of *Airways*, that "this was the beginning of getting our house back in order." He said that help was needed and looked up to Lufthansa as a comparison, so their coming together was natural, even with their differences. Even with the smaller network, Swiss carries the same number of passengers as they did in 2002. On 22 March 2005, Lufthansa Group confirmed its plan to take over Swiss, starting with a minority stake (11%) in a new company set up to hold Swiss shares called Air Trust. *Swiss* operations were gradually integrated with Lufthansa's from late 2005, and the takeover was completed on 1 July 2007. Swiss joined Star Alliance and became a member of Lufthansa's Miles and More frequent flyer program on 1 April 2006. The airline set up a regional airline subsidiary called Swiss European Air Lines. The carrier had its own air operator's certificate. Two divisions -–Swiss Aviation Training and Swiss WorldCargo (using the belly capacity of passenger planes) – are also owned by Swiss. Swiss European Air Lines (later renamed Swiss Global Air Lines) has since ceased operations and merged with its parent, Swiss. In 2008, Swiss International Air Lines acquired Edelweiss Air and Servair – later renamed Swiss Private Aviation. In February 2011, Swiss Private Aviation ceased operations as a result of restructuring. The company recommended using Lufthansa Private Jet Service instead. In 2007, Swiss ordered nine Airbus A330-300s to gradually replace existing A330-200s and have three-class seating. The first A330-300 was put into service on the flagship Zürich to New York-JFK route in April 2009. In spring 2010 Swiss operated five A330-300s on medium and long-haul routes. The remaining four A330-300 aircraft joined the fleet in 2011. ### Takeover by Lufthansa Following Lufthansa Group's takeover, the regional fleet was changed from Crossair's Embraer ERJs and Saabs to Avro RJs, which were flown by a wholly owned subsidiary, Swiss Global Air Lines. The rest of the fleet was rationalised and now mainly consists of Airbus aircraft, apart from the Boeing 777. Swiss also renegotiated their supplier contracts, including ground handling, maintenance, food service, and labour. Swiss shareholders received a performance-based option for their shares. The payment was in 2008, and the amount depended on how well Lufthansa's shares compared with competitors' shares. Lufthansa continues to maintain Swiss as a separate brand. In 2010, Swiss and Lufthansa have named in a European Commission investigation into price-fixing but were not fined due to acting as a whistleblower. On 18 August 2011, Swiss introduced a new company logo which resembled the logo of the defunct Swissair. Corporate affairs ----------------- ### Head office Swiss International Air Lines has its operational headquarters at EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg near Basel, Switzerland. The French-Swiss airport is located on French territory and has customs-free access to Switzerland. The Swiss head office is located in the Swiss section of the airport, and it is only accessible from Switzerland. According to the commercial register, the legal seat is in Basel itself. Swiss International Air Lines' head office was previously the head office of Crossair. In 2002 the "Crossair" sign on the building was replaced by a "Swiss International Air Lines" one. As of 2004 the Basel area offices housed about 1,000 employees, while the Zurich area offices housed about 850 employees. When Swiss started as a company, about 1,400-1,500 worked at the Basel offices. Swiss also operates offices at Zurich Airport in Kloten and at Geneva Airport. ### Subsidiaries The following companies are part of the Swiss International Air Lines Group: * Edelweiss Air * Swiss AviationSoftware * Swiss Aviation Training * Swiss WorldCargo * SWISStours ### Inflight service On European flights, Swiss serves drinks. Depending on the time of day and the duration of the flight, Swiss may also serve snacks. Cold snacks are served on shorter flights, and hot ones on longer flights. Economy class service includes sandwiches from a Swiss bakery. A small bar of Swiss chocolate branded with the word "SWISS" and the distinctive tail fin is provided to passengers before landing on all flights. For its services to and from Geneva Airport on Airbus A220 aircraft a buy on board system called *Swiss Saveurs* is available. ### Trains and buses Swiss' *SWISS Air Rail* service allows passengers to take any SBB train at no extra charge from Zurich Airport to Basel SBB railway station and Lugano railway station. Swiss previously operated a *Swissbus* service from Ottawa Railway Station to Montréal–Trudeau airport in Montreal. Destinations ------------ ### Codeshare agreements Swiss codeshares with the following airlines: * Air Canada * Air China * Air France * Air India * Air Malta * All Nippon Airways * Asiana Airlines * Austrian Airlines * Avianca * Brussels Airlines * Cathay Pacific * Croatia Airlines * Edelweiss Air (Subsidiary) * Egyptair * El Al * Eurowings * LOT Polish Airlines * Lufthansa * Scandinavian Airlines * Singapore Airlines * South African Airways * TAP Air Portugal * Thai Airways International * United Airlines * Vistara ### Interline agreements Swiss has interline agreements with the following airlines: * Aerolíneas Argentinas * Aeroméxico * Air Austral * Air Dolomiti * Air Mauritius * American Airlines * Bangkok Airways * British Airways * China Airlines * China Eastern Airlines * China Southern Airlines * Condor Flugdienst * Delta Air Lines * Emirates * Finnair * Gol Transportes Aéreos * Gulf Air * Helvetic Airways * Iberia * Icelandair * ITA Airways * Japan Airlines * Jetstar Airways * Kenya Airways * KLM * Korean Air * LATAM Chile * Luxair * Malaysia Airlines * Mandarin Airlines * Middle East Airlines * Oman Air * Pakistan International Airlines * Precision Air * Qantas * Qatar Airways * Rossiya Airlines * Saudia * Shanghai Airlines * SunExpress * SriLankan Airlines * Turkish Airlines * Vietnam Airlines * Virgin Atlantic Fleet ----- ### Current fleet As of March 2023[update], Swiss International Air Lines (excluding its subsidiary Edelweiss Air) operates the following aircraft. Additionally, Helvetic Airways operates ten Embraer 190s on behalf of Swiss. Following Helvetic Airways' acquisition of the type, Helvetic Airways will also operate Embraer 190-E2 aircraft on behalf of Swiss. Swiss International Air Lines fleet| Aircraft | In service | Orders | Passengers | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | F | B | P | E | Total | Ref. | | Airbus A220-100 | 9 | — | — | 12 | — | 113 | 125 | | Launch customer. | | Airbus A220-300 | 21 | — | — | 18 | — | 127 | 145 | | | | Airbus A320-200 | 10 | — | — | 20 | — | 160 | 180 | | 8 aircraft inherited from Swissair.1 aircraft painted in Star Alliance livery. | | Airbus A320neo | 6 | 11 | Original order for ten with seven options to firm orders. | | Airbus A321-100 | 3 | — | — | 32 | — | 187 | 219 | | All aircraft inherited from Swissair. | | Airbus A321-200 | 3 | — | | | Airbus A321neo | 3 | 5 | Original order for five with three options to firm orders.Some orders can be changed to Airbus A321LR. | | Airbus A330-300 | 14 | — | 8 | 45 | — | 183 | 236 | | | | — | 4 | 43 | 21 | 159 | 227 | | | | Airbus A340-300 | 4 | — | 8 | 47 | — | 168 | 223 | | To be retired and replaced by Airbus A350-900 by mid 2025.1 already transferred to Edelweiss Air. | | Airbus A350-900 | — | 5 | TBA | Deliveries from mid 2025 as part of a Lufthansa order to replace Airbus A340-300s. | | Boeing 777-300ER | 12 | — | 8 | 62 | 24 | 226 | 320 | | The first and only Boeing aircraft in the fleet | | Total | 85 | 22 | | | ### Fleet development On 22 September 2010, Lufthansa announced an order for 48 new aircraft, several of them for Swiss. In March 2013, Swiss ordered six Boeing 777-300ERs. On 12 March 2015, Swiss confirmed Lufthansa Group had ordered an additional three Boeing 777-300ERs for Swiss. The 777s will be operated by, and leased back from, Swiss Global Air Lines. Swiss has confirmed that all 777-300ERs will have an updated First Class cabin with eight private suites and a 32-inch TV, 62 business class seats which convert into a fully flat bed that is over two meters long, and 270 economy seats, with 10 seats abreast in a 3-4-3 layout, using the same seat pitch and width on its A330s and A340s on the 777s. The first of these new airliners was delivered in January 2016 The Boeing aircraft will replace most of Swiss' A340 aircraft while the remaining five A340s were refurbished. In 2014, Swiss announced it would refurbish its A320 fleet, with new interiors and the older A320s and A321s were to be replaced by A320/A321neos. The A319s, along with Swiss Global Air Lines' Avro fleet, were replaced by Bombardier CS300 aircraft. The last Avro RJ100 aircraft, HB-IYZ, completed its final flight, LX7545 from Geneva to Zurich on 15 August 2017. Swiss' first Airbus A220, then known as the Bombardier CS300, entered service on 1 June 2017, with its maiden commercial flight from Geneva to London-Heathrow. Swiss was the launch customer of the Airbus A220 family (formerly known as Bombardier CSeries), with its first CSeries aircraft, a CS100 (A220-100), delivered to the airline in June 2016 and registered HB-JBA. The first commercial flight performed led from Zurich to Paris-Charles de Gaulle. The Boeing 777-300ER and Airbus A220-100/-300 (Bombardier CS100/CS300) aircraft were operated by Swiss Global Air Lines until the subsidiary ceased operations in April 2018, in an attempt to lower administration costs and simplify Swiss' fleet structuring. Adria Airways operated two Saab 2000s on the Zurich-Lugano route, which was suspended after Adria's bankruptcy on 30 September 2019. ### Retired fleet Swiss International Air Lines retired aircraft| Aircraft | Total | Introduced | Retired | Replacement | Notes/Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Airbus A319-100 | 8 | 2002 | 2020 | Airbus A220-300 | Taken over from Swissair. | | Airbus A330-200 | 15 | 2012 | Airbus A330-300 | | Avro RJ85 | 4 | 2007 | Airbus A320 family | Taken over from Crossair. | | Embraer 175 | 24 | 2017 | Airbus A220-300 | | Embraer ERJ-145 | 25 | 2007 | Airbus A320 family | | McDonnell Douglas MD-11 | 16 | 2005 | Airbus A340-300 | Taken over from Swissair. | | McDonnell Douglas MD-82 | 1 | 2003 | Airbus A320 family | Taken over from Crossair. | | McDonnell Douglas MD-83 | 10 | 2002 | 2005 | | Saab 340B | 2 | 2004 | Avro RJ85 | | Saab 2000 | 31 | 2005 | Avro RJ100 | | Accidents and incidents ----------------------- * On 10 July 2002, Swiss International Air Lines Flight 850, a Saab 2000 crashed at Werneuchen Airfield due to improper weather information and improper markings on the runway, resulting in the collapse of the landing gear and fire being spread throughout the aircraft. Though everyone on board survived, the aircraft was written off. 1. ↑ "Swiss, Facts & Figures". Archived from the original on 14 August 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2010. 2. ↑ "List of AOC Holders with Complex Airplanes" (PDF). Federal Office of Civil Aviation. 28 March 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 20 April 2018. 3. 1 2 "Facts and figures". Swiss International Air Lines. Archived from the original on 11 March 2017. Retrieved 19 April 2017. 4. ↑ "Swiss International Air Lines AG[*permanent dead link*]." Office du Registre du commerce du canton de Bâle-Ville. Retrieved on 13 March 2008. 5. 1 2 "Dieter Vranckx appointed as SWISS's new CEO". Aviation Pros. 18 November 2020. Archived from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2020. 6. 1 2 "2021 financial results: SWISS reduces operating loss" (PDF). Swiss International Air Lines. 3 March 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022. 7. ↑ "Swiss International Air Lines Zurich. Swiss International Air Lines" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. 8. ↑ "Impressum Archived 29 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine." Swiss International Air Lines. Retrieved on 22 June 2010. "Rechtssitz der Gesellschaft Swiss International Air Lines AG Malzgasse 15 CH-4052 Basel." 9. ↑ "Airline Beginnings". Retrieved 30 January 2020. 10. 1 2 "Swiss - Facts & Figures". Archived from the original on 1 March 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2010. 11. ↑ "Swiss resumes regular flight operations on Thursday". Retrieved 30 January 2020.[*permanent dead link*] 12. ↑ "Swiss TravelClub becomes Miles & More". Archived from the original on 10 August 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2020. 13. ↑ "Kuoni and SWISS enter into strategic partnership" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2010. 14. ↑ "WEKO approves the acquisition of Edelweiss Air by SWISS" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 19 December 2010. 15. ↑ "SWISS acquires Servair to operate as Swiss Private Aviation" (Press release). Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2010. 16. ↑ "Goodbye, with gratitude" (Press release). Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2011. 17. ↑ "Swiss looks forward with new A330-300 premium offerings". Archived from the original on 30 January 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020. 18. ↑ "SWISS takes off into a new future with Lufthansa". 2005. Archived from the original on 24 October 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2009. 19. ↑ "Eleven airlines fined in European cargo cartel investigation". Archived from the original on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. 20. ↑ SWISS reinforce son positionnement et affine son image de marque, Swiss, 4 October 2011 21. ↑ New logo: Swiss International Air Lines Archived 5 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, on 4 October 2011 22. ↑ "SWISS unveils foundation for solid future". Swiss International Air Lines. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2010. The Annual Results Press Conference takes place at 11:00, Tuesday, 23 March at the SWISS head office at Basel EuroAirport. 23. ↑ "Plan interactif". Saint-Louis (Haut-Rhin). Archived from the original on 14 November 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2009. 24. ↑ "How to find us". Farnair Europe. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2010. 25. ↑ "Swiss International Air Lines Basel" (PDF). Swiss International Air Lines. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2009. ATTENTION! It is only possible to reach SWISS at the EuroAirport Basel via the Swiss customs or the customs-free road! 26. ↑ http://search.powernet.ch/webservices/net/HRG/HRG.asmx/getHRGHTML?chnr=CH-270.3.001.037-6&amt=270&toBeModified=0&validOnly=0&lang=1&sort=%5B%5D (accessed on 16 February 2014) 27. ↑ "Industry Briefs". Airline Industry Information. 2 July 2002. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2010. According to a company statement, the new name replaces Crossair at the corporate headquarters in Basel. 28. ↑ "Wenn die Direktion geht, folgt dann der Rest?" (PDF). *Basler Zeitung* (in German). Vol. No. 173. 27 July 2004. Archived from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 2 July 2010.`{{cite news}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)Ursprünglich arbeiteten am Hauptsitz in Basel rund 1400 bis 1500 Leute, heute sind es noch rund 1000 (das fliegende Personal nicht mitgezählt) – der meiste Teil der Stellen fiel der Restrukturierung vom letzten Jahr zum Opfer. In Zürich arbeiten derzeit rund 850 Personen am Boden. () 29. ↑ "Company Profile". SWISS. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2020. 30. ↑ "SWISStours, a 100% subsidiary of Swiss International Air Lines". SWISStours. Archived from the original on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 25 June 2019. Since 1997, SWISStours offers booking of hotels, apartments, rail passes, packages, and sightseeing in Switzerland, Europe, and other countries across the world. 31. ↑ "SWISS Economy Europe." Swiss International Air Lines". Swiss.com. Archived from the original on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. 32. ↑ "swiss-choice-gva.com". 33. ↑ "Airtrain Between Zurich airport and Basel SBB Archived 29 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine." Swiss International Air Lines. Retrieved on 29 October 2016. 34. ↑ "Swissbus Bus transportation between Ottawa and Montreal-Trudeau airport" (Archive). Swiss International Air Lines. 20 June 2012. Retrieved on 29 October 2016. 35. 1 2 "Fees for partner airlines". *SWISS*. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2018. 36. ↑ "Code Share Partners - Air India". Archived from the original on 17 January 2020. Retrieved 18 January 2020. 37. ↑ "SWISS / VISTARA BEGINS CODESHARE PARTNERSHIP FROM SEP 2022". *Aeroroutes*. 12 September 2022. 38. ↑ Hardiman, Jake (2 January 2023). "Deal Done? Lufthansa Starts Selling ITA Airways Tickets On Its Website". *Simple Flying*. 39. ↑ "Swiss Aircraft Registry". Federal Office of Civil Aviation. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018. 40. ↑ "Airbus short-haul fleet". *Swiss International Air Lines*. 41. ↑ "Airbus long-haul fleet". *Swiss International Air Lines*. 42. ↑ "Boeing". *Swiss International Air Lines*. 43. 1 2 3 4 "Swiss Fleet Details and History". *www.planespotters.net*. Retrieved 26 December 2022. 44. ↑ "Swiss to lease more E190s from Helvetic instead of Q400s". *ch-aviation*. Archived from the original on 15 November 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2019. 45. ↑ "Airbus A220-100". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 46. ↑ aerotelegraph.com 5 May 2021 47. ↑ "Airbus A220-300". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 48. ↑ "Airbus A320-200". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 49. 1 2 "Neue Swiss-Strategie". Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015. 50. 1 2 "Feste Order von Airbus A320 Neo und A321 Neo: Lufthansa legt sich weitere 27 Neos zu | aeroTELEGRAPH". *aeroTELEGRAPH* (in German). 28 September 2018. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2018. 51. 1 2 "SWISS to further invest in latest-generation aircraft". *Swiss International Air Lines* (Press release). 28 September 2018. Archived from the original on 28 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2018. 52. ↑ "Airbus A321--100/200". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 53. ↑ "Swiss considering A321neo(LR)". Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 October 2017. 54. ↑ "Airbus A330-300". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 55. ↑ "Swiss Senses". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Retrieved 4 March 2023. 56. ↑ "Airbus A340-300". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 57. ↑ "Swiss to retire all Airbus A340s in 2024-2025 - Executive Traveller". 14 October 2021. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2021. 58. 1 2 aerotelegraph.com (German) 12 December 2022 59. ↑ aerotelegraph.com - "Swiss hands further A340 to Edelweiss" (German) 15 August 2022 60. ↑ "Swiss Fleet Details and History". *www.planespotters.net*. Retrieved 25 April 2023. 61. ↑ "Swiss buys new long-haul aircraft". *Switzerland Times*. Retrieved 12 December 2022. 62. ↑ "Boeing 777-300ER". *Swiss International Air Lines*. Archived from the original on 15 April 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 63. ↑ "Lufthansa Supervisory Board approves Group's order for 48 new aircraft" (Press release). Lufthansa. 22 September 2010. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2010. 64. ↑ "Swiss to order three Boeing 777-300ERs". Aviation Tribune. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015. 65. ↑ "aero.de - Luftfahrt-Nachrichten und -Community". *aero.de*. 3 February 2015. Archived from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015. 66. ↑ "New Swiss 777 Business and First class cabins". lux-traveller.com. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 10 July 2015. 67. ↑ "Le nouveau Boeing 777 de Swiss a atterri à Zurich". *Bilan*. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2016. 68. ↑ "Curtain falls on Swiss Avro operations after 27 years". Archived from the original on 4 October 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2018. 69. ↑ swiss.com - First SWISS C series landed in Zurich 1 July 2016 70. ↑ "Vereinfachung: Swiss entsorgt Swiss Global Air Lines | aeroTELEGRAPH". *aeroTELEGRAPH* (in German). 5 April 2018. Archived from the original on 5 April 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018. 71. ↑ "Adria Airways dépose son bilan, les vols de Swiss affectés" [Adria Airways files for bankruptcy, Swiss flights affected]. *air-journal.fr* (in French). 1 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2 October 1988. Retrieved 2 October 2019. 72. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Saab 2000 HB-IZY Werneuchen". aviation-safety.net. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2021.

Swiss International Air Lines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_International_Air_Lines

**Rivne** (/ˈrɪvnə/; Ukrainian: Рівне IPA: [ˈriu̯nɛ] ()) is a city in western Ukraine. The city is the administrative center of Rivne Oblast (province), as well as the surrounding Rivne Raion (district created in the USSR) within the oblast. Administratively, Rivne is incorporated as a city of oblast significance and does not belong to the raion. It has a population of 243,873 (2022 est.). Between World War I and World War II, the city was located in Poland as a district-level (county) seat in Wolyn Voivodeship. At the start of World War II in 1939, Rivne was occupied by the Soviet Red Army and received its current status by becoming a seat of regional government of the Rivne Oblast which was created out of the eastern portion of the voivodeship. During the German occupation of 1941–44 the city was designated as a capital of German Ukraine (Reichskommissariat Ukraine). In the spring of 1919, it also served as a provisional seat of the Ukrainian government throughout the ongoing war with Soviet Russia. Rivne is an important transportation hub, with the international Rivne Airport, and rail links to Zdolbuniv, Sarny, and Kovel, as well as highways linking it with Brest, Kyiv and Lviv. Among other leading companies there is a chemical factory of Rivne-Azot (part of Ostchem Holding). Names ----- Russian: Russian: Ровно, Rovno Polish: Polish: *Równe* Yiddish Yiddish: ראָוונע History ------- ### Middle Ages Rivne was first mentioned in 1283 in the Polish annals *"Rocznik kapituły krakowskiej"* as one of the inhabited places of Halych-Volhynia near which Leszek II the Black was victorious over a part of the Grand Ducal Lithuanian Army. Following the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia's partition after Galicia–Volhynia Wars in the late 14th century, it was under the rule of Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in 1434 the Grand Duke of Lithuania Švitrigaila awarded the settlement to a Lutsk nobleman Dychko. In 1461 Dychko sold his settlement to Prince Semen Nesvizh. In 1479 Semen Nesvizh died and his settlement was passed to his wife Maria who started to call herself princess of Rivne. She turned the settlement into a princely residence by building in 1481 a castle on one of local river islands and managed to obtain Magdeburg rights for the settlement in 1492 from the King of Poland Casimir IV Jagiellon. Following her death in 1518, the city was passed on to the princes of Ostrog and declined by losing its status as a princely residency. In 1566 the town of Rivne became part of newly established Volhynian Voivodeship. Following the Union of Lublin in 1569, it was transferred from the realm of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the Crown of Poland. The city had a status of privately held by nobles (Ostrogski and Lubomirski families). Following the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 Rivne became a part of the Russian Empire, and in 1797 it was declared to be a county level (uyezd) town of the Volhynian Governorate. ### World War I During World War I and the period of chaos shortly after, it was briefly under German, Ukrainian, Bolshevik and Polish rule. During April–May 1919 Rivne served as the temporary capital of the Ukrainian People's Republic. In late April 1919 one of the Ukrainian military leaders Volodymyr Oskilko attempted to organize a *coup-d'état* against the Directorate led by Symon Petliura and the cabinet of Borys Martos and replace them with Yevhen Petrushevych as president of Ukraine. In Rivne, Oskilko managed to arrest most of the cabinet ministers including Martos himself, but Petliura at that time was in neighboring Zdolbuniv and managed to stop Oskilko's efforts. At the conclusion of the conflict, in accordance with the Riga Peace Treaty of 1921 it became a part of Polish Volhynian Voivodeship, a situation which would last until the Second World War. Before World War II, Rivne (Równe) was a mainly Jewish-Polish city (Jews constituted about 50% of the city's population, and Poles 35%). When Jews died during the Holocaust, Poles from Rivne were deported to Poland's new borders after 1945. ### World War II In 1939, as a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the partition of Poland, Rivne was occupied by the Soviet Union. From December of the same year Rivne became the center of the newly established Rivne Oblast, within the Ukrainian SSR. On 28 June 1941 Rivne was invaded by the 6th army of Nazi Germany. On August 20, the Nazis declared it the administrative center of Reichskommissariat Ukraine. A prison for the Gestapo was opened on Belaia Street. In November 8-13, German actor Olaf Bach was flown to the city to perform for the German forces. Roughly half of Rivne's inhabitants were Jewish. On November 6-8, 17,500 Jewish adults from Rivne were shot to death or thrown alive into a large pit in a pine grove in Sosenki. 6,000 Jewish children suffered the same fate at a nearby site. The city's remaining Jews were sent to the Rivne Ghetto. In July 1942, they were sent 70 km (43 mi) north to Kostopil and shot to death. The ghetto was subsequently liquidated. On 2 February 1944, the city was captured by the Red Army in the Battle of Rivne, and remained under Soviet control until Ukraine regained its independence on the break-up of the USSR in 1991. ### Post-war era In 1958, a TV tower began broadcasting in the city; in 1969, the first trolley ran through the city; in 1969, Rivne airport was opened. In 1983, the city celebrated its 700th anniversary. On 11 June 1991, the Ukrainian parliament officially renamed the city **Rivne** according to the rules of Ukrainian orthography, whereas it had previously been known as Rovno. In 1992, a 20,000-square-metre (4.9-acre) memorial complex was established at the site of the World War II massacre to commemorate the 17,500 Jews murdered there in November 1941 during the Holocaust, marking the mass grave with an obelisk inscribed in Yiddish, Hebrew and Ukrainian. On 6 June 2012, the World War II Jewish burial site was vandalised, allegedly as part of an antisemitic act. ### Russo-Ukrainian War On March 14, 2022, Rivne TV Tower has experienced heavy missile attack by Russian troops. The tower was damaged and an administrative room was destroyed. As a result of attack 20 people were killed and nine injured. On June 25, 2022, 4 people were killed by a Russian missile attack in Sarny. Two more attacks in March and August 2022 hit the town, but the damage wasn`t significant. Climate ------- Rivne has a moderate continental climate with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. Snow cover usually lasts from November until March. The average annual precipitation is 598 mm (24 in) June and July being the wettest months and January and February the driest. | Climate data for Rivne, Ukraine (1991–2020, extremes 1951–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 11.2(52.2) | 16.7(62.1) | 23.0(73.4) | 30.5(86.9) | 33.0(91.4) | 34.2(93.6) | 35.3(95.5) | 37.0(98.6) | 36.4(97.5) | 26.2(79.2) | 21.2(70.2) | 14.5(58.1) | 37.0(98.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | −0.9(30.4) | 0.7(33.3) | 6.2(43.2) | 14.5(58.1) | 20.3(68.5) | 23.4(74.1) | 25.3(77.5) | 25.0(77.0) | 19.3(66.7) | 12.7(54.9) | 5.6(42.1) | 0.5(32.9) | 12.7(54.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −3.4(25.9) | −2.4(27.7) | 1.9(35.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 14.4(57.9) | 17.8(64.0) | 19.5(67.1) | 18.9(66.0) | 13.7(56.7) | 8.1(46.6) | 2.7(36.9) | −1.8(28.8) | 8.2(46.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | −5.9(21.4) | −5.2(22.6) | −1.8(28.8) | 3.7(38.7) | 8.9(48.0) | 12.3(54.1) | 14.0(57.2) | 13.1(55.6) | 8.7(47.7) | 4.2(39.6) | 0.2(32.4) | −4.1(24.6) | 4.0(39.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −34.5(−30.1) | −32.6(−26.7) | −26.3(−15.3) | −11.5(11.3) | −3.8(25.2) | 2.0(35.6) | 5.7(42.3) | 1.8(35.2) | −3.5(25.7) | −10.0(14.0) | −20.1(−4.2) | −26.1(−15.0) | −34.5(−30.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 28(1.1) | 31(1.2) | 33(1.3) | 37(1.5) | 66(2.6) | 78(3.1) | 99(3.9) | 59(2.3) | 55(2.2) | 43(1.7) | 34(1.3) | 39(1.5) | 602(23.7) | | Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 6(2.4) | 7(2.8) | 5(2.0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 1(0.4) | 4(1.6) | 7(2.8) | | Average rainy days | 8 | 7 | 10 | 13 | 15 | 17 | 16 | 12 | 15 | 13 | 12 | 11 | 149 | | Average snowy days | 17 | 17 | 10 | 3 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.03 | 1 | 8 | 15 | 71 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 85.6 | 84.1 | 79.3 | 69.3 | 68.8 | 73.7 | 74.8 | 73.9 | 78.8 | 81.5 | 86.4 | 87.8 | 78.7 | | Source 1: Pogoda.ru | | Source 2: World Meteorological Organization (humidity and precipitation 1981–2010) | Industry -------- During Soviet times the provincial town was transformed into an industrial center of the republic. There were two significant factories built. The first was a machine building and metal processing factory capable of producing high-voltage apparatus, tractor spare parts and others. The other was a chemical factory and synthetic materials fabrication plant. Light industry, including a linen plant and a textile mill, as well as food industries, including milk and meat processing plants and a vegetable preservation plant, have also been built. In addition the city became a production center for furniture and other building materials. Landmarks --------- As an important cultural center, Rivne hosts a humanities and a hydro-engineering university, as well as a faculty of the Kyiv State Institute of Culture, and medical and musical as well as automobile-construction, commercial, textile, agricultural and cooperative polytechnic colleges. The city has a historical museum. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, the monument for the Soviet hero Dmitry Medvedev was removed, and the Nikolai Kuznetsov monument was moved to another location within the city. Instead, in order to reflect the controversial history of the region the monuments for "People who died in the honor of Ukraine", and "Soldiers who died in local military battles" were installed. ### Buildings * Church of the Assumption (1756) * Cathedral of the Intercession (2001) * Cathedral of the Ascension (1890) * A classicism-style gymnasium building (1839) * During Soviet times the center of the city from Lenin street to Peace Avenue (1963 architects R.D. Vais and O.I. Filipchuk) was completely rebuilt with Administrative and Public buildings in neo-classical, Stalinist style. ### Memorials The following memorials are found in Rivne: * Monument to the 25th Anniversary of the Liberation of Rivne from the Fascists, Mlynivs'ke Highway * Monument to the Victims of Fascism, Bila Street Square (1968, by A.I. Pirozhenko and B.V. Rychkov, architect-V.M.Gerasimenko) * Bust on the Tomb of Partisan M. Strutyns'ka and Relief on the Tomb of Citizens S. Yelentsia and S. Kotiyevs'koho, Kniazia Volodymyra Street, Hrabnyk Cemetery * Monument to the Perished of Ukraine, Magdeburz'koho Prava Plaza * Communal Grave of Warriors, Soborna Street * Monument of Eternal Glory, Kyivs'ka Street * Monument to Taras Shevchenko, T.G. Shevchenko Park; Statue on Nezalezhnosti Plaza * Memorial to Warriors' Glory, Dubens'ka Street, Rivne Military Cemetery (1975, by M.L. Farina, architect-N.A. Dolgansky) * Monument to the Warrior and the Partisan, Peremohy Plaza (1948 by I.Ya. Matveenko) * Monument to Colonel Klym Savura, Commander of the Ukrainian People's Army, Soborna Street * Monument to Symon Petliura, Symon Petliura Street * Monument to N.I. Kuznetsov (bronze and granite, 1961 by V.P Vinaikin) * Monument to the Jewish Victims of the Holocaust - mass grave site (ca. 1991) The memorial was desecrated on June 8, 2012 by breaking parts of it and spraying swastikas. The teenagers in charge of the antisemitic action were caught and trialed. * Monument to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster, Simon Petliura Street * Statue and Plaza dedicated to Maria Rivnens'ka, Soborna Street ### Popular culture references * In his memoir *A Tale of Love and Darkness*, Israeli author Amos Oz describes Rivne through the memories of his mother and her family, who grew up in the city before emigrating to Israel in the 1930s. * Rivne was mentioned several times in *The Tale of the Nightly Neighbors*, a 1992 episode of the Canadian-American TV show *Are You Afraid of the Dark?*, being referred to by a variation of its pre-1991 name (either Ravno or Rovno). * In Leonard Bernstein's operetta Candide, the character of The Old Lady sings an aria "I am easily assimilated", in which she refers to her father having been born in Rovno Gubernya Notable people -------------- * Anna Belfer-Cohen (born 1949), Israeli archaeologist and paleoanthropologist * Dahn Ben-Amotz (1924–1989), Israeli radio broadcaster, journalist, playwright and author * Ancestors of Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990), the American composer include his father, Samuel, who was born in Berezdiv and his mother, Jennie, born in Sheptevoka in the Rovno region. In Bernstein's operetta *Candide*, the character of *The Old Lady* sings an aria, *"I am easily assimilated"*, in which she refers to her father as having been born in *Rovno Gubernya* * Zuzanna Ginczanka,(1917–1945), Polish poet of the interwar period. * Erast Huculak (1930–2013), Canadian businessman, public figure and philanthropist * Artem Kachanovskyi (born 1992), 2-dan professional Go player, three-time European Champion, Editor-in-chief of the European Go Journal. * Jan Kobylański (1923–2019), Polish-Paraguayan businessman, founder of the Union of Polish Associations and Organizations in Latin America * Olga Kulchynska (born 1990), Ukrainian soprano opera singer * Sophie Irene Loeb (1876–1929), American journalist and social welfare advocate * Yuriy Lutsenko (born 1964), politician and Prosecutor General of Ukraine, 2016 to 2019 * Oksana Markarova (born 1976), Minister of Finance, 2018 to 2020 and diplomat * Natalya Pasichnyk (born 1971), Swedish-Ukrainian classical pianist, she lives in Stockholm * Olga Pasichnyk (born 1968), Polish-Ukrainian classical soprano singer, she lives in Poland * Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł (1914–1976) Polish nobleman, a scion of the House of Radziwiłł * Shmuel Shoresh (1913–1981), Israeli politician, member of the Knesset from 1955 until 1969 * Boris Smolar (1897–1986), American journalist and newspaper editor * Mira Spivak (born 1934), member of the Senate of Canada representing Manitoba * Anna Walentynowicz (1929–2010), Polish free trade union activist and co-founder of Solidarity * Brenda Weisberg (1900–1996), Russian-American screenwriter of monster movies, thrillers & family films * Wladimir Wertelecki (born 1936), pediatrician, medical geneticist and teratologist in the US * Yaroslav Yevdokimov (born 1946), baritone singer. * Vsevolod Zaderatsky (1891–1953), Russian Imperial and Ukrainian Soviet composer, pianist and teacher * Yana Zinkevych (born 1995), Ukrainian member of parliament and military veteran * Moishe Zilberfarb (1876-1934), Ukrainian politician, diplomat, and public activist ### Sport * Serhiy Honchar (born 1970), professional road racing cyclist * Serhiy Lishchuk (born 1982), basketball player, Valencia BC legend, nicknamed "the Ukraine Train" * Mykhailo Romanchuk (born 1996), swimmer, silver & bronze medallst at the 2020 Summer Olympics * Viktor Trofimov (1938–2013), former Soviet international speedway rider * Alla Tsuper (born 1979), Ukrainian and Belarusian aerial skier and gold medallist at the 2014 Winter Olympics * Ancestors of Demian Maia (born 1977), UFC Fighter, BJJ Champion and ADCC Champion. His grandfather Stefan Szwec came from Rovno, village of Shpaniv to Brazil in 1926. Demian Maia grandmother, Eugenia Kirilchuk, also came from Rovno region. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – Sister cities Rivne is twinned with: * Bulgaria Vidin in Bulgaria * Georgia (country) Kobuleti in Georgia * Germany Oberviechtach in Germany * Poland Gdańsk in Poland * Poland Lublin in Poland * Poland Piotrków Trybunalski in Poland * Poland Radomsko County in Poland * Poland Zabrze in Poland * Slovakia Zvolen in Slovakia * United States Federal Way in the United States * United States East Brunswick, New Jersey in the United States Sport ----- ### Rugby * RC Rivne (1999) Gallery ------- * Prospect Miru (Peace Avenue)Prospect Miru (Peace Avenue) * Soborna (Cathedral) StreetSoborna (Cathedral) Street * Independence square with cinema and statue of Taras ShevchenkoIndependence square with cinema and statue of Taras Shevchenko * Railway terminalRailway terminal * Saint Nicholas Monastery of RivneSaint Nicholas Monastery of Rivne See also -------- * Rivne Ukrainian Gymnasium * History of the Jews in Ukraine Maps ---- * (in Ukrainian) Рівне, план міста, 1:12000. Міста України. Картографія. * **infomisto.com** — map of the Rivne, information and reference portal.

Rivne

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivne

**Piracy** is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called **pirates**, vessels used for piracy are **pirate ships**. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. The term *piracy* generally refers to maritime piracy, although the term has been generalized to refer to acts committed on land, in the air, on computer networks, and (in science fiction) outer space. Piracy usually excludes crimes committed by the perpetrator on their own vessel (e.g. theft), as well as privateering, which implies authorization by a state government. Piracy or pirating is the name of a specific crime under customary international law and also the name of a number of crimes under the municipal law of a number of states. In the early 21st century, seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue, with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004, particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore. Modern-day pirates are armed with automatic weapons, such as assault rifles, and machine guns, grenades and rocket propelled grenades. They often use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that takes advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels and transport ships. The international community is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice, as these attacks often occur in international waters. Nations have used their naval forces to repel and pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure water cannons, or sound cannons to repel boarders, and use radar to avoid potential threats. Romanticised accounts of piracy during the Age of Sail have long been a part of Western pop culture. The two-volume *A General History of the Pyrates*, published in London in 1724, is generally credited with bringing key piratical figures and a semi-accurate description of their milieu in the "Golden Age of Piracy" to the public's imagination. The *General History* inspired and informed many later fictional depictions of piracy, most notably the novels *Treasure Island* (1883) and *Peter Pan* (1911), both of which have been adapted and readapted for stage, film, television, and other media across over a century. More recently, pirates of the "golden age" were further stereotyped and popularized by the *Pirates of the Caribbean* film franchise, which began in 2003. Etymology --------- The English word "pirate" is derived from the Latin *pirata* ("pirate, corsair, sea robber"), which comes from Greek πειρατής (*peiratēs*), "brigand", from πειράομαι (peiráomai), "I attempt", from πεῖρα (*peîra*), "attempt, experience". The meaning of the Greek word *peiratēs* literally is "anyone who attempts something". Over time it came to be used of anyone who engaged in robbery or brigandry on land or sea. The term first appeared in English c. 1300. Spelling did not become standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as "pirrot", "pyrate" and "pyrat" occurred until this period. History ------- ### Europe #### Antiquity The earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates. In the pre-classical era, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession; it apparently was widespread and "regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living". References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence in many texts including in Homer's *Iliad* and *Odyssey*, and abduction of women and children to be sold into slavery was common. By the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a "disgrace" to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympus in Lycia brought impoverishment. Among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic. It was not until 229 BC when the Romans decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended. During the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the Anatolian coast, threatening the commerce of the Roman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean. On one voyage across the Aegean Sea in 75 BC, Julius Caesar was kidnapped and briefly held by Cilician pirates and held prisoner in the Dodecanese islet of Pharmacusa. The Senate invested the general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus with powers to deal with piracy in 67 BC (the *Lex Gabinia*), and Pompey, after three months of naval warfare, managed to suppress the threat. As early as 258 AD, the Gothic-Herulic fleet ravaged towns on the coasts of the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara. The Aegean coast suffered similar attacks a few years later. In 264, the Goths reached Galatia and Cappadocia, and Gothic pirates landed on Cyprus and Crete. In the process, the Goths seized enormous booty and took thousands into captivity. In 286 AD, Carausius, a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the *Classis Britannica*, and given the responsibility of eliminating Frankish and Saxon pirates who had been raiding the coasts of Armorica and Belgic Gaul. In the Roman province of Britannia, Saint Patrick was captured and enslaved by Irish pirates. #### Middle Ages The most widely recognized and far-reaching pirates in medieval Europe were the Vikings, seaborne warriors from Scandinavia who raided and looted mainly between the 8th and 12th centuries, during the Viking Age in the Early Middle Ages. They raided the coasts, rivers and inland cities of all Western Europe as far as Seville, which was attacked by the Norse in 844. Vikings also attacked the coasts of North Africa and Italy and plundered all the coasts of the Baltic Sea. Some Vikings ascended the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the Black Sea and Persia. In the Late Middle Ages, the Frisian pirates known as Arumer Zwarte Hoop led by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama, fought against the troops of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V with some success. Toward the end of the 9th century, Moorish pirate havens were established along the coast of southern France and northern Italy. In 846 Moor raiders sacked the *extra muros* Basilicas of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in Rome. In 911, the bishop of Narbonne was unable to return to France from Rome because the Moors from Fraxinet controlled all the passes in the Alps. Moor pirates operated out of the Balearic Islands in the 10th century. From 824 to 961 Arab pirates in the Emirate of Crete raided the entire Mediterranean. In the 14th century, raids by Moor pirates forced the Venetian Duke of Crete to ask Venice to keep its fleet on constant guard. After the Slavic invasions of the former Roman province of Dalmatia in the 5th and 6th centuries, a tribe called the Narentines revived the old Illyrian piratical habits and often raided the Adriatic Sea starting in the 7th century. Their raids in the Adriatic increased rapidly, until the whole Sea was no longer safe for travel. The Narentines took more liberties in their raiding quests while the Venetian Navy was abroad, as when it was campaigning in Sicilian waters in 827–882. As soon as the Venetian fleet would return to the Adriatic, the Narentines momentarily outcasted their habits again, even signing a Treaty in Venice and baptising their Slavic pagan leader into Christianity. In 834 or 835 they broke the treaty and again they raided Venetian traders returning from Benevento. All of Venice's military attempts to punish them in 839 and 840 utterly failed. Later, they raided the Venetians more often, together with the Arabs. In 846, the Narentines broke through to Venice itself and raided its lagoon city of Caorle. This caused a Byzantine military action against them that brought Christianity to them. After the Arab raids on the Adriatic coast circa 872 and the retreat of the Imperial Navy, the Narentines continued their raids of Venetian waters, causing new conflicts with the Italians in 887–888. The Venetians futilely continued to fight them throughout the 10th and 11th centuries. Domagoj was accused of attacking a ship which was bringing home the papal legates who had participated in the Eighth Catholic Ecumenical Council, after which Pope John VIII addresses to Domagoj with request that his pirates stop attacking Christians at sea. In 937, Irish pirates sided with the Scots, Vikings, Picts, and Welsh in their invasion of England. Athelstan drove them back. The Slavic piracy in the Baltic Sea ended with the Danish conquest of the Rani stronghold of Arkona in 1168. In the 12th century the coasts of western Scandinavia were plundered by Curonians and Oeselians from the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. In the 13th and 14th century, pirates threatened the Hanseatic routes and nearly brought sea trade to the brink of extinction. The Victual Brothers of Gotland were a companionship of privateers who later turned to piracy as the Likedeelers. They were especially noted for their leaders Klaus Störtebeker and Gödeke Michels. Until about 1440, maritime trade in both the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia was seriously in danger of attack by the pirates. H. Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named William Maurice, convicted of piracy in 1241, as the first person known to have been hanged, drawn and quartered, which would indicate that the then-ruling King Henry III took an especially severe view of this crime. The ushkuiniks were Novgorodian pirates who looted the cities on the Volga and Kama Rivers in the 14th century. As early as Byzantine times, the Maniots (one of Greece's toughest populations) were known as pirates. The Maniots considered piracy as a legitimate response to the fact that their land was poor and it became their main source of income. The main victims of Maniot pirates were the Ottomans but the Maniots also targeted ships of European countries. Zaporizhian Sich was a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through to the 18th century. Situated in Cossack territory in the remote steppe of Eastern Europe, it was populated with Ukrainian peasants that had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish galleys, etc. The remoteness of the place and the rapids at the Dnieper river effectively guarded the place from invasions of vengeful powers. The main target of the inhabitants of the Zaporizhian Sich who called themselves "Cossacks", were rich settlements at the Black Sea shores of Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate. By 1615 and 1625, Zaporozhian Cossacks had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Istanbul, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee his palace. Don Cossacks under Stenka Razin even ravaged the Persian coasts.[*unreliable source?*] #### Mediterranean corsairs Though less famous and romanticized than Atlantic or Caribbean pirates, corsairs in the Mediterranean equaled or outnumbered the former at any given point in history. Mediterranean piracy was conducted almost entirely with galleys until the mid-17th century, when they were gradually replaced with highly maneuverable sailing vessels such as xebecs and brigantines. They were of a smaller type than battle galleys, often referred to as galiots or fustas. Pirate galleys were small, nimble, lightly armed, but often crewed in large numbers in order to overwhelm the often minimal crews of merchant ships. In general, pirate craft were extremely difficult for patrolling craft to actually hunt down and capture. Anne Hilarion de Tourville, a French admiral of the 17th century, believed that the only way to run down raiders from the infamous corsair Moroccan port of Salé was by using a captured pirate vessel of the same type. Using oared vessels to combat pirates was common, and was even practiced by the major powers in the Caribbean. Purpose-built galleys, or hybrid sailing vessels, were built by the English in Jamaica in 1683 and by the Spanish in the late 16th century. Specially-built sailing frigates with oar-ports on the lower decks, like the *James Galley* and *Charles Galley*, and oar-equipped sloops proved highly useful for pirate hunting, though they were not built in sufficient numbers to check piracy until the 1720s. The expansion of Muslim power through the Ottoman conquest of large parts of the eastern Mediterranean in the 15th and 16th century resulted in extensive piracy on sea trading. The so-called Barbary pirates began to operate out of North African ports in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco around 1500, preying primarily on the shipping of Christian powers, including massive slave raids at sea as well as on land. The Barbary pirates were nominally under Ottoman suzerainty, but had considerable independence to prey on the enemies of Islam. The Muslim corsairs were technically often privateers with support from legitimate, though highly belligerent, states. They considered themselves as holy Muslim warriors, or ghazis, carrying on the tradition of fighting the incursion of Western Christians that had begun with the First Crusade late in the 11th century. Coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and islands in the Mediterranean were frequently attacked by Muslim corsairs, and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants. After 1600, the Barbary corsairs occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary corsairs and sold as slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Albanian Hayreddin and his older brother Oruç Reis (Redbeard), Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoglu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis and Koca Murat Reis. A few Barbary corsairs, such as the Dutch Jan Janszoon and the English John Ward (Muslim name Yusuf Reis), were renegade European privateers who had converted to Islam. The Barbary pirates had a direct Christian counterpart in the military order of the Knights of Saint John that operated first out of Rhodes and after 1530 Malta, though they were less numerous and took fewer slaves. Both sides waged war against the respective enemies of their faith, and both used galleys as their primary weapons. Both sides also used captured or bought galley slaves to man the oars of their ships. The Muslims relied mostly on captured Christians, the Christians used a mix of Muslim slaves, Christian convicts and a small contingency of *buonavoglie*, free men who out of desperation or poverty had taken to rowing. Historian Peter Earle has described the two sides of the Christian-Muslim Mediterranean conflict as "mirror image[s] of maritime predation, two businesslike fleets of plunderers set against each other". This conflict of faith in the form of privateering, piracy and slave raiding generated a complex system that was upheld/financed/operated on the trade in plunder and slaves that was generated from a low-intensive conflict, as well as the need for protection from violence. The system has been described as a "massive, multinational protection racket", the Christian side of which was not ended until 1798 in the Napoleonic Wars. The Barbary corsairs were quelled as late as the 1830s, effectively ending the last vestiges of counter-crusading jihad. Piracy off the Barbary coast was often assisted by competition among European powers in the 17th century. France encouraged the corsairs against Spain, and later Britain and Holland supported them against France. By the second half of the 17th century the greater European naval powers began to initiate reprisals to intimidate the Barbary States into making peace with them. The most successful of the Christian states in dealing with the corsair threat was England. From the 1630s onwards England had signed peace treaties with the Barbary States on various occasions, but invariably breaches of these agreements led to renewed wars. A particular bone of contention was the tendency of foreign ships to pose as English to avoid attack. Growing English naval power and increasingly persistent operations against the corsairs proved increasingly costly for the Barbary States. During the reign of Charles II a series of English expeditions won victories over raiding squadrons and mounted attacks on their home ports which permanently ended the Barbary threat to English shipping. In 1675 a bombardment from a Royal Navy squadron led by Sir John Narborough and further defeats at the hands of a squadron under Arthur Herbert negotiated a lasting peace (until 1816) with Tunis and Tripoli. France, which had recently emerged as a leading naval power, achieved comparable success soon afterwards, with bombardments of Algiers in 1682, 1683 and 1688 securing a lasting peace, while Tripoli was similarly coerced in 1686. In 1783 and 1784 the Spaniards bombarded Algiers in an effort to stem the piracy. The second time, Admiral Barceló damaged the city so severely that the Algerian Dey asked Spain to negotiate a peace treaty. From then on, Spanish vessels and coasts were safe for several years. Until the American Declaration of Independence in 1776, British treaties with the North African states protected American ships from the Barbary corsairs. Morocco, which in 1777 was the first independent nation to publicly recognize the United States, became in 1784 the first Barbary power to seize an American vessel after independence. While the United States managed to secure peace treaties, these obliged it to pay tribute for protection from attack. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual expenditures in 1800, leading to the Barbary Wars that ended the payment of tribute. Algiers broke the 1805 peace treaty after only two years, and refused to implement the 1815 treaty until compelled to do so by Britain in 1816. In 1815, the sacking of Palma on the island of Sardinia by a Tunisian squadron, which carried off 158 inhabitants, roused widespread indignation. Britain had by this time banned the slave trade and was seeking to induce other countries to do likewise. This led to complaints from states which were still vulnerable to the corsairs that Britain's enthusiasm for ending the trade in African slaves did not extend to stopping the enslavement of Europeans and Americans by the Barbary States. In order to neutralise this objection and further the anti-slavery campaign, in 1816 Lord Exmouth was sent to secure new concessions from Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, including a pledge to treat Christian captives in any future conflict as prisoners of war rather than slaves and the imposition of peace between Algiers and the kingdoms of Sardinia and Sicily. On his first visit he negotiated satisfactory treaties and sailed for home. While he was negotiating, a number of Sardinian fishermen who had settled at Bona on the Tunisian coast were brutally treated without his knowledge. As Sardinians they were technically under British protection and the government sent Exmouth back to secure reparation. On August 17, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral Van de Capellen, he bombarded Algiers. Both Algiers and Tunis made fresh concessions as a result. Securing uniform compliance with a total prohibition of slave-raiding, which was traditionally of central importance to the North African economy, presented difficulties beyond those faced in ending attacks on ships of individual nations, which had left slavers able to continue their accustomed way of life by preying on less well-protected peoples. Algiers renewed its slave-raiding, though on a smaller scale. Measures to be taken against the city's government were discussed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. In 1820, another British fleet under Admiral Sir Harry Neal again bombarded Algiers. Corsair activity based in Algiers did not entirely cease until its conquest by France in 1830. ### Southeast Asia In thalassocratic Austronesian cultures in Island Southeast Asia, maritime raids for slaves and resources against rival polities have ancient origins. It was associated with prestige and prowess and often recorded in tattoos. Reciprocal raiding traditions were recorded by early European cultures as being prevalent throughout Island Southeast Asia. With the advent of the Islam and the colonial era, slaves became a valuable resource for trading with European, Arab, and Chinese slavers, and the volume of piracy and slave raids increased significantly. Numerous native peoples engaged in sea raiding; they include the Iranun and Balanguingui slavers of Sulu, the Iban headhunters of Borneo, the Bugis sailors of South Sulawesi, and the Malays of western Southeast Asia. Piracy was also practiced by foreign seafarers on a smaller scale, including Chinese, Japanese, and European traders, renegades, and outlaws. The volume of piracy and raids were often dependent on the ebb and flow of trade and monsoons, with pirate season (known colloquially as the "Pirate Wind") starting from August to September. Slave raids was particularly economically important to the Muslim Sultanates in the Sulu Sea: the Sultanate of Sulu, the Sultanate of Maguindanao, and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern Moro people). It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by Iranun and Banguingui slavers. David P. Forsythe put the estimate much higher, at around 2 million slaves captured within the first two centuries of Spanish rule of the Philippines after 1565. These slaves were taken from piracy on passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the Malacca Strait, Java, the southern coast of China and the islands beyond the Makassar Strait. Most of the slaves were Tagalogs, Visayans, and "Malays" (including Bugis, Mandarese, Iban, and Makassar). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives who were usually ransomed off through Tausug intermediaries of the Sulu Sultanate. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, they trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui slave markets. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago. The scale was so massive that the word for "pirate" in Malay became *lanun*, an exonym of the Iranun people. The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely run by slaves and the slave trade. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally, even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as galley slaves on the *lanong* and *garay* warships of their captors. Female captives, however, were usually treated better. There were no recorded accounts of rapes, though some were starved for discipline. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in Jolo usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug *datu* from the Sultanate of Sulu who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European (Dutch and Portuguese) and Chinese traders as well as Visayan pirates (*renegados*). Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in Manila, Cavite, Cebu, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Iligan. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the Visayas Islands, including the construction of war "*barangayanes*" (*balangay*) that were faster than the Moro raiders and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, *Lanong* warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster *garay* warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired steam gunboats (*vapor*), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships. Aside from the Iranun and Banguingui pirates, other polities were also associated with maritime raiding. The Bugis sailors of South Sulawesi were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets for piracy. The Orang laut pirates controlled shipping in the Straits of Malacca and the waters around Singapore, and the Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo. ### East Asia In East Asia by the ninth century, populations centered mostly around merchant activities in coastal Shandong and Jiangsu. Wealthy benefactors including Jang Bogo established Silla Buddhist temples in the region. Jang Bogo had become incensed at the treatment of his fellow countrymen, who in the unstable milieu of late Tang often fell victim to coastal pirates or inland bandits. After returning to Silla around 825, and in possession of a formidable private fleet headquartered at Cheonghae (Wando), Jang Bogo petitioned the Silla king Heungdeok (r. 826–836) to establish a permanent maritime garrison to protect Silla merchant activities in the Yellow Sea. Heungdeok agreed and in 828 formally established the Cheonghae (淸海, "clear sea") Garrison (청해진) at what is today Wando island off Korea's South Jeolla province. Heungdeok gave Jang an army of 10,000 men to establish and man the defensive works. The remnants of Cheonghae Garrison can still be seen on Jang islet just off Wando's southern coast. Jang's force, though nominally bequeathed by the Silla king, was effectively under his own control. Jang became arbiter of Yellow Sea commerce and navigation. From the 13th century, Wokou based in Japan made their debut in East Asia, initiating invasions that would persist for 300 years. The wokou raids peaked in the 1550s, but by then the wokou were mostly Chinese smugglers who reacted strongly against the Ming dynasty's strict prohibition on private sea trade. During the Qing period, Chinese pirate fleets grew increasingly large. The effects large-scale piracy had on the Chinese economy were immense. They preyed voraciously on China's junk trade, which flourished in Fujian and Guangdong and was a vital artery of Chinese commerce. Pirate fleets exercised hegemony over villages on the coast, collecting revenue by exacting tribute and running extortion rackets. In 1802, the menacing Zheng Yi inherited the fleet of his cousin, captain Zheng Qi, whose death provided Zheng Yi with considerably more influence in the world of piracy. Zheng Yi and his wife, Zheng Yi Sao (who would eventually inherit the leadership of his pirate confederacy) then formed a pirate coalition that, by 1804, consisted of over ten thousand men. Their military might alone was sufficient to combat the Qing navy. However, a combination of famine, Qing naval opposition, and internal rifts crippled piracy in China around the 1820s, and it has never again reached the same status. In the 1840s and 1850s, United States Navy and Royal Navy forces campaigned together against Chinese pirates. Major battles were fought such as those at Ty-ho Bay and the Tonkin River though pirate junks continued operating off China for years more. However, some British and American individual citizens also volunteered to serve with Chinese pirates to fight against European forces. The British offered rewards for the capture of westerners serving with Chinese pirates. During the Second Opium War and the Taiping Rebellion, piratical junks were again destroyed in large numbers by British naval forces but ultimately it wasn't until the 1860s and 1870s that fleets of pirate junks ceased to exist. Chinese Pirates also plagued the Tonkin Gulf area. #### Piracy in the Ming dynasty Pirates in the Ming era tended to come from populations on the geographic periphery of the state. They were recruited largely from the lower classes of society, including poor fishermen, and many were fleeing from obligatory labor on state-building projects organized by the dynasty. These lower-class men, and sometimes women, may have fled taxation or conscription by the state in the search of better opportunities and wealth, and willingly joined local pirate bands. These local, lower class individuals seem to have felt unrepresented, and traded the small amount of security afforded them from their allegiance to the state for the promise of a relatively improved existence engaging in smuggling or other illegal trade. Originally, pirates in the coastal areas near Fujian and Zhejiang may have been Japanese, suggested by the Ming government referring to them as “*wokou* (倭寇),” but it is probable that piracy was a multi-ethnic profession by the 16th century, although coastal brigands continued to be referred to as *wokou* in many government documents. Most pirates were probably Han Chinese, but Japanese and even Europeans engaged in pirate activities in the region. #### Illegal trade and authority Pirates engaged in a number of different schemes to make a living. Smuggling and illegal trade overseas were major sources of revenue for pirate bands, both large and small. As the Ming government mostly outlawed private trade overseas, at least until the overseas silver trade contributed to a lifting of the ban, pirates basically could almost by default control the market for any number of foreign goods. The geography of the coastline made chasing pirates quite difficult for the authorities, and private overseas trade began to transform coastal societies by the 15th century, as nearly all aspects of the local society benefitted from or associated with illegal trade. The desire to trade for silver eventually led to open conflict between the Ming and illegal smugglers and pirates. This conflict, along with local merchants in southern China, helped persuade the Ming court to end the haijin ban on private international trade in 1567. Pirates also projected local political authority. Larger pirate bands could act as local governing bodies for coastal communities, collecting taxes and engaging in “protection” schemes. In addition to illegal goods, pirates ostensibly offered security to communities on land in exchange for a tax. These bands also wrote and codified laws that redistributed wealth, punished crimes, and provided protection for the taxed community. These laws were strictly followed by the pirates, as well. The political structures tended to look similar to the Ming structures. #### Hierarchy and structure Pirates did not tend to stay pirates permanently. It seems to have been relatively easy both to join and leave a pirate band, and these raiding groups were more interested in maintaining a willing force. Members of these pirate groups did not tend to stay longer than a few months or years at a time. There appears to have been a hierarchy in most pirate organizations. Pirate leaders could become very wealthy and powerful, especially when working with the Chinese dynasty, and, consequently, so could those who served under them. These pirate groups were organized similarly to other “escape societies” throughout history, and maintained a redistributive system to reward looting; the pirates directly responsible for looting or pillaging got their cut first, and the rest was allocated to the rest of the pirate community. There seems to be evidence that there was an egalitarian aspect to these communities, with capability to do the job being rewarded explicitly. The pirates themselves had some special privileges under the law when they interacted with communities on land, mostly in the form of extra allotments of redistributed wealth. #### Clientele Pirates, of course, had to sell their loot. They had trading relationships with land communities and foreign traders in the southeastern regions of China. Zhu Wan, who held the office of Grand Coordinator for Coastal Defense, documented that pirates in the region to which he had been sent had the support of the local elite gentry class. These “pirates in gowns and caps” directly or indirectly sponsored pirate activity and certainly directly benefitted from the illegal private trade in the region. When Zhu Wan or other officials from the capital attempted to eliminate the pirate problem, these local elites fought back, having Zhu Wan demoted and eventually even sent back to Beijing to possibly be executed. The gentry who benefitted from illegal maritime trade were too powerful and influential, and they were clearly very invested in the smuggling activities of the pirate community. In addition to their relationship with the local elite class on the coast, pirates also had complicated and often friendly relationships and partnerships with the dynasty itself, as well as with international traders. When pirate groups recognized the authority of the dynasty, they would often be allowed to operate freely and even profit from the relationship. There were also opportunities for these pirates to ally themselves with colonial projects from Europe or other overseas powers. Both the dynasty and foreign colonial projects would employ pirates as mercenaries to establish dominance in the coastal region. Because of how difficult it was for established state powers to control these regions, pirates seem to have had a lot of freedom to choose their allies and their preferred markets. Included in this list of possible allies, sea marauders and pirates even found opportunities to bribe military officials as they engaged in illegal trade. They seem to have been incentivized mostly by money and loot, and so could afford to play the field with regards to their political or military allies. Because pirate organizations could be so powerful locally, the Ming government made concerted efforts to weaken them. The presence of colonial projects complicated this, however, as pirates could ally themselves with other maritime powers or local elites to stay in business. The Chinese government was clearly aware of the power of some of these pirate groups, as some documents even refer to them as “sea rebels,” a reference to the political nature of pirates. Pirates like Zheng Zhilong and Zheng Chenggong accrued tremendous local power, eventually even being hired as naval commanders by the Chinese dynasties and foreign maritime powers. ### South Asia Bawarij were Sindhi pirates named for their distinctive barja warships who were active between 251 and 865 AD. Their frequent piracy and the incident in which they looted two treasure ships coming from Ceylon became the casus belli for the Umayyad conquest of Sindh. Pirates who accepted the Royal Pardon from the Chola Empire would get to serve in the Chola Navy as "Kallarani". They would be used as coast guards, or sent on recon missions to deal with Arab piracy in the Arabian Sea. Their function is similar to the 18th century privateers, used by the Royal Navy. Starting in the 14th century, the Deccan (Southern Peninsular region of India) was divided into two entities: on the one side stood the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate and on the other stood the Hindu kings rallied around the Vijayanagara Empire. Continuous wars demanded frequent resupplies of fresh horses, which were imported through sea routes from Persia and Africa. This trade was subjected to frequent raids by thriving bands of pirates based in the coastal cities of Western India. One of such was Timoji, who operated off Anjadip Island both as a privateer (by seizing horse traders, that he rendered to the raja of Honavar) and as a pirate who attacked the Kerala merchant fleets that traded pepper with Gujarat. During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was frequent European piracy against Mughal Indian merchants, especially those en route to Mecca for Hajj. The situation came to a head when the Portuguese attacked and captured the vessel *Rahimi* which belonged to Mariam Zamani the Mughal queen, which led to the Mughal seizure of the Portuguese town Daman. In the 18th century, the famous Maratha privateer Kanhoji Angre ruled the seas between Mumbai and Goa. The Marathas attacked British shipping and insisted that East India Company ships pay taxes if sailing through their waters. ### Persian Gulf The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British from the late 18th century as the *Pirate Coast,* where control of the seaways of the Persian Gulf was asserted by the Qawasim (Al Qasimi) and other local maritime powers. Memories of the privations carried out on the coast by Portuguese raiders under Albuquerque were long and local powers antipathetic as a consequence to Christian powers asserting dominance of their coastal waters. Early British expeditions to protect the Imperial Indian Ocean trade from competitors, principally the Al Qasimi from Ras Al Khaimah and Lingeh, led to campaigns against those headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1809 and then, after a relapse in raiding, again in 1819. This led to the signing of the first formal treaty of maritime peace between the British and the rulers of several coastal sheikhdoms in 1820. This was cemented by the Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity in 1853, resulting in the British label for the area, 'Pirate Coast' being softened to the 'Trucial Coast', with several emirates being recognised by the British as Trucial States. ### Madagascar At one point, there were nearly 1,000 pirates located in Madagascar. Île Sainte-Marie was a popular base for pirates throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The most famous pirate utopia is that of the probably fictional Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of Libertatia in northern Madagascar in the late 17th century, until it was destroyed in a surprise attack by the island natives in 1694. ### The Caribbean The classic era of piracy in the Caribbean lasted from circa 1650 until the mid-1720s. By 1650, France, England and the United Provinces began to develop their colonial empires. This involved considerable seaborne trade, and a general economic improvement: there was money to be made – or stolen – and much of it traveled by ship. French buccaneers were established on northern Hispaniola as early as 1625, but lived at first mostly as hunters rather than robbers; their transition to full-time piracy was gradual and motivated in part by Spanish efforts to wipe out both the buccaneers and the prey animals on which they depended. The buccaneers' migration from Hispaniola's mainland to the more defensible offshore island of Tortuga limited their resources and accelerated their piratical raids. According to Alexandre Exquemelin, a buccaneer and historian who remains a major source on this period, the Tortuga buccaneer Pierre Le Grand pioneered the settlers' attacks on galleons making the return voyage to Spain. The growth of buccaneering on Tortuga was augmented by the English capture of Jamaica from Spain in 1655. The early English governors of Jamaica freely granted letters of marque to Tortuga buccaneers and to their own countrymen, while the growth of Port Royal provided these raiders with a far more profitable and enjoyable place to sell their booty. In the 1660s, the new French governor of Tortuga, Bertrand d'Ogeron, similarly provided privateering commissions both to his own colonists and to English cutthroats from Port Royal. These conditions brought Caribbean buccaneering to its zenith. A new phase of piracy began in the 1690s as English pirates began to look beyond the Caribbean for treasure. The fall of Britain's Stuart kings had restored the traditional enmity between Britain and France, thus ending the profitable collaboration between English Jamaica and French Tortuga. The devastation of Port Royal by an earthquake in 1692 further reduced the Caribbean's attractions by destroying the pirates' chief market for fenced plunder. Caribbean colonial governors began to discard the traditional policy of "no peace beyond the Line," under which it was understood that war would continue (and thus letters of marque would be granted) in the Caribbean regardless of peace treaties signed in Europe; henceforth, commissions would be granted only in wartime, and their limitations would be strictly enforced. Furthermore, much of the Spanish Main had simply been exhausted; Maracaibo alone had been sacked three times between 1667 and 1678, while Río de la Hacha had been raided five times and Tolú eight. At the same time, England's less favored colonies, including Bermuda, New York, and Rhode Island, had become cash-starved by the Navigation Acts, which restricted trade with foreign ships. Merchants and governors eager for coin were willing to overlook and even underwrite pirate voyages; one colonial official defended a pirate because he thought it "very harsh to hang people that brings in gold to these provinces." Although some of these pirates operating out of New England and the Middle Colonies targeted Spain's remoter Pacific coast colonies well into the 1690s and beyond, the Indian Ocean was a richer and more tempting target. India's economic output was large during this time, especially in high-value luxury goods like silk and calico which made ideal pirate booty; at the same time, no powerful navies plied the Indian Ocean, leaving both local shipping and the various East India companies' vessels vulnerable to attack. This set the stage for the famous pirates, Thomas Tew, Henry Every, Robert Culliford and (although his guilt remains controversial) William Kidd. In 1713 and 1714, a series of peace treaties ended the War of the Spanish Succession. As a result, thousands of seamen, including European privateers who had operated in the West Indies, were relieved of military duty, at a time when cross-Atlantic colonial shipping trade was beginning to boom. In addition, European sailors who had been pushed by unemployment to work onboard merchantmen (including slave ships) were often enthusiastic to abandon that profession and turn to pirating, giving pirate captains a steady pool of recruits various coasts across the Atlantic. In 1715, pirates launched a major raid on Spanish divers trying to recover gold from a sunken treasure galleon near Florida. The nucleus of the pirate force was a group of English ex-privateers, all of whom would soon be enshrined in infamy: Henry Jennings, Charles Vane, Samuel Bellamy, and Edward England. The attack was successful, but contrary to their expectations, the governor of Jamaica refused to allow Jennings and their cohorts to spend their loot on his island. With Kingston and the declining Port Royal closed to them, Jennings and his comrades founded a new pirate base at Nassau, on the island of New Providence in the Bahamas, which had been abandoned during the war. Until the arrival of governor Woodes Rogers three years later, Nassau would be home for these pirates and their many recruits. Shipping traffic between Africa, the Caribbean, and Europe began to soar in the 18th century, a model that was known as triangular trade, and was a rich target for piracy. Trade ships sailed from Europe to the African coast, trading manufactured goods and weapons in exchange for slaves. The traders would then sail to the Caribbean to sell the slaves, and return to Europe with goods such as sugar, tobacco and cocoa. Another triangular trade saw ships carry raw materials, preserved cod, and rum to Europe, where a portion of the cargo would be sold for manufactured goods, which (along with the remainder of the original load) were transported to the Caribbean, where they were exchanged for sugar and molasses, which (with some manufactured articles) were borne to New England. Ships in the triangular trade made money at each stop. As part of the peace settlement of the War of the Spanish succession, Britain obtained the *asiento*, a Spanish government contract, to supply slaves to Spain's new world colonies, providing British traders and smugglers more access to the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America. This arrangement also contributed heavily to the spread of piracy across the western Atlantic at this time. Shipping to the colonies boomed simultaneously with the flood of skilled mariners after the war. Merchant shippers used the surplus of sailors' labor to drive wages down, cutting corners to maximize their profits, and creating unsavory conditions aboard their vessels. Merchant sailors suffered from mortality rates as high or higher than the slaves being transported (Rediker, 2004). Living conditions were so poor that many sailors began to prefer a freer existence as a pirate. The increased volume of shipping traffic also could sustain a large body of brigands preying upon it. Among the most infamous Caribbean pirates of the time were Edward Teach or *Blackbeard*, Calico Jack Rackham, and Bartholomew Roberts. Most of these pirates were eventually hunted down by the Royal Navy and killed or captured; several battles were fought between the brigands and the colonial powers on both land and sea. Piracy in the Caribbean declined for the next several decades after 1730, but by the 1810s many pirates roamed the waters though they were not as bold or successful as their predecessors. The most successful pirates of the era were Jean Lafitte and Roberto Cofresi. Lafitte is considered by many to be the last buccaneer due to his army of pirates and fleet of pirate ships which held bases in and around the Gulf of Mexico. Lafitte and his men participated in the War of 1812 battle of New Orleans. Cofresi's base was in Mona Island, Puerto Rico, from where he disrupted the commerce throughout the region. He became the last major target of the international anti-piracy operations. The elimination of piracy from European waters expanded to the Caribbean in the 18th century, West Africa and North America by the 1710s and by the 1720s even the Indian Ocean was a difficult location for pirates to operate. England began to strongly turn against piracy at the turn of the 18th century, as it was increasingly damaging to the country's economic and commercial prospects in the region. The Piracy Act of 1698 for the "more effectual suppression of Piracy" made it easier to capture, try and convict pirates by lawfully enabling acts of piracy to be "examined, inquired of, tried, heard and determined, and adjudged in any place at sea, or upon the land, in any of his Majesty's islands, plantations, colonies, dominions, forts, or factories." This effectively enabled admirals to hold a court session to hear the trials of pirates in any place they deemed necessary, rather than requiring that the trial be held in England. Commissioners of these vice-admiralty courts were also vested with "full power and authority" to issue warrants, summon the necessary witnesses, and "to do all thing necessary for the hearing and final determination of any case of piracy, robbery, or felony." These new and faster trials provided no legal representation for the pirates; and ultimately led in this era to the execution of 600 pirates, which represented approximately 10 percent of the pirates active at the time in the Caribbean region. Being an accessory to piracy was also criminalised under the statute. Piracy saw a brief resurgence between the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713 and around 1720, as many unemployed seafarers took to piracy as a way to make ends meet when a surplus of sailors after the war led to a decline in wages and working conditions. At the same time, one of the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht that ended the war gave to Great Britain's Royal African Company and other British slavers a thirty-year asiento, or contract, to furnish African slaves to the Spanish colonies, providing British merchants and smugglers potential inroads into the traditionally closed Spanish markets in America and leading to an economic revival for the whole region. This revived Caribbean trade provided rich new pickings for a wave of piracy. Also contributing to the increase of Caribbean piracy at this time was Spain's breakup of the English logwood settlement at Campeche and the attractions of a freshly sunken silver fleet off the southern Bahamas in 1715. Fears over the rising levels of crime and piracy, political discontent, concern over crowd behaviour at public punishments, and an increased determination by parliament to suppress piracy, resulted in the Piracy Act of 1717 and of 1721. These established a seven-year penal transportation to North America as a possible punishment for those convicted of lesser felonies, or as a possible sentence that capital punishment might be commuted to by royal pardon. In 1717, a pardon was offered to pirates who surrendered to British authorities. After 1720, piracy in the classic sense became extremely rare as increasingly effective anti-piracy measures were taken by the Royal Navy, making it impossible for any pirate to pursue an effective career for long. By 1718, the British Royal Navy had approximately 124 vessels and 214 by 1815; a big increase from the two vessels England had possessed in 1670. British Royal Navy warships tirelessly hunted down pirate vessels, and almost always won these engagements. Many pirates did not surrender and were killed at the point of capture; notorious pirate Edward Teach, or "Blackbeard", was hunted down by Lieutenant Robert Maynard at Ocracoke Inlet off the coast of North Carolina on November 22, 1718 and killed. His flagship was a captured French slave ship known originally as *La Concorde*, he renamed the frigate *Queen Anne's Revenge*. Captain Chaloner Ogle of HMS *Swallow* cornered Bartholomew Roberts in 1722 at Cape Lopez, and a fatal broadside from the *Swallow* killed the pirate captain instantly. Roberts' death shocked the pirate world, as well as the Royal Navy. The local merchants and civilians had thought him invincible, and some considered him a hero. Roberts' death was seen by many historians as the end of the Golden Age of Piracy. Also crucial to the end of this era of piracy was the loss of the pirates' last Caribbean safe haven at Nassau. In the early 19th century, piracy along the East and Gulf Coasts of North America as well as in the Caribbean increased again. Jean Lafitte was just one of hundreds of pirates operating in American and Caribbean waters between the years of 1820 and 1835. The United States Navy repeatedly engaged pirates in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and in the Mediterranean. Cofresí's *El Mosquito* was disabled in a collaboration between Spain and the United States. After fleeing for hours, he was ambushed and captured inland. The United States landed shore parties on several islands in the Caribbean in pursuit of pirates; Cuba was a major haven. By the 1830s piracy had died out again, and the navies of the region focused on the slave trade. About the time of the Mexican–American War in 1846, the United States Navy had grown strong and numerous enough to eliminate the pirate threat in the West Indies. By the 1830s, ships had begun to convert to steam propulsion, so the Age of Sail and the classical idea of pirates in the Caribbean ended. Privateering, similar to piracy, continued as an asset in war for a few more decades and proved to be of some importance during the naval campaigns of the American Civil War. Privateering would remain a tool of European states until the mid-19th century's Declaration of Paris. But letters of marque were given out much more sparingly by governments and were terminated as soon as conflicts ended. The idea of "no peace beyond the Line" was a relic that had no meaning by the more settled late 18th and early 19th centuries. ### Canary Islands Due to the strategic situation of this Spanish archipelago as a crossroads of maritime routes and commercial bridge between Europe, Africa and America, this was one of the places on the planet with the greatest pirate presence. In the Canary Islands, the following stand out: the attacks and continuous looting of Berber, English, French and Dutch corsairs sometimes successful and often a failure; and on the other hand, the presence of pirates and corsairs from this archipelago, who made their incursions into the Caribbean. Pirates and corsairs such as François Le Clerc, Jacques de Sores, Francis Drake defeat in Gran Canaria, Pieter van der Does, Murat Reis and Horacio Nelson attacked the islands and was defeated in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797). Among those born in the archipelago stands out above all Amaro Pargo, whom the monarch Felipe V of Spain frequently benefited in his commercial incursions and corsairs. ### North America Piracy on the east coast of North America first became common in the early seventeenth century, as English privateers discharged after the end of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) turned to piracy. The most famous and successful of these early pirates was Peter Easton. River piracy in late 18th-mid-19th century America was primarily concentrated along the Ohio River and Mississippi River valleys. In 1803, at Tower Rock, the U.S. Army dragoons, possibly, from the frontier army post up river at Fort Kaskaskia, on the Illinois side opposite St. Louis, raided and drove out the river pirates. Stack Island was also associated with river pirates and counterfeiters in the late 1790s. In 1809, the last major river pirate activity took place, on the Upper Mississippi River, and river piracy in this area came to an abrupt end, when a group of flatboatmen raided the island, wiping out the river pirates. From 1790 to 1834, Cave-In-Rock was the principal outlaw lair and headquarters of river pirate activity in the Ohio River region, from which Samuel Mason led a gang of river pirates on the Ohio River. River piracy continued on the lower Mississippi River, from the early 1800s to the mid-1830s, declining as a result of direct military action and local law enforcement and regulator-vigilante groups that uprooted and swept out pockets of outlaw resistance. "Roaring" Dan Seavey was a pirate active in the early 1900s in the Great Lakes region. Culture and social structure ---------------------------- ### Rewards Pirates had a system of hierarchy on board their ships determining how captured money was distributed. However, pirates were more egalitarian than any other area of employment at the time. In fact, pirate quartermasters were a counterbalance to the captain and had the power to veto his orders. The majority of plunder was in the form of cargo and ship's equipment, with medicines the most highly prized. A vessel's doctor's chest would be worth anywhere from £300 to £400, or around $470,000 in today's values. Jewels were common plunder but not popular, as they were hard to sell, and pirates, unlike the public of today, had little concept of their value. There is one case recorded where a pirate was given a large diamond worth a great deal more than the value of the handful of small diamonds given to his crewmates as a share. He felt cheated and had it broken up to match what they received. Spanish pieces of eight minted in Mexico or Seville were the standard trade currency in the American colonies. However, every colony still used the monetary units of pounds, shillings, and pence for bookkeeping while Spanish, German, French, and Portuguese money were all standard mediums of exchange as British law prohibited the export of British silver coinage. Until the exchange rates were standardised in the late 18th century each colony legislated its own different exchange rates. In England, 1 piece of eight was worth 4s 3d while it was worth 8s in New York, 7s 6d in Pennsylvania and 6s 8d in Virginia. One 18th-century English shilling was worth around $58 in modern currency, so a piece of eight could be worth anywhere from $246 to $465. As such, the value of pirate plunder could vary considerably, depending on who recorded it and where. Ordinary seamen received a part of the plunder at the captain's discretion but usually a single share. On average, a pirate could expect the equivalent of a year's wages as his share from each ship captured while the crew of the most successful pirates would often each receive a share valued at around £1,000 ($1.17 million) at least once in their career. One of the larger amounts taken from a single ship was that by captain Thomas Tew from an Indian merchantman in 1692. Each ordinary seaman on his ship received a share worth £3,000 ($3.5 million), with officers receiving proportionally larger amounts as per the agreed shares, with Tew himself receiving 2½ shares. It is known there were actions with multiple ships captured where a single share was worth almost double this. By contrast, an ordinary seamen in the Royal Navy received 19s per month to be paid in a lump sum at the end of a tour of duty, which was around half the rate paid in the Merchant Navy. However, corrupt officers would often "tax" their crews' wage to supplement their own, and the Royal Navy of the day was infamous for its reluctance to pay. From this wage, 6d per month was deducted for the maintenance of Greenwich Hospital, with similar amounts deducted for the Chatham Chest, the chaplain and surgeon. Six months' pay was withheld to discourage desertion. That this was insufficient incentive is revealed in a report on proposed changes to the RN Admiral Nelson wrote in 1803; he noted that since 1793 more than 42,000 sailors had deserted. Roughly half of all RN crews were pressganged and these not only received lower wages than volunteers but were shackled while the vessel was docked and were never permitted to go ashore until released from service. Although the Royal Navy suffered from many morale issues, it answered the question of prize money via the 'Cruizers and Convoys' Act of 1708 which handed over the share previously gained by the Crown to the captors of the ship. Technically it was still possible for the Crown to get the money or a portion of it but this rarely happened. The process of condemnation of a captured vessel and its cargo and men was given to the High Court of the Admiralty and this was the process which remained in force with minor changes throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Ship prize shares| Rank | Pre 1808 | Post 1808 | | --- | --- | --- | | Captain | 3/8 | 2/8 | | Admiral of fleet | 1/8 | 1/8 | | Sailing Master& Lieutenants& Captain of Marines | 1/8 | 1/8 | | Warrant Officers | 1/8 | 1/8 | | Wardroom Warrant officers& Petty Officers | 1/8 | 1/8 | | Gunners, Sailors | 1/8 | 2/8 | Even the flag officer's share was not quite straightforward; he would only get the full one-eighth if he had no junior flag officer beneath him. If this was the case then he would get a third share. If he had more than one then he would take one-half while the rest was shared out equally. There was a great deal of money to be made in this way. The record breaker was the capture of the Spanish frigate *Hermione*, which was carrying treasure in 1762. The value of this was so great that each individual seaman netted £485 ($1.4 million in 2008 dollars). The two captains responsible, Evans and Pownall, received £65,000 each ($188.4 million). In January 1807 the frigate *Caroline* took the Spanish *San Rafael*, which brought in £52,000 for her captain, Peter Rainier (who had been only a midshipman some thirteen months before). All through the wars there are examples of this kind of luck falling on captains. Another famous 'capture' was that of the Spanish frigates *Thetis* and *Santa Brigada*, which were loaded with gold specie. They were taken by four British frigates who shared the money, each captain receiving £40,730. Each lieutenant got £5,091, the Warrant Officer group, £2,468, the midshipmen £791 and the individual seamen £182. It should also be noted that it was usually only the frigates which took prizes; the ships of the line were far too ponderous to be able to chase and capture the smaller ships which generally carried treasure. Nelson always bemoaned that he had done badly out of prize money and even as a flag officer received little. This was not that he had a bad command of captains but rather that British mastery of the seas was so complete that few enemy ships dared to sail. Comparison chart using the share distribution known for three pirates against the shares for a Privateer and wages as paid by the Royal Navy.| Rank | Bartholomew Roberts | George Lowther | William Phillips | Privateer(Sir William Monson) | Royal Navy(per month) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Captain | 2 shares | 2 shares | 1.5 shares | 10 shares | £8, 8s | | Master | 1.5 shares | 1.5 shares | 1.25 shares | 7 or 8 shares | £4 | | Boatswain | 1.5 shares | 1.25 shares | 1.25 shares | 5 shares | £2 | | Gunner | 1.5 shares | 1.25 shares | 1.25 shares | 5 shares | £2 | | Quartermaster | 2 shares | | | 4 shares | £1, 6s | | Carpenter | | | 1.25 shares | 5 shares | £2 | | Mate | | 1.25 shares | | 5 shares | £2, 2s | | Doctor | | 1.25 shares | | 5 shares | £5 +2d per man aboard | | "Other Officers" | 1.25 shares | | | various rates | various rates | | Able Seamen (2 yrs experience)Ordinary Seamen (some exp)Landsmen (pressganged) | 1 share | 1 share | 1 share | | 22s19s11s | ### Loot Even though pirates raided many ships, few, if any, buried their treasure. Often, the "treasure" that was stolen was food, water, alcohol, weapons, or clothing. Other things they stole were household items like bits of soap and gear like rope and anchors, or sometimes they would keep the ship they captured (either to sell off or keep because it was better than their ship). Such items were likely to be needed immediately, rather than saved for future trade. For this reason, there was no need for the pirates to bury these goods. Pirates tended to kill few people aboard the ships they captured; usually they would kill no one if the ship surrendered, because if it became known that pirates took no prisoners, their victims would fight to the last breath and make victory both very difficult and costly in lives. In contrast, ships would quickly surrender if they knew they would be spared. In one well-documented case 300 heavily armed soldiers on a ship attacked by Thomas Tew surrendered after a brief battle with none of Tew's 40-man crew being injured. ### Punishment During the 17th and 18th centuries, once pirates were caught, justice was meted out in a summary fashion, and many ended their lives by "dancing the hempen jig", a euphemism for hanging. Public execution was a form of entertainment at the time, and people came out to watch them as they would to a sporting event today. Newspapers reported details such as condemned men's last words, the prayers said by the priests, and descriptions of their final moments in the gallows. In England most of these executions took place at Execution Dock on the River Thames in London. In the cases of more famous prisoners, usually captains, their punishments extended beyond death. Their bodies were enclosed in iron cages (gibbet) (for which they were measured before their execution) and left to swing in the air until the flesh rotted off them- a process that could take as long as two years. The bodies of captains such as William "Captain" Kidd, Charles Vane, William Fly, and Jack Rackham ("Calico Jack") were all treated this manner. ### Role of women While piracy was predominantly a male occupation throughout history, a minority of pirates were female. Pirates did not allow women onto their ships very often. Additionally, women were often regarded as bad luck among pirates. It was feared that the male members of the crew would argue and fight over the women. On many ships, women (as well as young boys) were prohibited by the ship's contract, which all crew members were required to sign. Because of the resistance to allowing women on board, many female pirates did not identify themselves as such. Anne Bonny, for example, dressed and acted as a man while on Captain Calico Jack's ship. She and Mary Read, another female pirate, are often identified as being unique in this regard. However, it is possible many women dressed as men during the Golden Age of Piracy, in an effort to take advantage of the many rights, privileges, and freedoms that were exclusive to men. ### Democracy among Caribbean pirates Unlike traditional Western societies of the time, many Caribbean pirate crews of European descent operated as limited democracies. Pirate communities were some of the first to instate a system of checks and balances similar to the one used by the present-day democracies. The first record of such a government aboard a pirate sloop dates to the 17th century. ### Pirate Code As recorded by Captain Charles Johnson regarding the articles of Bartholomew Roberts. > > 1. Every man shall have an equal vote in affairs of moment. He shall have an equal title to the fresh provisions or strong liquors at any time seized, and shall use them at pleasure unless a scarcity may make it necessary for the common good that a retrenchment may be voted. > 2. Every man shall be called fairly in turn by the list on board of prizes, because over and above their proper share, they are allowed a shift of clothes. But if they defraud the company to the value of even one dollar in plate, jewels or money, they shall be marooned. If any man rob another he shall have his nose and ears slit, and be put ashore where he shall be sure to encounter hardships. > 3. None shall game for money either with dice or cards. > 4. The lights and candles should be put out at eight at night, and if any of the crew desire to drink after that hour they shall sit upon the open deck without lights. > 5. Each man shall keep his piece, cutlass and pistols at all times clean and ready for action. > 6. No boy or woman to be allowed amongst them. If any man shall be found seducing any of the latter sex and carrying her to sea in disguise he shall suffer death. > 7. He that shall desert the ship or his quarters in time of battle shall be punished by death or marooning. > 8. None shall strike another on board the ship, but every man's quarrel shall be ended on shore by sword or pistol in this manner. At the word of command from the quartermaster, each man being previously placed back to back, shall turn and fire immediately. If any man do not, the quartermaster shall knock the piece out of his hand. If both miss their aim they shall take to their cutlasses, and he that draw the first blood shall be declared the victor. > 9. No man shall talk of breaking up their way of living till each has a share of 1,000. Every man who shall become a cripple or lose a limb in the service shall have 800 pieces of eight from the common stock and for lesser hurts proportionately. > 10. The captain and the quartermaster shall each receive two shares of a prize, the master gunner and boatswain, one and one half shares, all other officers one and one quarter, and private gentlemen of fortune one share each. > 11. The musicians shall have rest on the Sabbath Day only by right. On all other days by favor only. > Known pirate shipwrecks ----------------------- To date, the following identifiable pirate shipwrecks have been discovered: * *Whydah Gally* (discovered in 1984), a former slave ship seized on its maiden voyage from Africa by the pirate captain "Black Sam" Bellamy. The wreck was found off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, buried under 10 ft (3 m) to 50 ft (15 m) feet of sand, in depths ranging from 16 ft (5 m) to 30 ft (9 m) feet deep, spread for four miles, parallel to the Cape's easternmost coast. With the discovery of the ship's bell in 1985 and a small brass placard in 2013, both inscribed with the ship's name and maiden voyage date, the *Whydah* is the only fully authenticated Golden Age pirate shipwreck ever discovered. Since 2007, the *Wydah* collection has been touring as part of the exhibit "Real Pirates" sponsored by National Geographic. * *Queen Anne's Revenge* (discovered in 1996), the flagship of the infamous pirate Blackbeard. He used the ship for less than a year, but it was an effective tool in his prize-taking. In June 1718, Blackbeard ran the ship aground at Topsail Inlet, now known as Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina. Intersal, a private firm working under a permit with the state of North Carolina, discovered the remains of the vessel in 28 feet (8.5m) of water about one mile (1.6 km) offshore of Fort Macon State Park, Atlantic Beach, North Carolina. Thirty-one cannons have been identified to date, and more than 250,000 artifacts have been recovered. The cannons are of different origins (such as English, Swedish, and possibly French) and different sizes, as would be expected with a colonial pirate crew. * *Golden Fleece* (discovered in 2009), the ship of the notorious English pirate Joseph Bannister, which was found by the American shipwreck hunters John Chatterton and John Mattera in the Dominican Republic, at Samaná Bay. The discovery is recounted in Robert Kurson's book *Pirate Hunters* (2015). Privateers ---------- A **privateer** or **corsair** used similar methods to a pirate, but acted under orders of the state while in possession of a commission or letter of marque and reprisal from a government or monarch authorizing the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation. For example, the United States Constitution of 1787 specifically authorized Congress to issue letters of marque and reprisal. The letter of marque and reprisal was recognized by international convention and meant that a privateer could not technically be charged with piracy while attacking the targets named in his commission. This nicety of law did not always save the individuals concerned, however, since whether one was considered a pirate or a legally operating privateer often depended on whose custody the individual found himself in—that of the country that had issued the commission, or that of the object of attack. Spanish authorities were known to execute foreign privateers with their letters of marque hung around their necks to emphasize Spain's rejection of such defenses. Furthermore, many privateers exceeded the bounds of their letters of marque by attacking nations with which their sovereign was at peace (Thomas Tew and William Kidd are notable alleged examples), and thus made themselves liable to conviction for piracy. However, a letter of marque did provide some cover for such pirates, as plunder seized from neutral or friendly shipping could be passed off later as taken from enemy merchants. The famous Barbary corsairs of the Mediterranean, authorized by the Ottoman Empire, were privateers, as were the Maltese corsairs, who were authorized by the Knights of St. John, and the Dunkirkers in the service of the Spanish Empire. In the years 1626–1634 alone, the Dunkirk privateers captured 1,499 ships, and sank another 336. From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates, and 160 British ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680. One famous privateer was Sir Francis Drake. His patron was Queen Elizabeth I, and their relationship ultimately proved to be quite profitable for England. Privateers constituted a large proportion of the total military force at sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the Nine Years War, the French adopted a policy of strongly encouraging privateers (French corsairs), including the famous Jean Bart, to attack English and Dutch shipping. England lost roughly 4,000 merchant ships during the war. In the following War of Spanish Succession, privateer attacks continued, Britain losing 3,250 merchant ships. During the War of Austrian Succession, Britain lost 3,238 merchant ships and France lost 3,434 merchant ships to the British. During King George's War, approximately 36,000 Americans served aboard privateers at one time or another. During the American Revolution, about 55,000 American seamen served aboard the privateers. The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships. Between the end of the Revolutionary War and 1812, less than 30 years, Britain, France, Naples, the Barbary states, Spain, and the Netherlands seized approximately 2,500 American ships. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual revenues in 1800. Throughout the American Civil War, Confederate privateers successfully harassed Union merchant ships. Privateering lost international sanction under the Declaration of Paris in 1856. Commerce raiders ---------------- A wartime activity similar to piracy involves disguised warships called commerce raiders or merchant raiders, which attack enemy shipping commerce, approaching by stealth and then opening fire. Commerce raiders operated successfully during the American Revolution. During the American Civil War, the Confederacy sent out several commerce raiders, the most famous of which was the CSS *Alabama*. During World War I and World War II, Germany also made use of these tactics, both in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Since commissioned naval vessels were openly used, these commerce raiders should not be considered even privateers, much less pirates—although the opposing combatants were vocal in denouncing them as such. Contemporary piracy ------------------- Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year. In the Gulf of Guinea, maritime piracy has also led to pressure on offshore oil and gas production, providing security for offshore installations and supply vessels is often paid for by oil companies rather than the respective governments. In the late 2000s, the emergence of piracy off the coast of Somalia spurred a multi-national effort led by the United States to patrol the waters near the Horn of Africa. In 2011, Brazil also created an anti-piracy unit on the Amazon River. Sir Peter Blake, a New Zealand world champion yachtsman, was killed by pirates on the Amazon river in 2001. River piracy happens in Europe, with vessels suffering from pirate attacks on the Serbian and Romanian stretches of the international Danube river, i.e. inside the European Union's territory. Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water such as the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small motorboats. Other active areas include the South China Sea and the Niger Delta. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy. Also, pirates often operate in regions of poor developing or struggling countries with small or nonexistent navies and large trade routes. Pirates sometimes evade capture by sailing into waters controlled by their pursuer's enemies. With the end of the Cold War, navies have decreased in size and patrol less frequently, while trade has increased, making organized piracy far easier. Modern pirates are sometimes linked with organized-crime syndicates, but often are small individual groups. The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder. In 2007 the attacks rose by 10 percent to 263 attacks. There was a 35 percent increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006. That number does not include instances of hostage taking and kidnapping where the victims were not injured. The number of attacks from January to September 2009 had surpassed the previous year's total due to the increased pirate attacks in the Gulf of Aden and off Somalia. Between January and September the number of attacks rose to 306 from 293. Pirates boarded the vessels in 114 cases and hijacked 34 of them. Gun use in pirate attacks increased to 176 cases from 76 in 2008. Rather than cargo, modern pirates have targeted the personal belongings of the crew and the contents of the ship's safe, which potentially contains large amounts of cash needed for payroll and port fees. In other cases, the pirates force the crew off the ship and then sail it to a port to be repainted and given a new identity through false papers purchased from corrupt or complicit officials. Modern piracy can take place in conditions of political unrest. For example, following the U.S. withdrawal from Vietnam, Thai piracy was aimed at the many Vietnamese who took to boats to escape. Further, following the disintegration of the government of Somalia, warlords in the region have attacked ships delivering UN food aid. The attack against the German-built cruise ship the *Seabourn Spirit* offshore of Somalia in November 2005 is an example of the sophisticated pirates mariners face. The pirates carried out their attack more than 100 miles (160 km) offshore with speedboats launched from a larger mother ship. The attackers were armed with automatic firearms and an RPG. Since 2008, Somali pirates centered in the Gulf of Aden made about $120 million annually, reportedly costing the shipping industry between $900 million and $3.3 billion per year. By September 2012, the heyday of piracy in the Indian Ocean was reportedly over. Backers were now reportedly reluctant to finance pirate expeditions due to the low rate of success, and pirates were no longer able to reimburse their creditors. According to the International Maritime Bureau, pirate attacks had by October 2012 dropped to a six-year low. Only five ships were captured by the end of the year, representing a decrease from 25 in 2011 and 27 in 2010, with only one ship attacked in the third quarter compared to 36 during the same period in 2011. However, pirate incidents off on the West African seaboard increased to 34 from 30 the previous year, and attacks off the coast of Indonesia rose from 2011's total of 46 to 51. Many nations forbid ships to enter their territorial waters or ports if the crew of the ships are armed, in an effort to restrict possible piracy. Shipping companies sometimes hire private armed security guards. Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts: * Boarding without permission. * Extortion * Hostage taking * Kidnapping of people for ransom * Murder * Cargo theft * Robbery and seizure of items or the ship * Sabotage resulting in the ship subsequently sinking * Shipwrecking done intentionally to a ship For the United States, piracy is one of the offenses against which Congress is delegated power to enact penal legislation by the Constitution of the United States, along with treason and offenses against the law of nations. Treason is generally making war against one's own countrymen, and violations of the law of nations can include unjust war among other nationals or by governments against their own people. In modern times, ships and airplanes are hijacked for political reasons as well. The perpetrators of these acts could be described as pirates (for instance, the French term for *plane hijacker* is *pirate de l'air*, literally *air pirate*), but in English are usually termed *hijackers*. An example is the hijacking of the Italian civilian passenger ship *Achille Lauro* by the Palestinian Liberation Organization in 1985, which is regarded as an act of piracy. A 2009 book entitled *International Legal Dimension of Terrorism* called the attackers "terrorists". Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of mobile phones, satellite phones, GPS, machetes, AK74 rifles, sonar systems, modern speedboats, shotguns, pistols, mounted machine guns, and even RPGs and grenade launchers. In 2020, the amount of piracy increased by 24% after being at its lowest 21st century level in 2019. The Americas and Africa have been identified by the International Chamber of Commerce as the most vulnerable to piracy as a result of less-wealthy governments in the regions being unable to adequately combat piracy. IMB Piracy Reporting Centre keeps a live piracy map to help keep track of all recent piracy and armed robbery incidents. Anti-piracy measures -------------------- Under a principle of international law known as the "universality principle", a government may "exercise jurisdiction over conduct outside its territory if that conduct is universally dangerous to states and their nationals." The rationale behind the universality principle is that states will punish certain acts "wherever they may occur as a means of protecting the global community as a whole, even absent a link between the state and the parties or the acts in question." Under this principle, the concept of "universal jurisdiction" applies to the crime of piracy. For example, the United States has a statute (section 1651 of title 18 of the United States Code) imposing a sentence of life in prison for piracy "as defined by the law of nations" committed anywhere on the high seas, regardless of the nationality of the pirates or the victims. The goal of maritime security operations is "actively to deter, disrupt and suppress piracy in order to protect global maritime security and secure freedom of navigation for the benefit of all nations", and pirates are often detained, interrogated, disarmed, and released. With millions of dollars at stake, pirates have little incentive to stop. In Finland, one case involved pirates who had been captured and whose boat was sunk. As the pirates attacked a vessel of Singapore, not Finland, and are not themselves EU or Finnish citizens, they were not prosecuted. A further complication in many cases, including this one, is that many countries do not allow extradition of people to jurisdictions where they may be sentenced to death or torture. The Dutch are using a 17th-century law against *sea robbery* to prosecute. Warships that capture pirates have no jurisdiction to try them, and NATO does not have a detention policy in place. Prosecutors have a hard time assembling witnesses and finding translators, and countries are reluctant to imprison pirates because the countries would be saddled with the pirates upon their release. George Mason University professor Peter Leeson has suggested that the international community appropriate Somali territorial waters and sell them, together with the international portion of the Gulf of Aden, to a private company which would then provide security from piracy in exchange for charging tolls to world shipping through the Gulf. ### Self-defense The fourth volume of the handbook: *Best Management Practices to Deter Piracy off the Coast of Somalia and in the Arabian Sea Area* (known as BMP4) is the current authoritative guide for merchant ships on self-defense against pirates. The guide is issued and updated by *Oil Companies International Marine Forum* (OCIMF), a consortium of interested international shipping and trading organizations including the EU, NATO and the International Maritime Bureau. It is distributed primarily by the Maritime Security Centre – Horn of Africa (MSCHOA), the planning and coordination authority for EU naval forces (EUNAVFOR). The BMP4 encourages vessels to register their voyages through the region with MSCHOA, as this registration is a key component of the operation of the International Recommended Transit Corridor (IRTC, the navy-patrolled route through the Gulf of Aden). The BMP4 contains a chapter entitled "Self-Protective Measures" which lays out a list of steps a merchant vessel can take to make itself less of a target to pirates, and make it better able to repel an attack if one occurs. This list includes rigging the deck of the ship with razor wire, rigging fire-hoses to spray sea-water over the side of the ship to hinder boardings, having a distinctive pirate alarm, hardening the bridge against gunfire and creating a "citadel" where the crew can retreat if pirates get on board. Other unofficial self-defense measures that can be found on merchant vessels include the setting up of mannequins posing as armed guards or firing flares at the pirates. Though it varies by country, generally peacetime law in the 20th and 21st centuries has not allowed merchant vessels to carry weapons. As a response to the rise in modern piracy, however, the U.S. government changed its rules so that it is now possible for U.S.-flagged vessels to embark a team of armed private security guards. The US Coastguard leaves it to ship owners' discretion to determine if those guards will be armed. The International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) in 2011 changed its stance on private armed guards, accepting that operators must be able to defend their ships against pirate attacks. This has given birth to a new breed of private security companies that provide training for crew members and operate floating armouries for protection of crew and cargo. This has proved effective in countering pirate attacks. The use of floating armouries in international waters allows ships to carry weapons in international waters, without being in possession of arms within coastal waters where they would be illegal. Seychelles has become a central location for international anti-piracy operations, hosting the Anti-Piracy Operation Center for the Indian Ocean. In 2008, VSOS became the first authorized armed maritime security company to operate in the Indian Ocean region. With safety trials complete in the late 2000s, laser dazzlers have been developed for defensive purposes on super-yachts. They can be effective up to 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) with the effects going from mild disorientation to flash blindness at closer range. In February 2012, Italian Marines based on the tanker *Enrica Lexie* allegedly fired on an Indian fishing trawler off Kerala, killing two of her eleven crew. The Marines allegedly mistook the fishing vessel as a pirate vessel. The incident sparked a diplomatic row between India and Italy. *Enrica Lexie* was ordered into Kochi where her crew were questioned by officers of the Indian Police. The fact is still *sub juris* and its legal eventual outcome could influence future deployment of VPDs, since states will be either encouraged or discouraged to provide them depending on whether functional immunity is ultimately granted or denied to the Italians. Another similar incident has been reported to have happened in the Red Sea between the coasts of Somalia and Yemen, involving the death of a Yemeni fisherman allegedly at the hands of a Russian Vessel Protection Detachment (VPD) on board a Norwegian-flagged vessel. Despite VPD deployment being controversial because of these incidents, according to the Associated Press, during a United Nations Security Council conference about piracy "U.S. Ambassador Susan Rice told the council that no ship carrying armed guards has been successfully attacked by pirates" and "French Ambassador Gerard Araud stressed that private guards do not have the deterrent effect that government-posted marine and sailors and naval patrols have in warding off attacks". ### Self protection measures The best protection against pirates is to avoid encountering them. This can be accomplished by using tools such as radar, or by using specialised systems that use shorter wavelengths, as small boats are not always picked up by radar. An example of a specialised system is WatchStander. While the non-wartime 20th century tradition has been for merchant vessels not to be armed, the U.S. Government has recently changed the rules so that it is now "best practice" for vessels to embark a team of armed private security guards. The guards are usually supplied from ships intended specifically for training and supplying such armed personnel. The crew can be given weapons training, and warning shots can be fired legally in international waters. Other measures vessels can take to protect themselves against piracy are air-pressurised boat stopping systems which can fire a variety of vessel-disabling projectiles, implementing a high freewall and vessel boarding protection systems (e.g., hot water wall, electricity-charged water wall, automated fire monitor, slippery foam). Ships can also attempt to protect themselves using their Automatic Identification Systems (AIS). Every ship over 300 tons carries a transponder supplying both information about the ship itself and its movements. Any unexpected change in this information can attract attention. Previously this data could only be picked up if there was a nearby ship, rendering single ships vulnerable. Special satellites have been launched recently that are now able to detect and retransmit this data. Large ships cannot therefore be hijacked without being detected. This can act as a deterrent to attempts to either hijack the entire ship, or steal large portions of cargo with another ship, since an escort can be sent more quickly. ### Patrol In an emergency warships can be called upon. In some areas such as near Somalia, patrolling naval vessels from different nations are available to intercept vessels attacking merchant vessels. For patrolling dangerous coastal waters, or keeping cost down, robotic or remote-controlled USVs are also sometimes used. Shore- and vessel-launched UAVs are used by the U.S. Navy. A British former British chief of defence staff (David Richards), questioned the value of expensive kit procured by successive governments, saying "We have £1bn destroyers trying to sort out pirates in a little dhow with RPGs [rocket-propelled grenade launchers] costing US$50, with an outboard motor [costing] $100". Legal aspects ------------- ### United Kingdom laws Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 creates a statutory offence of aggravated piracy. See also the Piracy Act 1850. In 2008 the British Foreign Office advised the Royal Navy not to detain pirates of certain nationalities as they might be able to claim asylum in Britain under British human rights legislation, if their national laws included execution, or mutilation as a judicial punishment for crimes committed as pirates. #### Definition of piracy jure gentium See section 26 of, and Schedule 5 to, the Merchant Shipping and Maritime Security Act 1997. These provisions replace the Schedule to the Tokyo Convention Act 1967. In *Cameron v HM Advocate*, 1971 SLT 333, the High Court of Justiciary said that that Schedule supplemented the existing law and did not seek to restrict the scope of the offence of piracy jure gentium. See also: * *Re Piracy Jure Gentium* [1934] AC 586, PC * *Attorney General of Hong Kong v Kwok-a-Sing* (1873) LR 5 PC 179 #### Jurisdiction See section 46(2) of the Senior Courts Act 1981 and section 6 of the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878. See also *R v Kohn* (1864) 4 F & F 68. #### Piracy committed by or against aircraft See section 5 of the Aviation Security Act 1982. #### Sentence The book *Archbold* says that in a case that does not fall within section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837, the penalty appears to be determined by the Offences at Sea Act 1799, which provides that offences committed at sea are liable to the same penalty as if they had been committed upon the shore. #### History William Hawkins said that under common law, piracy by a subject was esteemed to be petty treason. The Treason Act 1351 provided that this was not petty treason. In English admiralty law, piracy was classified as petty treason during the medieval period, and offenders were accordingly liable to be hanged, drawn and quartered on conviction. Piracy was redefined as a felony during the reign of Henry VIII. In either case, piracy cases were cognizable in the courts of the Lord High Admiral. English judges in admiralty courts and vice admiralty courts emphasized that "neither Faith nor Oath is to be kept" with pirates; i.e. contracts with pirates and oaths sworn to them were not legally binding. Pirates were legally subject to summary execution by their captors if captured in battle. In practice, instances of summary justice and annulment of oaths and contracts involving pirates do not appear to have been common. ### United States laws In the United States, criminal prosecution of piracy is authorized in the U.S. Constitution, Art. I Sec. 8 cl. 10: > To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; > > Title 18 U.S.C. § 1651 states: > > Whoever, on the high seas, commits the crime of piracy as defined by the law of nations, and is afterwards brought into or found in the United States, shall be imprisoned for life. > > > Citing the United States Supreme Court decision in the 1820 case of *United States v. Smith*, a U.S. District Court ruled in 2010 in the case of *United States v. Said* that the definition of piracy under section 1651 is confined to "robbery at sea". The piracy charges (but not other serious federal charges) against the defendants in the *Said* case were dismissed by the Court. The U.S. District Court for the E.D.Va. has since been overturned: "On May 23, 2012, the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit issued an opinion vacating the Court's dismissal of the piracy count. *United States v. Said*, 680 F.3d 374 (4th Cir.2012). See also *United States v. Dire*, 680 F.3d 446, 465 (4th Cir.2012) (upholding an instruction to the jury that the crime of piracy includes 'any of the three following actions: (A) any illegal acts of violence or detention or any act of depredation committed for private ends on the high seas or a place outside the jurisdiction of any state by the crew or the passengers of a private ship and directed against another ship or against persons or property on board such ship; or (B) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship; or (C) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in (A) or (B) above").'" The case was remanded to E.D. Va., see *US v. Said*, 3 F. Supp. 3d 515 – Dist. Court, ED Virginia (2014). ### International law #### Effects on international boundaries During the 18th century, the British and the Dutch controlled opposite sides of the Straits of Malacca. The British and the Dutch drew a line separating the Straits into two halves. The agreement was that each party would be responsible for combating piracy in their respective half. Eventually this line became the border between Malaysia and Indonesia in the Straits. #### Law of nations Piracy is of note in international law as it is commonly held to represent the earliest invocation of the concept of universal jurisdiction. The crime of piracy is considered a breach of *jus cogens*, a conventional peremptory international norm that states must uphold. Those committing thefts on the high seas, inhibiting trade, and endangering maritime communication are considered by sovereign states to hold the status of *hostis humani generis* (an enemy of humankind). Because of universal jurisdiction, action can be taken against pirates without objection from the flag state of the pirate vessel. This represents an exception to the principle *extra territorium jus dicenti impune non paretur* ("One who exercises jurisdiction out of his territory is disobeyed with impunity"). #### International conventions #### Articles 101 to 103 of UNCLOS Articles 101 to 103 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982) contain a definition of piracy *iure gentium* (i.e. according to international law). They read: > > Article 101 > *Definition of piracy* > > > Piracy consists of any of the following acts: > > > * (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed— > + (i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; > + (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; > * (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; > * (c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b). > > > Article 102 > *Piracy by a warship, government ship or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied* > > > The acts of piracy, as defined in article 101, committed by a warship, government ship or government aircraft whose crew has mutinied and taken control of the ship or aircraft are assimilated to acts committed by a private ship or aircraft. > > > Article 103 > *Definition of a pirate ship or aircraft* > > > A ship or aircraft is considered a pirate ship or aircraft if it is intended by the persons in dominant control to be used for the purpose of committing one of the acts referred to in article 101. The same applies if the ship or aircraft has been used to commit any such act, so long as it remains under the control of the persons guilty of that act. > > > This definition was formerly contained in articles 15 to 17 of the Convention on the High Seas signed at Geneva on April 29, 1958. It was drafted by the International Law Commission. A limitation of article 101 above is that it confines piracy to the High Seas. As the majority of piratical acts occur within territorial waters, some pirates are able to go free as certain jurisdictions lack the resources to monitor their borders adequately. #### IMB definition The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) defines piracy as: > the act of boarding any vessel with an intent to commit theft or any other crime, and with an intent or capacity to use force in furtherance of that act. > > #### Uniformity in maritime piracy law Given the diverging definitions of piracy in international and municipal legal systems, some authors argue that greater uniformity in the law is required in order to strengthen anti-piracy legal instruments. Cultural perceptions -------------------- Pirates are a frequent topic in fiction and, in their Caribbean incarnation, are associated with certain stereotypical manners of speaking and dress, some of them wholly fictional: "nearly all our notions of their behavior come from the golden age of fictional piracy, which reached its zenith in 1881 with the appearance of Robert Louis Stevenson's *Treasure Island*." Hugely influential in shaping the popular conception of pirates, Captain Charles Johnson's *A General History of the Pyrates*, published in London in 1724, is the prime source for the biographies of many well known pirates of the Golden Age. The book gives an almost mythical status to pirates, with naval historian David Cordingly writing: "it has been said, and there seems no reason to question this, that Captain Johnson created the modern conception of pirates." Some inventions of pirate culture such as "walking the plank"—in which a bound captive is forced to walk off a board extending over the sea—were popularized by J. M. Barrie's 1911 novel, *Peter Pan*, where the fictional pirate Captain Hook and his crew helped define the fictional pirate archetype. English actor Robert Newton's portrayal of Long John Silver in Disney's 1950 film adaptation also helped define the modern rendition of a pirate, including the stereotypical West Country "pirate accent". Other influences include *Sinbad the Sailor*, and the recent *Pirates of the Caribbean* films have helped rekindle modern interest in piracy and have performed well at the box office. The video game *Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag* also revolves around pirates during the Golden Age of Piracy. The classic 1879 Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera *The Pirates of Penzance* focuses on The Pirate King and his hapless band of pirates. Many sports teams use "pirate" or a related term such as "raider" or "buccaneer" as their nickname, based on the popular stereotypes of pirates. The earliest such example was probably the Pittsburgh Pirates of Major League Baseball that acquired their nickname in 1891 after allegedly "pirating" a player from another team. Many amateur and school-based sports programs along with several professional sports franchises have also adopted pirate-related names, including the Las Vegas Raiders and Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League. In turn, the Buccaneer's name was inspired by the Gasparilla Pirate Festival, a large community parade and related events in Tampa, Florida centered around the legend of José Gaspar, a mythical pirate who supposedly operated in the area. Economics of piracy ------------------- Sources on the economics of piracy include Cyrus Karraker's 1953 study *Piracy was a Business*, in which the author discusses pirates in terms of contemporary racketeering. Patrick Crowhurst researched French piracy and David Starkey focused on British 18th-century piracy. Note also the 1998 book *The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates* by Peter T. Leeson. ### Piracy and entrepreneurship Some 2014 research examines the links between piracy and entrepreneurship. In this context, researchers take a nonmoral approach to piracy as a source of inspiration for 2010s-era entrepreneurship education and to research in entrepreneurship and in business-model generation. In this respect, analysis of piracy operations may distinguish between planned (organised) and opportunistic piracy. See also -------- * *A General History of the Pyrates*, an historical book on pirates * Air pirate * Aircraft hijacking, a.k.a. air piracy * *Captain Phillips*, a film about the *Maersk Alabama* hijacking * Carjacking a.k.a. car piracy * Copyright infringement * International Talk Like a Pirate Day * List of pirates * Piracy in the Atlantic World * Pirate code * Pirate game * Pirate Parties International * Pirate Party * Pirate Round * Pirate studies * Pirate utopia * Pirates World * *Pop-up Pirate*, a children's game featuring an embarreled pirate * Space pirate * Spanish treasure fleet * *The Successful Pyrate*, an historical play * Train robbery, a.k.a. railroad piracy * Treasure voyages * Women in piracy * Raid (military) References ---------- ### Bibliography * "bonaventure.org.uk – Pirate Ranks". Archived from the original on March 20, 2008. Retrieved April 24, 2008. * Beal, Clifford (2007). *Quelch's Gold: Piracy, Greed, and Betrayal in Colonial New England*. Praeger. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-275-99407-5. * Burnett, John (2002). *Dangerous Waters: Modern Piracy and Terror on the High Seas*. Plume. p. 346. ISBN 0-452-28413-9. * Cordingly, David (1997). *Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life Among the Pirates*. Harvest Books. ISBN 0-15-600549-2. * Hanna, Mark G. *Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British Empire, 1570–1740* (University of North Carolina Press, 2015). xvi, 448 pp. * Menefee, Samuel (1996). *Trends in Maritime Violence*. Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0-7106-1403-9. * Girard, Geoffrey (2006). *Tales of the Atlantic Pirates*. Middle Atlantic Press. ISBN 0-9754419-5-7. * Langewiesche, William (2004). *The Outlaw Sea: A World of Freedom, Chaos, and Crime*. North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-581-4. * Rediker, Marcus. *Outlaws of the Atlantic: Sailors, Pirates, and Motley Crews in the Age of Sail* (Boston: Beacon, 2014). xii, 241 pp. * Rediker, Marcus (1987). *Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37983-0. * Kimball, Steve (2006). *The Pyrates Way Magazine*. The Pyrates Way, LLC. p. 64. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved June 26, 2021. * Heller-Roazen, Daniel (2009). *The Enemy of All: Piracy and the Law of Nations*. Zone Books. ISBN 978-1890951948. * Lucie-Smith, Edward (1978). *Outcasts of the Sea: Pirates and Piracy*. Paddington Press. ISBN 978-0448226170. * Earle, Peter (2003) *The Pirate Wars* Methuen, London. ISBN 0-413-75880-X * Guilmartin, John Francis, *Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.* Cambridge University Press, London. 1974. ISBN 0-521-20272-8 Further reading --------------- * Amirell, Stefan, Bruce Buchan and Hans Hägerdal (eds) (2021) *Piracy in World History*. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Open Access Piracy in World History * "Tackling piracy on the high seas" (Slideshow). *Reuters*. April 30, 2009. Retrieved June 9, 2021. * Bradford, John (December 2004). "Japanese Anti-Piracy Initiatives in Southeast Asia". *Contemporary Southeast Asia*. Vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 480–505, 26pp. (AN 15709264). * Bueger, Christian (2011). Stockbruegger, Jan & Werthes, Sascha (eds.). "Pirates, Fishermen and Peacebuilding – Options for Counter-Piracy in Somalia". *Contemporary Security Policy*. Vol. 32, no. 2. * Burnett, John S. (2003). *Dangerous Waters, Modern Piracy and Terror on the High Seas*. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-452-28413-9. * Caninas, Commander Osvaldo Peçanha. "Rogue Wave: Modern Maritime Piracy and International Law". *The Culture & Conflict Review*. Monterey, CA: United States Naval Postgraduate School. * Chalk, Peter (January–March 1998). "Contemporary Maritime Piracy in Southeast Asia". *Studies in Conflict & Terrorism*. Vol. 21, no. 1. pp. 87, 26p. 1 chart; (AN 286864). * Exquemelin, Alexandre-Olivier (1891). *The buccaneers and marooners of America being an account of the famous adventures and daring deeds of certain notorious freebooters of the Spanish main*. London: T. Fisher Unwin. * Gerhard, Peter (2003). *Pirates of New Spain, 1575–1742*. Dover Books. ISBN 978-0486426112. * Gerhard, Peter (1990). *Pirates of the Pacific, 1575–1742*. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0803270305. * Goodman, Timothy H. (Winter 1999). "Leaving the Corsair's name to other times: How to enforce the law of sea piracy in the 21st century through regional international agreements". *Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law*. Vol. 31, no. 1. pp. 139–168. * Goorangai (August 2006). "Piracy: Out of Sight, Out of Mind?" (PDF). *RANR Occasional Papers*. Royal Australian Navy. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 4, 2008. * Herrmann, Wilfried (2004). "Maritime Piracy and Anti-Piracy Measures". *Naval Forces*. Vol. 25, no. 2. pp. 18–25, 6p. (AN 13193917). * Johnson, Captain Charles (1724). *A General History of the Pyrates*. * Koknar, Ali (June 2004). "Terror on the High Seas". *Security Management*. Vol. 48, no. 6. pp. 75–81, 6p. (AN 13443749) * Lane, Kris (1967). *Blood and Silver: The history of piracy in the Caribbean and Central America*. O'Shaughnessy, Hugh (foreword). Oxford (1967). * Lilius, Aleko (October 17, 1991). *I Sailed With Chinese Pirates*. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-585297-4. * Liss, Carolin (2003). "Maritime Piracy in Southeast Asia". *Southeast Asian Affairs*. pp. 52, 17p. (AN 10637324). * Mason, R. Chuck (December 13, 2010). *Piracy: A Legal Definition* (PDF). Congressional Research Service. * "Modern Piracy". *Naval Forces*. Vol. 26, no. 5. 2005. pp. 20–31, 7p. (AN 18506590). * Patton, Robert H. (2008). *Patriot Pirates: the privateer war for freedom and fortune in the American Revolution*. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 978-0375422843. * Clive Malcolm Senior, 'An Investigation of the Activities and Importance of English Pirates, 1603–40' (University of Bristol, PhD thesis, 1973); * Clive M. Senior, *A Nation of Pirates: English Piracy in its Heyday* (Newton Abbot, 1976) * Shearer, Ivan. "Piracy". *Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law*. (Last updated October 2010).

Piracy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piracy

**Abu al-Abbas Abdallah ibn Harun al-Rashid** (Arabic: أبو العباس عبد الله بن هارون الرشيد, romanized: *Abū al-ʿAbbās ʿAbd Allāh ibn Hārūn ar-Rashīd*; 14 September 786 – 9 August 833), better known by his regnal name **al-Ma'mun** (Arabic: المأمون, romanized: *al-Maʾmūn*), was the seventh Abbasid caliph, who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. He succeeded his half-brother al-Amin after a civil war, during which the cohesion of the Abbasid Caliphate was weakened by rebellions and the rise of local strongmen; much of his domestic reign was consumed in pacification campaigns. Well educated and with a considerable interest in scholarship, al-Ma'mun promoted the Translation Movement, the flowering of learning and the sciences in Baghdad, and the publishing of al-Khwarizmi's book now known as "Algebra". He is also known for supporting the doctrine of Mu'tazilism and for imprisoning Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the rise of religious persecution (*mihna*), and for the resumption of large-scale warfare with the Byzantine Empire. Birth and education ------------------- Abdallah, the future al-Ma'mun, was born in Baghdad on the night of the 13 to 14 September 786 CE to Harun al-Rashid and his concubine Marajil, from Badghis. On the same night, which later became known as the "night of the three caliphs", his uncle al-Hadi died and was succeeded by Ma'mun's father, Harun al-Rashid, as ruler of the Abbasid Caliphate. Marajil died soon after his birth, and Abdallah was raised by Harun al-Rashid's wife, Zubayda, herself of high Abbasid lineage as the granddaughter of Caliph al-Mansur (r. 754–775). As a young prince, Abdallah received a thorough education: al-Kisa'i tutored him in classical Arabic, Abu Muhammad al-Yazidi in *adab*, and he received instruction in music and poetry. He was trained in *fiqh* by al-Hasan al-Lu'lu'i, showing particular excellence in the Hanafi school, and in the *hadith*, becoming himself active as a transmitter. According to M. Rekaya, "he was distinguished by his love of knowledge, making him the most intellectual caliph of the Abbasid family, which accounts for the way in which his caliphate developed". Appointment as successor and Governor of Khurasan ------------------------------------------------- Although Abdallah was the oldest of his sons, in 794 Harun named the second-born Muhammad, born in April 787 to Zubayda, as the first in line of succession. This was the result of family pressure on the Caliph, reflecting Muhammad's higher birth, as both parents descended from the Abbasid dynasty; indeed, he remained the only Abbasid caliph to claim such descent. Muhammad received the oath of allegiance (*bay'ah*) with the name of al-Amin ("The Trustworthy"), first in Khurasan by his guardian, the Barmakid al-Fadl ibn Yahya, and then in Baghdad. Abdallah was recognized as second heir only after entering puberty, in 799, under the name al-Ma'mun ("The Trusted One"), with another Barmakid, Ja'far ibn Yahya, as his guardian. At the same time, a third heir, al-Qasim, named al-Mu'tamin, was appointed, under the guardianship of Abd al-Malik ibn Salih. These arrangements were confirmed and publicly proclaimed in 802, when Harun and the most powerful officials of the Abbasid government made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Al-Amin would succeed Harun in Baghdad, but al-Ma'mun would remain al-Amin's heir and would additionally rule over an enlarged Khurasan. This was an appointment of particular significance, as Khurasan had been the starting-point of the Abbasid Revolution which brought the Abbasids to power, and retained a privileged position among the Caliphate's provinces. Furthermore, the Abbasid dynasty relied heavily on Khurasanis as military leaders and administrators. Many of the original Khurasani Arab army (*Khurasaniyya*) that came west with the Abbasids were given estates in Iraq and the new Abbasid capital, Baghdad, and became an elite group known as the *abnāʾ al-dawla* ("sons of the state/dynasty"). This large-scale presence of an Iranian element in the highest circles of the Abbasid state, with the Barmakid family as its most notable representatives, was certainly a factor in the appointment of al-Ma'mun, linked through his mother with the eastern Iranian provinces, as heir and governor of Khurasan. The stipulations of the agreement, which were recorded in detail by the historian al-Tabari, accorded al-Mamun's Khurasani viceroyalty extensive autonomy. However, modern historians consider that these accounts may have been distorted by later apologists of al-Ma'mun in the latter's favour. Harun's third heir, al-Mu'tamin, received responsibility over the frontier areas with the Byzantine Empire in Upper Mesopotamia and Syria. Very quickly, the latent rivalry between the two brothers had important repercussions: almost immediately after the court returned to Baghdad in January 803, the Abbasid elites were shaken by the abrupt fall of the Barmakid family from power. On the one hand, this event may reflect the fact that the Barmakids had become indeed too powerful for the Caliph's liking, but its timing suggests that it was tied to the succession issue as well: with al-Amin siding with the *abnāʾ* and al-Ma'mun with the Barmakids, and the two camps becoming more estranged every day, if al-Amin was to have a chance to succeed, the power of the Barmakids had to be broken. Al-Fadl ibn Sahl, a Kufan of Iranian origin whose father had converted to Islam and entered Barmakid service, replaced Ja'far ibn Yahya as al-Ma'mun's tutor. In 806 he also became al-Ma'mun's secretary (*katib*), an appointment that marked him out as the chief candidate for the vizierate should al-Ma'mun succeed to the throne. In 804, al-Ma'mun married his cousin, Umm Isa, a daughter of the Caliph al-Hadi (r. 785–786). The couple had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar and Abdallah. The years after the fall of the Barmakids saw an increasing centralization of the administration and the concomitant rise of the influence of the *abnāʾ*, many of whom were now dispatched to take up positions as provincial governors and bring these provinces under closer control from Baghdad. This led to unrest in the provinces, especially Khurasan, where local elites had a long-standing rivalry with the *aabnāʾ* and their tendency to control of the province (and its revenues) from Iraq. The harsh taxation imposed by a prominent member of the *abnāʾ*, Ali ibn Isa ibn Mahan, even led to a revolt under Rafi ibn al-Layth, which eventually forced Harun himself, accompanied by al-Ma'mun and the powerful chamberlain (*hajib*) and chief minister al-Fadl ibn al-Rabi, to travel to the province in 808. Al-Ma'mun was sent ahead with part of the army to Merv, while Harun stayed at Tus, where he died on 24 March 809. Abbasid civil war ----------------- In 802 Harun al-Rashid, father of al-Maʾmūn and al-Amin, ordered that al-Amin succeed him, and al-Ma'mun serve as governor of Khurasan and as caliph after the death of al-Amin. In the last days of Harun's life his health was declining and saw in a dream Musa ibn Jafar sitting in a chamber praying and crying, which made Harun remember how hard he had struggled to establish his own caliphate. He knew the personalities of both his sons and decided that for the good of the Abbasid dynasty, al-Maʾmūn should be caliph after his death, which he confided to a group of his courtiers. One of the courtiers, Fadl ibn Rabi', did not abide by Harun's last wishes and convinced many in the lands of Islam that Harun's wishes had not changed. Later the other three courtiers of Harun who had sworn loyalty to Harun by supporting al-Maʾmūn, namely, 'Isa Jarudi, Abu Yunus, and Ibn Abi 'Umran, found loopholes in Fadl's arguments, and Fazl admitted Harun had appointed al-Maʾmūn after him, but, he argued, since Harun was not in his right mind, his decision should not be acted upon. Al-Maʾmūn was reportedly the older of the two brothers, but his mother was a Persian woman while al-Amin's mother was a member of the reigning Abbasid family. After al-Rashid's death in 809, the relationship between the two brothers deteriorated. In response to al-Ma'mun's moves toward independence, al-Amin declared his own son Musa to be his heir. This violation of al-Rashid's testament led to a succession struggle. Al-Amin assembled a massive army at Baghdad with 'Isa ibn Mahan at its head in 811 and invaded Khorasan, but al-Maʾmūn's general Tahir ibn al-Husayn (d. 822) destroyed the army and invaded Iraq, laying siege to Baghdad in 812. In 813 Baghdad fell, al-Amin was beheaded, and al-Maʾmūn became the undisputed Caliph. Internal strife --------------- ### Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of al-Maʾmūn's reign, while the caliph was in Merv (near present-day Mary, Turkmenistan). On 13 November 815, Muhammad ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq (al-Dibaj) claimed the Caliphate for himself in Mecca. He was defeated and he quickly abdicated asserting that he had only become caliph on news that al-Ma'mun had died. Lawlessness in Baghdad led to the formation of neighborhood watches with religious inspiration, with two notable leaders being Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari. Sahl adopted the slogan, *la ta'a lil- makhluq fi ma'siyat al-khaliq*, or 'no obedience to the creature in disobedience of the Creator' (originally a Kharijite slogan), alluding to what he saw as "the conflict ... between God's will and Caliphal authority". "Most" of the leadership of this vigilante movement came from the *sulaahd* ("men of good will of the neighborhoods and blocks") and from "popular preachers" (as both Khalid al-Daryush and Sahl ibn Salama al-Ansari were); its followers were called the *'amma*, (the common people). The volunteers of the movement were known as *mutawwi'a*, which was the same name given to "volunteers for frontier duty and for the holy war against Byzantium". Sahl's and movement influence was such that military chiefs first "delayed capitulation to al-Ma'mun" and adopted Sahl's religious "formula" until they became alarmed at his power and combined to crush him in 817-81 CE. ### Imam al-Rida In A.H. 201 (817 AD) al-Ma'mun named Ali ar-Rida (the sixth-generation descendant of Ali and the eighth Shia Imam) as his heir as caliph. This move may have been made to appease Shi'ite opinion in Iraq and "reconcile the 'Alid and 'Abbasid branches of the Hashimite family", but in Baghdad it caused the Hashimites—supported by "military chiefs of al-Harbiyya, including Muttalib and 'Isa ibn Muhammad"—to depose al-Ma'mun and elect Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi Caliph. According to Shia sources, the deposing of al-Ma'um in Baghdad was not out of opposition to the wise and pious Imam Reza, but because of rumors spread by Fazl ibn Sahl. Al-Ma'mun moved Imam Reza to Merv in hopes of keeping watch over him, but was foiled by the Imam's growing popularity there. People from all over the Muslim world traveled to meet the prophet's grandson and listen to his teachings and guidance (according to these sources). In an attempt to humiliate the Imam, al-Ma'mun set him up with the greatest scholars of the world's religions, but the Imam prevailed and then informed al-Ma'mun that his grand vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, had withheld important information from him. In Baghdad, al-Maʾmūn was unseated and replaced by Ibrahim ibn Mehdi not because al-Maʾmūn's naming Imam Reza as his heir was unpopular, but because of "rumors" spread by Fazl ibn Sahl. Seeking to put down the rebellion in Baghdad, al-Ma'mun set out for the city on 12 April 818. At Tus, he stopped to visit his father's grave. However, when they reached the town of Sarakhs, his vizier, Fazl ibn Sahl, was assassinated, and when they reached Tus, the Imam was poisoned. Al-Ma'mūn ordered that the Imam be buried next to the tomb of his own father, Harun al-Rashid, and showed extreme sorrow in the funeral ritual and stayed for three days at the place. Nonetheless, Shia tradition states he was killed on orders of al-Ma'mun, and according to Wilferd Madelung the unexpected death of both the vizier and the successor, "whose presence would have made any reconciliation with the powerful ʿAbbasid opposition in Baghdad virtually impossible, must indeed arouse strong suspicion that Ma'mun had had a hand in the deaths." Following the death of Imam Reza, a revolt took place in Khurasan. Al-Ma’mun tried unsuccessfully to absolve himself of the crime. After arrival in Baghdad ------------------------ The rebel forces in Baghdad splintered and wavered in opposition to al-Ma'mun. According to scholar and historian al-Tabari (839–923 CE), al-Ma'mun entered Baghdad on 11 August 819. He wore green and had others do so. Informed that compliance with this command might arouse popular opposition to the colour, on 18 August he reverted to traditional Abbasid black. While Baghdad became peaceful, there were disturbances elsewhere. In A.H. 210 (825–826 CE) Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani secured Egypt for al-Ma'mun, freeing Alexandria from Andalusians and quelling unrest. The Andalusians moved to Crete, where al-Tabari records their descendants were still living in his day (see Emirate of Crete). Abdallah returned to Baghdad in 211 Hijri (826–827 C.E.) bringing the defeated rebels with him. Also, in 210 Hijri (825–826 CE), there was an uprising in Qum sparked by complaints about taxes. After it was quashed, the tax assessment was set significantly higher. In 212 Hijri (827–828 CE), there was an uprising in Yemen. In 214 (829–30 CE), Abu al-Razi, who had captured one Yemeni rebel, was killed by another. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious. In 216 (831–832 CE), Ghassan ibn 'Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd. Wars with Byzantium ------------------- By the time al-Ma'mun became Caliph, the Arabs and the Byzantine Empire had settled down into border skirmishing, with Arab raids deep into Anatolia to capture booty and Christians to be enslaved. The situation changed however with the rise to power of Michael II in 820 AD. Forced to deal with the rebel Thomas the Slav, Michael had few troops to spare against a small Andalusian invasion of 40 ships and 10,000 men against Crete, which fell in 824 AD. A Byzantine counter offensive in 826 AD failed miserably. Worse still was the invasion of Sicily in 827 by Arabs of Tunis. Even so, Byzantine resistance in Sicily was fierce and not without success whilst the Arabs became quickly plagued by internal squabbles. That year, the Arabs were expelled from Sicily but they were to return. In 829, Michael II died and was succeeded by his son Theophilos. Theophilos experienced mixed success against his Arab opponents. In 830 AD the Arabs returned to Sicily and, after a year-long siege, took Palermo. For the next 200 years they were to remain there to complete their conquest, which was never short of Christian counters. Al-Ma'mun meanwhile launched an invasion of Anatolia in 830 AD, taking a number of Byzantine forts; he spared the surrendering Byzantines. Theophilos, for his part, captured Tarsus in 831. The next year, learning the Byzantines had killed some sixteen hundred people, al-Ma'mun returned. This time some thirty forts fell to the Caliphate's forces, with two Byzantine defeats in Cappadocia. Theophilos wrote to al-Ma'mun. The Caliph replied that he carefully considered the Byzantine ruler's letter, noticed it blended suggestions of peace and trade with threats of war and offered Theophilos the options of accepting the shahada, paying tax or fighting. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died on the way while leading an expedition in Tyana. Al-Ma'mun's relations with the Byzantines are marked by his efforts in the translation of Greek philosophy and science. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated magnificently. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic. As part of his peace treaty with the Byzantine Emperor, al-Ma'mun was to receive a number of Greek manuscripts annually, one of these being Ptolemy's astronomical work, the *Almagest*. al-Ma'mun's reign ----------------- Al-Ma'mun conducted, in the plains of Mesopotamia, two astronomical operations intended to achieve a degree measurement (al-Ma'mun's arc measurement). The crater Almanon on the moon is named in recognition of his contributions to astronomy. Al-Ma'mun's record as an administrator is also marked by his efforts toward the centralization of power and the certainty of succession. The *Bayt al-Hikma*, or House of Wisdom, was established during his reign. The *ulama* emerged as a real force in Islamic politics during al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the *mihna*, which was initiated in 833, four months before he died. Michael Hamilton Morgan in his book "Lost History" describes al-Ma'mun as a man who 'Loves Learning.' al-Ma'mun once defeated a Byzantine Emperor in a battle and as a tribute, he asked for a copy of *Almagest,* Ptolemy's Hellenistic compendium of thoughts on astronomy written around A.D. 150 The 'mihna', is comparable to Medieval European inquisitions in the sense that it involved imprisonment, a religious test, and a loyalty oath. The people subject to the mihna were traditionalist scholars whose social influence was uncommonly high. Al-Ma'mun introduced the mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the createdness of the Qur'an, if the interrogatee stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, rather than coeternal with God, he was free to leave and continue his profession. The controversy over the *mihna* was exacerbated by al-Ma'mun's sympathy for Mu'tazili theology and other controversial views. Mu'tazili theology was deeply influenced by Aristotelian thought and Greek rationalism, and stated that matters of belief and practice should be decided by reasoning. This opposed the traditionalist and literalist position of Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others, according to which everything a believer needed to know about faith and practice was spelled out literally in the Qur'an and the Hadith. Moreover, the Mu'tazilis stated that the Qur'an was created rather than coeternal with God, a belief that was shared by the Jahmites and parts of Shi'a, among others, but contradicted the traditionalist-Sunni opinion that the Qur'an and the Divine were coeternal. During his reign, alchemy greatly developed. Pioneers of the science were Jabir Ibn Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lukwa, who was patronized by al-Ma'mun. Although he was unsuccessful in transmuting gold, his methods greatly led to the patronization of pharmaceutical compounds. Al-Ma'mun was a pioneer of cartography having commissioned a world map from a large group of astronomers and geographers. The map is presently in an encyclopedia in Topkapi Sarai, a Museum in Istanbul. The map shows large parts of the Eurasian and African continents with recognizable coastlines and major seas. It depicts the world as it was known to the captains of the Arab sailing dhows which used the monsoon wind cycles to trade over vast distances (by the 9th century, Arab sea traders had reached Guangzhou, in China). The maps of the Greeks and Romans reveal a good knowledge of closed seas like the Mediterranean but little knowledge of the vast ocean expanses beyond. Although al-Mahdi had proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and had also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy, religious scholars in the Islamic world believed that al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the *mihna*. The penalties of the *mihna* became increasingly difficult to enforce as the *ulema* became firmer and more united in their opposition. Although the *mihna* persisted through the reigns of two more caliphs, al-Mutawakkil abandoned it in 851. The *ulema* and the major Islamic law schools became truly defined in the period of al-Ma'mun, and Sunnism—as a religion of legalism—became defined in parallel. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam began to become more pronounced. Ibn Hanbal, the founder of the Hanbali legal school, became famous for his opposition to the *mihna*. Al-Ma'mun's simultaneous opposition and patronage of intellectuals led to the emergence of important dialogues on both secular and religious affairs, and the *Bayt al-Hikma* became an important center of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into Arabic. This Islamic renaissance spurred the rediscovery of Hellenism and ensured the survival of these texts into the European renaissance. Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor for his military services in order to assure his loyalty. It was a move that al-Ma'mun soon regretted, as Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became increasingly powerful in the state, contrary to al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the Tahirid family became a threat as al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and his other opponents. Al-Ma'mun also attempted to divorce his wife during his reign, who had not borne him any children. His wife hired a Syrian judge of her own before al-Ma'mun was able to select one himself; the judge, who sympathized with the caliph's wife, refused the divorce. Following al-Ma'mun's experience, no further Abbasid caliphs were to marry, preferring to find their heirs in the harem. Al-Ma'mun, in an attempt to win over the Shi'a Muslims to his camp, named the eighth Imam, Ali ar-Rida, his successor, if he should outlive al-Ma'mun. Most Shi'ites realized, however, that ar-Rida was too old to survive him and saw al-Ma'mun's gesture as empty; indeed, al-Ma'mun poisoned Ali ar-Rida who then died in 818. The incident served to further alienate the Shi'ites from the Abbasids, who had already been promised and denied the Caliphate by Abu al-'Abbas. The Abbasid empire grew somewhat during the reign of al-Ma'mun. Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. In 832, al-Ma'mun led a large army into Egypt to put down the last great Bashmurite revolt. Personal characteristics ------------------------ Al-Tabari (v. 32, p. 231) describes al-Ma'mun as of average height, light complexion, handsome and having a long beard losing its dark colour as he aged. He relates anecdotes concerning the caliph's ability to speak concisely and eloquently without preparation, his generosity, his respect for Muhammad and religion, his sense of moderation, justice and his love of poetry and his insatiable passion for physical intimacy. Ibn Abd Rabbih in his *Unique Necklace* (al-'iqd al-Farid), probably drawing on earlier sources, makes a similar description of al-Ma'mun, whom he described as of light complexion and having slightly blond hair, a long thin beard, and a narrow forehead. Family ------ Al-Ma'mun's first wife was Umm Isa, a daughter of his uncle al-Hadi (r. 785–786), whom he married when he was eighteen years old. They had two sons, Muhammad al-Asghar, and Abdallah. Another wife was Buran, the daughter of al-Ma'mun's vizier, al-Hasan ibn Sahl. She was born as Khadija on 6 December 807. Al-Ma'mun married her in 817, and consummated marriage with her in December 825-January 826 in the town of Fam al-Silh. She died on 21 September 884. Al-Ma'mun had also numerous concubines. One of them, Sundus, bore him five sons, among whom was al-Abbas, who rose to become a senior military commander at the end of al-Ma'mun's reign and a contender for the throne. Another wife or concubine was Arib. Born in 797, she claimed to be the daughter of Ja'far ibn Yahya, the Barmakid, stolen and sold as a child when the Barmakids fell from power. She was brought by al-Amin, who then sold her to his brother. She was a noted poetess, songstress, and a musician. She died at Samarra in July–August 890, aged ninety-six. Another concubine was Bi'dah al-Kabirah. She was also a songstress, and had been a slave of Arib. She died on 10 July 915. Abu Bakr, the son of Caliph al-Muhtadi, led the funeral prayers. Another concubine was Mu'nisah, a Greek. Al-Ma'mun had two daughters. One was Umm Habib, who married Ali ibn Musa al-Rida, and the other was Umm al-Fadl, who married Muhammad ibn Ali bin Musa. Death and legacy ---------------- Al-Tabari recounts how al-Ma'mun was sitting on the river bank telling those with him how splendid the water was. He asked what would go best with this water and was told a specific kind of fresh dates. Noticing supplies arriving, he asked someone to check whether such dates were included. As they were, he invited those with him to enjoy the water with these dates. All who did this fell ill. Others recovered, but al-Ma'mun died. He encouraged his successor to continue his policies and not burden the people with more than they could bear. This was on 9 August 833. Al-Ma'mun died near Tarsus. The city's major mosque (Tarsus Grand Mosque), contains a tomb reported to be his. He was not succeeded by his son, al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun, but by his half-brother, al-Mu'tasim. Almanon, a lunar impact crater that lies in the rugged highlands in the south-central region of the Moon, was named after al-Ma'mun. Religious beliefs ----------------- Al-Maʾmūn's religious beliefs are a subject of controversy, to the point where other Abbasids, as well as later Islamic scholars, called him a Shia Muslim. For instance, Sunni scholars al-Dhahabi, Ibn Kathir, Ibn Khaldun and al-Suyuti explicitly held the belief that al-Ma'mun was a Shi'a. The arguments for his alleged Shi’ism include that, in 816/817, when Ali al-Ridha, the Prophet's descendant, refused designation as sole Caliph, al-Ma'mun officially designated him as his appointed successor. The official Abbasid coins were minted showing al-Ma'mun as a Caliph and al-Ridha as his successor. Other arguments were that: the Caliphate's official black colour was changed to the Prophetic green; in 210 AH/825 CE, he wrote to Qutham b. Ja'far, the ruler of Medina, to return Fadak to the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter, Fatima; he restored nikah mut'ah, previously banned by Umar ibn al-Khattab, but practiced under Muhammad and Abu Bakr; in 211 AH/826 CE, al-Ma'mun reportedly expressed his antipathy to those who praised Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, and reportedly punished such people; this later view of al-Suyuti however is questionable since it contradicts the fact that al-Ma’mun promoted scholars who openly defended Muawiyah, such as the Mu’tazilite scholar Hisham bin Amr al-Fuwati, who was a well-respected judge in the court of al-Ma’mun in Baghdad; in 212 AH/827 CE, al-Ma'mun announced the superiority of Ali ibn Abu Talib over Abu Bakr and 'Umar b. al-Khattab; in 833 CE, under the influence of Muʿtazila rationalist thought, he initiated the mihna ordeal, where he accepted the argument that the Quran was created at some point over the orthodox Sunni belief that the Book was coeternal with God. However, Shi’ites condemn al-Ma'mun as well due to the belief that he was responsible for Ali al-Ridha’s poisoning and eventual death in 818 CE. In the ensuing power struggle, other Abbasids sought to depose Ma'mun in favor of Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi, Ma'mun's uncle; therefore, getting rid of al-Ridha was the only realistic way of retaining united, absolute, unopposed rule. Al-Ma'mūn ordered that al-Ridha be buried next to the tomb of his own father, Harun al-Rashid, and showed extreme sorrow in the funeral ritual and stayed for three days at the place. Muhammad al-Jawad, Ali al-Ridha’s son and successor, lived unopposed and free during the rest of al-Ma'mūn’s reign (till 833 CE). The Caliph summoned al-Jawad to Baghdad in order to marry his daughter, Ummul Fadhl. This apparently provoked strenuous objections by the Abbasids. According to Ya'qubi, al-Ma'mun gave al-Jawad one hundred thousand *dirham* and said, "Surely I would like to be a grandfather in the line of the Apostle of God and of Ali ibn Abu Talib." References ---------- ### Sources * Bosworth, C. E., ed. (1987). *The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXII: The Reunification of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate: The Caliphate of al-Maʾmūn, A.D. 813–33/A.H. 198–213*. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-058-8. * Cooperson, Michael (2005). *Al Ma'mun*. Makers of the Muslim world. Oxford: Oneworld. ISBN 9781851683864. * Daniel, Elton L. (1979). *The Political and Social History of Khurasan under Abbasid Rule, 747–820*. Minneapolis & Chicago: Bibliotheca Islamica, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88297-025-7. * El-Hibri, Tayeb (1999). "Al-Maʾmūn: the heretic Caliph". *Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Hārūn al-Rashı̄d and the Narrative of the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95–142. ISBN 0-521-65023-2. * El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). "The empire in Iraq, 763–861". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). *The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 269–304. ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8. * Fishbein, Michael, ed. (1992). *The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXXI: The War Between Brothers: The Caliphate of Muḥammad al-Amīn, A.D. 809–813/A.H. 193–198*. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1085-1. * Gabra, Gawdat (2003). "The Revolts of the Bashmuric Copts in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries". In W. Beltz (ed.). *Die koptische Kirche in den ersten drei islamischen Jahrhunderten*. Institut für Orientalistik, Martin-Luther-Universität. pp. 111–119. * John Bagot Glubb The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963. * Ibn al-Sāʿī (2017). *Consorts of the Caliphs: Women and the Court of Baghdad*. Translated by Shawkat M. Toorawa. Introduction by Julia Bray, Foreword by Marina Warner. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-1-4798-0477-1. * E. de la Vaissière, *Samarcande et Samarra. Elites d'Asie centrale dans l'empire Abbasside*, Peeters, 2007 Archived 16 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine * Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic culture: the Graeco-Arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early Abbasid society Routledge, London, 1998 * Hugh N. Kennedy, The Early Abbasid Caliphate, a political History, Croom Helm, London, 1981 * Kennedy, Hugh (2004). *The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century* (Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-40525-7. * John Nawas, A Reexamination of three current explanations for Al-Ma’mun's introduction of the Mihna, International Journal of Middle East Studies 26, (1994) pp. 615–629 * John Nawas, The Mihna of 218 A.H./833 A.D. Revisited: An Empirical Study, Journal of the American Oriental Society 116.4 (1996) pp. 698–708 * Nawas, John Abdallah (2015). *Al-Maʼmūn, the Inquisition, and the Quest for Caliphal Authority*. Atlanta, Georgia: Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-55-0. * Rekaya, M. (1991). "al-Maʾmūn". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). *The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume VI: Mahk–Mid*. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 331–339. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3. * Peter Tompkins, "Secrets of the Great Pyramid", chapter 2, Harper and Row, 1971. * Turner, John P. (2013). "al-ʿAbbās b. al-Maʾmūn". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). *Encyclopaedia of Islam* (3rd ed.). Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1573-3912\_ei3\_COM\_24639. ISSN 1873-9830. | | | --- | | al-Ma'mun**Abbasid dynasty****Born:** 786 **Died:** 833 | | Sunni Islam titles | | Preceded byal-Amin | **Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate** 813 – 9 August 833 | Succeeded byal-Mu'tasim |

Al-Ma'mun

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun

**Incest** (/ˈɪnsɛst/ *IN-sest*) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity (marriage or stepfamily), adoption, or lineage. It is strictly forbidden and considered immoral in most societies, and can lead to an increased risk of genetic disorders in children. The incest taboo is one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos, both in present and in past societies. Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. In societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime. Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as milk-siblings, stepsiblings, and adoptive siblings, albeit sometimes with less intensity. Third-degree relatives (such as half-aunt, half-nephew, first cousin) on average have 12.5% common genetic heritage, and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable. Children of incestuous relationships have been regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today. In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited. A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding: a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a close genetic relationship. Such children are at greater risk of congenital disorders, death and developmental and physical disability, and that risk is proportional to their parents' coefficient of relationship—a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically. However, cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding. In some societies, such as those of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, mother–son, cousin–cousin, aunt–nephew, uncle–niece and other combinations of relations within a royal family were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage. Some societies have different views about what constitutes illegal or immoral incest. For example, in Samoa, marriage between a brother and an older sister was allowed, while marriage between a brother and a younger sister was declared as unethical. However sexual relations with a first-degree relative (meaning a parent, sibling or child) are almost universally forbidden.[*dubious – discuss*] Terminology ----------- The English word *incest* is derived from the Latin *incestus*, which has a general meaning of "impure, unchaste". It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense (preserved throughout the Middle English period) and in the narrow modern sense. The derived adjective *incestuous* appears in the 16th century. Before the Latin term came in, incest was known in Old English as *sib-leger* (from *sibb* 'kinship' + *leger* 'to lie') or *mǣġhǣmed* (from *mǣġ* 'kin, parent' + *hǣmed* 'sexual intercourse') but in time, both words fell out of use. Terms like *incester* and *incestual* have been used to describe those interested or involved in sexual relations with relatives among humans, while *inbreeder* has been used in relation to similar behavior among non-human animals or organisms. History ------- ### Antiquity In ancient China, first cousins with the same surnames (i.e. those born to the father's brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames could marry (i.e. maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father's sisters). Several of the Egyptian Kings married their sisters and had several children with them to continue the royal bloodline. For example Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun and was himself the child of an incestuous union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister-wife. Several scholars, such as Frier et al., state that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period. Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, of the same father and mother. However it has also been argued that available evidence does not support the view that such relations were common. The most famous of these relationships were in the Ptolemaic royal family; Cleopatra VII was married to two of her younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whilst her mother and father, Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII, were also brother and sister. Arsinoe II and her younger brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, were the first in the family to participate in a full-sibling marriage, a departure from custom. A union between children of the same parents was very common in both Greek and Macedonian tradition so it evidently caused some degree of astonishment: the Alexandrian poet Sotades was put to death for criticizing the "wicked" nature of the marriage, while his contemporary Theokritos more politically compared it to the relationship of Zeus with his older sister, Hera. Ptolemy and his sister-wife, Arsinoe, put emphasis on their incestuous union through their mutual adoption of the epithet Philadelphos ("Sibling-Lover"). They were the first full-sibling royal couple in the kingdom's known history to produce a child, Ptolemy V, and for the subsequent century and more the Ptolemies participated in full-sibling unions wherever possible. It may have been observation of their next-door Ptolemaic competitors that guided the Seleukids to their own experimentations with sibling unions. The daughter of Antiochus III and Laodice III, Laodice IV, married her two full-blooded older brothers, Antiochus and Seleucus IV, and also her younger brother, Antiochus IV. Her second and third brother-husbands ruled as king one after the other, making her the queen in both her marriages. She bore children to all three of her brothers from her union with them. One of them was her son, Demetrius I, who also took the throne at one point and married a full-sister of his own, Laodice V. Laodice V bore her brother-husband three children, and their marriage is the last known sibling marriage in the kingdom's history. There are records of brother-sister unions in some of the smaller kingdoms of the Hellenistic era, though none of them seems to have pursued it with the zeal and resolve of the Ptolemies. The Pontic and Kommagenian kingdoms had full-sibling unions in a few ages. Mithridates IV of Pontus married his sister Laodice; the couple adopted the double epithet "Philadelphoi", which they publicized on their coinage, where, as Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II, they were depicted in jugate coinage, with the likeness of Hera and Zeus on the back. Mithridates VI Eupator also wed a sister called Laodice. In Commagane the later pro-Roman King Antiochus III Philokaisar wed his sister Iotapa, the couple procreated themselves exactly, producing their son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their daughter, Iotapa, who would unite with him and also adopt the epithet "Philadelphos". The fable of *Oedipus*, with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest, since Oedipus blinds himself in disgust and shame after his incestuous actions. In the ‘sequel’ to Oedipus, *Antigone*, his four children are also punished for their parents' incestuousness. Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of Adonis, when his mother, Myrrha, has sex with her father, Cinyras, during a festival, disguised as a prostitute. In ancient Greece, Spartan King Leonidas I, hero of the legendary Battle of Thermopylae, was married to his niece Gorgo, daughter of his half-brother Cleomenes I. Greek law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers. For example, some accounts say that Elpinice was for a time married to her half-brother Cimon. Incest was sometimes acknowledged as a positive sign of tyranny in ancient Greece. Herodotus recounts a dream of Hippias, son of Pisistratus, in which he "slept with his own mother," and this dream gave him assurance that he would regain power over Athens. Suetonius attributes this omen to a dream of Julius Caesar, explaining the symbolism of dreaming of sexual intercourse with one's own mother. Incest is mentioned and condemned in Virgil's *Aeneid* Book VI: *hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos;* "This one invaded a daughter's room and a forbidden sex act". Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity but had no degrees of affinity with regards to marriage. Roman civil laws prohibited any marriage between parents and children, either in the ascending or descending line *ad infinitum*. Adoption was considered the same as affinity in that an adoptive father could not marry an unemancipated daughter or granddaughter even if the adoption had been dissolved. Incestuous unions were discouraged and considered *nefas* (against the laws of gods and man) in ancient Rome. In AD 295 incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of *incestus* into two categories of unequal gravity: the *incestus iuris gentium,* which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the *incestus iuris civilis,* which concerned only Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not. Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire, Roman Emperor Caligula is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (Julia Livilla, Drusilla, and Agrippina the Younger). Emperor Claudius, after executing his previous wife, married his brother's daughter Agrippina the Younger, and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union. The law prohibiting marrying a sister's daughter remained. The taboo against incest in ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement. During the first two centuries A.D., in Roman Egypt, full sibling marriage occurred with some frequency among commoners as both Egyptians and Romans announced weddings that have been between full-siblings.[*dubious – discuss*] This is the only evidence for brother-sister marriage among commoners in any society. Strabo reported that the Persian magi and the Irish had sex with their own mothers. Ctesias' *History of Persia* mentions how some Macedonians who saw a performance of *Oedipus Tyrannus* were perplexed at why Oedipus felt the need to mutilate himself after learning the truth about his birth; they booed the actor, and urged each other "Go for your mother". In Norse mythology, there are themes of brother-sister marriage, a prominent example being between Njörðr and his unnamed sister (perhaps Nerthus), parents of Freyja and Freyr. Loki in turn also accuses Freyja and Freyr of having a sexual relationship. ### Biblical references The earliest Biblical reference to incest involved Cain. It was cited that he knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch. During this period, there was no other woman except Eve or there was an unnamed sister and so this meant Cain had an incestuous relationship with his mother or his sister. According to the Book of Jubilees, Cain married his sister Awan. Later, in Genesis 20 of the Hebrew Bible, the Patriarch Abraham married his half-sister Sarah. Other references include the passage in Samuel where Amnon, King David's son, raped his half-sister, Tamar. According to Michael D. Coogan, it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married her, the Bible being inconsistent about prohibiting incest. In Genesis 19:30-38, living in an isolated area after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot's two daughters conspired to inebriate and rape their father due to the lack of available partners to continue his line of descent. Because of intoxication, Lot "perceived not" when his firstborn, and the following night his younger, daughter lay with him. Moses was also born to an incestuous marriage. Exodus 6 detailed how his father Amram was the nephew of his mother Jochebed. An account noted that the incestuous relations did not suffer the fate of childlessness, which was the punishment for such couples in levitical law. It stated, however, that the incest exposed Moses "to the peril of wild beasts, of the weather, of the water, and more." ### From the Middle Ages onward Table of prohibited marriages from *The Trial of Bastardie* by William Clerke. London, 1594Charles II of Spain was born physically disabled, likely due to centuries of inbreeding in the House of Habsburg. Many European monarchs were related due to political marriages, sometimes resulting in distant cousins – and even first cousins – being married. This was especially true in the Habsburg, Hohenzollern, Savoy, and Bourbon royal houses. However, relations between siblings, which may have been tolerated in other cultures, were considered abhorrent. For example, the false accusation that Anne Boleyn and her brother George Boleyn had committed incest was one of the reasons given for both being executed in May 1536. Historians agree that the false accusation against Anne Boleyn and George Boleyn was trumped up in order to ensure the king could go on to marry Jane Seymour. Sects deemed heretical such as the Waldensians were accused of incest. Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient Japan and Korea, Inca Peru, Ancient Hawaii, and, at times, Central Africa, Mexico, and Thailand. Like the kings of ancient Egypt, the Inca rulers married their sisters. Huayna Capac, for instance, was the son of Topa Inca Yupanqui and the Inca's sister and wife. The ruling Inca king was expected to marry his full sister. If he had no children by his eldest sister, he married the second and third until they had children. Preservation of the purity of the Sun's blood was one of the reasons for the brother-sister marriage of the Inca king. The Inca kings claimed divine descent from celestial bodies, and emulated the behavior of their celestial ancestor, the Sun, who married his sister, the Moon. Another reason the princes and kings married their sisters was so the heir might inherit the kingdom as much as through his mother as through his father. Therefore, the prince could invoke both principles of inheritance. Half-sibling marriages were found in ancient Japan such as the marriage of Emperor Bidatsu and his half-sister Empress Suiko. Japanese Prince Kinashi no Karu had sexual relationships with his full sister Princess Karu no Ōiratsume, although the action was regarded as foolish. In order to prevent the influence of the other families, a half-sister of Korean Goryeo dynasty monarch Gwangjong became his wife in the 10th century. Her name was Daemok. Marriage with a family member not related by blood was also regarded as contravening morality and was therefore incest. One example of this is the 14th century Chunghye of Goryeo, who raped one of his deceased father's concubines, who was thus regarded to be his mother. In India, the largest proportion of women aged 13 to 49 who marry their close relative are in Tamil Nadu, then Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. While it is rare for uncle-niece marriages, it is more common in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. ### Others In some Southeast Asian cultures, stories of incest being common among certain ethnicities are sometimes told as expressions of contempt for those ethnicities. Marriages between younger brothers and their older sisters were common among the early Udege people. In the Hawaiian Islands, high *ali'i* chiefs were obligated to marry their older sisters in order to increase their *mana*. These copulations were thought to maintain the purity of the royal blood. Another reason for these familial unions was to maintain a limited size of the ruling *ali'i* group. As per the priestly regulations of Kanalu, put in place after multiple disasters, "chiefs must increase their numbers and this can be done if a brother marries his older sister." Prevalence and statistics ------------------------- Incest between an adult and a person under the age of consent is considered a form of child sexual abuse that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse; it often results in serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. Its prevalence is difficult to generalize, but research has estimated 10–15% of the general population as having at least one such sexual contact, with less than 2% involving intercourse or attempted intercourse. Among women, research has yielded estimates as high as 20%. Father–daughter incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest. More recently, studies have suggested that sibling incest, particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings, is the most common form of incest, with some studies finding sibling incest occurring more frequently than other forms of incest. Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims, abuse victims over a lengthier period, use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators, and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest, with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest. South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan and Nigeria are some of the countries with the most incest through consanguineous marriage. Types ----- ### Between adults and children Sex between an adult family member and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse, also known as **child incestuous abuse**, and for many years has been the most reported form of incest. Father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter sex is the most commonly reported form of adult–child incest, with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother. Many studies found that stepfathers tend to be far more likely than biological fathers to engage in this form of incest. One study of adult women in San Francisco estimated that 17% of women were abused by stepfathers and 2% were abused by biological fathers. Father–son incest is reported less often, but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under-reported. Prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to estimate due to secrecy and privacy. In a 1999 news story, BBC reported, "Close-knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests. Delhi organisation RAHI said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children—40% of those by a family member." According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member: > Research indicates that 46% of children who are raped are victims of family members (Langan and Harlow, 1994). The majority of American rape victims (61%) are raped before the age of 18; furthermore, 29% of all rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old. 11% of rape victims are raped by their fathers or stepfathers, and another 16% are raped by other relatives. > > A study of victims of father–daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were "common features" within families before the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, and reassignment of some of the mother's traditional major family responsibility to the daughter. Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest. It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to feelings of low self-esteem, very unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women, and other emotional problems. Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low self-esteem, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and sexual dysfunction, and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, phobic avoidance reactions, somatoform disorder, substance abuse, borderline personality disorder, and complex post-traumatic stress disorder. The Goler clan in Nova Scotia is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult/child and sibling/sibling incest took place over at least three generations. A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other. During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children. Sixteen adults (both men and women) were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five. In July 2012, twelve children were removed from the 'Colt' family (a pseudonym) in New South Wales, Australia, after the discovery of four generations of incest. Child protection workers and psychologists said interviews with the children indicated "a virtual sexual free-for-all". In Japan, there is a popular misconception that mother–son incestuous contact is common, due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media. According to Hideo Tokuoka, "When Americans think of incest, they think of fathers and daughters; in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons" due to the extensive media coverage of mother–son incest there. Some western researchers assumed that mother–son incest is common in Japan, but research into victimization statistics from police and health-care systems discredits this; it shows that the vast majority of sexual abuse, including incest, in Japan is perpetrated by men against young girls. While incest between adults and children generally involves the adult as the perpetrator of abuse, there are rare instances of sons sexually assaulting their mothers. These sons are typically mid-adolescent to young adult, and, unlike parent-initiated incest, the incidents involve some kind of physical force. Although the mothers may be accused of being seductive with their sons and inviting the sexual contact, this is contrary to evidence. Such accusations can parallel other forms of rape, where, due to victim blaming, a woman is accused of being at fault for the rape. In some cases, mother–son incest is best classified as acquaintance rape of the mother by the adolescent son. ### Between children Childhood sibling–sibling incest is considered to be widespread but rarely reported. Sibling–sibling incest becomes child-on-child sexual abuse when it occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of coercion. In this form, it is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse. The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse of a younger sibling by an older sibling. A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have "distorted" or "disturbed" beliefs (such as that the act was "normal") both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general. Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling. Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother. The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders. ### Between adults Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults on one hand and rape, child molestation, and abusive incest on the other. However, even consensual relationships such as these are still legally classified as incest, and criminalized in many jurisdictions (although there are certain exceptions). James Roffee, a senior lecturer in criminology at Monash University and former worker on legal responses to familial sexual activity in England and Wales, and Scotland, discussed how the European Convention on Human Rights deems all familial sexual acts to be criminal, even if all parties give their full consent and are knowledgeable to all possible consequences. He also argues that the use of particular language tools in the legislation manipulates the reader to deem all familial sexual activities as immoral and criminal, even if all parties are consenting adults. In *Slate*, William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults. As he described in his article, in 2003, U.S. Senator Rick Santorum commented on a pending U.S. Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws (primarily as a matter of constitutional rights to privacy and equal protection under the law): > "If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home, then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery." > > Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy. UCLA law professor Eugene Volokh has made similar arguments. In a more recent article, Saletan said that incest is wrong because it introduces the possibility of irreparably damaging family units by introducing "a notoriously incendiary dynamic—sexual tension—into the mix". #### Aunts, uncles, nieces or nephews In the Netherlands, marrying one's nephew or niece is legal, but only with the explicit permission of the Dutch Government, due to the possible risk of genetic defects among the offspring. Nephew-niece marriages predominantly occur among foreign immigrants. In November 2008, the Christian Democratic (CDA) party's Scientific Institute announced that it wanted a ban on marriages to nephews and nieces. Consensual sex between adults (persons of 18 years and older) is always lawful in the Netherlands and Belgium, even among closely related family members. Sexual acts between an adult family member and a minor are illegal, though they are not classified as incest, but as abuse of the authority such an adult has over a minor, comparable to that of a teacher, coach or priest. In Florida, consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone known to be your aunt, uncle, niece or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree. Other states also commonly prohibit marriages between such kin. The legality of sex with a half-aunt or half-uncle varies state by state. In the United Kingdom, incest includes only sexual intercourse with a parent, grandparent, child or sibling, but the more recently introduced offence of "sex with an adult relative" extends also as far as half-siblings, uncles, aunts, nephews and nieces. However, the term 'incest' remains widely used in popular culture to describe any form of sexual activity with a relative. In Canada, marriage between uncles and nieces and between aunts and nephews is legal. #### Between adult siblings One of the most public cases of adult sibling incest in the 2000s is the case of Patrick Stübing and Susan Karolewski, a brother-sister couple from Germany. Because of violent behavior on the part of his father, Patrick was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents, who adopted him later. At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents, contacted his mother, and met her and his then 16-year-old sister Susan for the first time. The now-adult Patrick moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter. After their mother died suddenly six months later, the siblings became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001. By 2004, they had four children together: Eric, Sarah, Nancy, and Sofia. The public nature of their relationship, and the repeated prosecutions and even jail time they have served as a result, has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all. An article about them in *Der Spiegel* states that the couple are happy together. According to court records, the first three children have mental and physical disabilities, and have been placed in foster care. In April 2012, at the European Court of Human Rights, Patrick Stübing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life. On 24 September 2014, the German Ethics Council recommended that the government abolish laws criminalizing incest between siblings, arguing that such bans impinge upon citizens. Some societies differentiate between full sibling and half sibling relations. #### Cousin relationships Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some cultures, but tolerated in much of the world. Currently, 24 US states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances. The United Kingdom permits both marriage and sexual relations between first cousins. In some non-Western societies, marriages between close biological relatives account for 20% to 60% of all marriages. First- and second-cousin marriages are rare, accounting for less than 1% of marriages in Western Europe, North America and Oceania, while reaching 9% in South America, East Asia and South Europe and about 50% in regions of the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia. Communities such as the Dhond and the Bhittani of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins as belief they ensure purity of the descent line, provide intimate knowledge of the spouses, and ensure that patrimony will not pass into the hands of "outsiders". Cross-cousin marriages are preferred among the Yanomami of Brazilian Amazonia, among many other tribal societies identified by anthropologists. There are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage, in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people. This is notably true in the culture of Korea. In South Korea, before 1997, anyone with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marriage. In light of this law being held unconstitutional, South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins (see Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code). Hmong culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name – to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community, and they are usually stripped of their last name. In a review of 48 studies on the children parented by cousins, the rate of birth defects was twice that of non-related couples: 4% for cousin couples as opposed to 2% for the general population. #### Defined through marriage Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife's sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, involving, among others, Matthew Boulton and Charles La Trobe. The marriages were entered into in Scotland and Switzerland respectively, where they were legal. In medieval Europe, standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity. But in other societies, a deceased spouse's sibling was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother's widow so as to "raise up seed to him". Some societies have long practiced sororal polygyny, a form of polygamy in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other (though not closely related to him). In Islamic law, marriage among close blood relations like parents, stepparent, parents in-law, siblings, stepsiblings, the children of siblings, aunts and uncles is forbidden, while first or second cousins may marry. Marrying the widow of a brother, or the sister of deceased or divorced wife is also allowed. Inbreeding ---------- Offspring of biologically related parents are subject to the possible impact of inbreeding. Such offspring have a higher possibility of congenital birth defects (see Coefficient of relationship), because it increases the proportion of zygotes that are homozygous for deleterious recessive alleles that produce such disorders (see Inbreeding depression). Because most such alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be heterozygous carriers. However, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such rare deleterious allele present in the common ancestor will be inherited from both related parents is increased dramatically with respect to non-inbred couples. Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes. This has two contrary effects. * In the short term, because incestuous reproduction increases zygosity, deleterious recessive alleles will express themselves more frequently, leading to increases in spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. * In the long run, however, because of this increased exposure of deleterious recessive alleles to natural selection, their frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred population, leading to a "healthier" population (with fewer deleterious recessive alleles). The closer two persons are related, the higher the zygosity, and thus the more severe the biological costs of inbreeding. This fact likely explains why inbreeding between close relatives, such as siblings, is less common than inbreeding between cousins. There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection). A 1994 study found a mean excess mortality with inbreeding among first cousins of 4.4%. A 2008 study also found decreased lifespan among offspring of first cousins, but no difference between lifespans after the second cousin level. Children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions. Studies suggest that 20–36% of these children will die or have major disability due to the inbreeding. A study of 29 offspring resulting from brother-sister or father-daughter incest found that 20 had congenital abnormalities, including four directly attributable to autosomal recessive alleles. Laws ---- Laws regarding sexual activity between close relatives vary considerably between jurisdictions, and depend on the type of sexual activity and the nature of the family relationship of the parties involved, as well as the age and sex of the parties. Prohibition of incest laws may extend to restrictions on marriage rights, which also vary between jurisdictions. Most jurisdictions prohibit parent-child and sibling marriages, while others also prohibit first-cousin and uncle-niece and aunt-nephew marriages. In most places, incest is illegal, regardless of the ages of the two partners. In other countries, incestuous relationships between consenting adults (with the age varying by location) are permitted, including in the Netherlands, France, Slovenia and Spain. Sweden is the only country that allows marriage between half-siblings and they must seek government counseling before marriage. While the legality of consensual incest varies by country, sexual assault committed against a relative is seen as a very serious crime. In some legal systems, the fact of a perpetrator being a close relative to the victim constitutes an aggravating circumstance in the case of sexual crimes such as rape and sexual conduct with a minor – this is the case in Romania. Religious and philosophical views --------------------------------- ### Jewish According to the Torah, per Leviticus 18, "the children of Israel"—Israelite men and women alike—are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are "near of kin" (verse 6), who are defined as: * Children and their mothers (verse 7) * Siblings and half-siblings (verses 9 and 11). Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and they are of the only two kinds of incestuous relationships that are among the particularly singled out relationships—with the other particularly singled out relationships being ones of non-incestuous family betrayal (cf. verse 20) and bestiality (cf. verse 21) * Grandparents and grandchildren (verse 10) * Aunts and nephews, uncles and nieces, etc. (verses 12–14). Relationships between these are the second kind of relationships that are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and the explicit examples of children-in-law and mothers-in-law (verse 23) serve to remind the Israelites that the parents-in-law are also (or at least should be also) the children-in-laws' aunts and uncles: > And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying: 'The tribe of the sons of Joseph speaketh right. This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying: Let them be married to whom they think best; only into the family of the tribe of their father shall they be married. So shall no inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe; for the children of Israel shall cleave every one to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers. And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may possess every man the inheritance of his fathers. So shall no inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; for the tribes of the children of Israel shall cleave each one to its own inheritance.' Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad. For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons. > > Incestuous relationships are considered so severe among *chillulim HaShem*, acts which bring shame to the name of God, as to be, along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18, punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20. In the 4th century BC, the Soferim (*scribes*) declared that there were relationships within which marriage constituted incest, in addition to those mentioned by the Torah. These additional relationships were termed *seconds* (Hebrew: *sheniyyot*), and included the wives of a man's grandfather and grandson. The classical rabbis prohibited marriage between a man and any of these *seconds* of his, on the basis that doing so would act as a *safeguard* against infringing the biblical incest rules, although there was inconclusive debate about exactly what the limits should be for the definition of *seconds*. Marriages that are forbidden in the Torah (with the exception of uncle-niece marriages) were regarded by the rabbis of the Middle Ages as invalid – as if they had never occurred; any children born to such a couple were regarded as bastards under Jewish law, and the relatives of the spouse were not regarded as forbidden relations for a further marriage. On the other hand, those relationships which were prohibited due to qualifying as *seconds*, and so forth, were regarded as wicked, but still valid; while they might have pressured such a couple to divorce, any children of the union were still seen as legitimate. ### Christian The New Testament condemns relations between a man, "and his father's wife", 1 Corinthians 5:1-5. It is inevitable for Bible literalists to accept that the first children of Adam and Eve would have been in incestuous relations as we regard it today. However, according to the Bible, God's law which forbids incest had not at that time been given to men, and was delivered to Moses after Adam and Eve were created. Protestant Christians who adopt the Old Testament as part of their rule of faith and practice make a distinction between the ceremonial law, and the moral law given to Moses: with the demands of the ceremonial law being fulfilled by Christ's atoning death. Protestants view Leviticus 18:6-20 as part of the moral law and still being applicable which condemns sexual/marriage relations between a man and his mother, sister, stepsister, stepmother (if a man has more than one wife it is forbidden for a son to have relations with or marry any of his father's wives), aunt, granddaughter, or a man's brother's wife. Leviticus 18 goes on to condemn relations between a man and the daughter of a woman he is having relations with, and the sister of a woman he has had sexual relations with while the first sister is still alive. The Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Communion allows marriages up to and including first cousins. The Catholic Church regards incest as a sin against the Sacrament of Matrimony. For the Catholic Church, at the heart of the immorality of incest is the corruption and disordering of proper family relations. These disordered relationships take on a particularly grave and immoral character when it becomes child sexual abuse. As the *Catechism of the Catholic Church* says: > **2388** *Incest* designates intimate relations between relatives or in-laws within a degree that prohibits marriage between them. St. Paul stigmatizes this especially grave offense: 'It is actually reported that there is immorality among you...for a man is living with his father's wife....In the name of the Lord Jesus...you are to deliver this man to Satan for the destruction of the flesh....' Incest corrupts family relationships and marks a regression toward animality. > > **2389** Connected to incest is any sexual abuse perpetrated by adults on children or adolescents entrusted to their care. The offense is compounded by the scandalous harm done to the physical and moral integrity of the young, who will remain scarred by it all their lives; and the violation of responsibility for their upbringing. > > ### Islamic The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest, which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with: * his father's wife (his mother, or stepmother, his mother-in-law, a woman from whom he has nursed, even the children of this woman), * either parent's sister (aunt), * his sister, his half sister, a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he, his sister-in-law (wife's sister) while still married. Half relations are as sacred as are the full relations. * his niece (child of sibling), * his daughter, his stepdaughter (if the marriage to her mother had been consummated), his daughter-in-law. Cousin marriage finds support in Islamic scriptures and is widespread in the Middle East. Although Islam allows cousin marriage, there are hadiths attributed to Muhammad calling for distance from the marriage of relatives. However, Muslim scholars generally consider these hadiths unreliable. ### Zoroastrian In Ancient Persia, incest between cousins is a blessed virtue although in some sources incest is believed to be related to that of parent-child or brothers-sisters. Under Zoroastrianism royalty, clergy, and commoners practiced incest, though the extent in the latter class was unknown. This tradition was called Xwedodah (Avestan: Xᵛaētuuadaθa, romanized: *Xvaetvadatha*). The tradition was considered so sacred, that the bodily fluids produced by an incestuous couple were thought to have curative powers. For instance, the Vendidad advised corpse-bearers to purify themselves with a mixture of urine of a married incestuous couple. Friedrich Nietzsche, in his book *The Birth of Tragedy*, cited that among Zoroastrians a wise priest is born only by Xvaetvadatha. To what extent Xvaetvadatha was practiced in Sasanian Iran and before, especially outside the royal and noble families ("dynastic incest") and, perhaps, the clergy, and whether practices ascribed to them can be assumed to be characteristic of the general population is not clear. There is a lack of genealogies and census material on the frequency of Xvaetvadatha. Evidence from Dura-Europos, however, combined with that of the Jewish and Christian sources citing actual cases under the Sasanians, strengthen the evidence of the Zoroastrian texts. In the post-Sasanian Zoroastrian literature, Xvaetvadatha is said to refer to marriages between cousins instead, which have always been relatively common. It has been observed that such incestuous acts received a great deal of glorification as a religious practice and, in addition to being condemned by foreigners (though the reliability of these accusations is questionable since accusations of incest were a common way of denigrating other groups), were considered a great challenge by its own proponents, with accounts suggesting that four copulations was deemed a rare achievement worthy of eternal salvation. It has been suggested that because taking up incestuous relations was a great personal challenge, seemingly repugnant even to Zoroastrians of the time, it served as an honest signal of commitment and devotion to religious ideals. ### Hindu Rigveda regards incest to be "evil". Hinduism speaks of incest in abhorrent terms. Hindus believe there are both karmic and practical bad effects of incest and thus practice strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy, in relation to the family tree (*gotra*) or bloodline (*Pravara*). Marriage within the *gotra* (*swagotra* marriage) is banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system. People within the *gotra* are regarded as kin and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest. Marriage with paternal cousins (a form of parallel-cousin relationship) is strictly prohibited. Although generally marriages between persons having the same *gotra* are frowned upon, how this is defined may vary regionally. Depending on culture and caste of the population in the region, marriage may be restricted up to seven generations of *gotra* of father, mother, and grandmother. In a few rural areas, marriage is banned within same local community. ### Stoicism The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, stated that incest was permissible in *Republic,* as did the later prominent Stoic philosopher, Chrysippus. However, Zeno only advocated for incest under unique circumstances, for example procreating with one's ailing mother in order to beget 'glorious' children, thus comforting her. Otherwise, incest is condemned as being contrary to Nature. Zeno further condemns incest from a moral and psychological perspective, considering it to be a sign of Plato's tyrannical soul, defined as a soul that is governed by illimitable desire. He uses Oedipus as a tragic example. Nonetheless, later Stoic disciples by the 1st century BC downplayed the pro-incest advocacy, accusing Zeno of being "young and thoughtless" when he wrote *Republic*. Animals ------- Inbreeding avoidance is rare in animals. North Carolina State University found that bed bugs, in contrast to most other insects, tolerate incest and are able to genetically withstand the effects of inbreeding quite well. Many species of mammals, including humanity's closest primate relatives, tend to avoid mating with close relatives, especially if there are alternative partners available. However, some chimpanzees have been recorded attempting to mate with their mothers. Male rats have been recorded engaging in mating with their sisters, but they tend to prefer non-related females over their sisters. Livestock breeders often practice controlled breeding to eliminate undesirable characteristics within a population, which is also coupled with the culling of what is considered unfit offspring, especially when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock. See also -------- * Accidental incest * Genetic distance * Genetic diversity * Genetic sexual attraction * Incest in folklore and mythology * Incest in popular culture * Prohibited degree of kinship * Proximity of blood * Watta satta Citations Bibliography * Bixler, Ray H. (1982) "Comment on the Incidence and Purpose of Royal Sibling Incest," *American Ethnologist*, *9*(3), August, pp. 580–582. JSTOR 680655 * Leavitt, G. C. (1990) "Sociobiological explanations of incest avoidance: A critical claim of evidential claims", *American Anthropologist*, 92: 971–993. JSTOR 644006 * Potter, David Morris (2007). *Emperors of Rome*. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Quercus. ISBN 978-1-84724-166-5. * Sacco, Lynn (2009). *Unspeakable: Father–Daughter Incest in American History*. Johns Hopkins University Press. 351 ISBN 978-0-8018-9300-1 * Indrajit Bandyopadhyay (29 October 2008). "A Study In Folk "Mahabharata": How Balarama Became Abhimanyu's Father-in-law". *Epic India: A New Arts & Culture Magazine* * Đõ, Quý Toàn; Iyer, Sriya; Joshi, Shareen (2006). The Economics of Consanguineous Marriages. World Bank, Development Research Group, Poverty Team. * Ska, Jean Louis (2009). *The Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions*. Mohr Siebeck. pp. 30–31, 260. ISBN 978-3-16-149905-0. link pp. 30–31 * Ska, Jean Louis (2006). *Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch*. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-122-1.

Incest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incest

**7** (**seven**) is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. It is the only prime number preceding a cube. As an early prime number in the series of positive integers, the number seven has greatly symbolic associations in religion, mythology, superstition and philosophy. The seven Classical planets resulted in seven being the number of days in a week. It is often considered lucky in Western culture and is often seen as highly symbolic. Unlike Western culture, in Vietnamese culture, the number seven is sometimes considered unlucky. Evolution of the Arabic digit ----------------------------- In the beginning, Indians wrote 7 more or less in one stroke as a curve that looks like an uppercase ⟨J⟩ vertically inverted (ᒉ). The western Ghubar Arabs' main contribution was to make the longer line diagonal rather than straight, though they showed some tendencies to making the digit more rectilinear. The eastern Arabs developed the digit from a form that looked something like 6 to one that looked like an uppercase V. Both modern Arab forms influenced the European form, a two-stroke form consisting of a horizontal upper stroke joined at its right to a stroke going down to the bottom left corner, a line that is slightly curved in some font variants. As is the case with the European digit, the Cham and Khmer digit for 7 also evolved to look like their digit 1, though in a different way, so they were also concerned with making their 7 more different. For the Khmer this often involved adding a horizontal line to the top of the digit. This is analogous to the horizontal stroke through the middle that is sometimes used in handwriting in the Western world but which is almost never used in computer fonts. This horizontal stroke is, however, important to distinguish the glyph for seven from the glyph for one in writing that uses a long upstroke in the glyph for 1. In some Greek dialects of the early 12th century the longer line diagonal was drawn in a rather semicircular transverse line. On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, 7 is the digit with the most common graphic variation (1, 6 and 9 also have variant glyphs). Most calculators use three line segments, but on Sharp, Casio, and a few other brands of calculators, 7 is written with four line segments because in Japan, Korea and Taiwan 7 is written with a "hook" on the left, as ① in the following illustration. While the shape of the character for the digit 7 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender (⁊), as, for example, in . Most people in Continental Europe, Indonesia, and some in Britain and Ireland as well as Latin America, write 7 with a line in the middle ("~~7~~"), sometimes with the top line crooked. The line through the middle is useful to clearly differentiate the digit from the digit one, as the two can appear similar when written in certain styles of handwriting. This form is used in official handwriting rules for primary school in Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Poland, other Slavic countries, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland, Romania, Germany, Greece, and Hungary. Mathematics ----------- Seven, the fourth prime number, is not only a Mersenne prime (since 23 − 1 = 7) but also a double Mersenne prime since the exponent, 3, is itself a Mersenne prime. It is also a Newman–Shanks–Williams prime, a Woodall prime, a factorial prime, a Harshad number, a lucky prime, a happy number (happy prime), a safe prime (the only Mersenne safe prime), a Leyland prime of the second kind and the fourth Heegner number. * Seven is the lowest natural number that cannot be represented as the sum of the squares of three integers. (See Lagrange's four-square theorem#Historical development.) * Seven is the aliquot sum of one number, the cubic number 8 and is the base of the 7-aliquot tree. * 7 is the only number *D* for which the equation 2*n* − *D* = *x*2 has more than two solutions for *n* and *x* natural. In particular, the equation 2*n* − 7 = *x*2 is known as the Ramanujan–Nagell equation. * There are 7 frieze groups in two dimensions, consisting of symmetries of the plane whose group of translations is isomorphic to the group of integers. These are related to the 17 wallpaper groups whose transformations and isometries repeat two-dimensional patterns in the plane. The *seventh* indexed prime number is seventeen. * A seven-sided shape is a heptagon. The regular *n*-gons for *n* ⩽ 6 can be constructed by compass and straightedge alone, which makes the heptagon the first regular polygon that cannot be directly constructed with these simple tools. Figurate numbers representing heptagons are called heptagonal numbers. 7 is also a centered hexagonal number. A heptagon in Euclidean space is unable to generate uniform tilings alongside other polygons, like the regular pentagon. However, it is one of fourteen polygons that can fill a plane-vertex tiling, in its case only alongside a regular triangle and a 42-sided polygon (3.7.42). This is also one of twenty-one such configurations from seventeen combinations of polygons, that features the largest and smallest polygons possible. * In Wythoff's kaleidoscopic constructions, seven distinct generator points that lie on *mirror* edges of a three-sided Schwarz triangle are used to create most uniform tilings and polyhedra; an eighth point lying on all three mirrors is technically *degenerate*, reserved to represent snub forms only. Seven of eight semiregular tilings are Wythoffian, the only exception is the elongated triangular tiling. Seven of nine uniform colorings of the square tiling are also Wythoffian, and between the triangular tiling and square tiling, there are seven *non-Wythoffian* uniform colorings of a total twenty-one that belong to regular tilings (all hexagonal tiling uniform colorings are Wythoffian). In two dimensions, there are precisely seven 7-uniform *Krotenheerdt* tilings, with no other such *k*-uniform tilings for *k* > 7, and it is also the only *k* for which the count of *Krotenheerdt* tilings agrees with *k*. * The Fano plane is the smallest possible finite projective plane with 7 points and 7 lines such that every line contains 3 points and 3 lines cross every point. With group order 168 = 23·3·7, this plane holds 35 total triples of points where 7 are collinear and another 28 are non-collinear, whose incidence graph is the 3-regular bipartate Heawood graph with 14 vertices and 21 edges. This graph embeds in three dimensions as the Szilassi polyhedron, the simplest toroidal polyhedron alongside its dual with 7 vertices, the Császár polyhedron. * In three-dimensional space there are seven crystal systems and fourteen Bravais lattices which classify under seven lattice systems, six of which are shared with the seven crystal systems. There are also collectively seventy-seven Wythoff symbols that represent all uniform figures in three dimensions. * The seventh dimension is the only dimension aside from the familiar three where a vector cross product can be defined. This is related to the octonions over the imaginary subspace Im(**O**) in 7-space whose commutator between two octonions defines this vector product, wherein the *Fano plane* describes the multiplicative algebraic structure of the unit octonions {*e0, e1, e2, ..., e7*}, with *e0* an identity element. Also, the lowest known dimension for an exotic sphere is the seventh dimension, with a total of 28 differentiable structures; there may exist exotic smooth structures on the four-dimensional sphere. In hyperbolic space, 7 is the highest dimension for non-simplex hypercompact *Vinberg polytopes* of rank *n + 4* mirrors, where there is one unique figure with eleven facets. On the other hand, such figures with rank *n + 3* mirrors exist in dimensions 4, 5, 6 and 8; *not* in 7. Hypercompact polytopes with lowest possible rank of *n + 2* mirrors exist up through the *17th* dimension, where there is a single solution as well. * There are seven fundamental types of catastrophes. * When rolling two standard six-sided dice, seven has a 6 in 62 (or 1/6) probability of being rolled (1–6, 6–1, 2–5, 5–2, 3–4, or 4–3), the greatest of any number. The opposite sides of a standard six-sided dice always add to 7. * The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the problems remain unsolved. ### Basic calculations | Multiplication | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 50 | 100 | 1000 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **7 × *x*** | **7** | 14 | 21 | 28 | 35 | 42 | 49 | 56 | 63 | 70 | 77 | 84 | 91 | 98 | 105 | 112 | 119 | 126 | 133 | 140 | 147 | 154 | 161 | 168 | 175 | 350 | 700 | 7000 | | Division | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **7 ÷ *x*** | **7** | 3.5 | 2.3 | 1.75 | 1.4 | 1.16 | 1 | 0.875 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.63 | 0.583 | 0.538461 | 0.5 | 0.46 | | ***x* ÷ 7** | 0.142857 | 0.285714 | 0.428571 | 0.571428 | 0.714285 | 0.857142 | 1.142857 | 1.285714 | 1.428571 | 1.571428 | 1.714285 | 1.857142 | 2 | 2.142857 | | Exponentiation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **7*x*** | **7** | 49 | 343 | 2401 | 16807 | 117649 | 823543 | 5764801 | 40353607 | 282475249 | 1977326743 | 13841287201 | 96889010407 | | ***x*7** | 1 | 128 | 2187 | 16384 | 78125 | 279936 | 823543 | 2097152 | 4782969 | 10000000 | 19487171 | 35831808 | 62748517 | | Radix | 1 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 50 | 75 | 100 | 125 | 150 | 200 | 250 | 500 | 1000 | 10000 | 100000 | 1000000 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ***x*7** | 1 | 5 | 137 | 217 | 267 | 347 | 1017 | 1357 | 2027 | 2367 | 3037 | 4047 | 5057 | 13137 | 26267 | 411047 | 5643557 | 113333117 | #### In decimal 999,999 divided by 7 is exactly 142,857. Therefore, when a vulgar fraction with 7 in the denominator is converted to a decimal expansion, the result has the same six-digit repeating sequence after the decimal point, but the sequence can start with any of those six digits. For example, 1/7 = 0.142857 142857... and 2/7 = 0.285714 285714.... In fact, if one sorts the digits in the number 142,857 in ascending order, 124578, it is possible to know from which of the digits the decimal part of the number is going to begin with. The remainder of dividing any number by 7 will give the position in the sequence 124578 that the decimal part of the resulting number will start. For example, 628 ÷ 7 = 89+5/7; here 5 is the remainder, and would correspond to number 7 in the ranking of the ascending sequence. So in this case, 628 ÷ 7 = 89.714285. Another example, 5238 ÷ 7 = 748+2/7, hence the remainder is 2, and this corresponds to number 2 in the sequence. In this case, 5238 ÷ 7 = 748.285714. In science ---------- * Seven colors in a rainbow: ROYGBIV * Seven Continents * Seven Seas * Seven climes * The neutral pH balance * Number of music notes in a scale * Number of spots most commonly found on ladybugs * Atomic number for nitrogen ### In psychology * Seven, plus or minus two as a model of working memory. * Seven psychological types called the Seven Rays in the teachings of Alice A. Bailey * In Western culture, Seven is consistently listed as people's favorite number. * When guessing numbers 1–10, the number 7 is most likely to be picked. * Seven-year itch: happiness in marriage said to decline after 7 years Classical antiquity ------------------- The Pythagoreans invested particular numbers with unique spiritual properties. The number seven was considered to be particularly interesting because it consisted of the union of the physical (number 4) with the spiritual (number 3). In Pythagorean numerology the number 7 means spirituality. References from classical antiquity to the number seven include: "Number Seven" by William Sidney Gibson Read by Ruth Golding for LibriVox Audio 00:15:59 (full text) --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* * Seven Classical planets and the derivative Seven Heavens * Seven Wonders of the Ancient World * Seven metals of antiquity * Seven days in the week * Seven Seas * Seven Sages * Seven champions that fought Thebes * Seven hills of Rome and Seven Kings of Rome * Seven Sisters, the daughters of Atlas also known as the Pleiades Religion and mythology ---------------------- ### Judaism The number seven forms a widespread typological pattern within Hebrew scripture, including: * Seven days (more precisely yom) of Creation, leading to the seventh day or Sabbath (Genesis 1) * Seven-fold vengeance visited on upon Cain for the killing of Abel (Genesis 4:15) * Seven pairs of every clean animal loaded onto the ark by Noah (Genesis 7:2) * Seven years of plenty and seven years of famine in Pharaoh's dream (Genesis 41) * Seventh son of Jacob, Gad, whose name means good luck (Genesis 46:16) * Seven times bullock's blood is sprinkled before God (Leviticus 4:6) * Seven nations God told the Israelites they would displace when they entered the land of Israel (Deuteronomy 7:1) * Seven days (de jure, but de facto eight days) of the Passover feast (Exodus 13:3–10) * Seven-branched candelabrum or Menorah (Exodus 25) * Seven trumpets played by seven priests for seven days to bring down the walls of Jericho (Joshua 6:8) * Seven things that are detestable to God (Proverbs 6:16–19) * Seven Pillars of the House of Wisdom (Proverbs 9:1) * Seven archangels in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit (12:15) References to the number seven in Jewish knowledge and practice include: * Seven divisions of the weekly readings or aliyah of the Torah * Seven Jewish men (over the age of 13) called to read aliyahs in Shabbat morning services * Seven blessings recited under the chuppah during a Jewish wedding ceremony * Seven days of festive meals for a Jewish bride and groom after their wedding, known as Sheva Berachot or Seven Blessings * Seven Ushpizzin prayers to the Jewish patriarchs during the holiday of Sukkot ### Christianity Following the tradition of the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament likewise uses the number seven as part of a typological pattern: * Seven loaves multiplied into seven basketfuls of surplus (Matthew 15:32–37) * Seven demons were driven out of Mary Magdalene (Luke 8:2) * Seven last sayings of Jesus on the cross * Seven men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost and wisdom (Acts 6:3) * Seven Spirits of God, Seven Churches and Seven Seals in the Book of Revelation References to the number seven in Christian knowledge and practice include: * Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit * Seven Corporal Acts of Mercy and Seven Spiritual Acts of Mercy * Seven deadly sins: lust, gluttony, greed, sloth, wrath, envy, and pride, and seven terraces of Mount Purgatory * Seven Virtues: chastity, temperance, charity, diligence, kindness, patience, and humility * Seven Joys and Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Mary * Seven Sleepers of Christian myth * Seven Sacraments in the Catholic Church (though some traditions assign a different number) ### Islam References to the number seven in Islamic knowledge and practice include: * Seven ayat in surat al-Fatiha, the first book of the holy Qur'an * Seven circumambulations of Muslim pilgrims around the Kaaba in Mecca during the Hajj and the Umrah * Seven walks between Al-Safa and Al-Marwah performed Muslim pilgrims during the Hajj and the Umrah * Seven doors to hell (for heaven the number of doors is eight) * Seven Earths and seven Heavens (plural of sky) mentioned in Qur'an (S. 65:12) * Night Journey to the Seventh Heaven, (reported ascension to heaven to meet God) Isra' and Mi'raj of the Qur'an and surah Al-Isra'. * Seventh day naming ceremony held for babies * Seven enunciators of divine revelation (*nāṭiqs*) according to the celebrated Fatimid Ismaili dignitary Nasir Khusraw * Circle Seven Koran, the holy scripture of the Moorish Science Temple of America ### Hinduism References to the number seven in Hindu knowledge and practice include: * Seven worlds in the universe and seven seas in the world in Hindu cosmology * Seven sages or Saptarishi and their seven wives or Sapta Matrka in Hindu mythology * Seven Chakras in eastern philosophy * Seven stars in a constellation called "Saptharishi Mandalam" in Indian astronomy * Seven promises, or Saptapadi, and seven circumambulations around a fire at Hindu weddings * Seven virgin goddesses or Saptha Kannimar worshipped in temples in Tamil Nadu, India * Seven hills at Tirumala known as Yedu Kondalavadu in Telugu, or ezhu malaiyan in Tamil, meaning "Sevenhills God" * Seven steps taken by the Buddha at birth * Seven divine ancestresses of humankind in Khasi mythology * Seven octets or Saptak Swaras in Indian Music as the basis for Ragas compositions * Seven Social Sins listed by Mahatma Gandhi ### Eastern tradition Other references to the number seven in Eastern traditions include: * Seven Lucky Gods or gods of good fortune in Japanese mythology * Seven-Branched Sword in Japanese mythology * Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove in China * Seven minor symbols of yang in Taoist yin-yang ### Other references Other references to the number seven in traditions from around the world include: * The number seven had mystical and religious significance in Mesopotamian culture by the 22nd century BCE at the latest. This was likely because in the Sumerian sexagesimal number system, dividing by seven was the first division which resulted in infinitely repeating fractions. * Seven palms in an Egyptian *Sacred Cubit* * Seven ranks in Mithraism * Seven hills of Istanbul * Seven islands of Atlantis * Seven Cherokee clans * Seven lives of cats in Iran and German and Romance language-speaking cultures * Seven fingers on each hand, seven toes on each foot and seven pupils in each eye of the Irish epic hero Cúchulainn * Seventh sons will be werewolves in Galician folklore, or the son of a woman and a werewolf in other European folklores * Seventh sons of a seventh son will be magicians with special powers of healing and clairvoyance in some cultures, or vampires in others * Seven prominent legendary monsters in Guaraní mythology * Seven gateways traversed by Inanna during her descent into the underworld * *Seven Wise Masters*, a cycle of medieval stories * Seven sister goddesses or fates in Baltic mythology called the Deivės Valdytojos. * Seven legendary Cities of Gold, such as Cibola, that the Spanish thought existed in South America * Seven years spent by Thomas the Rhymer in the faerie kingdom in the eponymous British folk tale * Seven-year cycle in which the Queen of the Fairies pays a tithe to Hell (or possibly Hel) in the tale of Tam Lin * *Seven Valleys*, a text by the Prophet-Founder Bahá'u'lláh in the Bahá'í faith * Seven superuniverses in the cosmology of Urantia * Seven psychological types called the Seven Rays in the teachings of Alice A. Bailey * Seven, the sacred number of Yemaya * Seven holes representing eyes (سبع عيون) in an Assyrian evil eye bead – though occasionally two, and sometimes nine In culture ---------- ### In literature * Seven Dwarfs * *The Seven Brothers*, a 1870 novel by Aleksis Kivi * Seven features prominently in *A Song of Ice and Fire* by George R. R. Martin, namely, the Seven Kingdoms and the Faith of the Seven ### In visual art * The Group of Seven Canadian landscape painters ### In sports * Sports with seven players per side + Kabaddi + Rugby sevens + Water Polo + Netball + Handball + Flag Football + Ultimate Frisbee * Seven is the least number of players a soccer team must have on the field in order for a match to start and continue. * A touchdown plus an extra point is worth seven points. See also -------- * Diatonic scale (7 notes) * Seven colors in the rainbow * Seven continents * Seven liberal arts * Seven Wonders of the Ancient World * Seven days of the Week * Septenary (numeral system) * Year Seven (School) * Se7en (disambiguation) * Sevens (disambiguation) * One-seventh area triangle * Z with stroke (Ƶ) * List of highways numbered 7

7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7

**Berat** (Albanian: [ˈbɛˈɾat]; definite Albanian form: *Berati*) is the ninth most populous city of Albania and the seat of Berat County and Berat Municipality. By air, it is 71 kilometres (44 miles) north of Gjirokastër, 70 kilometres (43 miles) west of Korçë, 70 kilometres (43 miles) south of Tirana, and 33 kilometres (21 miles) east of Fier. Berat is located in the south of the country. It is surrounded by mountains and hills, including Tomorr on the east that was declared a national park. The river Osum (total length 161 km (100 mi)) runs through the city before it empties into the Seman within the Myzeqe Plain. The municipality of Berat was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities Berat, Otllak, Roshnik, Sinjë, and Velabisht, that became municipal units. The seat of the municipality is the city Berat. The total population is 60,031 (2011 census), in a total area of 380.21 km2 (146.80 sq mi). The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 32,606. Berat, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, comprises a unique style of architecture with influences from several civilizations that have managed to coexist for centuries throughout the history. Like many cities in Albania, Berat comprises an old fortified city filled with churches and mosques painted with grandiose wealth of visible murals and frescos. Berat is one of the main cultural centres of the country. Etymology --------- The name *Berat* has been derived through Albanian sound changes from the Old Slavonic language *Bělgrad* (Бѣлградъ) or *Belgrád* / *Beligrad* (Белград / Белиград), meaning "White City". It is believed to have been the site of the ancient city *Antipatreia* (Ancient Greek: Ἀντιπάτρεια, "City of Antipater") or *Antipatrea* in Latin, while during the early Byzantine Empire the name of the town was *Pulcheriopolis* (Byzantine Greek: Πουλχεριόπολις, "City of Pulcheria"). It was recorded in Medieval Latin as *Belogradum*, *Bellegradum*, in Turkish as *Belgrad*, in Italian as *Belgrado*, and in Greek as Βελλέγραδα, *Bellegrada*. In the Republic of Venice the city was known as *Belgrado di Romania* ("Rumelian Belgrade"), while in the Ottoman Empire it was also known as *Belgrad-i Arnavud* ("Albanian Belgrade") to distinguish it from Belgrade in Serbia. Today, in Aromanian, Berat is known as *Birat*. History ------- ### Early development Ceramic finds from the 7th century BCE initially attest to a settlement of the rocky hill of Berat by the Illyrians. Berat has been identified with ancient *Antipatrea*. Probably since the mid-4th century BCE the Illyrians went through a dynamic development, founding their own cities like Dimale and Byllis; however it is uncertain whether this development among Illyrians involved also Berat, or whether the foundation of the city is to be attributed to Cassander of Macedon. The founding date is unknown, although if Cassander is the founder, it would date back after he took control of southern Illyria around 314 BCE. Antipatrea was involved in the Illyrian Wars and Macedonian Wars, and it is mentioned as a city of Dassaretia in southern Illyria. Along with Chrysondyon, Gertous and Creonion, Antipatrea was one of the Dassaretan towns around which the Illyrian dynast Skerdilaidas and the Macedonian king Philip V fought in 217 BCE. The city eventually was conquered by Philip V until Roman intervention. Antipatrea was described as the largest settlement with significant walls and referred to as the only *urbs* in the area, in contrast with other settlements that were described as *castella* or *oppida*. As reported by Roman historian Livy, in 200 BCE the Roman legatus Lucius Apustius "stormed and subdued Antipatrea by force of arms and, after killing the men of military age and granting all the plunder to the soldiers, he demolished the walls and burned the city". In Roman times it was included within Epirus Nova, in the province of Macedonia. The town became part of the unstable frontier of the Byzantine Empire following the fall of the western Roman Empire and, along with much of the rest of the Balkan peninsula, it suffered from repeated invasions by Slavs. During the Roman and early Byzantine period, the city was known as *Pulcheriopolis*. The First Bulgarian Empire under Presian I captured the town in the 9th century, and the city received the Slavic name *Bel[i]grad* ("White City"), Belegrada (Βελέγραδα) in Greek, which persisted throughout the medieval period, changing to *Berat* under Ottoman rule. The town became one of the most important towns in the Bulgarian region Kutmichevitsa. The Bulgarian governor Elemag surrendered the city to the emperor Basil II in 1018, and the city remained in Byzantine hands until the Second Bulgarian Empire retook the city in 1203 during the rule of Kaloyan. During the 13th century, it fell to Michael I Ducas, the ruler of the Despotate of Epirus. Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos sent letters to the Albanian leaders of Berat and Durrës in 1272 asking them to abandon their alliance with Charles I of Naples, leader of the Kingdom of Albania, who had captured and incorporated it at the same period in the Kingdom of Albania. However, they sent the letters to Charles as a sign of their loyalty. In 1274 Michael VIII recaptured Berat and after being joined by Albanians who supported the Byzantine Empire, marched unsuccessfully against the Angevin capital of Durrës. In 1280-1281 the Sicilian forces under Hugh the Red of Sully laid siege to Berat. In March 1281 a relief force from Constantinople under the command of Michael Tarchaneiotes was able to drive off the besieging Sicilian army. Later in the 13th century Berat again fell under the control of the Byzantine Empire. The fortress of Tomorr in the early 14th century is attested as *Timoro(n)* under Byzantine control. In 1337, the Albanian tribes which lived in the areas of Belegrita (the region of Mt. Tomorr near Berat) and Kanina rose in rebellion, and seized the fortress of Tomorr. There is little detail about the rebellion in primary sources. John VI Kantakouzenos mentions that the Albanians in those areas rebelled despite the privileges which Andronikos III Palaiologos had given them a few years earlier. These events marked the movement of these Albanian tribes into Epirus for the first time. Andronikos led an army mainly composed of Turkish mercenaries, and defeated the Albanians, killing many and taking prisoners. In 1345 (or maybe 1343) the town passed to the Serbian Empire. After its dissolution in 1355 Berat came under suzerainty of its former governor, John Komnenos Asen (1345-1363), Alexander Komnenos Asen (1363-1372) and Zeta of Balša II (1372-1385). In 1385 Berat was captured by the Ottomans, before the Battle of Savra. According to some sources, the Ottomans probably remained in Berat for some time with intention to use it as foothold to capture Valona. By 1396, the Albanian Muzaka family took over control of Berat which became the capital of the Principality of Berat. In 1417 Berat became a part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1455 Skanderbeg, a commander with an Albanian force of 14,000 and small number of Catalan soldiers unsuccessfully tried to capture Berat from an Ottoman force of 40,000. ### Modern period During the early period of Ottoman rule, Berat fell into severe decline.[*dubious – discuss*] By the end of the 16th century it had only 710 houses. However, it began to recover by the 17th century, and became a major craft centre specializing in wood carving. During the first part of the sixteenth century, Berat was a Christian city and did not contain any Muslim households. The urban population of this period (1506-1583) increased little, with the addition of 17 houses. Following their expulsion and arrival from Spain, a Jewish community existed in Berat that consisted of 25 families between 1519 and 1520. Toward the latter part of the sixteenth century, Berat contained 461 Muslim houses and another 187 belonged to newcomers from the surrounding villages of Gjeqar, Gjerbës, Tozhar, Fratar, and Dobronik. Conversion to Islam of the local urban population in Berat had increased during this time and part of the newcomer population were also Muslim converts who had Islamic names and Christian surnames. Factors such as tax exemptions for Muslim urban craftsmen in exchange for military service drove many of the incoming rural first generation Muslim population to Berat. Followers of Sabbatai Zevi existed in Berat among Jews during the mid-sixteenth century. The Berat Jewish community took an active role in the welfare of other Jews, such as managing to attain the release of war-related captives present in Durrës in 1596. By the early seventeenth century, urban life in Berat started to resemble Ottoman and Muslim patterns. From 1670 onward, Berat became a Muslim-majority city and of its 30 neighbourhoods, 19 were populated by Muslims. Factors attributed to the change of the urban religious composition in Berat was pressure to covert in some neighbourhoods, and a lack of Christian priests able to provide religious services. In the 18th century, Berat was one of the most important Albanian cities during the Ottoman period. In the early modern era the city was the capital of the Pashalik of Berat founded by Ahmet Kurt Pasha. Berat was incorporated in the Pashalik of Yanina after Ibrahim Pasha of Berat was defeated by Ali Pasha in 1809. In 1867, Berat became a sanjak in Yannina (Yanya) vilayet. Berat replaced a declining Vlorë as centre of the sanjak (province) in the nineteenth century. The sanjak of Berat and the city itself were under the dominance of the Albanian Vrioni family. The Jewish community of Yanina renewed the Jewish community of Berat in the nineteenth century. A Greek school was operating in the city already from 1835. In the late Ottoman period, the population of Berat was 10–15,000 inhabitants, with Orthodox Christians numbering some 5,000 people of whom 3,000 spoke the Aromanian language and the rest the Albanian language. During the 19th century, Berat played an important part in the Albanian national revival. Christian merchants in Berat supported the Albanian movement. The Albanian revolts of 1833–1839 greatly impacted the city, especially with revolts that occurred in October 1833. The city's castle was surrounded by 10,000 people. Berat's mütesellim, Emin Aga, was forced to leave the city in the hands of the revolt's leaders. On October 22, 1833 the revolt's leaders drafted their requests to the Sublime Porte: they would no longer accept allow that Berat give soldiers to the Ottoman government. They also demanded that Albania's local administration be led by Albanian people. The Ottoman government accepted the rebels' requests and nominated some Albanian officials in the city and declared an amnesty as well. In August 1839 a new uprising took place in Berat. The inhabitants attacked the Ottoman forces and besieged them in the castle. Meanwhile, the rebellion spread out to the regions of Sanjak of Vlorë. The rebels leaders sent a petition to Sultan Abdulmejid I to have Albanian officials in administration and to put Ismail Pasha, the nephew of Ali Pasha as a general governor. In September 1839 the rebels captured the castle, however once again the Ottoman government postponed the application of reforms in Albania. Berat became a major base of support for the League of Prizren, the late 19th century Albanian nationalist alliance, while the city was also represented in the formation of southern branch of the league in Gjirokastër. In the First World War, a census by Austro-Hungarian occupation forces counted 6745 Orthodox Christians and 20,919 Muslims in the Berat region. #### 20th and 21st century During the Second World War, Jews were concealed in the homes and basements of 60 families from the Muslim and Christian communities in Berat. Albanian Muslims in the city let Jewish people worship in the local mosque, and a Star of David can still be seen on the walls of the city's main Islamic place of worship. From 23 to 30 October 1944, the second session of the Council of National Liberation of Albania was held in Berat, where the National Liberation Movement-controlled Anti-Fascist National Liberation Committee became the Provisional Democratic Government of Albania, with Enver Hoxha as its prime minister and minister of defence. During the Communist era, Berat became a place of internal exile for those who were deemed public enemies, and their families. Starting in the 1950s, the village served as a political internment center from which the internees could not leave without permission. Each day, internees were required to sign up at the Security Office or the police. In 1963, a Deportation-Internment Commission report indicated that there were 30 interned in Berat, which consisted in part of internees those interned due to risk of escape. The rest are convicted for ordinary causes. In 1967, Albanian author Ismail Kadare was sent to Berat, where he spent two years. Relatives of those who had fled abroad, or sympathized with Titoist Yugoslavia were also deported to Berat. In the modern period, a Romani community numbering 200-300 lives in Berat and its outskirts whereas others in a few nearby villages, at times living in difficult economic circumstances with some seasonally migrating to Greece for work. Some Aromanian-speakers and Greek-speakers can be found in the town and nearby villages. Geography --------- Berat lies on the right bank of the river Osum, a short distance from the point where it is joined by the Molisht river. The old city centre consists of three parts: Kalaja (on the castle hill), Mangalem (at the foot of the castle hill) and Gorica (on the left bank of the Osum). It has a number of buildings of architectural and historical interest. The pine forests above the city, on the slopes of the towering Tomorr mountains, provide a backdrop of appropriate grandeur. The Osumi river has cut a 915-metre deep gorge through the limestone rock on the west side of the valley to form a precipitous natural fortress, around which the town was built on several river terraces. According to an Albanian legend, the Tomorr mountain was originally a giant, who fought with another giant (mountain) called Shpirag over a young woman. They killed each other and the girl drowned in her tears, which then became the Osum river. Mount Shpirag, named after the second giant, is on the left bank of the gorge, above the district of Gorica. Berat is known to Albanians as the city of "One above another Windows" (a similar epithet is sometimes applied to Gjirokastra), or *The City of Two Thousand Steps*. It was proclaimed a 'Museum City' by the dictator Enver Hoxha in June 1961. ### Climate Berat has a Mediterranean climate (Csa) under the Köppen climate classification. Summers are characterised as hot and dry with a maximum average of 28.2 °C (82.8 °F) in July. Conversely, winter brings mild and wet weather with an average of 7.2 °C (45.0 °F) in January. The lowest minimum temperature recorded in Berat was estimated at −12.2 °C (10.0 °F) and its highest maximum temperature at 47.1 °C (116.8 °F). | Climate data for Berat (1991 - 2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 25(77) | 27(81) | 29(84) | 34(93) | 38(100) | 43(109) | 44(111) | 43(109) | 42(108) | 35(95) | 30(86) | 28(82) | 44(111) | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.4(57.9) | 15.3(59.5) | 17.1(62.8) | 22(72) | 25.3(77.5) | 30.4(86.7) | 33.4(92.1) | 33.6(92.5) | 29.2(84.6) | 24(75) | 20(68) | 15.8(60.4) | 23.4(74.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.0(35.6) | 2.1(35.8) | 4.2(39.6) | 10(50) | 13(55) | 17.8(64.0) | 20.3(68.5) | 20.0(68.0) | 17.0(62.6) | 12.5(54.5) | 9.3(48.7) | 3.5(38.3) | 11.0(51.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −10(14) | −9(16) | −4(25) | −1(30) | 3(37) | 8(46) | 14(57) | 12(54) | 6(43) | 0(32) | −3(27) | −8(18) | −10(14) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 145(5.7) | 152(6.0) | 108(4.3) | 97(3.8) | 65(2.6) | 20(0.8) | 4(0.2) | 5(0.2) | 30(1.2) | 80(3.1) | 190(7.5) | 198(7.8) | 1,094(43.2) | | Source: METEOALB Weather Station | Economy ------- By the 18th century the economy and society of Berat was closely connected to the city's craft guilds partly related to various tax exemptions that existed since the late Middle Ages. By 1750 there were twenty-two guilds, the most important of which were the tanners', the cobblers' and other leather-working guilds. Other guilds included metal-working, silver-smithing and silk-making ones. Present-day Berat houses Albania's military industry with the nearby Kuçovë base and Poliçan factory as well as a developing tourist economy as of recent years thanks to its historical sites. Culture ------- ### Landmarks Panorama of Berat The coexistence of religious and cultural communities over several centuries, beginning in the 4th century BC into the 18th century is apparent in Berat. The town also bears testimony to the architectural excellence of traditional Balkan housing construction, which date to the late 18th and the 19th centuries. Some of the landmarks of that historical period could be seen in the Berat Castle, churches of the Byzantine era such as the Church of St. Mary of Blaherna (13th century), the Bachelors' Mosque, the National Ethnographic Museum, the Sultan's Mosque (built between 1481 and 1512), Leaden Mosque (built in 1555) and the Gorica Bridge. Berat Castle is built on a rocky hill on the right bank of the river Osum and is accessible only from the south. After being burned down by the Romans in 200 BC the walls were strengthened in the 5th century under Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II, and were rebuilt during the 6th century under the Emperor Justinian I and again in the 13th century under the Despot of Epirus, Michael Komnenos Doukas, cousin of the Byzantine Emperor. The main entrance, on the north side, is defended by a fortified courtyard and there are three smaller entrances. The surface that the fortress encompasses made it possible to house a considerable portion of the town's inhabitants. The buildings inside the fortress were built during the 13th century and because of their characteristic architecture are preserved as cultural monuments. The population of the fortress was Christian, and it had about 20 churches (most built during the 13th century) and only one mosque, for the use of the Muslim garrison, (of which there survives only a few ruins and the base of the minaret). The churches of the fortress have been damaged through the years and only some remain. The Church of St. Mary of Blachernae dating from the 13th century, has 16th century mural paintings by Nikollë Onufri, son of the most important post-medieval Albanian painter, Onufri. In a small tree - planted square, on a hillside inside the walls of the fortress, stands the 14th century Church of the Holy Trinity. It is built in the form of a cross and has Byzantine murals. Outside the ramparts is the Church of St. Michael (Shën Mehill), built in the 13th century. This church is reached by a steep but perfectly safe path. Near the entrance, after a guardhouse, is the little Church of St. Theodore (Shen Todher), which have wall paintings by Onufri himself. The most interesting is the cathedral of St. Nicholas, which has been well restored and is now a museum dedicated to Onufri. Onufri was the greatest of the 16th century painters in Albania. Not only was he a master of the techniques of fresco and icons, but he was the first to introduce a new colour in painting, shiny red, which the French called "Onufri's Red". In addition, Onufri introduced a certain realism and a degree of individuality in facial expression. The UNESCO Site of Berat. The first inscription recording Onufri's name was found in 1951, in the Shelqan church. The Kastoria church has a date 23 July 1547 and a reference to Onufri's origin : *I am Onufri, and come from the town of Berat*. Onufri's style in painting was inherited by his son, Nikolla (Nicholas), though not so successful as his father. In Onufri's museum can be found works of Onufri, his son, Nikolla and other painters'. There are also numbers of icons and some fine examples of religious silversmith's work (sacred vessels, icon casings, covers of Gospel books, etc.). Berat Gospels, which date from the 4th century, are copies (the originals are preserved in the National Archives in Tirana). The church itself has an iconostasis of carved wood, with two icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary. The bishop's throne and the pulpit are also notable. Near the street running down from the fortress is the Bachelors' Mosque (Xhami e Beqareve), built in 1827. This has a portico and external decoration of flowers, plants, and houses. The 'Bachelors' were the young shop-assistants (in practice generally unmarried), whom the merchants in Berat used as their own private militia. The King Mosque (Albanian: *Xhamia e Mbretit*), the oldest in the town built in the reign of Bayazid II (1481–1512), is notable for its fine ceiling. It is museum in the modern period. The Lead Mosque (Xhamia e Plumbit), built in 1555 and so called from the covering of its cupola. This mosque is the centre of the town. The Halveti Tekke (Teqe e Helvetive) is thought to have been built in the 15th century. It was rebuilt by Ahmet Kurt Pasha in 1782. It belongs to the Khalwati Sufi order. It is composed of the prayer hall with a square plan, a small ambience for special religious services and a gracious portico in front of the entrance to the prayer hall. In the prayer hall is a mafil carved in wood and decorated. On the eastern side of the prayer hall is the mihrab decorated with stone stalactites. The inner walls have been decorated with eight frescoes, depicting dwelling houses, Muslim religious buildings and landscapes. The walls below the frescoes are covered by holes that improve the acoustics in the prayer hall. The ceiling of the prayer hall is made of wood and is decorated with paintings. The ceiling has been decorated in the Baroque style adopted in Islamic art and is covered with 14 carat gold plates. The inner decorations were carried out by Master Dush Barka. Attached to the prayer hall is a room in which once was the mausoleum of Ahmet Kurt Pasha and his son. The portico of the tekke has five stone columns which were taken from the ancient Greek city of Apollonia. Above the main door in the portico is an inscription dedicated to the values of the tekke and to Ahmet Kurt Pasha. Monuments dating to the late Ottoman period from the Albanian Vrioni family exist such as the gate to a former palace and a tomb, other monuments are from the Vlora family. Near of tekke is purported to be the grave of Sabbatai Zevi, an Ottoman Jew who was banished to Dulcigno (present day Ulcinj), who created controversy among his followers upon his conversion to Islam. A Jewish history museum named "Solomon Museum" is located in southern Berat, and contains exhibits about the Holocaust in Albania and the survival of Jews during the war in the country. The town is known for its historic architecture and scenery and is known as the "*Town of a Thousand Windows*", due to the many large windows of the old decorated houses overlooking the town. It is unclear whether it really means "Thousand" (një mijë) or "One over Another" (një mbi një) windows. Indeed, the quarter is built in a very steep place and windows seem to be one over another. Similar views can be seen in Melnik, Bulgaria, Gjirokastër in Albania, as well as Catanzaro in Italy, where an Albanian minority once lived. The Citadel overlooks the river and the modern city as well as the old Christian quarter across the river. It is a well preserved area containing narrow streets, Turkish houses and Orthodox churches. Modern Berat consists of three parts divided by the Osum River: Gorica ("little mountain" in Old Church Slavonic), Mangalem and Kalaja, the latter being a residential quarter within the old Byzantine citadel that overlooks the town. The town also has a 15th-century mosque and a number of churches of the Albanian Orthodox Church, whose autocephaly was proclaimed there in 1922. Several of the churches house works by the renowned 16th century painter Onufri. Berat National Ethnographic Museum opened in 1979. It contains a diversity of everyday objects from throughout Berat's history. The museum contains non-movable furniture which hold a number of household objects, wooden case, wall-closets, as well as chimneys and a well. Near the well is an olive press, wool press and many large ceramic dishes, revealing a glimpse of the historical domestic culture of Berat's citizens. The ground floor has a hall with a model of a medieval street with traditional shops on both sides. On the second floor is an archive, loom, village sitting room, kitchen and sitting room. Gorica Bridge, which connects two parts of Berat, was originally built from wood in 1780 and was rebuilt with stone in the 1920s. The seven-arch bridge is 129 metres (423 ft) long and 5.3 metres (17 ft) wide and is built about 10 metres (33 ft) above the average water level. According to local legend, the original wooden bridge contained a dungeon in which a girl would be incarcerated and starved to appease the spirits responsible for the safety of the bridge. ### Education In addition to secondary schools, the city hosted the Albanian University in Berat, a private institution that terminated its programs in 2019. ### Sports The football (soccer) club is KS Tomori Berat. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Berat is twinned with: * Turkey Amasya, Amasya Province, Turkey * Turkey Bağcılar, Istanbul, Turkey * France Bérat, Occitania, France * Italy Fermo, Marche, Italy * Israel Karmiel, Northern District, Israel * Bulgaria Lovech, Lovech Province, Bulgaria * Romania Ploiești, Muntenia, Romania * Kosovo Prizren, Prizren District, Kosovo * Montenegro Ulcinj, Montenegro Notable people -------------- * Omer Pasha Vrioni II – Albanian ruler from one of the most powerful Albanian families of the 19th century * Christopher of Albania – Primate of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania from 1937 to 1948 * Eni Koçi – female singer * Sotir Kolea – folklorist, diplomat and activist of the Albanian National Awakening * Afërdita Veveçka Priftaj – physicist * Myrto Uzuni – professional footballer; winger for Spanish club Granada and the Albania national football team * Aziz Vrioni – Ottoman-Albanian politician * Iliaz Vrioni – politician and land owner; served as Prime Minister of Albania three times * Isuf Vrioni – translator, diplomat, and Albanian ambassador to UNESCO * Omer Vrioni – Ottoman figure in the Greek War of Independence * Sami Bey Vrioni – politician, diplomat, and a delegate * Dhimitër Tutulani – lawyer and politician * Kasëm Trebeshina – partisan, communist prosecutor, actor, and writer * Margarita Tutulani – anti-fascist and hero of Albania during World War II * Constantine of Berat - Albanian Poet of the 18th century. * Sulejman Naibi - Albanian Poet. * Vexhi Buharaja - Albanian literary worker,translator and orientalist See also -------- * List of mayors of Berat * Codex Beratinus Bibliography ------------ * Astin, A. E. (1998). *The Cambridge ancient history: Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C.* Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23448-1. * Baker, Gabriel (2020). *Spare No One: Mass Violence in Roman Warfare*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781538112229. * Cohen, Getzel M.; Walbank, F. W. (1995). *The Hellenistic settlements in Europe, the islands, and Asia Minor*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08329-5. * Fiedler, M.; Lahi, B.; Shehi, E.; Pánczél, S.-P.; Velo, K.; Döhner, Gregor (2021). "Ausgrabungen in der Kleinsiedlung Babunjë bei Apollonia (Albanien) Bericht zu den Kampagnen 2018–2019". *Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung (RM)*. **127**: 110–144. * Fine, John V. A. (1994). *The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest*. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. * Hoti, Afrim (2022). "Dyrrhachium bizantina e il suo territorio (VI-VIII sec.)". In Sonia Antonelli; Vasco La Salvia; Maria Cristina Mancini; Oliva Menozzi; Marco Moderato; Maria Carla Somma (eds.). *Archaeologiae Una storia al plural: Studi in memoria di Sara Santoro*. Archaeopress Publishing. pp. 245–250. ISBN 9781803272979. * Morgan, Peter (2011). *Kadare: Shkrimtari dhe diktatura 1957-1990* (1 ed.). Tiranë: Shtëpia Botuese "55". ISBN 978-9928-106-12-4. * Morton, Jacob Nathan (2017). "Shifting Landscapes, Policies, And Morals: A Topographically Driven Analysis Of The Roman Wars In Greece From 200 Bc To 168 Bc". *Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations*. University of Pennsylvania. **2484**. * Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (2010), *The Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-13089-9 * Pollo, Stefanaq (1984), *Historia e Shqipërisë: Vitet 30 të shek. XIX-1912* (in Albanian), Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë, Instituti i Historisë, OCLC 165705732 * Šašel Kos, Marjeta (1997). "Dassaretia". In Hubert, Cancik; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.). *Der neue Pauly: Enzyklopädie der Antike. Altertum: Cl-Epi*. Vol. 3. Metzler. ISBN 9783476014733. * Thëngjilli, Petrika (1978), *Kryengritjet popullore ne vitet 30 te shekulit XIX (documenta osmane)*, Akademia e Shkencave e Republikës Popullore Socialiste të Shqipërisë, Instituti i Historisë * Zindel, Christian; Lippert, Andreas; Lahi, Bashkim; Kiel, Machiel (2018). *Albanien: Ein Archäologie- und Kunstführer von der Steinzeit bis ins 19. Jahrhundert* (in German). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 9783205200109. Further reading --------------- * Diodorus Siculus, *Bibliotheca* chapters xviii, xix, xx * Plutarch, *Parallel Lives*, "Demetrius", 18, 31; "Phocion", 31 * Franca Landucci Gattinoni: L'arte del potere. Vita e opere di Cassandro di Macedonia. Stuttgart 2003. ISBN 3-515-08381-2

Berat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berat

**Messier 19** or **M19** (also designated **NGC 6273**) is a globular cluster in the constellation Ophiuchus. It was discovered by Charles Messier on June 5, 1764 and added to his catalogue of comet-like objects that same year. It was resolved into individual stars by William Herschel in 1784. His son, John Herschel, described it as "a superb cluster resolvable into countless stars". The cluster is located 4.5° WSW of Theta Ophiuchi and is just visible as a fuzzy point of light using 50 mm (2.0 in) binoculars. Using a telescope with a 25.4 cm (10.0 in) aperture, the cluster shows an oval appearance with a 3′ × 4′ core and a 5′ × 7′ halo. M19 is one of the most oblate of the known globular clusters. This flattening may not accurately reflect the physical shape of the cluster because the emitted light is being strongly absorbed along the eastern edge. This is the result of extinction caused by intervening gas and dust. When viewed in the infrared, the cluster shows almost no flattening. It lies at a distance of about 28.7 kly (8.8 kpc) from the Solar System, and is quite near to the Galactic Center at only about 6.5 kly (2.0 kpc) away. This cluster contains an estimated 1,100,000 times the mass of the Sun and it is around 11.9 billion years old. The stellar population includes four Cepheids and RV Tauri variables, plus at least one RR Lyrae variable for which a period is known. Observations made during the ROSAT mission failed to reveal any low-intensity X-ray sources. See also -------- * List of Messier objects

Messier 19

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_19

In economics, **inflation** is an increase in the general price level of goods and services in an economy. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation corresponds to a reduction in the purchasing power of money. The opposite of inflation is deflation, a decrease in the general price level of goods and services. The common measure of inflation is the **inflation rate**, the annualized percentage change in a general price index. As prices faced by households do not all increase at the same rate, the consumer price index (CPI) is often used for this purpose. The employment cost index is also used for wages in the United States. There is disagreement among economists as to the causes of inflation. Low or moderate inflation is widely attributed to fluctuations in real demand for goods and services or changes in available supplies such as during scarcities. Moderate inflation affects economies in both positive and negative ways. The negative effects would include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation, which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include reducing unemployment due to nominal wage rigidity, allowing the central bank greater freedom in carrying out monetary policy, encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation. Today, most[*weasel words*] economists favour a low and steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the probability of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy, while avoiding the costs associated with high inflation. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control monetary policy through the setting of interest rates, by carrying out open market operations and (more rarely) changing commercial bank reserve requirements. Terminology ----------- The term originates from the Latin *inflare* (to blow into or inflate) and was initially used in America in 1838 with regard to inflating the currency. The term was used "not in reference to something that happens to prices, but as something that happens to a paper currency". The resulting imbalance between the quantity of money and the amount needed for trade caused prices to increase. Over time, the term *inflation* has evolved to refer to increases in the price level; an increase in the money supply may be called monetary inflation to distinguish it from rising prices, which for clarity may be called "price inflation". Conceptually, inflation refers to the general trend of prices, not changes in any specific price. For example, if people choose to buy more cucumbers than tomatoes, cucumbers consequently become more expensive and tomatoes cheaper. These changes are not related to inflation; they reflect a shift in tastes. Inflation is related to the value of currency itself. When currency was linked with gold, if new gold deposits were found, the price of gold and the value of currency would fall, and consequently, prices of all other goods would become higher. ### Classical economics By the nineteenth century, economists categorised three separate factors that cause a rise or fall in the price of goods: a change in the *value* or production costs of the good, a change in the *price of money* which then was usually a fluctuation in the commodity price of the metallic content in the currency, and *currency depreciation* resulting from an increased supply of currency relative to the quantity of redeemable metal backing the currency. Following the proliferation of private banknote currency printed during the American Civil War, the term "inflation" started to appear as a direct reference to the *currency depreciation* that occurred as the quantity of redeemable banknotes outstripped the quantity of metal available for their redemption. At that time, the term inflation referred to the devaluation of the currency, and not to a rise in the price of goods. This relationship between the over-supply of banknotes and a resulting depreciation in their value was noted by earlier classical economists such as David Hume and David Ricardo, who would go on to examine and debate what effect a currency devaluation (later termed *monetary inflation*) has on the price of goods (later termed *price inflation*, and eventually just *inflation*). ### Related concepts Other economic concepts related to inflation include: deflation – a fall in the general price level; disinflation – a decrease in the rate of inflation; hyperinflation – an out-of-control inflationary spiral; stagflation – a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment; reflation – an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures; and asset price inflation – a general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services; agflation – an advanced increase in the price for food and industrial agricultural crops when compared with the general rise in prices. More specific forms of inflation refer to sectors whose prices vary semi-independently from the general trend. "House price inflation" applies to changes in the house price index while "energy inflation" is dominated by the costs of oil and gas. History ------- Historically, when commodity money was used, periods of inflation and deflation would alternate depending on the condition of the economy. However, when large prolonged infusions of gold or silver into an economy occurred, this could lead to long periods of inflation. The adoption of fiat currency by many countries, from the 18th century onwards, made much larger variations in the supply of money possible. Rapid increases in the money supply have taken place a number of times in countries experiencing political crises, producing hyperinflations – episodes of extreme inflation rates much higher than those observed in earlier periods of commodity money. The hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic of Germany is a notable example. Currently, the hyperinflation in Venezuela is the highest in the world, with an annual inflation rate of 833,997% as of October 2018. Historically, inflations of varying magnitudes have occurred from the price revolution of the 16th century, which was driven by the flood of gold and particularly silver seized and mined by the Spaniards in Latin America, to the largest paper money inflation of all time in Hungary after World War II. However, since the 1980s, inflation has been held low and stable in countries with independent central banks. This has led to a moderation of the business cycle and a reduction in variation in most macroeconomic indicators – an event known as the Great Moderation. ### Historical inflationary periods Silver purity through time in early Roman imperial silver coins. To increase the number of silver coins in circulation while short on silver, the Roman imperial government repeatedly debased the coins. They melted relatively pure silver coins and then struck new silver coins of lower purity but of nominally equal value. Silver coins were relatively pure before Nero (AD 54-68), but by the 270s had hardly any silver left.The silver content of Roman silver coins rapidly declined during the Crisis of the Third Century. Rapid increases in the quantity of money or in the overall money supply have occurred in many different societies throughout history, changing with different forms of money used. For instance, when silver was used as currency, the government could collect silver coins, melt them down, mix them with other metals such as copper or lead and reissue them at the same nominal value, a process known as debasement. At the ascent of Nero as Roman emperor in AD 54, the denarius contained more than 90% silver, but by the 270s hardly any silver was left. By diluting the silver with other metals, the government could issue more coins without increasing the amount of silver used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way, the government profits from an increase in seigniorage. This practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and services as before. These goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced. ### Ancient China Song dynasty China introduced the practice of printing paper money to create fiat currency. During the Mongol Yuan dynasty, the government spent a great deal of money fighting costly wars, and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation. Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty initially rejected the use of paper money, and reverted to using copper coins. ### Medieval Egypt During the Malian king Mansa Musa's hajj to Mecca in 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a camel train that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. When he passed through Cairo, he spent or gave away so much gold that it depressed its price in Egypt for over a decade, reducing its purchasing power. A contemporary Arab historian remarked about Mansa Musa's visit: > Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...]. > > — Chihab Al-Umari, Kingdom of Mali ### "Price revolution" in Western Europe From the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th, Western Europe experienced a major inflationary cycle referred to as the "price revolution", with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. This is often attributed to the influx of gold and silver from the New World into Habsburg Spain, with wider availability of silver in previously cash-starved Europe causing widespread inflation. European population rebound from the Black Death began before the arrival of New World metal, and may have begun a process of inflation that New World silver compounded later in the 16th century. Measures -------- Given that there are many possible measures of the price level, there are many possible measures of price inflation. Most frequently, the term "inflation" refers to a rise in a broad price index representing the overall price level for goods and services in the economy. The Consumer Price Index (CPI), the Personal consumption expenditures price index (PCEPI) and the GDP deflator are some examples of broad price indices. However, "inflation" may also be used to describe a rising price level within a narrower set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as commodities (including food, fuel, metals), tangible assets (such as real estate), services (such as entertainment and health care), or labor. Although the values of capital assets are often casually said to "inflate," this should not be confused with inflation as a defined term; a more accurate description for an increase in the value of a capital asset is appreciation. The FBI (CCI), the Producer Price Index, and Employment Cost Index (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. Core inflation is a measure of inflation for a subset of consumer prices that excludes food and energy prices, which rise and fall more than other prices in the short term. The Federal Reserve Board pays particular attention to the core inflation rate to get a better estimate of long-term future inflation trends overall. The inflation rate is most widely calculated by determining the movement or change in a price index, typically the consumer price index. The inflation rate is the percentage change of a price index over time. The Retail Prices Index is also a measure of inflation that is commonly used in the United Kingdom. It is broader than the CPI and contains a larger basket of goods and services. Given the recent high inflation, the RPI is indicative of the experiences of a wide range of household types, particularly low-income households. To illustrate the method of calculation, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of the year is: ( 211.080 − 202.416 202.416 ) × 100 % = 4.28 % {\displaystyle \left({\frac {211.080-202.416}{202.416}}\right)\times 100\%=4.28\%} \left({\frac {211.080-202.416}{202.416}}\right)\times 100\%=4.28\% The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one-year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007. Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following: * **Producer price indices** (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the Wholesale price index. * **Commodity price indices**, which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee. * **Core price indices**: because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in supply and demand conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore, most statistical agencies also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, central banks rely on it to better measure the inflationary effect of current monetary policy. Other common measures of inflation are: * **GDP deflator** is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in gross domestic product (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure. ∴ GDP Deflator = Nominal GDP Real GDP {\displaystyle {\mbox{GDP Deflator}}={\frac {\mbox{Nominal GDP}}{\mbox{Real GDP}}}} {\mbox{GDP Deflator}}={\frac {\mbox{Nominal GDP}}{\mbox{Real GDP}}} * **Regional inflation** The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US. * **Historical inflation** Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology. * **Asset price inflation** is an undue increase in the prices of real assets, such as real estate. ### Issues in measuring Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. Overall inflation is measured as the price change of a large "basket" of representative goods and services. This is the purpose of a price index, which is the combined price of a "basket" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted prices of items in the "basket". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the unit price of an item by the number of that item the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is necessary to measure the effect of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The Consumer Price Index, for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a "base year" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price. While comparing inflation measures for various periods one has to take into consideration the base effect as well. Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Basket weights are updated regularly, usually every year, to adapt to changes in consumer behavior. Sudden changes in consumer behavior can still introduce a weighting bias in inflation measurement. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic it has been shown that the basket of goods and services was no longer representative of consumption during the crisis, as numerous goods and services could no longer be consumed due to government containment measures ("lock-downs"). Over time, adjustments are also made to the type of goods and services selected to reflect changes in the sorts of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers'. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the "basket" and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time to keep pace with the changing marketplace. Different segments of the population may naturally consume different "baskets" of goods and services and may even experience different inflation rates. It is argued that companies have put more innovation into bringing down prices for wealthy families than for poor families. Inflation numbers are often seasonally adjusted to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring inflation to compensate for cyclical energy or fuel demand spikes. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques to remove statistical noise and volatility of individual prices. When looking at inflation, economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or *special indices*, such as the core inflation index which is used by central banks to formulate monetary policy. Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation rate is. This problem can be overcome by including all available price changes in the calculation, and then choosing the median value. In some other cases, governments may intentionally report false inflation rates; for instance, during the presidency of Cristina Kirchner (2007–2015) the government of Argentina was criticised for manipulating economic data, such as inflation and GDP figures, for political gain and to reduce payments on its inflation-indexed debt. ### Inflation expectations Inflation expectations or expected inflation is the rate of inflation that is anticipated for some time in the foreseeable future. There are two major approaches to modeling the formation of inflation expectations. Adaptive expectations models them as a weighted average of what was expected one period earlier and the actual rate of inflation that most recently occurred. Rational expectations models them as unbiased, in the sense that the expected inflation rate is not systematically above or systematically below the inflation rate that actually occurs. A long-standing survey of inflation expectations is the University of Michigan survey. Inflation expectations affect the economy in several ways. They are more or less built into nominal interest rates, so that a rise (or fall) in the expected inflation rate will typically result in a rise (or fall) in nominal interest rates, giving a smaller effect if any on real interest rates. In addition, higher expected inflation tends to be built into the rate of wage increases, giving a smaller effect if any on the changes in real wages. Moreover, the response of inflationary expectations to monetary policy can influence the division of the effects of policy between inflation and unemployment (see Monetary policy credibility). Causes ------ Historically, a great deal of economic literature was concerned with the question of what causes inflation and what effect it has. There were different schools of thought as to the causes of inflation; most historical theories can be divided into two broad areas: *quality* theories of inflation and *quantity* theories of inflation. The quality theory of inflation rests on the expectation of a seller accepting currency to be able to exchange that currency at a later time for goods they desire as a buyer. In the late twentieth century, there was broad agreement among economists that in the long run, the inflation rate depends on the growth rate of the money supply relative to the growth of real income. This view, called the quantity theory of money, was accepted as an accurate explanation of inflation in the long run. Consequently, however, in the short and medium term inflation may be affected by supply and demand pressures in the economy, and influenced by the relative elasticity of wages, prices and interest rates. The question of whether the short-term effects last long enough to be important is the central topic of debate between monetarist and Keynesian economists. In monetarism prices and wages adjust quickly enough to make other factors merely marginal behavior on a general trend-line. In the Keynesian view, interest rates, prices, and wages adjust at different rates, and these differences have enough effects on real output to be "long term" in the view of people in an economy. ### Keynesian view Keynesian economics proposes that changes in the money supply do not directly affect prices in the short run, and that visible inflation is the result of demand pressures in the economy expressing themselves in prices. There are three major sources of inflation, as part of what Robert J. Gordon calls the "triangle model": * *Demand-pull inflation* is caused by increases in aggregate demand due to increased private and government spending, etc. Demand inflation encourages economic growth since the excess demand and favourable market conditions will stimulate investment and expansion. * *Cost-push inflation*, also called "supply shock inflation," is caused by a drop in aggregate supply (potential output). This may be due to natural disasters, war or increased prices of inputs. For example, a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, leading to increased oil prices, can cause cost-push inflation. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices. Another example stems from unexpectedly high insured losses, either legitimate (catastrophes) or fraudulent (which might be particularly prevalent in times of recession). High inflation can prompt employees to demand rapid wage increases, to keep up with consumer prices. In the cost-push theory of inflation, rising wages in turn can help fuel inflation. In the case of collective bargaining, wage growth will be set as a function of inflationary expectations, which will be higher when inflation is high. This can cause a wage spiral. In a sense, inflation begets further inflationary expectations, which beget further inflation. * Built-in inflation is induced by adaptive expectations, and is often linked to the "price/wage spiral". It involves workers trying to keep their wages up with prices (above the rate of inflation), and firms passing these higher labor costs on to their customers as higher prices, leading to a feedback loop. Built-in inflation reflects events in the past, and so might be seen as hangover inflation. Demand-pull theory states that inflation accelerates when aggregate demand increases beyond the ability of the economy to produce (its potential output). Hence, any factor that increases aggregate demand can cause inflation. However, in the long run, aggregate demand can be held above productive capacity only by increasing the quantity of money in circulation faster than the real growth rate of the economy. Another (although much less common) cause can be a rapid decline in the *demand* for money, as happened in Europe during the Black Death, or in the Japanese occupied territories just before the defeat of Japan in 1945. The effect of money on inflation is most obvious when governments finance spending in a crisis, such as a civil war, by printing money excessively. This sometimes leads to hyperinflation, a condition where prices can double in a month or even daily. The money supply is also thought to play a major role in determining moderate levels of inflation, although there are differences of opinion on how important it is. For example, monetarist economists believe that the link is very strong; Keynesian economists, by contrast, typically emphasize the role of aggregate demand in the economy rather than the money supply in determining inflation. That is, for Keynesians, the money supply is only one determinant of aggregate demand. Some Keynesian economists also disagree with the notion that central banks fully control the money supply, arguing that central banks have little control, since the money supply adapts to the demand for bank credit issued by commercial banks. This is known as the theory of endogenous money, and has been advocated strongly by post-Keynesians as far back as the 1960s. This position is not universally accepted – banks create money by making loans, but the aggregate volume of these loans diminishes as real interest rates increase. Thus, central banks can influence the money supply by making money cheaper or more expensive, thus increasing or decreasing its production. A fundamental concept in inflation analysis is the relationship between inflation and unemployment, called the Phillips curve. This model suggests that there is a trade-off between price stability and employment. Therefore, some level of inflation could be considered desirable to minimize unemployment. The Phillips curve model described the U.S. experience well in the 1960s but failed to describe the stagflation experienced in the 1970s. Thus, modern macroeconomics describes inflation using a Phillips curve that is able to shift due to such matters as supply shocks and structural inflation. The former refers to such events like the 1973 oil crisis, while the latter refers to the price/wage spiral and inflationary expectations implying that inflation is the new normal. Thus, the Phillips curve represents only the demand-pull component of the triangle model. Another concept of note is the potential output (sometimes called the "natural gross domestic product"), a level of GDP, where the economy is at its optimal level of production given institutional and natural constraints. (This level of output corresponds to the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, NAIRU, or the "natural" rate of unemployment or the full-employment unemployment rate.) If GDP exceeds its potential (and unemployment is below the NAIRU), the theory says that inflation will *accelerate* as suppliers increase their prices and built-in inflation worsens. If GDP falls below its potential level (and unemployment is above the NAIRU), inflation will *decelerate* as suppliers attempt to fill excess capacity, cutting prices and undermining built-in inflation. However, one problem with this theory for policy-making purposes is that the exact level of potential output (and of the NAIRU) is generally unknown and tends to change over time. Inflation also seems to act in an asymmetric way, rising more quickly than it falls. It can change because of policy: for example, high unemployment under British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher might have led to a rise in the NAIRU (and a fall in potential) because many of the unemployed found themselves as structurally unemployed, unable to find jobs that fit their skills. A rise in structural unemployment implies that a smaller percentage of the labor force can find jobs at the NAIRU, where the economy avoids crossing the threshold into the realm of accelerating inflation. #### Unemployment A connection between inflation and unemployment has been drawn since the emergence of large scale unemployment in the 19th century, and connections continue to be drawn today. However, the unemployment rate generally only affects inflation in the short-term but not the long-term. In the long term, the velocity of money is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment. In Marxian economics, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labor, which restrain wage inflation. In the 20th century, similar concepts in Keynesian economics include the NAIRU (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) and the Phillips curve. #### Profiteering under consolidation Keynesian price inelasticity can contribute to inflation when firms consolidate, tending to support monopoly or monopsony conditions anywhere along the supply chain for goods or services. When this occurs, firms can provide greater shareholder value by taking a larger proportion of profits than by investing in providing greater volumes of their outputs. Examples include the rise in gasoline and other fossil fuel prices in the first quarter of 2022. Shortly after initial energy price shocks caused by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine subsided, oil companies found that supply chain constrictions, already exacerbated by the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic, supported price inelasticity, i.e., they began lowering prices to match the price of oil when it fell much more slowly than they had increased their prices when costs rose. California's five largest gasoline companies, Chevron Corporation, Marathon Petroleum, Valero Energy, PBF Energy, and Phillips 66, responsible for 96% of transportation fuel sold in the state, all participated in this behavior, reaping first quarter profits much larger than any of their quarterly results in the previous several years. On May 19, 2022, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill to prevent such "price gouging" by addressing the resulting windfall profits, but it is unlikely to prevail against the minority filibuster challenge in the Senate. Similarly in the first quarter of 2022, meatpacking giant Tyson Foods relied on downward price inelasticity in packaged chicken and related products to increase their profits to about $500 million, responding to a $1.5 billion increase in their costs with almost $2 billion in price hikes. Tyson's three main competitors, having essentially no ability to compete on lower prices because supply chain constriction would not support an increase in volumes, followed suit. Tyson's quarter was one of their most profitable, expanding their operating margin 38%. UBS Global Wealth Management chief economist Paul Donovan said this has happened because post-pandemic household balance sheets have kept consumer spending demand strong enough to encourage producers to raise prices faster than costs, and because consumers have been gullible enough to find exaggerated narratives justifying such price hikes plausible. #### Effect of economic growth If economic growth matches the growth of the money supply, inflation should not occur when all else is equal. A large variety of factors can affect the rate of both. For example, investment in market production, infrastructure, education, and preventive health care can all grow an economy in greater amounts than the investment spending. ### Monetarist view Monetarists believe the most significant factor influencing inflation or deflation is how fast the money supply grows or shrinks. They consider fiscal policy, or government spending and taxation, as ineffective in controlling inflation. The monetarist economist Milton Friedman famously stated, *"Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon."* Monetarists assert that the empirical study of monetary history shows that inflation has always been a monetary phenomenon. The quantity theory of money, simply stated, says that any change in the amount of money in a system will change the price level. This theory begins with the equation of exchange: M V = P Q {\displaystyle MV=PQ} MV=PQ where M {\displaystyle M} M is the nominal quantity of money; V {\displaystyle V} V is the velocity of money in final expenditures; P {\displaystyle P} P is the general price level; Q {\displaystyle Q} Q is an index of the real value of final expenditures; In this formula, the general price level is related to the level of real economic activity (*Q*), the quantity of money (*M*) and the velocity of money (*V*). The formula is an identity because the velocity of money (*V*) is defined to be the ratio of final nominal expenditure ( P Q {\displaystyle PQ} PQ) to the quantity of money (*M*). Monetarists assume that the velocity of money is unaffected by monetary policy (at least in the long run), and the real value of output is determined in the long run by the productive capacity of the economy. Under these assumptions, the primary driver of the change in the general price level is changes in the quantity of money. With exogenous velocity (that is, velocity being determined externally and not being influenced by monetary policy), the money supply determines the value of nominal output (which equals final expenditure) in the short run. In practice, velocity is not exogenous in the short run, and so the formula does not necessarily imply a stable short-run relationship between the money supply and nominal output. However, in the long run, changes in velocity are assumed to be determined by the evolution of the payments mechanism. If velocity is relatively unaffected by monetary policy, the long-run rate of increase in prices (the inflation rate) is equal to the long-run growth rate of the money supply plus the exogenous long-run rate of velocity growth minus the long run growth rate of real output. ### Rational expectations theory Rational expectations theory holds that economic actors look rationally into the future when trying to maximize their well-being, and do not respond solely to immediate opportunity costs and pressures. In this view, while generally grounded in monetarism, future expectations and strategies are important for inflation as well. A core assertion of rational expectations theory is that actors will seek to "head off" central-bank decisions by acting in ways that fulfill predictions of higher inflation. This means that central banks must establish their credibility in fighting inflation, or economic actors will make bets that the central bank will expand the money supply rapidly enough to prevent recession, even at the expense of exacerbating inflation. Thus, if a central bank has a reputation as being "soft" on inflation, when it announces a new policy of fighting inflation with restrictive monetary growth economic agents will not believe that the policy will persist; their inflationary expectations will remain high, and so will inflation. On the other hand, if the central bank has a reputation of being "tough" on inflation, then such a policy announcement will be believed and inflationary expectations will come down rapidly, thus allowing inflation itself to come down rapidly with minimal economic disruption. ### Heterodox views Additionally, there are theories about inflation accepted by economists outside of the mainstream. #### Austrian view The Austrian School stresses that inflation is not uniform over all assets, goods, and services. Inflation depends on differences in markets and on where newly created money and credit enter the economy. Ludwig von Mises said that inflation should refer to an increase in the quantity of money, that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the need for money, and that price inflation will necessarily follow, always leaving a poorer nation. #### Real bills doctrine The real bills doctrine (RBD) asserts that banks should issue their money in exchange for short-term real bills of adequate value. As long as banks only issue a dollar in exchange for assets worth at least a dollar, the issuing bank's assets will naturally move in step with its issuance of money, and the money will hold its value. Should the bank fail to get or maintain assets of adequate value, then the bank's money will lose value, just as any financial security will lose value if its asset backing diminishes. The real bills doctrine (also known as the backing theory) thus asserts that inflation results when money outruns its issuer's assets. The quantity theory of money, in contrast, claims that inflation results when money outruns the economy's production of goods. Currency and banking schools of economics argue the RBD, that banks should also be able to issue currency against bills of trading, which is "real bills" that they buy from merchants. This theory was important in the 19th century in debates between "Banking" and "Currency" schools of monetary soundness, and in the formation of the Federal Reserve. In the wake of the collapse of the international gold standard post 1913, and the move towards deficit financing of government, RBD has remained a minor topic, primarily of interest in limited contexts, such as currency boards. It is generally held in ill repute today, with Frederic Mishkin, a governor of the Federal Reserve going so far as to say it had been "completely discredited." The debate between currency, or quantity theory, and the banking schools during the 19th century prefigures current questions about the credibility of money in the present. In the 19th century, the banking schools had greater influence in policy in the United States and Great Britain, while the currency schools had more influence "on the continent", that is in non-British countries, particularly in the Latin Monetary Union and the Scandinavian Monetary Union. In 2019, monetary historians Thomas M. Humphrey and Richard H. Timberlake published "Gold, the Real Bills Doctrine, and the Fed: Sources of Monetary Disorder 1922–1938". Effects of inflation -------------------- ### General effect Inflation is the decrease in the purchasing power of a currency. That is, when the general level of prices rise, each monetary unit can buy fewer goods and services in aggregate. The effect of inflation differs on different sectors of the economy, with some sectors being adversely affected while others benefitting. For example, with inflation, those segments in society which own physical assets, such as property, stock etc., benefit from the price/value of their holdings going up, when those who seek to acquire them will need to pay more for them. Their ability to do so will depend on the degree to which their income is fixed. For example, increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, and for some people income is fixed. Also, individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of the cash. Increases in the price level (inflation) erode the real value of money (the functional currency) and other items with an underlying monetary nature. Debtors who have debts with a fixed nominal rate of interest will see a reduction in the "real" interest rate as the inflation rate rises. The real interest on a loan is the nominal rate minus the inflation rate. The formula *R = N-I* approximates the correct answer as long as both the nominal interest rate and the inflation rate are small. The correct equation is *r = n/i* where *r*, *n* and *i* are expressed as ratios (e.g. 1.2 for +20%, 0.8 for −20%). As an example, when the inflation rate is 3%, a loan with a nominal interest rate of 5% would have a real interest rate of approximately 2% (in fact, it's 1.94%). Any unexpected increase in the inflation rate would decrease the real interest rate. Banks and other lenders adjust for this inflation risk either by including an inflation risk premium to fixed interest rate loans, or lending at an adjustable rate. ### Negative High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation. Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. Inflation hurts asset prices such as stock performance in the short-run, as it erodes non-energy corporates' profit margins and leads to central banks' policy tightening measures. Inflation can also impose hidden tax increases. For instance, inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates unless the tax brackets are indexed to inflation. With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed nominal incomes, such as some pensioners whose pensions are not indexed to the price level, towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation. This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international trading partners. Where fixed exchange rates are imposed, higher inflation in one economy than another will cause the first economy's exports to become more expensive and affect the balance of trade. There can also be negative effects to trade from an increased instability in currency exchange prices caused by unpredictable inflation. HoardingPeople buy durable and/or non-perishable commodities and other goods as stores of wealth, to avoid the losses expected from the declining purchasing power of money, creating shortages of the hoarded goods. Social unrest and revoltsInflation can lead to massive demonstrations and revolutions. For example, inflation and in particular food inflation is considered one of the main reasons that caused the 2010–11 Tunisian revolution and the 2011 Egyptian revolution, according to many observers including Robert Zoellick, president of the World Bank. Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali was ousted, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak was also ousted after only 18 days of demonstrations, and protests soon spread in many countries of North Africa and Middle East. HyperinflationIf inflation becomes too high, it can cause people to severely curtail their use of the currency, leading to an acceleration in the inflation rate. High and accelerating inflation grossly interferes with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply goods. Hyperinflation can lead people to abandon the use of the country's currency in favour of external currencies (dollarization), as has been reported to have occurred in North Korea). Allocative efficiencyA change in the supply or demand for a good will normally cause its relative price to change, signaling the buyers and sellers that they should re-allocate resources in response to the new market conditions. But when prices are constantly changing due to inflation, price changes due to genuine relative price signals are difficult to distinguish from price changes due to general inflation, so agents are slow to respond to them. The result is a loss of allocative efficiency. Shoe leather costHigh inflation increases the opportunity cost of holding cash balances and can induce people to hold a greater portion of their assets in interest paying accounts. However, since cash is still needed to carry out transactions this means that more "trips to the bank" are necessary to make withdrawals, proverbially wearing out the "shoe leather" with each trip. Menu cost With high inflation, firms must change their prices often to keep up with economy-wide changes. But often changing prices is itself a costly activity whether explicitly, as with the need to print new menus, or implicitly, as with the extra time and effort needed to change prices constantly. TaxInflation serves as a hidden tax on currency holdings. ### Positive Labour-market adjustmentsNominal wages are slow to adjust downwards. This can lead to prolonged disequilibrium and high unemployment in the labor market. Since inflation allows real wages to fall even if nominal wages are kept constant, moderate inflation enables labor markets to reach equilibrium faster. Room to maneuverThe primary tools for controlling the money supply are the ability to set the discount rate, the rate at which banks can borrow from the central bank, and open market operations, which are the central bank's interventions into the bonds market with the aim of affecting the nominal interest rate. If an economy finds itself in a recession with already low, or even zero, nominal interest rates, then the bank cannot cut these rates further (since negative nominal interest rates are impossible) to stimulate the economy – this situation is known as a liquidity trap. Mundell–Tobin effectAccording to the Mundell-Tobin effect, an increase in inflation leads to an increase in capital investment, which leads to an increase in growth. The Nobel laureate Robert Mundell noted that moderate inflation would induce savers to substitute lending for some money holding as a means to finance future spending. That substitution would cause market clearing real interest rates to fall. The lower real rate of interest would induce more borrowing to finance investment. In a similar vein, Nobel laureate James Tobin noted that such inflation would cause businesses to substitute investment in physical capital (plant, equipment, and inventories) for money balances in their asset portfolios. That substitution would mean choosing the making of investments with lower rates of real return. (The rates of return are lower because the investments with higher rates of return were already being made before.) The two related effects are known as the Mundell–Tobin effect. Unless the economy is already overinvesting according to models of economic growth theory, that extra investment resulting from the effect would be seen as positive. Instability with deflationEconomist S.C. Tsiang noted that once substantial deflation is expected, two important effects will appear; both a result of money holding substituting for lending as a vehicle for saving. The first was that continually falling prices and the resulting incentive to hoard money will cause instability resulting from the likely increasing fear, while money hoards grow in value, that the value of those hoards are at risk, as people realize that a movement to trade those money hoards for real goods and assets will quickly drive those prices up. Any movement to spend those hoards "once started would become a tremendous avalanche, which could rampage for a long time before it would spend itself." Thus, a regime of long-term deflation is likely to be interrupted by periodic spikes of rapid inflation and consequent real economic disruptions. The second effect noted by Tsiang is that when savers have substituted money holding for lending on financial markets, the role of those markets in channeling savings into investment is undermined. With nominal interest rates driven to zero, or near zero, from the competition with a high return money asset, there would be no price mechanism in whatever is left of those markets. With financial markets effectively euthanized, the remaining goods and physical asset prices would move in perverse directions. For example, an increased desire to save could not push interest rates further down (and thereby stimulate investment) but would instead cause additional money hoarding, driving consumer prices further down and making investment in consumer goods production thereby less attractive. Moderate inflation, once its expectation is incorporated into nominal interest rates, would give those interest rates room to go both up and down in response to shifting investment opportunities, or savers' preferences, and thus allow financial markets to function in a more normal fashion. ### Cost-of-living allowance The real purchasing power of fixed payments is eroded by inflation unless they are inflation-adjusted to keep their real values constant. In many countries, employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements (such as social security) are tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the consumer price index. A *cost-of-living adjustment* (COLA) adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index. It does not control inflation, but rather seeks to mitigate the consequences of inflation for those on fixed incomes. Salaries are typically adjusted annually in low inflation economies. During hyperinflation they are adjusted more often. They may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves. Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index. These negotiated increases in pay are colloquially referred to as cost-of-living adjustments ("COLAs") or cost-of-living increases because of their similarity to increases tied to externally determined indexes. Controlling inflation --------------------- ### Monetary policy Monetary policy is the policy enacted by the monetary authorities (most frequently the central bank of a nation) to control the interest rate – or equivalently the money supply – so as to control inflation and ensure price stability. Higher interest rates reduce the economy's money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply, thereby expanding it. When banks make fewer loans, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the US federal funds rate exceeded 15%, the quantity of Federal Reserve dollars fell 8.1%, from US$8.6 trillion down to $7.9 trillion. In the latter half of the 20th century, there was debate between Keynesians and monetarists about the appropriate instrument to use to control inflation. Monetarists emphasize a low and steady growth rate of the money supply, while Keynesians emphasize controlling aggregate demand, by reducing demand during economic expansions and increasing demand during recessions to keep inflation stable. Control of aggregate demand can be achieved by using either monetary policy or fiscal policy (increasing taxation or reducing government spending to reduce demand). Since the 1980s, most countries have primarily relied on monetary policy to control inflation. When inflation exceeds an acceptable level, the country's central bank increases the interest rate, which tends to slow down economic growth and inflation. Some central banks have a symmetrical inflation target, while others only react when inflation rises above a certain threshold. In the 21st century, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation. In most countries, central banks or other monetary authorities are tasked with keeping interest rates and prices stable, and inflation near a target rate. These inflation targets may be publicly disclosed or not. In most OECD countries, the inflation target is usually about 2% to 3% (in developing countries like Armenia, the inflation target is higher, at around 4%). Central banks target a low inflation rate because they believe that high inflation is economically costly because it would create uncertainty about differences in relative prices and about the inflation rate itself. A low positive inflation rate is targeted rather than a zero or negative one because the latter could cause or worsen recessions; low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. ### Other methods #### Fixed exchange rates Under a fixed exchange rate currency regime, a country's currency is tied in value to another single currency or to a basket of other currencies (or sometimes to another measure of value, such as gold). A fixed exchange rate is usually used to stabilize the value of a currency, vis-a-vis the currency it is pegged to. It can also be used as a means to control inflation. However, as the value of the reference currency rises and falls, so does the currency pegged to it. This essentially means that the inflation rate in the fixed exchange rate country is determined by the inflation rate of the country the currency is pegged to. In addition, a fixed exchange rate prevents a government from using domestic monetary policy to achieve macroeconomic stability. Under the Bretton Woods agreement, most countries around the world had currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. This limited inflation in those countries, but also exposed them to the danger of speculative attacks. After the Bretton Woods agreement broke down in the early 1970s, countries gradually turned to floating exchange rates. However, in the later part of the 20th century, some countries reverted to a fixed exchange rate as part of an attempt to control inflation. This policy of using a fixed exchange rate to control inflation was used in many countries in South America in the later part of the 20th century (e.g. Argentina (1991–2002), Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, etc.). #### Gold standard The gold standard is a monetary system in which a region's common medium of exchange is paper notes (or other monetary token) that are normally freely convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold. The standard specifies how the gold backing would be implemented, including the amount of specie per currency unit. The currency itself has no *innate value*, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed for the equivalent specie. A U.S. silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver. The gold standard was partially abandoned via the international adoption of the Bretton Woods system. Under this system all other major currencies were tied at fixed rates to the US dollar, which itself was tied by the US government to gold at the rate of US$35 per ounce. The Bretton Woods system broke down in 1971, causing most countries to switch to fiat money – money backed only by the laws of the country. Under a gold standard, the long term rate of inflation (or deflation) would be determined by the growth rate of the supply of gold relative to total output. Critics argue that this will cause arbitrary fluctuations in the inflation rate, and that monetary policy would essentially be determined by gold mining. #### Wage and price controls Another method attempted in the past have been wage and price controls ("incomes policies"). Temporary price controls may be used as a complement to other policies to fight inflation; price controls may make disinflation faster, while reducing the need for unemployment to reduce inflation. If price controls are used during a recession, the kinds of distortions that price controls cause may be lessened. However, economists generally advise against the imposition of price controls . Wage and price controls, in combination with rationing, have been used successfully in wartime environments. However, their use in other contexts is far more mixed. Notable failures of their use include the 1972 imposition of wage and price controls by Richard Nixon. More successful examples include the Prices and Incomes Accord in Australia and the Wassenaar Agreement in the Netherlands. In general, wage and price controls are regarded as a temporary and exceptional measures, only effective when coupled with policies designed to reduce the underlying causes of inflation during the wage and price control regime, for example, winning the war being fought. They often have perverse effects, due to the distorted signals they send to the market . Artificially low prices often cause rationing and shortages and discourage future investment, resulting in yet further shortages . The usual economic analysis is that any product or service that is under-priced is overconsumed . For example, if the official price of bread is too low, there will be too little bread at official prices, and too little investment in bread making by the market to satisfy future needs, thereby exacerbating the problem in the long term. See also -------- * Core inflation * Food prices * Hyperinflation * Indexed unit of account * Inflationism * Inflation hedge * Headline inflation * List of countries by inflation rate * Measuring economic worth over time * Overconsumption * Shrinkflation and Skimpflation * Real versus nominal value (economics) * Steady-state economy * Welfare cost of inflation * Supply shock * Template:Inflation – for price conversions in Wikipedia articles Further reading --------------- * World Bank, 2018. *Inflation in Emerging and Developing Economies: Evolution, Drivers and Policies*. Edited by Jongrim Ha, M. Ayhan Kose, and Franziska Ohnsorge. * Auernheimer, Leonardo, "The Honest Government's Guide to the Revenue From the Creation of Money," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 82, No. 3, May/June 1974, pp. 598–606. * Baumol, William J. and Alan S. Blinder, *Macroeconomics: Principles and Policy*, Tenth edition. Thomson South-Western, 2006. ISBN 0-324-22114-2 * Friedman, Milton, Nobel lecture: Inflation and unemployment 1977 * Mishkin, Frederic S., *The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets*, New York, Harper Collins, 1995. * Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, "Understanding Inflation and the Implications for Monetary Policy: A Phillips Curve Retrospective" Archived August 26, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Conference Series 53, June 9–11, 2008, Chatham, Massachusetts. (Also cf. Phillips curve article)

Inflation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation

M82 GalaxyM82 magnetic fieldComposite image – HST (vis); Spitzer (ir); Chandra (x-ray)Chandra X-ray observatory image of the galaxyHubble views new supernova in Messier 82M82 – December 2013; supernova – January 2014 (bottom) **Messier 82** (also known as **NGC 3034**, **Cigar Galaxy** or **M82**) is a starburst galaxy approximately 12 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major. It is the second-largest member of the M81 Group, with the D25 isophotal diameter of 12.52 kiloparsecs (40,800 light-years). It is about five times more luminous than the Milky Way and its central region is about one hundred times more luminous. The starburst activity is thought to have been triggered by interaction with neighboring galaxy M81. As one of the closest starburst galaxies to Earth, M82 is the prototypical example of this galaxy type. SN 2014J, a type Ia supernova, was discovered in the galaxy on 21 January 2014. In 2014, in studying M82, scientists discovered the brightest pulsar yet known, designated M82 X-2. Discovery --------- M82, with M81, was discovered by Johann Elert Bode in 1774; he described it as a "nebulous patch", this one about 3⁄4 degree away from the other, "very pale and of elongated shape". In 1779, Pierre Méchain independently rediscovered both objects and reported them to Charles Messier, who added them to his catalog. Structure --------- M82 was believed to be an irregular galaxy. In 2005, however, two symmetric spiral arms were discovered in near-infrared (NIR) images of M82. The arms were detected by subtracting an axisymmetric exponential disk from the NIR images. Even though the arms were detected in NIR images, they are bluer than the disk. The arms had been missed due to M82's high disk surface brightness, the nearly edge-on view of this galaxy (~80°), and obscuration by a complex network of dusty filaments in its optical images. These arms emanate from the ends of the NIR bar and can be followed for the length of 3 disc scales. Assuming that the northern part of M82 is nearer to us, as most of the literature does, the observed sense of rotation implies trailing arms. ### Starburst region In 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope revealed 197 young massive clusters in the starburst core. The average mass of these clusters is around 200,000 solar masses, hence the starburst core is a very energetic and high-density environment. Throughout the galaxy's center, young stars are being born 10 times faster than they are inside the entire Milky Way Galaxy. In the core of M82, the active starburst region spans a diameter of 500 pc. Four high surface brightness regions or clumps (designated A, C, D, and E) are detectable in this region at visible wavelengths. These clumps correspond to known sources at X-ray, infrared, and radio frequencies. Consequently, they are thought to be the least obscured starburst clusters from our vantage point. M82's unique bipolar outflow (or 'superwind') appears to be concentrated on clumps A and C, and is fueled by energy released by supernovae within the clumps which occur at a rate of about one every ten years. The Chandra X-ray Observatory detected fluctuating X-ray emissions about 600 light-years from the center of M82. Astronomers have postulated that this comes from the first known intermediate-mass black hole, of roughly 200 to 5000 solar masses. M82, like most galaxies, hosts a supermassive black hole at its center. This one has mass of approximately 3 × 107 solar masses, as measured from stellar dynamics. ### Unknown object In April 2010, radio astronomers working at the Jodrell Bank Observatory of the University of Manchester in the UK reported an object in M82 that had started sending out radio waves, and whose emission did not look like anything seen anywhere in the universe before. There have been several theories about the nature of this object, but currently no theory entirely fits the observed data. It has been suggested that the object could be an unusual "micro quasar", having very high radio luminosity yet low X-ray luminosity, and being fairly stable, it could be an analogue of the low X-ray luminosity galactic microquasar SS 433. However, all known microquasars produce large quantities of X-rays, whereas the object's X-ray flux is below the measurement threshold. The object is located at several arcseconds from the center of M82 which makes it unlikely to be associated with a supermassive black hole. It has an apparent superluminal motion of four times the speed of light relative to the galaxy center. Apparent superluminal motion is consistent with relativistic jets in massive black holes and does not indicate that the source itself is moving above lightspeed. Starbursts ---------- M82 is being physically affected by its larger neighbor, the spiral M81. Tidal forces caused by gravity have deformed M82, a process that started about 100 million years ago. This interaction has caused star formation to increase tenfold compared to "normal" galaxies. M82 has undergone at least one tidal encounter with M81 resulting in a large amount of gas being funneled into the galaxy's core over the last 200 Myr. The most recent such encounter is thought to have happened around 2–5×108 years ago and resulted in a concentrated starburst together with a corresponding marked peak in the cluster age distribution. This starburst ran for up to ~50 Myr at a rate of ~10 *M*⊙ per year. Two subsequent starbursts followed, the last (~4–6 Myr ago) of which may have formed the core clusters, both super star clusters (SSCs) and their lighter counterparts. Stars in M82's disk seem to have been formed in a burst 500 million years ago, leaving its disk littered with hundreds of clusters with properties similar to globular clusters (but younger), and stopped 100 million years ago with no star formation taking place in this galaxy outside the central starburst and, at low levels since 1 billion years ago, on its halo. A suggestion to explain those features is that M82 was previously a low surface brightness galaxy where star formation was triggered due to interactions with its giant neighbor. Ignoring any difference in their respective distances from the Earth, the centers of M81 and M82 are visually separated by about 130,000 light-years. The actual separation is 300+300 −200 kly. Supernovae ---------- As a starburst galaxy, Messier 82 is prone to frequent supernova, caused by the collapse of young, massive stars. The first (although false) supernova candidate reported was SN 1986D, initially believed to be a supernova inside the galaxy until it was found to be a variable short-wavelength infrared source instead. The first confirmed supernova recorded in the galaxy was SN 2004am, discovered in March 2004 from images taken in November 2003 by the Lick Observatory Supernova Search. It was later determined to be a Type II supernova. In 2008, a radio transient was detected in the galaxy, designated SN 2008iz and thought to be a possible radio-only supernova, being too obscured in visible light by dust and gas clouds to be detectable. A similar radio-only transient was reported in 2009, although never received a formal designation and was similarly unconfirmed. Prior to accurate and thorough supernova surveys, many other supernovae likely occurred in previous decades. The European VLBI Network studied a number of potential supernova remnants in the galaxy in the 1980s and 90s. One supernova remnant displayed clear expansion between 1986 and 1997 that suggested it originally went supernova in the early 1960s, and two other remnants show possible expansion that could indicate an age almost as young, but could not be confirmed at the time. ### 2014 supernova On 21 January 2014 at 19.20 UT, a new distinct star was observed in M82, at apparent magnitude +11.7, by astrophysics lecturer Steve Fossey and four of his students, at the University of London Observatory. It had brightened to magnitude +10.9 two days later. Examination of earlier observations of M82 found the supernova to figure on the intervening day as well as on 15 through 20 January, brightening from magnitude +14.4 to +11.3; it could not be found, to limiting magnitude +17, from images caught of 14 January. It was initially suggested that it could become as bright as magnitude +8.5, well within the visual range of small telescopes and large binoculars, but peaked at fainter +10.5 on the last day of the month. Preliminary analysis classified it as "a young, reddened type Ia supernova". The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has designated it SN 2014J. SN 1993J was also at relatively close distance, in M82's larger companion galaxy M81. SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was much closer. 2014J is the closest type Ia supernova since SN 1972E. Gallery ------- * Messier 82 imaged by amateur astronomer W4SM with 17" PlaneWave CDK astrographMessier 82 imaged by amateur astronomer W4SM with 17" PlaneWave CDK astrograph See also -------- * List of Messier objects * Baby Boom Galaxy – The brightest starburst galaxy in the very distant universe

Messier 82

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_82

**Smoking** is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat, fish, and *lapsang souchong* tea are often smoked. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is more often used now, and beech to a lesser extent.[*clarification needed*] In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, and plum, are commonly used for smoking. Other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, heated at the base of a wok. Some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley malt used to make Scotch whisky and some beers. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka (tea tree) is commonly used for hot smoking fish. In Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a small building termed the "smokehouse", where meats could be smoked and stored. This was generally well separated from other buildings both because of the fire danger and because of the smoke emanations; the smoking of food could possibly introduce polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which may lead to an increased risk of some types of cancer; however, this association is still being debated.[*disputed – discuss*] Smoking can be done in four ways: cold smoking, warm smoking, hot smoking, and through the employment of a smoke flavoring, such as liquid smoke. However, these methods of imparting smoke only affect the food surface, and are unable to preserve food, thus, smoking is paired with other microbial hurdles, such as chilling and packaging, to extend food shelf-life. History ------- The smoking of food likely dates back to the paleolithic era. As simple dwellings lacked chimneys, these structures would probably have become very smoky. It is supposed that early humans would hang meat up to dry and out of the way of pests, thus accidentally becoming aware that meat that was stored in smoky areas acquired a different flavor, and was better preserved than meat that simply dried out. This process was later combined with pre-curing the food in salt or salty brine, resulting in a remarkably effective preservation process that was adapted and developed by numerous cultures around the world. Until the modern era, smoking was of a more "heavy duty" nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the curing process and smoking times were quite long, sometimes involving days of exposure. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products over long distances and the need for the time and material intensive heavy salting and smoking declined. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food. In 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers. Although refinements in technique and advancements in technology have made smoking much easier, the basic steps involved remain essentially the same today as they were hundreds if not thousands of years ago. Types by method of application ------------------------------ A "Little Chief" home smoker and racks with hot smoked Pacific salmon ### Cold smoking Cold smoking differs from hot smoking in that the food remains raw, rather than cooked, throughout the smoking process. Smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, but remain relatively moist. Cold smoking does not cook foods, and as such, meats should be fully cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as a flavor enhancer for items such as cheese or nuts, along with meats such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops, and steak. The item is often hung in a dry environment first to develop a pellicle; it can then be cold smoked up to several days to ensure it absorbs the smoke flavor. Some cold smoked foods are baked, grilled, steamed, roasted, or sautéed before eating. Cold smoking meats is not something that should be attempted at home, according to the US National Center for Home Food Preservation: "Most food scientists cannot recommend cold-smoking methods because of the inherent risks." Cold smoking meats should only be attempted by personnel certified in HACCP [...] to ensure that it is safely prepared.[*unreliable source?*] ### Warm smoking Warm smoking exposes foods to temperatures of 25–40 °C (77–104 °F). ### Hot smoking Hot smoking exposes the foods to smoke and heat in a controlled environment such as a smoker oven or smokehouse. Hot smoking requires the use of a smoker which generates heat either from a charcoal base, heated element within the smoker or from a stove-top or oven; food is hot smoked by cooking and flavored with wood smoke simultaneously. Like cold smoking, the item may be hung first to develop a pellicle; it is then smoked from 1 hour to as long as 24 hours. Although foods that have been hot smoked are often reheated or further cooked, they are typically safe to eat without further cooking. Hams and ham hocks are fully cooked once they are properly smoked, and they can be eaten as is without any further preparation. Hot smoking usually occurs within the range of 52 to 80 °C (126 to 176 °F). When food is smoked within this temperature range, foods are fully cooked, moist, and flavorful. If the smoker is allowed to get hotter than 85 °C (185 °F), the foods can shrink excessively, buckle, or even split. Smoking at high temperatures also reduces yield, as both moisture and fat are cooked away. ### Liquid smoke Liquid smoke, a product derived from smoke compounds in water, is applied to foods through spraying or dipping. ### Smoke roasting Smoke-roasting refers to any process that has the attributes of both roasting and smoking. This smoking method is sometimes referred to as barbecuing or pit-roasting. It may be done in a smoke-roaster, a closed wood-fired oven, or a barbecue pit, any smoker that can reach above 121 °C (250 °F), or in a conventional oven by placing a pan filled with hardwood chips on the floor of the oven so that the chips can smolder and produce a smoke-bath. In North America, this smoking method is commonly referred to as "barbecuing", "pit baking", or "pit roasting". Types by biomass ---------------- ### Wood smoke Hardwoods are made up mostly of three materials: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are the basic structural material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking. Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas. Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol, and sweeter scents such as the vanilla-scented vanillin and clove-like isoeugenol. Guaiacol is the phenolic compound most responsible for the "smoky" taste, while syringol is the primary contributor to smoky aroma. Wood also contains small quantities of proteins, which contribute roasted flavors. Many of the odor compounds in wood smoke, especially the phenolic compounds, are unstable, dissipating after a few weeks or months. A number of wood smoke compounds act as preservatives. Phenol and other phenolic compounds in wood smoke are both antioxidants, which slow rancidification of animal fats, and antimicrobials, which slow bacterial growth. Other antimicrobials in wood smoke include formaldehyde, acetic acid, and other organic acids, which give wood smoke a low pH—about 2.5. Some of these compounds are toxic to people as well, and may have health effects in the quantities found in cooking applications. Since different species of trees have different ratios of components, various types of wood do impart a different flavor to food. Another important factor is the temperature at which the wood burns. High-temperature fires see the flavor molecules broken down further into unpleasant or flavorless compounds. The optimal conditions for smoke flavor are low, smoldering temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (570 and 750 °F). This is the temperature of the burning wood itself, not of the smoking environment, which uses much lower temperatures. Woods that are high in lignin content tend to burn hot; to keep them smoldering requires restricted oxygen supplies or a high moisture content. When smoking using wood chips or chunks, the combustion temperature is often raised by soaking the pieces in water before placing them on a fire. Types of smokers ---------------- ### Offset The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that the cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape, with a shorter, smaller diameter cylinder attached to the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the meat, a small fire is lit in the firebox, where airflow is tightly controlled. The heat and smoke from the fire are drawn through a connecting pipe or opening into the cooking chamber. The heat and smoke cook and flavor the meat before escaping through an exhaust vent at the opposite end of the cooking chamber. Most manufacturers' models are based on this simple but effective design, and this is what most people picture when they think of a "BBQ smoker". Even large capacity commercial units use this same basic design of a separate, smaller fire box and a larger cooking chamber. ### Upright drum The upright drum smoker (also referred to as an ugly drum smoker or UDS) is exactly what its name suggests; an upright steel drum that has been modified for the purpose of pseudo-indirect hot smoking. There are many ways to accomplish this, but the basics include the use of a complete steel drum, a basket to hold charcoal near the bottom, and cooking rack (or racks) near the top; all covered by a vented lid of some sort. They have been built using many different sizes of steel drums, such as 30 US gallons (110 L; 25 imp gal), 55 US gallons (210 L; 46 imp gal), and 85 US gallons (320 L; 71 imp gal) for example, but the most popular size is the common 55-gallon drum. This design is similar to smoking with indirect heat due to the distance from the coals and the racks, which is typically 24 inches (61 cm). The temperatures used for smoking are controlled by limiting the amount of air intake at the bottom of the drum, and allowing a similar amount of exhaust out of vents in the lid. UDSs are very efficient with fuel consumption and flexible in their abilities to produce proper smoking conditions, with or without the use of a water pan or drip pan. ### Vertical water A vertical water smoker (also referred to as a bullet smoker because of its shape) is a variation of the upright drum smoker. It uses charcoal or wood to generate smoke and heat, and contains a water bowl between the fire and the cooking grates. The water bowl serves to maintain optimal smoking temperatures and also adds humidity to the smoke chamber. It also creates an effect in which the water vapor and smoke condense together, which adds flavor to smoked foods. In addition, the bowl catches any drippings from the meat that may cause a flare-up. Vertical water smokers are extremely temperature stable and require very little adjustment once the desired temperature has been reached. Because of their relatively low cost and stable temperature, they are sometimes used in barbecue competitions where propane and electric smokers are not allowed. ### Propane A propane smoker is designed to allow the smoking of meat in a somewhat more temperature controlled environment. The primary differences are the sources of heat and of the smoke. In a propane smoker, the heat is generated by a gas burner directly under a steel or iron box containing the wood or charcoal that provides the smoke. The steel box has few vent holes, on the top of the box only. By starving the heated wood of oxygen, it smokes instead of burning. Any combination of woods and charcoal may used. This method uses much less wood but does require propane fuel. ### Smoke box This more traditional method uses a two-box system: a fire box and a food box. The fire box is typically adjacent or under the cooking box, and can be controlled to a finer degree. The heat and smoke from the fire box exhausts into the food box, where it is used to cook and smoke the meat. These may be as simple as an electric heating element with a pan of wood chips placed on it, although more advanced models have finer temperature controls. ### Electric smokers The most convenient of the various types of smokers are the insulated electric smokers. These devices house a heating element that can maintain temperatures ranging from that required for a cold smoke all the way up to 135 °C (275 °F) with little to no intervention from the user. Although wood chunks, pellets, and even in some cases automatically fed wood pucks are used to generate smoke, the amount of flavor obtained is less than traditional wood or charcoal smokers. ### Trench In this method the firebox is a narrow trench cut down a slope pointing into the prevailing wind. The middle part of the trench is covered over to make it into a tunnel. At the upper end of the trench is a vertical framework covered to form a chimney within which is placed the rack of foodstuff. At the lower upwind end of the trench is lit a small smokey fire, and sustained day and night until the foodstuff is cured. ### Commercial smokehouse Commercial smokehouses, mostly made from stainless steel, have independent systems for smoke generation and cooking. Smoke generators use friction, an electric coil or a small flame to ignite sawdust on demand. Heat from steam coils or gas flames is balanced with live steam or water sprays to control the temperature and humidity. Elaborate air handling systems reduce hot or cold spots, to reduce variation in the finished product. Racks on wheels or rails are used to hold the product and facilitate movement. ### Pellet smokers A pellet smoker is a temperature controlled smoker that burns wood pellets made of dried out sawdust, about an inch long and 1/4 inch wide. The wood pellets are stored in a gravity-fed hopper that feeds into a motor controlled auger by the temperature regulator. This auger pushes the pellets into the fire pot. An ignition rod within the auger ignites the pellets where a combustion fan keeps them smouldering. The motor and the combustion fan regulate the temperature of the smoker by feeding it more pellets and increasing airflow in the auger. Above the auger is a heat shield to disperse the direct heat before it reaches the heat box to allow the wood smoke to keep the heat box at an even temperature throughout. The heat sensor inside the heat box relays the current temperature inside the box back to the temperature regulator that controls the fan speed and pellet hopper motor, which either increase or decrease the amount of pellets in the auger or the amount of air available to the fire to maintain the desired temperature for the cook. The popularity of this type of smokers is on the rise after many BBQ pit-masters started using them for competition barbeque. Preservation ------------ Smoke is both an antimicrobial and antioxidant, but it is insufficient alone for preserving food as smoke does not penetrate far into meat or fish; it is thus typically combined with salt-curing or drying. Smoking is especially useful for oily fish, as its antioxidant properties inhibit surface fat rancidification and delay interior fat exposure to degrading oxygen. Some heavily salted, long-smoked fish can keep without refrigeration for weeks or months. Artificial smoke flavoring (such as liquid smoke) can be purchased to mimic smoking's flavor, but not its preservative qualities. Competitive smoking ------------------- Competition BBQ Smoking is becoming increasingly popular among smoking enthusiasts, especially in the Southern American States, where BBQ enthusiasts come together over a weekend to cook various cuts of meat such as a whole hog or beef brisket to become the best at BBQ. Organisations such as Kansas City Barbeque Society run competitions all over America. Health concerns --------------- Regularly consuming smoked meats and fish may increase the risk of several types of cancer List of smoked foods and beverages ---------------------------------- Some of the more common smoked foods and beverages include: Beverages * *Lapsang souchong* tea leaves are smoked and dried over pine or cedar fires * Malt beverages + The malt used to make whisky + Rauchbier (smoked beer) + Grodziskie (smoked beer) Fruit and vegetables * Capsicums: chipotles (smoked, ripe jalapeños), paprika * Prunes (dried plums) can be smoked while drying * *Wumei* are smoked plum fruits * *Iburi-gakko* are a smoked daikon pickle from Akita Prefecture, Japan Meat, fish, and cheese * Beef + Pastrami (pickled, spiced and smoked beef brisket) * Pork + Bacon + Ham + Bakkwa * Turkey * Chicken * Sausage + Salami * Jerky * Fish + Eel popular in eastern/northern Europe + Traditional Grimsby smoked fish (cod and haddock) + Haddock and Arbroath smokies (haddock) + Buckling, kippers and bloater (herring) + Salmon + Mackerel + Bivalves including oysters and mussels. * Egg (eggs and fish eggs) * Cheese + Adyghe Qwaye (Circassian) + Gouda + Gruyère + Oscypek Other proteins * Nuts * Tofu Spices * Paprika * Salt See also -------- * Braising * Canning * Drying * Jerky * List of dried foods * List of sausage dishes * List of sausages * List of smoked foods * Smoked fish * Smoked meat Further reading --------------- * McGee, Harold (2004). "Wood Smoke and Charred Wood". *On Food and Cooking* (Revised ed.). Scribner. pp. 448–450. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1. External links --------------

Smoking (cooking)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_(cooking)

A **hospital** is a healthcare institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire and accident victims to a sudden illness. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with many beds for intensive care and additional beds for patients who need long-term care. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric treatment (see psychiatric hospital) and certain disease categories. Specialized hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government depending on the sources of income received. A teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to health science students and auxiliary healthcare students. A health science facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments (e.g. surgery and urgent care) and specialist units such as cardiology. Some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology. Hospitals are typically funded by public funding, health organisations (for-profit or nonprofit), health insurance companies, or charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were often founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals and leaders. Currently, hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, nurses, and allied health practitioners, whereas in the past, this work was usually performed by the members of founding religious orders or by volunteers. However, there are various Catholic religious orders, such as the Alexians and the Bon Secours Sisters that still focus on hospital ministry in the late 1990s, as well as several other Christian denominations, including the Methodists and Lutherans, which run hospitals. In accordance with the original meaning of the word, hospitals were original "places of hospitality", and this meaning is still preserved in the names of some institutions such as the Royal Hospital Chelsea, established in 1681 as a retirement and nursing home for veteran soldiers. Etymology --------- During the Middle Ages, hospitals served different functions from modern institutions in that they were almshouses for the poor, hostels for pilgrims, or hospital schools. The word "hospital" comes from the Latin *hospes*, signifying a stranger or foreigner, hence a guest. Another noun derived from this, *hospitium* came to signify hospitality, that is the relation between guest and shelterer, hospitality, friendliness, and hospitable reception. By metonymy, the Latin word then came to mean a guest-chamber, guest's lodging, an inn. *Hospes* is thus the root for the English words *host* (where the *p* was dropped for convenience of pronunciation) *hospitality*, *hospice*, *hostel,* and *hotel*. The latter modern word derives from Latin via the Old French romance word *hostel*, which developed a silent *s*, which letter was eventually removed from the word, the loss of which is signified by a circumflex in the modern French word *hôtel*. The German word *Spital* shares similar roots. Types ----- Some patients go to a hospital just for diagnosis, treatment, or therapy and then leave ("outpatients") without staying overnight; while others are "admitted" and stay overnight or for several days or weeks or months ("inpatients"). Hospitals are usually distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients whilst the others, which are smaller, are often described as clinics. ### General and acute care The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, also known as an acute-care hospital. These facilities handle many kinds of disease and injury, and normally have an emergency department (sometimes known as "accident & emergency") or trauma center to deal with immediate and urgent threats to health. Larger cities may have several hospitals of varying sizes and facilities. Some hospitals, especially in the United States and Canada, have their own ambulance service. ### District A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care, critical care, and long-term care. In California, "district hospital" refers specifically to a class of healthcare facility created shortly after World War II to address a shortage of hospital beds in many local communities. Even today, district hospitals are the sole public hospitals in 19 of California's counties, and are the sole locally accessible hospital within nine additional counties in which one or more other hospitals are present at a substantial distance from a local community. Twenty-eight of California's rural hospitals and 20 of its critical-access hospitals are district hospitals. They are formed by local municipalities, have boards that are individually elected by their local communities, and exist to serve local needs. They are a particularly important provider of healthcare to uninsured patients and patients with Medi-Cal (which is California's Medicaid program, serving low-income persons, some senior citizens, persons with disabilities, children in foster care, and pregnant women). In 2012, district hospitals provided $54 million in uncompensated care in California. ### Specialized A specialty hospital is primarily and exclusively dedicated to one or a few related medical specialties. Subtypes include rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, long-term acute care facilities, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), cancer treatment, certain disease categories such as cardiac, oncology, or orthopedic problems, and so forth. In Germany specialised hospitals are called *Fachkrankenhaus*; an example is Fachkrankenhaus Coswig (thoracic surgery). In India, specialty hospitals are known as *super-specialty hospitals* and are distinguished from multispecialty hospitals which are composed of several specialties. Specialised hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. For example, Narayana Health's cardiac unit in Bangalore specialises in cardiac surgery and allows for a significantly greater number of patients. It has 3,000 beds and performs 3,000 in paediatric cardiac operations annually, the largest number in the world for such a facility. Surgeons are paid on a fixed salary instead of per operation, thus when the number of procedures increases, the hospital is able to take advantage of economies of scale and reduce its cost per procedure. Each specialist may also become more efficient by working on one procedure like a production line. ### Teaching A teaching hospital delivers healthcare to patients as well as training to prospective Medical Professionals such as medical students and student nurses. It may be linked to a medical school or nursing school, and may be involved in medical research. Students may also observe clinical work in the hospital. * Jackson Memorial Hospital in Miami's Health District, the primary teaching hospital for the University of Miami's Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine and the largest hospital in the United States with 1,547 bedsJackson Memorial Hospital in Miami's Health District, the primary teaching hospital for the University of Miami's Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine and the largest hospital in the United States with 1,547 beds * McMaster University Medical Centre is a teaching hospital in Hamilton, Ontario.McMaster University Medical Centre is a teaching hospital in Hamilton, Ontario. ### Clinics Clinics generally provide only outpatient services, but some may have a few inpatient beds and a limited range of services that may otherwise be found in typical hospitals. Departments or wards -------------------- A hospital contains one or more wards that house hospital beds for inpatients. It may also have acute services such as an emergency department, operating theatre, and intensive care unit, as well as a range of medical specialty departments. A well-equipped hospital may be classified as a trauma center. They may also have other services such as a hospital pharmacy, radiology, pathology, and medical laboratories. Some hospitals have outpatient departments such as behavioral health services, dentistry, and rehabilitation services. A hospital may also have a department of nursing, headed by a chief nursing officer or director of nursing. This department is responsible for the administration of professional nursing practice, research, and policy for the hospital. Many units have both a nursing and a medical director that serve as administrators for their respective disciplines within that unit. For example, within an intensive care nursery, a medical director is responsible for physicians and medical care, while the nursing manager is responsible for all the nurses and nursing care. Support units may include a medical records department, release of information department, technical support, clinical engineering, facilities management, plant operations, dining services, and security departments. * Hospital beds per 1000 people 2013.Hospital beds per 1000 people 2013 * Hospital beds per inhabitantsHospital beds per inhabitants * Resuscitation room bed after a trauma intervention, showing the highly technical equipment of modern hospitalsResuscitation room bed after a trauma intervention, showing the highly technical equipment of modern hospitals ### Remote monitoring The COVID-19 pandemic stimulated the development of virtual wards across the British NHS. Patients are managed at home, monitoring their own oxygen levels using an oxygen saturation probe if necessary and supported by telephone. West Hertfordshire Hospitals NHS Trust managed around 1200 patients at home between March and June 2020 and planned to continue the system after COVID-19, initially for respiratory patients. Mersey Care NHS Foundation Trust started a COVID Oximetry@Home service in April 2020. This enables them to monitor more than 5000 patients a day in their own homes. The technology allows nurses, carers, or patients to record and monitor vital signs such as blood oxygen levels. History ------- ### Early examples In early India, Fa Xian, a Chinese Buddhist monk who travelled across India c. AD 400, recorded examples of healing institutions. According to the *Mahavamsa*, the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty, written in the sixth century AD, King Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka (r. 437–367 BC) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala). A hospital and medical training centre also existed at Gundeshapur, a major city in southwest of the Sassanid Persian Empire founded in AD 271 by Shapur I. In ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepeion functioned as centres of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. The Asclepeia spread to the Roman Empire. While public healthcare was non-existent in the Roman Empire, military hospitals called *valetudinaria* did exist stationed in military barracks and would serve the soldiers and slaves within the fort. Evidence exists that some civilian hospitals, while unavailable to the Roman population, were occasionally privately built in extremely wealthy Roman households located in the countryside for that family, although this practice seems to have ended in 80 AD. * View of the Askleipion of Kos, the best preserved instance of an AsklepieionView of the *Askleipion* of Kos, the best preserved instance of an Asklepieion * Ruins of a two thousand-year-old hospital were discovered in the historical city of Anuradhapura Mihintale Sri Lanka.Ruins of a two thousand-year-old hospital were discovered in the historical city of Anuradhapura Mihintale Sri Lanka. ### Middle Ages The declaration of Christianity as an accepted religion in the Roman Empire drove an expansion of the provision of care. Following the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325 construction of a hospital in every cathedral town was begun, including among the earliest hospitals by Saint Sampson in Constantinople and by Basil, bishop of Caesarea in modern-day Turkey. By the twelfth century, Constantinople had two well-organised hospitals, staffed by doctors who were both male and female. Facilities included systematic treatment procedures and specialised wards for various diseases. The earliest general hospital in the Islamic world was built in 805 in Baghdad by Harun Al-Rashid. By the 10th century, Baghdad had five more hospitals, while Damascus had six hospitals by the 15th century, and Córdoba alone had 50 major hospitals [*when?*], many exclusively for the military. The Islamic *bimaristan* served as a center of medical treatment, as well nursing home and lunatic asylum. It typically treated the poor, as the rich would have been treated in their own homes. Hospitals in this era were the first to require medical diplomas to license doctors, and compensation for negligence could be made. Hospitals were forbidden by law to turn away patients who were unable to pay.[*need quotation to verify*] These hospitals were financially supported by waqfs, as well as state funds. ### Early modern and Enlightenment Europe In Europe the medieval concept of Christian care evolved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries into a secular one. In England, after the dissolution of the monasteries in 1540 by King Henry VIII, the church abruptly ceased to be the supporter of hospitals, and only by direct petition from the citizens of London, were the hospitals St Bartholomew's, St Thomas's and St Mary of Bethlehem's (Bedlam) endowed directly by the crown; this was the first instance of secular support being provided for medical institutions. In 1682, Charles II founded the Royal Hospital Chelsea as a retirement home for old soldiers known as Chelsea Pensioners, an instance of the use of the word "hospital" to mean an almshouse. Ten years later, Mary II founded the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich, with the same purpose. The voluntary hospital movement began in the early 18th century, with hospitals being founded in London by the 1720s, including Westminster Hospital (1719) promoted by the private bank C. Hoare & Co and Guy's Hospital (1724) funded from the bequest of the wealthy merchant, Thomas Guy. Other hospitals sprang up in London and other British cities over the century, many paid for by private subscriptions. St Bartholomew's in London was rebuilt from 1730 to 1759, and the London Hospital, Whitechapel, opened in 1752. These hospitals represented a turning point in the function of the institution; they began to evolve from being basic places of care for the sick to becoming centres of medical innovation and discovery and the principal place for the education and training of prospective practitioners. Some of the era's greatest surgeons and doctors worked and passed on their knowledge at the hospitals. They also changed from being mere homes of refuge to being complex institutions for the provision of medicine and care for sick. The Charité was founded in Berlin in 1710 by King Frederick I of Prussia as a response to an outbreak of plague. The concept of voluntary hospitals also spread to Colonial America; the Bellevue Hospital opened in 1736 (as a workhouse, then later becoming a hospital); the Pennsylvania Hospital opened in 1752, New York Hospital (now Weill Cornell Medical Center) in 1771, and Massachusetts General Hospital in 1811. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784 (instantly becoming the world's largest hospital), physicians acquired a new facility that gradually developed into one of the most important research centres. Another Enlightenment era charitable innovation was the dispensary; these would issue the poor with medicines free of charge. The London Dispensary opened its doors in 1696 as the first such clinic in the British Empire. The idea was slow to catch on until the 1770s, when many such organisations began to appear, including the Public Dispensary of Edinburgh (1776), the Metropolitan Dispensary and Charitable Fund (1779) and the Finsbury Dispensary (1780). Dispensaries were also opened in New York 1771, Philadelphia 1786, and Boston 1796. The Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse, Plymouth, was a pioneer of hospital design in having "pavilions" to minimize the spread of infection. John Wesley visited in 1785, and commented "I never saw anything of the kind so complete; every part is so convenient, and so admirably neat. But there is nothing superfluous, and nothing purely ornamented, either within or without." This revolutionary design was made more widely known by John Howard, the philanthropist. In 1787 the French government sent two scholar administrators, Coulomb and Tenon, who had visited most of the hospitals in Europe. They were impressed and the "pavilion" design was copied in France and throughout Europe. ### 19th century English physician Thomas Percival (1740–1804) wrote a comprehensive system of medical conduct, *Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons* (1803) that set the standard for many textbooks. In the mid-19th century, hospitals and the medical profession became more professionalised, with a reorganisation of hospital management along more bureaucratic and administrative lines. The Apothecaries Act 1815 made it compulsory for medical students to practise for at least half a year at a hospital as part of their training. Florence Nightingale pioneered the modern profession of nursing during the Crimean War when she set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses' training programme, the Nightingale School for Nurses, was opened in 1860, with the mission of training nurses to work in hospitals, to work with the poor and to teach. Nightingale was instrumental in reforming the nature of the hospital, by improving sanitation standards and changing the image of the hospital from a place the sick would go to die, to an institution devoted to recuperation and healing. She also emphasised the importance of statistical measurement for determining the success rate of a given intervention and pushed for administrative reform at hospitals. By the late 19th century, the modern hospital was beginning to take shape with a proliferation of a variety of public and private hospital systems. By the 1870s, hospitals had more than trebled their original average intake of 3,000 patients. In continental Europe the new hospitals generally were built and run from public funds. The National Health Service, the principal provider of health care in the United Kingdom, was founded in 1948. During the nineteenth century, the Second Viennese Medical School emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialisation advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna, being considered as the birth of specialised medicine. ### 20th century and beyond By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, medical advancements such as anesthesia and sterile techniques that could make surgery less risky, and the availability of more advanced diagnostic devices such as X-rays, continued to make hospitals a more attractive option for treatment. Modern hospitals measure various efficiency metrics such as occupancy rates, the average length of stay, time to service, patient satisfaction, physician performance, patient readmission rate, inpatient mortality rate, and case mix index. In the United States, the number of hospitalizations continued to grow and reached its peak in 1981 with 171 admissions per 1,000 Americans and 6,933 hospitals. This trend subsequently reversed, with the rate of hospitalization falling by more than 10% and the number of US hospitals shrinking from 6,933 in 1981 to 5,534 in 2016. Occupancy rates also dropped from 77% in 1980 to 60% in 2013. Among the reasons for this are the increasing availability of more complex care elsewhere such as at home or the physicians' offices and also the less therapeutic and more life-threatening image of the hospitals in the eyes of the public. In the US, a patient may sleep in a hospital bed, but be considered outpatient and "under observation" if not formally admitted. In the US, inpatient stays are covered under Medicare Part A, but a hospital might keep a patient under observation which is only covered under Medicare Part B, and subjects the patient to additional coinsurance costs. In 2013, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) introduced a "two-midnight" rule for inpatient admissions, intended to reduce an increasing number of long-term "observation" stays being used for reimbursement. This rule was later dropped in 2018. In 2016 and 2017, healthcare reform and a continued decline in admissions resulted in US hospital-based healthcare systems performing poorly financially. Microhospitals, with bed capacities of between eight and fifty, are expanding in the United States. Similarly, freestanding emergency rooms, which transfer patients that require inpatient care to hospitals, were popularised in the 1970s and have since expanded rapidly across the United States. Funding ------- Modern hospitals derive funding from a variety of sources. They may be funded by private payment and health insurance or public expenditure, charitable donations. In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service delivers health care to legal residents funded by the state "free at the point of delivery", and emergency care free to anyone regardless of nationality or status. Due to the need for hospitals to prioritise their limited resources, there is a tendency in countries with such systems for 'waiting lists' for non-crucial treatment, so those who can afford it may take out private health care to access treatment more quickly. In the United States, hospitals typically operate privately and in some cases on a for-profit basis, such as HCA Healthcare. The list of procedures and their prices are billed with a chargemaster; however, these prices may be lower for health care obtained within healthcare networks. Legislation requires hospitals to provide care to patients in life-threatening emergency situations regardless of the patient's ability to pay. Privately funded hospitals which admit uninsured patients in emergency situations incur direct financial losses, such as in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Quality and safety ------------------ As the quality of health care has increasingly become an issue around the world, hospitals have increasingly had to pay serious attention to this matter. Independent external assessment of quality is one of the most powerful ways to assess this aspect of health care, and hospital accreditation is one means by which this is achieved. In many parts of the world such accreditation is sourced from other countries, a phenomenon known as international healthcare accreditation, by groups such as Accreditation Canada from Canada, the Joint Commission from the US, the Trent Accreditation Scheme from Great Britain, and the *Haute Autorité de santé* (HAS) from France. In England hospitals are monitored by the Care Quality Commission. In 2020 they turned their attention to hospital food standards after seven patient deaths from listeria linked to pre-packaged sandwiches and salads in 2019, saying "Nutrition and hydration is part of a patient's recovery." The World Health Organization noted in 2011 that going into hospital was far riskier than flying. Globally the chance of a patient being subject to an error was about 10% and the chance of death resulting from an error was about 1 in 300 according to Liam Donaldson. 7% of hospitalised patients in developed countries, and 10% in developing countries, acquire at least one health care-associated infection. In the US 1.7 million infections are acquired in hospital each year, leading to 100,000 deaths, figures much worse than in Europe where there were 4.5 million infections and 37,000 deaths. Architecture ------------ Modern hospital buildings are designed to minimise the effort of medical personnel and the possibility of contamination while maximising the efficiency of the whole system. Travel time for personnel within the hospital and the transportation of patients between units is facilitated and minimised. The building also should be built to accommodate heavy departments such as radiology and operating rooms while space for special wiring, plumbing, and waste disposal must be allowed for in the design. However, many hospitals, even those considered "modern", are the product of continual and often badly managed growth over decades or even centuries, with utilitarian new sections added on as needs and finances dictate. As a result, Dutch architectural historian Cor Wagenaar has called many hospitals: > "... built catastrophes, anonymous institutional complexes run by vast bureaucracies, and totally unfit for the purpose they have been designed for ... They are hardly ever functional, and instead of making patients feel at home, they produce stress and anxiety." > > Some newer hospitals now try to re-establish design that takes the patient's psychological needs into account, such as providing more fresh air, better views and more pleasant colour schemes. These ideas harken back to the late eighteenth century, when the concept of providing fresh air and access to the 'healing powers of nature' were first employed by hospital architects in improving their buildings. The research of British Medical Association is showing that good hospital design can reduce patient's recovery time. Exposure to daylight is effective in reducing depression. Single-sex accommodation help ensure that patients are treated in privacy and with dignity. Exposure to nature and hospital gardens is also important – looking out windows improves patients' moods and reduces blood pressure and stress level. Open windows in patient rooms have also demonstrated some evidence of beneficial outcomes by improving airflow and increased microbial diversity. Eliminating long corridors can reduce nurses' fatigue and stress. Another ongoing major development is the change from a ward-based system (where patients are accommodated in communal rooms, separated by movable partitions) to one in which they are accommodated in individual rooms. The ward-based system has been described as very efficient, especially for the medical staff, but is considered to be more stressful for patients and detrimental to their privacy. A major constraint on providing all patients with their own rooms is however found in the higher cost of building and operating such a hospital; this causes some hospitals to charge for private rooms. * The medical center at the University of Virginia shows the growing trend for modern architecture in hospitals.The medical center at the University of Virginia shows the growing trend for modern architecture in hospitals. * The National Health Service Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital in the UK, showing the utilitarian architecture of many modern hospitalsThe National Health Service Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital in the UK, showing the utilitarian architecture of many modern hospitals * Hospital chapel at Fawcett Memorial Hospital (Port Charlotte, Florida)Hospital chapel at Fawcett Memorial Hospital (Port Charlotte, Florida) * Hinduja National Hospital, MumbaiHinduja National Hospital, Mumbai * An intensive care unit (ICU) within a hospitalAn intensive care unit (ICU) within a hospital * Uniklinikum Aachen in GermanyUniklinikum Aachen in Germany * Tampere University Hospital in Tampere, FinlandTampere University Hospital in Tampere, Finland * All India Institute of Medical Sciences in Delhi, IndiaAll India Institute of Medical Sciences in Delhi, India * Lehigh Valley Hospital–Cedar Crest in Allentown, PennsylvaniaLehigh Valley Hospital–Cedar Crest in Allentown, Pennsylvania See also -------- * Burn center * History of hospitals * History of medicine * Hospital network * Lists of hospitals * Hospital information system * Trauma center * The Waiting Room * Hospice * Walk-in clinic * "Hospitals Database". *World Health Organization*. * "Medicover Hospitals india". *Medicover Hospitals*. Bibliography ------------ ### History of hospitals * Brockliss, Lawrence, and Colin Jones. "The Hospital in the Enlightenment," in *The Medical World of Early Modern France* (Oxford UP, 1997), pp. 671–729; covers France 1650–1800 * Chaney, Edward (2000),"'Philanthropy in Italy': English Observations on Italian Hospitals 1545–1789", in: *The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance*, 2nd ed. London, Routledge, 2000. https://books.google.com/books/about/The\_evolution\_of\_the\_grand\_tour.html?id=rYB\_HYPsa8gC * Connor, J.T.H. "Hospital History in Canada and the United States," *Canadian Bulletin of Medical History*, 1990, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp. 93–104 * Crawford, D.S. Bibliography of Histories of Canadian hospitals and schools of nursing. * Gorsky, Martin. "The British National Health Service 1948–2008: A Review of the Historiography," *Social History of Medicine*, December 2008, Vol. 21 Issue 3, pp. 437–60 * Harrison, Mar, et al. eds. *From Western Medicine to Global Medicine: The Hospital Beyond the West* (2008) * Horden, Peregrine. *Hospitals and Healing From Antiquity to the Later Middle Ages* (2008) * McGrew, Roderick E. *Encyclopedia of Medical History* (1985) * Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (1996), *Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science*, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2 * Porter, Roy. *The Hospital in History*, with Lindsay Patricia Granshaw (1989) ISBN 978-0-415-00375-9 * Risse, Guenter B. *Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals* (1999); world coverage * Rosenberg, Charles E. *The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System* (1995); history to 1920 * Scheutz, Martin et al. eds. *Hospitals and Institutional Care in Medieval and Early Modern Europe* (2009) * Wall, Barbra Mann. *American Catholic Hospitals: A Century of Changing Markets and Missions* (Rutgers University Press, 2011). ISBN 978-0-8135-4940-8

Hospital

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital

**Peru** (/pəˈruː/ (); Spanish: *Perú* [peˈɾu]; Quechua: *Piruw* [pɪɾʊw]; Aymara: *Piruw* [pɪɾʊw]), officially the **Republic of Peru** (Spanish: ), is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River. Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America. Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral-Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of the cradles of civilization), the Nazca culture, the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco, and the Inca Empire, the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima. Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence in 1821, and following the foreign military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar, and the decisive battle of Ayacucho, Peru completed its independence in 1824. In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of *Plan Verde* shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under the reign of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimorism leaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities, exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and the COVID-19 pandemic, precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022. The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology. The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas, a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom; it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Pacific Alliance, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the World Trade Organization; and is considered as a middle power. Peru has a population that includes Mestizos, Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages, Aymara, or other Indigenous languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. Etymology --------- The name of the country may be derived from *Birú*, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors, who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World. When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated *Birú* or *Perú*. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name *Birú* was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 *Capitulación de Toledo*, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination *Viceroyalty of Peru*, which became the *Peruvian Republic* after its independence until 1979, adopting its current name of *Republic of Peru*. History ------- ### Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in the Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre-Inca culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar. After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Moche. The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo. In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco. The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti. Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as *Tawantinsuyu* which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred *Huacas*, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun." ### Conquest and colonial period Atahualpa (also Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca, became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of *conquistadors* (supported by the Chankas, Huancas, Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca. The Spanish conquest of Peru was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572. The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas. In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines, which now speak a Spanish Creole by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. Because of lack of available workforce, African slaves were added to the labor population. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations. It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers. By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco. ### Independence In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independence in North America, and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the C*riollo* population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies. After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martin and Thomas Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco. San Martin settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martin's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful. The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martin. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martin met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martin occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martin was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Simon Bolivar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolivar and San Martin gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolivar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military. With the help of Antonio José de Sucre, they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Alto Peru. Alto Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. ### 19th century From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. Peru embarked on a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country. In 1879, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 April 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Two outstanding military leaders throughout the war were Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. ### 20th century Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima, returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia. Later, in 1941, Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War, after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the *Ochenio*. He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. On October 3, 1968, another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the CEPAL theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize the *International Petroleum Corporation* (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres. The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973, Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of the general Pinochet. General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships. Peru engaged in a two week long conflict with Ecuador during the Paquisha War in early 1981 as a result of territorial dispute between the two countries. The economic policy President Alan García distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country. After the country experienced chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the *Inti* in mid-1985, which itself was later replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. The per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20% at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA, which caused great havoc throughout the country. The Shining Path had appeared in the universities in the 1970s. These students, many of them from peasant backgrounds, then returned to their communities and organized local party committees. The abandonment by the state of certain rural regions favored the establishment of the party. In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to the official report, but non-governmental estimates put the death toll at several dozen. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and eventually to the outbreak of armed struggle. After the beginning of the armed struggle, the new recruits of the Shining Path were generally peasants with little political background, rather than truly political militants. The Peruvian armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises and drafted Plan Verde – which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta in Peru – as an effort to overthrow his government. Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and according to Rospigliosi, the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) General Edwin "Cucharita" Díaz and Vladimiro Montesinos played a key role with making President Fujimori abide by the military's demands while "an understanding was established between Fujimori, Montesinos and some of the military officers" involved in Plan Verde prior to Fujimori's inauguration. Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde. Fujimori's policies, prescribed by Hernando de Soto, led to the immediate suffering of poor Peruvians who saw unregulated prices increase rapidly, with those living in poverty seeing prices increase so much that they could no longer afford food. De Soto advocated for the collapse of Peru's society, with the economist saying that a civil crisis was necessary to support the policies of Fujimori. These drastic measures caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992. The description of Fujimori's economic achievements as a "Peruvian miracle" was exaggerated and inequality persisted following his presidency. Due to his controversial governance, Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts and utilized coup proposals from Plan Verde, dissolving Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in the *auto-golpe* ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori's administration was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents. Using the *terruqueo*, a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the human rights violations committed in the last years of violence. His Programa Nacional de Población – an implementation of one of Plan Verde's proposals for the "total extermination" of impoverished Peruvians that would possibly be sympathetic to insurgent groups – also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women. In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. ### 21st century Into the new century, Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth, though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning the 2006 elections. In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori, entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations. In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by the Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra, the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by the Fujimorist Congress. Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led the anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress. Widely seen as a coup by Congress its head, Manuel Merino, the newly seated President Merino faced protests across the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency. Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti, who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies. Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress. Fujimori received support during the election from Lima's elite, evangelical Christians, businesses, media organizations, and the armed forces. On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence. Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort, Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve the opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte. She became the country's first female president. Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion. The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents. This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests, which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with the Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government. Government and politics ----------------------- Peru is a unitary semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system. The country has maintained a liberal democratic system under its 1993 Constitution, which replaced a constitution that leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president. It is also a unitary republic, in which the central government holds the most power and can create administrative divisions. The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (a written constitution, an autonomous Supreme court, and a presidential system) and the People's Republic of China (a unicameral congress, a premier and ministry system). The Peruvian government is separated into three branches: * Legislature: the unicameral Congress of Peru, consisting of 130 members of Congress (on a basis of population), the president of Congress, and the Permanent Commission; * Executive: the president, the Council of Ministers, which in practice controls domestic legislation and serve as a Cabinet to the president, consisting of the prime minister and 18 ministers of the state; * Judiciary: the Supreme Court of Peru, also known as the Royal Audencia of Lima, composed of 18 justices including a supreme justice, along with 28 superior courts, 195 trial courts, and 1,838 district courts. Under its constitution, the president of Peru is both head of state and government and is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection. The president appoints ministers who oversee the 18 ministries of the state, including the prime minister, into the Cabinet. The constitution designates minimal authority to the prime minister, who presides over cabinet meetings in which ministers advise the president and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of the executive branch. The president is also able to pose questions of confidence to the Congress of Peru, and consequently order the dissolution of congress, done in 1992 by Alberto Fujimori and in 2019 by Martín Vizcarra. In the Congress of Peru, there are 130 Members of Congress from 25 administrative divisions, determined by respective population, elected to five-year terms. Bills are proposed by the executive and legislative powers and become law through a plurality vote in Congress. The judiciary is nominally independent, though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history. The Congress of Peru can also pass a motion of no confidence, censure ministers, as well as initiate impeachments and convict executives. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru, the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress. In recent times, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments; Alberto Fujimori resigned prior to removal in 2000, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski resigned in 2018, Martín Vizcarra was removed from office in 2020 and Pedro Castillo was removed in 2022. Following a ruling in February 2023 by the Constitutional Court of Peru, whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government. Peru's electoral system uses compulsory voting for citizens from the age of 18 to 70, including dual-citizens and Peruvians abroad. Members of Congress are directly elected by constituents in respective districts through proportional voting. The president is elected in a general election, along with the vice president, through a majority in a two-round system. Elections are observed and organized by the National Jury of Elections, National Office of Electoral Processes, and the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status. Peru uses a multi-party system for congressional and general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adopted economic liberalism, progressivism, right-wing populism (specifically Fujimorism), nationalism, and reformism. The most recent general election was held on 11 April 2021 and resulted in Free Peru winning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority. A presidential runoff between Pedro Castillo and Keiko Fujimori took place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo. ### Allegations of corruption in politics Exceptionally many presidents of Peru have been ousted from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption over the past three decades. Alberto Fujimori is serving a 25-year sentence in prison for commanding death squads that killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in Odebrecht bribery scheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribe from Brazilian construction firm Odebrecht during his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribe from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier. Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office for parliamentary immunity and other benefits, with the large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior. ### Administrative Divisions Peru is divided into 26 units: 24 departments, the Constitutional Province of Callao and the Province of Lima (LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as the country's capital. Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional" government composed of the regional governor and the regional council. The governor constitutes the executive body, proposes budgets, and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs. The Regional Council, the region's legislative body, debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property. Provinces, such as the province of Lima, are administered by a municipal council, headed by a mayor. The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influence local politics. Some areas of Peru are defined as metropolitan areas which overlap district areas. The largest of them, the Lima metropolitan area, is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas. ### Foreign relations Over recent decades, Peru's foreign relations has historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia, particularly through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the World Trade Organization, the Pacific Alliance, Mercosur, and the Organization of American States (OAS). Peru is an active member of several regional trade blocs and is one of the founding members of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a member of international organizations such as the OAS and the United Nations. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served as United Nations Secretary General from 1981 to 1991. Peru has planned to be fully integrated into the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) by 2021, attributing its economic success and efforts to strengthen institutions as meeting factors to be a part of the OECD. Peru is a member of the World Trade Organization, and has pursued multiple major free trade agreements, most recently the Peru–United States Free Trade Agreement, the China–Peru Free Trade Agreement, the European Union Free Trade Agreement, free trade agreements with Japan, and many others. Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently the Organization of American States, Mercosur, the Andean Community of Nations, the Pacific Alliance, and the APEC. Peru has historically experienced stressed relations with Chile, including the Peru v Chile international court resolution and the Chilean-Peruvian maritime dispute, but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations. Additionally, Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing the crisis in Venezuela through the establishment of the Lima Group. ### Military and law enforcement Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – the Armed Forces of Peru – comprise the Peruvian Navy (MGP), the Peruvian Army (EP), and the Peruvian Air Force (FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020. Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. Their functions are separated by branch: * The Peruvian Army is made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms. * The Peruvian Air Force was officially created on 20 May 1929, with the name of Peruvian Aviation Corps. Its main function is to serve as the country's air defense. It also participates in social support campaigns for hard-to-reach populations, organizes air bridges during disasters, and participates in international peace missions. Its four major air bases are located in the cities of Piura, Callao, Arequipa and Iquitos. * The Peruvian Navy is in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers. The military is governed by both the commander in chief, Ministry of Defense, and Joint Command of the Armed Forces (CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service. The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior. Since the end of the crisis in Peru in 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense. In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina. More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used in civil defense. In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strict quarantine measures placed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Geography --------- Manú National Park in the Amazon, the mountain peak Alpamayo and Paracas National Reserve Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in the Southern Hemisphere, its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator, covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The *costa* (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The *sierra* (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the *Altiplano* plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán. The third region is the *selva* (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca, and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the *sierra*. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, the Urubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon. The largest lake in Peru, Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs, all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos, Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs. ### Climate The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. The coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In the mountain region, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall. ### Wildlife Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic, and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic), over 500 species of mammals, over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes. The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma, jaguar and spectacled bear. The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano, an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass, flounder, anchovies, tuna, crustaceans, and shellfish, and is home to many sharks, sperm whales, and whales. The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru. Peru also has an equally diverse flora. The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti, apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above the tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus, drought-resistant plants such as ichu, and the largest species of bromeliad – the spectacular Puya raimondii. The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustain moss, orchids, and bromeliads, and the Amazon rainforest is known for its variety of trees and canopy plants. Peru had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries. Economy ------- The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked by Purchasing power parity), and the income level is classified as *upper middle* by the World Bank. Peru is, as of 2011[update], one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s. It has an above-average Human Development Index of 0.77 which has seen steady improvement over the last 25 years.[*clarify*] Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments. Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive. According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty. Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014[update] it stands at 2.5%. and 8,6 in 2023. The unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years,[*clarify*] and as of 2012[update] stands at 3.6%. Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades.[*clarify*] The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations. Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies. As of 2010[update] Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%). Recent economic growth had been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption. Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006. Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile. Peru was ranked 70th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021. Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector. ### Mining The country is heavily dependent on mining for the export of raw materials, which represent 60% of exports: in 2019, the country was the second world producer of copper, silver and zinc, eighth world producer of gold, third world producer of lead, the world's fourth largest producer of tin, the fifth world's largest producer of boron and the world's fourth largest producer of molybdenum. – not to mention gas and of oil. Little industrialized, Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices. ### Agriculture Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa, one of the 5 largest producers of avocado, blueberry, artichoke and asparagus, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potato and pineapple, also having a considerable production of grape, sugarcane, rice, banana, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified. In livestock, Peru is one of the 20 largest producers of chicken meat in the world. According to a report by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderately food insecure (16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days. The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to high social inequality and low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts of climate change and face the problem of drug trafficking on their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil." ### Industry The World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. By the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion). In 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier of fishmeal. Infrastructure -------------- ### Transport Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved. Some highways in the country that stand out are the Pan American Highway and Interoceanic Highway. In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) of duplicated highways, and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026. The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways. Peru has important international airports such as Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil). Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile). ### Energy Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others. In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass. Demographics ------------ With about 31.2 million inhabitants in 2017, Peru is the fourth most populous country in South America. The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050. According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population at the time of seven million residents. As of 2017[update], 79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas. Major cities include the Lima metropolitan area (home to over 9.8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census. There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru. Peru has a life expectancy of 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from the World Bank. |    Largest cities or towns in PeruEstimated 2014 | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | | | LimaLimaArequipaArequipa | 1 | Lima | Lima | 9,735,587 (Metro pop.) | 11 | Juliaca | Puno | 267,174 | TrujilloTrujilloChiclayoChiclayo | | 2 | Arequipa | Arequipa | 1,008,029 (Metro pop.) | 12 | Ica | Ica | 241,903 | | 3 | Trujillo | La Libertad | 935,147 (Metro pop.) | 13 | Cajamarca | Cajamarca | 218,775 | | 4 | Chiclayo | Lambayeque | 801,580 (Metro pop.) | 14 | Pucallpa | Ucayali | 211,631 | | 5 | Huancayo | Junín | 501.384 | 15 | Sullana | Piura | 199,606 | | 6 | Iquitos | Loreto | 432,476 | 16 | Ayacucho | Ayacucho | 177,420 | | 7 | Piura | Piura | 430,319 | 17 | Chincha Alta | Ica | 174,575 | | 8 | Cusco | Cusco | 420,137 | 18 | Huánuco | Huánuco | 172,924 | | 9 | Chimbote | Ancash | 367,850 | 19 | Tarapoto | San Martín | 141,053 | | 10 | Tacna | Tacna | 288,698 | 20 | Puno | Puno | 138,723 | ### Ethnic groups | Ethnic Groups in Peru (2017 Census) | | --- | | Ethnic Groups | | percent | | Mestizo |   | 60.2% | | Quechua |   | 22.3% | | White |   | 5.9% | | Afro-Peruvian |   | 3.6% | | Aymara |   | 2.4% | | Other |   | 2.3% | | Not Stated |   | 3.3% | Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases. The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves as mestizo, 22.3% identified themselves as Quechua, 5.9% identified themselves as white, 3.6% identified themselves as black, 2.4% identified themselves as Aymara, 2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity. Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with Indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, and Italy. Peru freed its black slaves in 1854. Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society. ### Language According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in areas where they predominate, Quechua and other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, Quechua by 13.9%, and Aymara by 1.7%, while other languages are spoken by the remaining 1.8%. Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin. Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, including Asháninka, Bora, and Aguaruna. ### Religion Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree of syncretism with Indigenous traditions. Two of its universities, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru and Universidad Cattolica San Pablo, are among the 5 top universities of the country. As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 14.1% as Evangelical, 4.8% as Protestant, Jewish, Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses, and 5.1% as nonreligious. Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, Holy Week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread; Inti Raymi, an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities. The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral and patron saint. ### Education Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%). Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools. Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. The National University of San Marcos, founded on 12 May 1551, during the Viceroyalty of Peru, is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. ### Toponyms Many of the Peruvian toponyms have Indigenous sources. In the Andes communities of Ancash, Cusco and Puno, Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized alphabets of these languages. According to Article 20 of *Decreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC* (Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of the toponyms in the normalized alphabets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute *(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN)*. The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru. Culture ------- Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions, though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions. During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cusco School are representative. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of *Indigenismo* in the early 20th century. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents. ### Visual Arts Peruvian art has its origin in the Andean civilizations. These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before the arrival of the Spanish. Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day. #### Pre-Columbian art Peru's earliest artwork came from the Cupisnique culture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north of Lima between the Andean mountain ranges of the Cordillera Negra and the Cordillera Blanca. Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, and ceramics to create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures. Between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, the Paracas Cavernas and Paracas Necropolis cultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns. The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture, Moche, in the Lambayeque region. The Moche culture produced impressive architectural works, such as the Huacas del Sol y de la Luna and the Huaca Rajada of Sipán. They were experts at cultivation in terraces and hydraulic engineering and produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works. Another urban culture, the Wari civilization, flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries in Ayacucho. Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such as Pachacamac, Cajamarquilla and Wari Willka. Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urban Tiwanaku empire rose by the borders of Lake Titicaca. Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developing bronze, which enabled them to make the necessary tools. Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in the Chimú Culture. The Chimú built the city of Chan Chan in the valley of the Moche River, in La Libertad. The Chimú were skilled goldsmiths and created remarkable works of hydraulic engineering. The Inca Civilization, which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities like Cusco, architectural remains like Sacsahuamán and Machu Picchu and stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire. #### Colonial art Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from the ateliers founded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of the Cathedral choir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both by Pedro de Noguera, and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was the Cuzco School that taught Quechua artists European painting styles. Diego Quispe Tito (1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school and Marcos Zapata (1710–1773) was one of the last. Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the Italians Mateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baroque Style also dominated the field of plastic arts. ### Literature The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the country's colonial period, and to oral artistic forms created by diverse ethnic groups that existed in the area during the pre-Columbian period, such as the Quechua, the Aymara and the Chanka people. Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma. The early 20th century's *Indigenismo* movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría and José María Arguedas. César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom. ### Cuisine Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started the Columbian exchange which included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, and chilies. There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa. Modern Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking. Common dishes include *anticuchos*, *ceviche*, and *pachamanca*. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking. Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population including the Inca and cuisines brought in with colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine are corn, potatoes and other tubers, Amaranthaceaes (quinoa, kañiwa and kiwicha) and legumes (beans and lupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods – such as quinoa, kiwicha, chili peppers, and several roots and tubers have increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns like Cusco, where tourists come to visit. Chef Gaston Acurio has become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients. ### Music Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots. In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the *quena* and the *tinya* were two common instruments. Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the *charango*. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the *cajón*, a percussion instrument. Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno. Peruvian music is dominated by the national instrument, the charango. The charango is a member of the lute family of instruments and was invented during colonial times by musicians imitating the Spanish vihuela. In the Canas and Titicaca regions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built the Indigenismo movement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include the walaycho, chillador, chinlili, and the larger and lower-tuned charangon. While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-origin bandurria. Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins and harps, also of European origin, are also played. ### Cinema While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies produced enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Peru began in Iquitos in 1932 by Antonio Wong Rengifo (with a momentous, initial film billboard from 1900) because of the rubber boom and the intense arrival of foreigners with technology to the city, and thus continued an extensive, unique filmography, with a different style than the films made in the capital, Lima. Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America, *Piratas en el Callao*. This film is set in the historical port city of Callao, which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by the Peruvian company Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later: *Dragones: Destino de Fuego*. In February 2006, the film *Madeinusa*, produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed by Claudia Llosa, was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed by Magaly Solier and the traumas of post-civil war Peru. Llosa, who shared elements of Gabriel García Márquez's magic realism, won an award at the Rotterdam Film Festival. Llosa's second feature, The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), was nominated for the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated. The Milk of Sorrow ("La Teta Asustada"), won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale. See also -------- * Outline of Peru Notes and references -------------------- Bibliography ------------ * Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. *Art of colonial Latin America*. London: Phaidon, 2005. ISBN 0714841579. * *Constitución Política del Perú*. 29 December 1993. * Custer, Tony. *The Art of Peruvian Cuisine*. Lima: Ediciones Ganesha, 2003. ISBN 9972920305. * Garland, Gonzalo. "Perú Siglo XXI", series of 11 working papers describing sectorial long-term forecasts, Grade, Lima, Peru, 1986–1987. * Garland, Gonzalo. Peru in the 21st Century: Challenges and Possibilities in *Futures: the Journal of Forecasting, Planning, and Policy*, Volume 22, No. 4, Butterworth-Heinemann, London, England, May 1990. * Gootenberg, Paul. (1991) *Between silver and guano: commercial policy and the state in postindependence Peru*. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691023425. * Gootenberg, Paul. (1993) *Imagining development: economic ideas in Peru's "fictitious prosperity" of Guano, 1840–1880*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520082907. * Higgins, James (editor). *The Emancipation of Peru: British Eyewitness Accounts*, 2014. Online at jhemanperu Archived 21 April 2020 at the Wayback Machine * Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú. *El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico*. Lima: Auge, 1996. * Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. "*Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005*" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2007. (8.31 MB). Lima: INEI, 2005. * Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. *Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú*. Lima: INEI, 2008. * Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. *Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050*. Lima: INEI, 2001. * *Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar* DOC. 28 September 1999. * Ley N° 27867, *Ley Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales*. 16 November 2002. * Martin, Gerald. "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), *A cultural history of Latin America*. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 3–45. * Martin, Gerald. "Narrative since c. 1920". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), *A cultural history of Latin America*. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 133–225. * Porras Barrenechea, Raúl. *El nombre del Perú*. Lima: Talleres Gráficos P.L. Villanueva, 1968. * Scheina, Robert (2003), *Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899*, Brassey's, ISBN 978-1-57488-450-0 * Thorp, Rosemary, and Geoffrey Bertram. *Peru 1890–1977: growth and policy in an open economy*. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978. ISBN 0231034334 Further reading --------------- * Akers, Charles Edmond; Edmundson, George (1911). "Peru". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 264–278. Economy * (in Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. *Cuadros Anuales Históricos* Archived 1 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. * (in Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. *Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008*. Lima: INEI, 2009. * Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), *A cultural history of Latin America*. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260. 10°S 76°W / 10°S 76°W / -10; -76

Peru

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru

**Raipur** (/ˈraɪpʊər/ ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Chhattisgarh. Raipur is also the administrative headquarters of Raipur district and Raipur division, and the largest city of the state. It was a part of Madhya Pradesh before the state of Chhattisgarh was formed on 1 November 2000. It is a major commercial hub for trade and commerce in the region. It has exponential industrial growth and has become a major business hub in Central India. It has been ranked as India's 6th cleanest city as per the Swachh Survekshan for the year 2021. Raipur is ranked 7th in the Ease of Living Index 2019 and 7th in the Municipal Performance Index 2020, both by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA). Raipur is also regarded as one of the best cities to do business. It is abundantly rich in mineral resources, and is among the biggest producers of steel and iron in the country. There are about 200 steel rolling mills, 195 sponge iron plants, at least 6 steel plants, 60 plywood factories, 35 ferro-alloy plants and 500 agro-industries in the city. In addition, Raipur also has over 800 rice milling plants. History ------- The earliest archaeological evidence from old sites and ruins of the fort indicate that Raipur has existed since at least the 9th century. However, there is enough literary evidence that defines the history of Raipur since the time of the Maurya Empire. Raipur district was once part of Southern Kosal and considered to be under the Maurya Empire. Raipur had later been the capital of the Haihaya Kings, controlling the traditional forts of Chhattisgarh for a long time. Satawahana Kings ruled this part till the 2nd-3rd century CE. Samudragupta had conquered this region in the fourth century, but the region came under the sway of Sarabhpuri Kings and then Nala Kings in the 5th and 6th centuries. Later on, Somavanshi kings took control over this region and ruled with Sirpur as their capital city. The Kalchuri Kings of Tumman ruled this part for a long time making Ratanpur as capital. It is believed that the King Ramachandra of this dynasty established the city of Raipur and subsequently made it the capital of his kingdom. Another story about Raipur is that King Ramachandra's son Brahmdeo Rai had established the city. His capital was Khalwatika (now Khallari). The newly constructed city was named after Brahmdeo Rai as 'Raipur'. It was during this time in 1402 CE. that the temple of Hatkeshwar Mahadev was constructed on the banks of the river Kharun, which remains one of the oldest landmarks in Raipur. After the death of king Amarsingh Deo, this region became the domain of the Bhonsle Kings of Nagpur. With the death of Raghuji the III, the territory was assumed by the British government from the Bhonsle Kings and Chhattisgarh was declared a separate Commission with its headquarters at Raipur in 1854. After independence, the Raipur district was included in the Central Provinces and Berar. Raipur district became a part of Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956 and subsequently became a part of Chhattisgarh on 1 November 2000 with Raipur becoming the capital of the new state. Demographics ------------ As of the[update] 2011 census, Raipur Municipal Corporation had a population of 1,010,087, of which 519,286 are males and 490,801 are females—a sex ratio of 945 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 940 per 1000. 124,471 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, of which 64,522 are boys and 59,949 are girls—a ratio of 929 girls per 1000 boys. There are 769,593 literates (420,155 males, 349,438 females). The effective literacy was 86.90%; male literacy was 92.39% and female literacy was 81.10%, significantly higher than the national average of 73.00%. The urban agglomeration had a population of 1,122,555, of which males constitute 578,339, females constitute 544,216—a sex ratio of 941 females per 1000 males and 142,826 children are in the age group of 0–6 years. There are a total of 846,952 literates with an effective literacy rate of 86.45%. Geography and climate --------------------- ### Geography Raipur is located near the centre of a large plain, sometimes referred to as the "rice bowl of India", where hundreds of varieties of rice are grown. The Mahanadi River flows to the east of the city of Raipur, and the southern side has dense forests. The Maikal Hills rise on the north-west of Raipur; on the north, the land rises and merges with the Chota Nagpur Plateau, which extends north-east across Jharkhand state. On the south of Raipur lies the Deccan Plateau. ### Climate Raipur has a tropical wet and dry climate, temperatures remain moderate throughout the year, except from March to June, which can be extremely hot. The temperature in April–May sometimes rises above 48 °C (118 °F). These summer months also have dry and hot winds. The city receives about 1,300 millimetres (51 in) of rain, mostly in the monsoon season from late June to early October. Winters last from November to January and are mild, although lows can fall to 5 °C (41 °F) making it reasonably cold. | Climate data for Raipur (1981–2010, extremes 1901–2012) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 36.5(97.7) | 38.0(100.4) | 43.3(109.9) | 46.1(115.0) | 47.9(118.2) | 47.2(117.0) | 41.2(106.2) | 37.5(99.5) | 37.2(99.0) | 37.9(100.2) | 35.6(96.1) | 32.4(90.3) | 47.9(118.2) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 31.5(88.7) | 34.8(94.6) | 39.8(103.6) | 43.2(109.8) | 45.2(113.4) | 44.4(111.9) | 36.1(97.0) | 33.7(92.7) | 34.4(93.9) | 34.7(94.5) | 32.5(90.5) | 30.8(87.4) | 45.1(113.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 28.0(82.4) | 30.9(87.6) | 35.6(96.1) | 40.0(104.0) | 41.9(107.4) | 37.4(99.3) | 31.6(88.9) | 30.6(87.1) | 31.9(89.4) | 32.3(90.1) | 30.2(86.4) | 28.2(82.8) | 33.2(91.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | 13.3(55.9) | 15.9(60.6) | 20.1(68.2) | 24.5(76.1) | 27.4(81.3) | 26.0(78.8) | 23.9(75.0) | 23.8(74.8) | 23.7(74.7) | 21.0(69.8) | 16.0(60.8) | 12.4(54.3) | 20.7(69.3) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | 8.6(47.5) | 11.3(52.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 19.7(67.5) | 22.2(72.0) | 21.6(70.9) | 21.2(70.2) | 21.7(71.1) | 21.3(70.3) | 16.8(62.2) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.9(48.0) | 8.7(47.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | 5.0(41.0) | 5.0(41.0) | 8.3(46.9) | 15.0(59.0) | 14.4(57.9) | 16.1(61.0) | 17.1(62.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 18.3(64.9) | 13.9(57.0) | 8.3(46.9) | 3.9(39.0) | 3.9(39.0) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 13.7(0.54) | 13.4(0.53) | 11.9(0.47) | 8.9(0.35) | 30.3(1.19) | 221.1(8.70) | 326.9(12.87) | 299.9(11.81) | 200.5(7.89) | 50.4(1.98) | 9.8(0.39) | 6.6(0.26) | 1,193.3(46.98) | | Average rainy days | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 8.8 | 14.3 | 14.1 | 9.3 | 2.5 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 56.8 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 47 | 35 | 28 | 22 | 27 | 52 | 76 | 79 | 73 | 59 | 51 | 49 | 49 | | Source: India Meteorological Department | Government and politics ----------------------- ### Civic administration Raipur city has a Municipal corporation. It was initially established by the British on 17 May 1867, initially named Raipur Municipal committee. It was upgraded to Raipur Municipal Corporation in the year 1973. The area of the municipal corporation is 226 km2 (87 sq mi). RMC is governed under the guidelines mentioned in the Chhattisgarh Municipalities Act, 1961. As per the 2011 Census of India, the urban agglomeration population in Raipur, Durg-Bhilai was 3,186,632. The three urban cities of Raipur, Bhilai and Durg in the west central region of Chhattisgarh together create the Raipur-Bhilai-Durg Tri City Metro area. The functions under the municipal corporation are the construction of health centres, educational institutes, schools, and periodic maintenance of the houses. In addition to taking the responsibility of constructing basic civic infrastructure, flyovers, and roads, it is also developing recreational centres such as museums, community halls, and parks. Along with basic civic infrastructure, flyovers, and roads. The executive committee consists of the Commissioner, Deputy commissioner, city health officers, executive engineers, zone commissioners, and other staff. The Municipal Commissioner of Raipur is Shri. Saurabh Kumar (I.A.S). The current mayor is Aijaz Dhebar from INC. The Mayor in the council consists of the Mayor who is the ex officio chairperson of the MIC. Among elected councillors, the mayor elects them to the council. There are 70 wards and 8 zones within the Raipur Municipal Corporation. The zonal ward committees are headed by chairpersons who are elected by ward councillors of the respective zone. The recent municipal elections were held on 21 December 2019. The political parties in the majority at the municipal level are BJP and INC. The estimated municipal budget the 2017-2018 period is ₹ 2,612,667. Key revenue sources are tax income, fees and charges, sanitation charges, grants and donations, and capital income. The city is a part of Raipur District with S. Bharathi Dasan, IAS/Collector and DM. The collector heads the district administration department. The upper collector, deputy collector and joint deputy assist the Collector. Other governing agencies that are active in the city of Raipur is the Urban Administration And Development, Chhattisgarh. ### Master plan Raipur Master Plan 2021 recognizes the need for planned development to take the pressure off the downtown core and meet the need for green spaces and bodies of water in that area. The plan calls for dense housing in new subdivisions on the outskirts and well-planned high-rise commercial and industrial development along with the NH-6 as well as on the north side of the city. ### Legislative assembly and state agencies Raipur is a Lok Sabha/Parliamentary constituency in central Chhattisgarh. Raipur's Lok Sabha seat is unreserved. Sunil Kumar Soni of BJP is the current Member of Parliament, Lok Sabha from the city. There are seven Vidhan Sabha seats in Raipur district, including three in Raipur City, one in Raipur Rural and three in Outer Tehsils. Economy ------- Raipur, being the capital city of Chhattisgarh, has attracted large amounts of industrial development. As it is the state capital, the government and service sectors makes up a large part of the city's economy and workforce. Manufacturing industries are also well developed in the city, with a large number of industrial zones. Raipur is also regarded as one of the best cities to do business. It is abundantly rich in mineral resources, and is among the biggest producers of steel and iron in the country. There are about 200 steel rolling mills, 195 sponge iron plants, at least 6 steel plants, 60 plywood factories, 35 ferro-alloy plants and 500 agro-industries in the city. In addition, Raipur also has over 800 rice milling plants. Dalmia Cement (Bharat) is planning to set up an integrated cement manufacturing unit with a capacity of 2.5 million TPA in Raipur. A South Korean multinational Sung Ha Telecom is also planning to set up a plant in Naya Raipur. JSW Steel has a steel plant in Raipur. APL Apollo's in joint venture with a Singaporean company has planned a manufacturing plant in Raipur. Grasim Industries operates a cement plant at Rewan in Raipur. Ambuja Cements has a plant in Bhatapara. In addition, Raipur has a large chemical plant which produces and supplies formalin all throughout the country. LPG bottling plants owned by Bharat Petroleum and Hindustan Petroleum are also in Raipur. Godavari - E - Mobility is planning to set up a manufacturing plant in the city as well. A heavy machinery plant of Jindal Group is in Raipur. Functioning as an information technology (IT) and cyber hub, a technology park in Chhattisgarh's new capital city Naya Raipur was built. Chhattisgarh State Industrial Development Corporation (CSIDC) will be developing a new industrial area in Tilda near Raipur to provide facilities for small and medium industries. Two new industrial parks for apparel and metal industries are coming up in Raipur. Civic utilities --------------- ### Transport services The superintendent of Engineers Executive Engineers, the team of Engineers, and the staff responsible for the related activities of the road department head the public works department. Their purposes are planning and designing of road stormwater drains, maintenance of roads and streets, maintenance of gardens and parks, resurfacing the roads, and repairing potholes and bad patches. In the bus transport system of Raipur City there is a total number of 157 buses plying within the city. ### Fire service and electricity The city's electricity is supplied by Chhattisgarh State Power Distribution Company Limited. Fire and emergency services were set up in 2016 to protect fire incidents in the state. As per the directions of the government, the Fire Station of the urban body are being taken under fire and emergency services. ### Water, drainage and sewerage The existing source of unfiltered water is from the Kharun river, and about 170 million litres of water per day (MLD) is treated on a daily basis, and the plant has a treatment capacity of 275 MLD. The per capita water supply in the city of Raipur is 135 litres per day. There is a water supply connection serving a total of 50,000 households. Along with water from the Kharun River (27 MLD), another source of water is groundwater, and the capacity utilized is 22 MLD. There is a total of 1,133 handpumps in the city. There is a lack in the sewerage systems of Raipur City. The data for households with a Sewerage Network is unavailable, but the number of households with septic tanks are 1,44,882 and the households without any outlets for toilets is 5,649. The city has no separate drainage system nor any sewer lines. There is a separate stormwater drainage system, laid as per requirement. ### Solid waste management The waste management in the city is entrusted with the city health officer, the in-charge health officer, zonal health officer, and the team of sanitary supervisors and ward supervisors. A total of 3,56,490 households have been successful with source segregation and are covered by door-to-door collection. Raipur's major waste disposal site is the Sarona site, which is 12 km away from the city centre. Transport --------- ### Roadways Some major roads in Raipur are National Highway 53 (NH-53), National Highway 30 (NH-30), Great Eastern Road, Pandri Road, Baloda Bazar Road, Nardha Raipur Road, VIP Road, and Atal Path Expressway. The Raipur–Naya Raipur Expressway, also known as *Atal Path Expressway,* is a 12.7 km (7.9 mi) access-controlled expressway connecting Raipur to Naya Raipur. It has been made to ease the traffic on the GE road and provide faster access to Dhamtari road from Raipur railway station. It serves 4 flyovers and 1 elevated corridor, crossing over GE road and NH-53 in between two ends of expressway. The proposed Durg–Raipur–Arang Expressway and the under-construction Raipur–Visakhapatnam Expressway will pass through and start from Raipur, which after completion, will enhance connectivity and commute further with other cities to and from Raipur. ### Bus transport A recently constructed bus station, the Sri Balaji Swami Trust Sri Dudhadhari Math Inter State Bus Terminal, or ISBT Raipur, is located at Ravanbhantha, and is the main bus station of the city. It has replaced the old Minimata Bus Stand or Pandri Stand, which was creating heavy traffic problems. The services of the new ISBT started on 15 November 2021. The only bus rapid transit system is the Raipur and Naya Raipur BRTS. ### Metro A light rail, or a Metrolite or Lite Metro (as referred in India), has been proposed by the Government of Chhattisgarh, which will run from Naya Raipur to Durg via Raipur and Bhilai. ### Railways Raipur Junction railway station is the primary railway station of the city, which is situated on the Howrah-Nagpur-Mumbai line of the Indian Railways, running through the cities of Bhusawal, Nagpur, Gondia, Bilaspur, Rourkela and Kharagpur. Thus, it is connected with most major cities of India. It is categorized in the A-1 category of railway stations by the Indian Railways. Some small railway stations are also present here for local trains like Sarona, Saraswati Nagar, and WRS Colony railway stations. They also lie on the same railway route. ### Airport Swami Vivekananda Airport, or Mana Airport, is the primary airport serving the state of Chhattisgarh. The airport is located 15 km (9.3 mi) south of Raipur and 10 km (6.2 mi) from Naya Raipur. The airport is well-connected, having daily direct flights to Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, Pune, Chennai, Goa, Lucknow, Indore, Jaipur, Patna, Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Hyderabad, Prayagraj, and Jagdalpur, operated by Alliance Air, IndiGo and Vistara airlines. List of mayors -------------- | Term of office | Name | Party | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 07.01.2020 to Till Date | Aijaz Dhebar | Indian National Congress | | | 07.01.2015 to 07.01.2020 | Pramod Dubey | Indian National Congress | | | 05.01.2010 to 07.01.2015 | Kiranmayi Nayak | Indian National Congress | | | 05.01.2004 to 05.01.2010 | Sunil Kumar Soni | BJP | | | 04.01.2000 to 25.12.2003 | Tarun Prasad Chatterjee | Indian National Congress | | | 05.01.1995 to 04.01.2000 | Balbeer Juneja | Indian National Congress | | | 27.02.1985 to 04.01.1995 | Administrator | | | | 11.09.1984 to 26.02.1985 | Santosh Agrawal | Indian National Congress | | | 27.02.1983 to 10.09.1984 | Tarun Prasad Chatterjee | Indian National Congress | | | 27.02.1982 to 26.02.1983 | Swaroop Chand Jain | Indian National Congress | | | 27.02.1981 to 27.02.1982 | S.R.Murthi | Indian National Congress | | | 27.02.1980 to 27.02.1981 | Swaroop Chand Jain | Indian National Congress | | Points of Interest ------------------ MapShow zoomed outMapShow zoomed midMapShow zoomed inRaipur * Mata Kaushalya Temple only temple in the world dedicated to Mata Kaushalya * Purkhouti Muktangan, Naya Raipur an open air Cultural garden that exhibits Culture of Chhattisgarh * Nandanvan Jungle Safari, Naya Raipur Asia's largest man-made Jungle Safari * Ram Mandir, Raipur temple dedicated to lord Ram * Guru Ghasi Das Sangrahalya a museum in Raipur * Swami Vivekananda Sarowar (Budha Talab) * Marine Drive, Raipur (A promenade alongside lake, famous for hanging out and food joints) Education --------- Raipur has become a big educational hub of Chhattisgarh due to the presence of many institutes of national importance in engineering, management, medical and law, including IIM, NIT, AIIMS, Hidayatullah National Law University (HNLU), CIPET, Raipur, NIPER(Proposed) and IIIT. ### Premier institutes * All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur (AIIMS) * Central Institute of Petrochemicals Engineering and Technology * Hidayatullah National Law University * Indian Institute of Management Raipur (IIM) * International Institute of Information Technology, Naya Raipur * National Institute of Malaria Research * National Institute of Technology, Raipur(NIT) * National Institutes of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER} (Proposed) at Naya Raipur ### Government universities * Chandulal Chandrakar Patrakarita Avam Jansanchar Vishwavidyalaya * Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya * Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University * Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University * Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay Memorial Health Sciences and Ayush University of Chhattisgarh ### Private universities and deemed universities * Amity University * ICFAI University * ITM University * Kalinga University * MATS University ### Commerce, engineering and management colleges * Government Engineering College (GEC) * Pragati College of Engineering and Management * Raipur Institute of Technology * Shri Shankaracharya Institute of Professional Management and Technology (SSIPMT) ### Secondary education * Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan * DAV Public School * Kendriya Vidyalaya * Rajkumar College, established 1882 * Ryan International School * Delhi Public School Media ----- ### News channels Many local news channels are telecast from Raipur in Hindi: | News channels | Language | | --- | --- | | CG 24 news channel CG | Hindi | | IBC24 | Hindi | | Khabar Bharti | Hindi | | Grand News (Cable Network) | Hindi | | News18 MP CG | Hindi | | Sadhna News | Hindi | | Sahara Samay Channel | Hindi | | Zee MP CG | Hindi | | India News MP CG | Hindi | | Bansal News | Hindi | | Abhi Tak (Cable Network) | Hindi | | Inh News | Hindi | ### Newspapers Many national and local newspapers are published from Raipur in both Hindi and English: | Newspaper | Language | | --- | --- | | *Dainik Bhaskar* | Hindi | | *Dainik Vishwa Pariwar* | Hindi | | *Patrika* | Hindi | | *Nava Bharat* | Hindi | | *Deshbandhu* | Hindi | | *Nai Duniya* | Hindi | | *Haribhoomi* | Hindi | | *The Times of India* | English | | *The Central Chronicle* | English | | *Hindustan Times* | English | | *Hindustan* | Hindi | | *The Hitavada* | English | | *The Pioneer* | English | | *Business Standard* | English, Hindi | | *Business Bhaskar* | English, Hindi | ### Radio Raipur city has five FM Radio Stations - | Frequency Modulation | Channel | Slogan | | --- | --- | --- | | 94.3 FM | MY FM | Jio Dil Se | | 95.0 FM | FM Tadka | Sound's Good | | 98.3 FM | Radio Mirchi | Mirchi Sunane Wale Always Khush | | 101.6 FM | All India Radio Raipur & **Vividh Bharti** | Desh Ki Surili Dhadkan | | 104.8 FM | Radio Rangila | Jamm ke suno | | Notable people -------------- * Lucky Ali, Bollywood singer/composer/actor, did a part of his schooling from Rajkumar College, Raipur * Teejan Bai, traditional performing artist for Pandavani. * Anurag Basu, noted Bollywood movie director, born in Raipur and later moved to the neighboring city of Bhilai. * Harinath De, Indian historian, scholar, and a polyglot, later became the first Indian librarian of the National Library of India (then Imperial Library), spent his childhood and did his initial schooling in Raipur. * Mohammad Hidayatullah, former Chief Justice of India and former acting president of India, received his primary education at the Government High School of Raipur until 1922. * Akhtar Husain, Pakistani scholar, journalist and lexicographer. * Harshad Mehta, infamous stockbroker, spent his childhood in Raipur after his parents moved here from Mumbai. * Shekhar Sen, musical mono-act player, born and raised in Raipur. * Ravishankar Shukla, the first chief minister of the state of Madhya Pradesh, spent his childhood and was educated in Raipur. * Vidya Charan Shukla, former Union Minister and a nine-term parliamentarian, born in Raipur * Veer Narayan Singh, freedom fighter, jailed at Raipur by the British Army. * K. S. Sudarshan, former chief of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, born in Raipur in 1931. * Habib Tanvir, noted theatre artist and playwright, born in Raipur in 1923. * Swami Vivekananda spent two of his teenage years in Raipur from 1877 till 1879 when his father was transferred here. See also -------- * Naya Raipur * Shaheed Veer Narayan Singh International Cricket Stadium * Samta colony * Raman Singh * Bhupesh Baghel

Raipur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raipur

**Fog** is a visible aerosol consisting of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earth's surface. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud usually resembling stratus, and is heavily influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography, and wind conditions. In turn, fog affects many human activities, such as shipping, travel, and warfare. Fog appears when water vapor (water in its gaseous form) condenses. During condensation, molecules of water vapor combine to make tiny liquid water droplets that hang in the air. Sea fog, which shows up near bodies of saline water, is formed as water vapor condenses on bits of salt. Fog is similar to, but less transparent than, mist. Definition ---------- The term *fog* is typically distinguished from the more generic term *cloud* in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally (such as from a nearby body of water, like a lake or the ocean, or from nearby moist ground or marshes). By definition, fog reduces visibility to less than 1 km (0.62 mi), whereas mist causes lesser impairment of visibility. For aviation purposes in the United Kingdom, a visibility of less than 5 km (3.1 mi) but greater than 999 m (3,278 ft) is considered to be mist if the relative humidity is 95% or greater; below 95%, haze is reported.[*full citation needed*] Formation --------- Fog forms when the difference between air temperature and dew point is less than 2.5 °C (4.5 °F). Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny water droplets that are suspended in the air. Some examples of ways that water vapor is condensed include wind convergence into areas of upward motion; precipitation or virga falling from above; daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies, or wet land; transpiration from plants; cool or dry air moving over warmer water; and lifting air over mountains. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Fog, like its elevated cousin stratus, is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. Fog normally occurs at a relative humidity near 100%. This occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air temperature. However, fog can form at lower humidities, and can sometimes fail to form with relative humidity at 100%. At 100% relative humidity, the air cannot hold additional moisture, thus, the air will become supersaturated if additional moisture is added. Fog commonly produces precipitation in the form of drizzle or very light snow. Drizzle occurs when the humidity of fog attains 100% and the minute cloud droplets begin to coalesce into larger droplets. This can occur when the fog layer is lifted and cooled sufficiently, or when it is forcibly compressed from above by descending air. Drizzle becomes freezing drizzle when the temperature at the surface drops below the freezing point. The thickness of a fog layer is largely determined by the altitude of the inversion boundary, which in coastal or oceanic locales is also the top of the marine layer, above which the air mass is warmer and drier. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air above it, which is measured in terms of atmospheric pressure. The marine layer, and any fog-bank it may contain, will be "squashed" when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards when the pressure above it is lowering. Types ----- Fog can form in a number of ways, depending on how the cooling that caused the condensation occurred. **Radiation fog** is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by infrared thermal radiation in calm conditions with a clear sky. The cooling ground then cools adjacent air by conduction, causing the air temperature to fall and reach the dew point, forming fog. In perfect calm, the fog layer can be less than a meter thick, but turbulence can promote a thicker layer. Radiation fog occurs at night, and usually does not last long after sunrise, but it can persist all day in the winter months, especially in areas bounded by high ground. Radiation fog is most common in autumn and early winter. Examples of this phenomenon include tule fog. **Ground fog** is fog that obscures less than 60% of the sky and does not extend to the base of any overhead clouds. However, the term is usually a synonym for shallow radiation fog; in some cases the depth of the fog is on the order of tens of centimetres over certain kinds of terrain with the absence of wind. **Advection fog** occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface by advection (wind) and is cooled. It is common as a warm front passes over an area with significant snow-pack. It is most common at sea when moist air encounters cooler waters, including areas of cold water upwelling, such as along the California coast (*see* San Francisco fog). A strong enough temperature difference over water or bare ground can also cause advection fog. Although strong winds often mix the air and can disperse, fragment, or prevent many kinds of fog, markedly warmer and humid air blowing over a snowpack can continue to generate advection fog at elevated velocities up to 80 km/h (50 mph) or more – this fog will be in a turbulent, rapidly moving, and comparatively shallow layer, observed as a few centimetres/inches in depth over flat farm fields, flat urban terrain and the like, and/or form more complex forms where the terrain is different such as rotating areas in the lee of hills or large buildings and so on. Fog formed by advection along the California coastline is propelled onto land by one of several processes. A cold front can push the marine layer coast-ward, an occurrence most typical in the spring or late fall. During the summer months, a low-pressure trough produced by intense heating inland creates a strong pressure gradient, drawing in the dense marine layer. Also, during the summer, strong high pressure aloft over the desert southwest, usually in connection with the summer monsoon, produces a south to southeasterly flow which can drive the offshore marine layer up the coastline; a phenomenon known as a "southerly surge", typically following a coastal heat spell. However, if the monsoonal flow is sufficiently turbulent, it might instead break up the marine layer and any fog it may contain. Moderate turbulence will typically transform a fog bank, lifting it and breaking it up into shallow convective clouds called stratocumulus. **Evaporation fog** or **steam fog** forms over bodies of water overlain by much colder air; this situation can also lead to the formation of steam devils, which look like their dust counterparts. Lake effect fog is of this type, sometimes in combination with other causes like radiation fog. It tends to differ from most advective fog formed over land in that it is, like lake-effect snow, a convective phenomenon, resulting in fog that can be very dense and deep and looks fluffy from above. **Frontal fog** forms in much the same way as stratus cloud near a front when raindrops, falling from relatively warm air above a frontal surface, evaporate into cooler air close to the Earth's surface and cause it to become saturated. This type of fog can be the result of a very low frontal stratus cloud subsiding to surface level in the absence of any lifting agent after the front passes. **Ice fog** forms in very low temperatures and can be the result of other mechanisms mentioned here, as well as the exhalation of moist warm air by herds of animals. It can be associated with the diamond dust form of precipitation, in which very small crystals of ice form and slowly fall. This often occurs during blue sky conditions, which can cause many types of halos and other results of refraction of sunlight by the airborne crystals. **Freezing fog**, which deposits rime, is composed of droplets of supercooled water that freeze to surfaces on contact. **Precipitation fog** (or **frontal fog**) forms as precipitation falls into drier air below the cloud, the liquid droplets evaporate into water vapor. The water vapor cools and at the dewpoint it condenses and fog forms. **Hail fog** sometimes occurs in the vicinity of significant hail accumulations due to decreased temperature and increased moisture leading to saturation in a very shallow layer near the surface. It most often occurs when there is a warm, humid layer atop the hail and when wind is light. This ground fog tends to be localized but can be extremely dense and abrupt. It may form shortly after the hail falls; when the hail has had time to cool the air and as it absorbs heat when melting and evaporating. **Upslope fog** forms when moist air is going up the slope of a mountain or hill (orographic lifting) which condenses into fog on account of adiabatic cooling, and to a lesser extent the drop in pressure with altitude. Freezing conditions ------------------- **Freezing fog** occurs when liquid fog droplets freeze to surfaces, forming white soft or hard rime. This is very common on mountain tops which are exposed to low clouds. It is equivalent to freezing rain, and essentially the same as the ice that forms inside a freezer which is not of the "frostless" or "frost-free" type. The term "freezing fog" may also refer to fog where water vapor is super-cooled, filling the air with small ice crystals similar to very light snow. It seems to make the fog "tangible", as if one could "grab a handful". In the western United States, freezing fog may be referred to as **pogonip**. It occurs commonly during cold winter spells, usually in deep mountain valleys. The word pogonip is derived from the Shoshone word *paγi̵nappi̵h*, which means "cloud". In *The Old Farmer's Almanac,* in the calendar for December, the phrase "Beware the Pogonip" regularly appears. In his anthology *Smoke Bellew*, Jack London described a pogonip which surrounded the main characters, killing one of them. The phenomenon is also extremely common in the inland areas of the Pacific Northwest, with temperatures in the 10 to 30 °F (−12 to −1 °C) range. The Columbia Plateau experiences this phenomenon most years due to temperature inversions, sometimes lasting for as long as three weeks. The fog typically begins forming around the area of the Columbia River and expands, sometimes covering the land to distances as far away as LaPine, Oregon, almost 150 miles (240 km) due south of the river and into south central Washington. **Frozen fog** (also known as ice fog) is any kind of fog where the droplets have frozen into extremely tiny crystals of ice in midair. Generally, this requires temperatures at or below −35 °C (−31 °F), making it common only in and near the Arctic and Antarctic regions. It is most often seen in urban areas where it is created by the freezing of water vapor present in automobile exhaust and combustion products from heating and power generation. Urban ice fog can become extremely dense and will persist day and night until the temperature rises. Extremely small amounts of ice fog falling from the sky form a type of precipitation called ice crystals, often reported in Utqiaġvik, Alaska. Ice fog often leads to the visual phenomenon of light pillars. * Morning freezing fog in Elko, NevadaMorning freezing fog in Elko, Nevada * Pogonip fog in Virginia City, Nevada, from an early 20th-century postcardPogonip fog in Virginia City, Nevada, from an early 20th-century postcard * A tree in a field during extreme cold with frozen fogA tree in a field during extreme cold with frozen fog * Ice fog on Pyhäjärvi, Tampere during sunset.Ice fog on Pyhäjärvi, Tampere during sunset. Topographical influences ------------------------ Fog over the *Pedra do Sino* (Bell Rock; left) and *Dedo de Deus* (God's Finger; right) peaks in the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil **Up-slope fog** or **hill fog** forms when winds blow air up a slope (called orographic lift), adiabatically cooling it as it rises, and causing the moisture in it to condense. This often causes freezing fog on mountaintops, where the cloud ceiling would not otherwise be low enough. **Valley fog** forms in mountain valleys, often during winter. It is essentially a radiation fog confined by local topography, and can last for several days in calm conditions. In California's Central Valley, valley fog is often referred to as tule fog. Sea and coastal fog ------------------- Sea fog (also known as *haar* or *fret*) is heavily influenced by the presence of sea spray and microscopic airborne salt crystals. Clouds of all types require minute hygroscopic particles upon which water vapor can condense. Over the ocean surface, the most common particles are salt from salt spray produced by breaking waves. Except in areas of storminess, the most common areas of breaking waves are located near coastlines, hence the greatest densities of airborne salt particles are there. Condensation on salt particles has been observed to occur at humidities as low as 70%, thus fog can occur even in relatively dry air in suitable locations such as the California coast. Typically, such lower humidity fog is preceded by a transparent mistiness along the coastline as condensation competes with evaporation, a phenomenon that is typically noticeable by beachgoers in the afternoon. Another recently discovered source of condensation nuclei for coastal fog is kelp seaweed. Researchers have found that under stress (intense sunlight, strong evaporation, etc.), kelp releases particles of iodine which in turn become nuclei for condensation of water vapor, causing fog that diffuses direct sunlight. **Sea smoke**, also called **steam fog** or **evaporation fog**, is the most localized form and is created by cold air passing over warmer water or moist land. It often causes freezing fog, or sometimes hoar frost. **Arctic sea smoke** is similar to sea smoke, but occurs when the air is very cold. Instead of condensing into water droplets, columns of freezing, rising, and condensing water vapor is formed. The water vapor produces the *sea smoke fog*, and is usually misty and smoke-like. **Garúa fog** near the coast of Chile and Peru, occurs when typical fog produced by the sea travels inland, but suddenly meets an area of hot air. This causes the water particles of fog to shrink by evaporation, producing a "transparent mist". Garua fog is nearly invisible, yet it still forces drivers to use windshield wipers because of deposition of liquid water on hard surfaces. **Camanchaca** is a similar, dense fog. * Fog rolls into Seattle from the seaFog rolls into Seattle from the sea * Sea fog or "fret" encroaching on Brighton PierSea fog or "fret" encroaching on Brighton Pier * Sea fog in the Arctic Ocean near the island of Jan MayenSea fog in the Arctic Ocean near the island of Jan Mayen Visibility effects ------------------ Depending on the concentration of the droplets, visibility in fog can range from the appearance of haze, to almost zero visibility. Many lives are lost each year worldwide from accidents involving fog conditions on the highways, including multiple-vehicle collisions. The aviation travel industry is affected by the severity of fog conditions. Even though modern auto-landing computers can put an aircraft down without the aid of a pilot, personnel manning an airport control tower must be able to see if aircraft are sitting on the runway awaiting takeoff. Safe operations are difficult in thick fog, and civilian airports may forbid takeoffs and landings until conditions improve. A solution for landing returning military aircraft developed in World War II was called Fog Investigation and Dispersal Operation (FIDO). It involved burning enormous amounts of fuel alongside runways to evaporate fog, allowing returning fighter and bomber pilots sufficient visual cues to safely land their aircraft. The high energy demands of this method discourage its use for routine operations. Shadows ------- Shadows are cast through fog in three dimensions. The fog is dense enough to be illuminated by light that passes through gaps in a structure or tree, but thin enough to let a large quantity of that light pass through to illuminate points further on. As a result, object shadows appear as "beams" oriented in a direction parallel to the light source. These voluminous shadows are created the same way as crepuscular rays, which are the shadows of clouds. In fog, it is solid objects that cast shadows. Sound propagation and acoustic effects -------------------------------------- Sound typically travels fastest and farthest through solids, then liquids, then gases such as the atmosphere. Sound is affected during fog conditions due to the small distances between water droplets, and air temperature differences. **Molecular effect:** Though fog is essentially liquid water, the many droplets are separated by small air gaps. High-pitched sounds have a high frequency, which in turn means they have a short wavelength. To transmit a high frequency wave, air must move back and forth very quickly. Short-wavelength high-pitched sound waves are reflected and refracted by many separated water droplets, partially cancelling and dissipating their energy (a process called "damping"). In contrast, low pitched notes, with a low frequency and a long wavelength, move the air less rapidly and less often, and lose less energy to interactions with small water droplets. Low-pitched notes are less affected by fog and travel further, which is why foghorns use a low-pitched tone. **Temperature effect:** A fog can be caused by a temperature inversion where cold air is pooled at the surface which helped to create the fog, while warmer air sits above it. The inverted boundary between cold air and warm air reflects sound waves back toward the ground, allowing sound that would normally radiate out escaping into the upper atmosphere to instead bounce back and travel near the surface. A temperature inversion increases the distance that lower frequency sounds can travel, by reflecting the sound between the ground and the inversion layer. Record extremes --------------- Particularly foggy places include Hamilton, New Zealand and Grand Banks off the coast of Newfoundland (the meeting place of the cold Labrador Current from the north and the much warmer Gulf Stream from the south). Some very foggy land areas in the world include Argentia (Newfoundland) and Point Reyes (California), each with over 200 foggy days per year. Even in generally warmer southern Europe, thick fog and localized fog are often found in lowlands and valleys, such as the lower part of the Po Valley and the Arno and Tiber valleys in Italy; Ebro Valley in northeastern Spain; as well as on the Swiss plateau, especially in the Seeland area, in late autumn and winter. Other notably foggy areas include coastal Chile (in the south); coastal Namibia; Nord, Greenland; and the Severnaya Zemlya islands. As a water source ----------------- Redwood forests in California receive approximately 30–40% of their moisture from coastal fog by way of fog drip. Change in climate patterns could result in relative drought in these areas. Some animals, including insects, depend on wet fog as a principal source of water, particularly in otherwise desert climes, as along many African coastal areas. Some coastal communities use fog nets to extract moisture from the atmosphere where groundwater pumping and rainwater collection are insufficient. Fog can be of different type according to climatic conditions. Artificial fog -------------- **Artificial fog** is man-made fog that is usually created by vaporizing a water- and glycol- or glycerine-based fluid. The fluid is injected into a heated metal block, and evaporates quickly. The resulting pressure forces the vapor out of a vent. Upon coming into contact with cool outside air, the vapor condenses in microscopic droplets and appears as fog. Such fog machines are primarily used for entertainment applications. Historical references --------------------- The presence of fog has often played a key role in historical events, such as strategic battles. One example is the Battle of Long Island (27 August 1776), when American general George Washington and his command were able to evade imminent capture by the British Army, using fog to conceal their escape. Another example is D-Day (6 June 1944) during World War II, when the Allies landed on the beaches of Normandy, France during fog conditions. Both positive and negative results were reported from both sides during that battle, due to impaired visibility. See also -------- ### Technology * Anti-fog * Automotive lighting * Decontamination foam * Fog Investigation and Dispersal Operation (FIDO) * Fog collection * Foghorn * Fog machine * Fogging (photography) * Fog lamp * Head-up display * Runway visual range * Transmissometer ### Weather * Cloud * Fog season * Haboob (sandstorm) * Mist * San Francisco fog * Smoke * Smog * Whiteout (weather) * Vog * Stratus ### Other * Multi-vehicle collision Under "[ ^ "Federal Meteorological Handbook Number 1: Chapter 8 – Present Weather" (PDF). Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology. 1 September 2005. pp. 8–1, 8–2. Retrieved 9 October 2010. ] " …. Actually use the following link- http://www.ofcm.gov/publications/fmh/FMH1/FMH1.pdf and proceed to Chapter 8, etc. Further reading --------------- * Ahrens, C. (1991). *Meteorology today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment.* West Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-314-80905-6. * Corton, Christine L. *London Fog: The Biography* (2015) * Riddle, Laurence G.; Cayan, Daniel R.; Filonczuk, Maria K. (1 July 1995). "Variability of Marine Fog Along the California Coast". `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help) * Lu, Chunsong; Liu, Yangang; Niu, Shengjie; Zhao, Lijuan; Yu, Huaying; Cheng, Muning (30 January 2014). "Examination of microphysical relationships and corresponding microphysical processes in warm fogs". *Acta Meteorologica Sinica*. **27** (6): 832–848. doi:10.1007/s13351-013-0610-0. S2CID 2471958. * Lu, Chunsong; Niu, Shengjie; Tang, Lili; Lv, Jingjing; Zhao, Lijuan; Zhu, Bin (July 2010). "Chemical composition of fog water in Nanjing area of China and its related fog microphysics". *Atmospheric Research*. **97** (1–2): 47–69. Bibcode:2010AtmRe..97...47L. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.03.007.

Fog

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog

**La Ciotat** (French: [la sjɔta]; Provençal Occitan: *La Ciutat* [la sjewˈta]; in Mistralian spelling *La Ciéutat*; 'the City') is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in Southern France. It is the southeasternmost commune of the Aix-Marseille-Provence Metropolis. La Ciotat is located at about 25 km (15.5 mi) to the east of Marseille, at an equal distance from Toulon. In 2018, it had a population of 35,281. History ------- The name *La Ciutat*, meaning 'the City' in Occitan (Provençal) and Catalan, became prominent in the 15th century. La Ciotat was the setting of one of the first projected motion pictures, *L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat* filmed by the Lumière brothers in 1895. According to the Institut Lumière, before its Paris premiere, the film was shown to invited audiences in several French cities, including La Ciotat. Another three of the earliest Lumière films, *Partie de cartes*, *L'Arroseur arrosé* (the first known filmed comedy), and *Repas de bébé*, were also filmed in La Ciotat in 1895, at the Villa du Clos des Plages, the summer residence of the Lumière Brothers. In 1904 the Lumiere Brothers also developed their first colour photographs in La Ciotat. In 1907 Jules Le Noir invented the game of pétanque in La Ciotat, and the first tournament was held there in 1910. The history of the game is documented in the Musée Ciotaden. Observatoire des Libertés, a French cultural organisation, criticised the authorities for not enforcing the 1994 Toulon Law which says that public advertisements must be written in French. The commune was displaying a billboard promoting "Happy days a La Ciotat". Demographics ------------ Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 6,160 | —     | | 1800 | 6,117 | −0.10% | | 1806 | 5,274 | −2.44% | | 1821 | 5,237 | −0.05% | | 1831 | 5,427 | +0.36% | | 1836 | 5,382 | −0.17% | | 1841 | 5,902 | +1.86% | | 1846 | 5,429 | −1.66% | | 1851 | 5,196 | −0.87% | | 1856 | 7,674 | +8.11% | | 1861 | 8,444 | +1.93% | | 1866 | 10,017 | +3.48% | | 1872 | 9,867 | −0.25% | | 1876 | 10,058 | +0.48% | | 1881 | 9,702 | −0.72% | | 1886 | 10,689 | +1.96% | | 1891 | 12,223 | +2.72% | | 1896 | 12,734 | +0.82% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1901 | 11,622 | −1.81% | | 1906 | 12,370 | +1.26% | | 1911 | 9,975 | −4.21% | | 1921 | 10,690 | +0.69% | | 1926 | 11,877 | +2.13% | | 1931 | 12,425 | +0.91% | | 1936 | 13,428 | +1.56% | | 1946 | 13,410 | −0.01% | | 1954 | 15,159 | +1.54% | | 1962 | 18,827 | +2.75% | | 1968 | 23,916 | +4.07% | | 1975 | 32,721 | +4.58% | | 1982 | 31,727 | −0.44% | | 1990 | 30,620 | −0.44% | | 1999 | 31,630 | +0.36% | | 2007 | 32,901 | +0.49% | | 2012 | 34,063 | +0.70% | | 2017 | 35,174 | +0.64% | | | | | Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) | Commerce -------- La Ciotat has a large number of offices uptown. These offices are a major source of employment and income for the local people through the transport, catering and other services they require. Also, business travelers to La Ciotat drive the local hotel business, which otherwise depends mainly on the tourism season. The centre has shopping malls along with branches of Carrefour and McDonald's. Route 10 passes through the city centre on its way downtown from La Ciotat station. Transport --------- The primary mode of transport into La Ciotat is the train station, which is a ten minutes drive from the city centre. The SNCF train service between Marseille and Toulon stops at La Ciotat, almost every hour during the day except for the mid-day one-hour break. Most parts of La Ciotat are covered by its public transport bus service. Although buses are not very frequent, given the small population of the city they serve their purpose. The train station is serviced by route no. 10, 21 and 40 which all go to the La Ciotat downtown station by different routes. Peak time of bus operations are from 8am to 5pm when people are working in the uptown offices of La Ciotat. After 8pm, buses cease their operation. Same is the case on weekends when buses are rare even at the train station. Although taxis are available in La Ciotat, it is rare to hail one on the street and usually they have to be called. Taxis are also hard to hire before 7am and after 8pm. Most call taxis are operated by individuals and are not registered with a central call service number. The dynamics of public transport change during the summer when La Ciotat is visited by scores of tourists. At that time, more taxis service the area and buses operate more frequently. Route des Crêtes ---------------- Cap Canaille 394 metres (1,293 feet), between La Ciotat and Cassis, is one of the highest maritime bluffs in Europe. The *route des crêtes* is a coastal road between the two towns that passes over this cliff. Beach ----- La Ciotat has an artificial sand beach because of its rocky location. The beach is located downtown and is at walking distance from local market, the ship yards and the main bus station. The beach faces the Alps mountain regions on one side and the uphill commercial area on the other side. Most hotels, restaurants and bars in La Ciotat are located on the same street. Sport ----- La Ciotat has a football club, ES La Ciotat, which plays at the Stade Jean Bouissou. The game of pétanque was invented in La Ciotat in 1907. Miscellaneous ------------- The municipal park of La Ciotat, the Parc du Mugel, located on the Anse deu Petit Mugel, is classified as one of the Remarkable Gardens of France by the Ministry of Culture. Sheltered by the massive rock called "Le Bec D'Aigle" (the eagle's beak), 155 meters high, it contains both a botanical garden of tropical plants and a nature preserve of native Provençal plants, covering the hillside below the rock. The town has an annual film festival in early June called the 'Cinestival', and usually revolves around a specific topic. It also has two other annual film related festivals, with a scriptwriter festival in April and an associated film conference 'Berceau du cinema' around two weeks after Cinestival. Twin towns and sister cities ---------------------------- La Ciotat is twinned with: * England Bridgwater, England, United Kingdom, since 1957 * Slovenia Kranj, Slovenia, since 1958 * Germany Singen, Germany, since 1958 * Italy Torre Annunziata, Italy, since 2006 See also -------- * Battle of La Ciotat * Calanque * Corniche des Crêtes * Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department * List of works by Louis Botinelly

La Ciotat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ciotat

**Glucose** is a sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight, where it is used to make cellulose in cell walls, the most abundant carbohydrate in the world. Stable and combustible,it should be kept away from such substances as strong oxidizing agents. In energy metabolism, glucose is the most important source of energy in all organisms. Glucose for metabolism is stored as a polymer, in plants mainly as starch and amylopectin, and in animals as glycogen. Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood sugar. The naturally occurring form of glucose is d-glucose, while its stereoisomer l-glucose is produced synthetically in comparatively small amounts and is less biologically active. Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group, and is therefore an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) as well as ring (cyclic) form. Glucose is naturally occurring and is found in its free state in fruits and other parts of plants. In animals, glucose is released from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose, as intravenous sugar solution, is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is also on the list in combination with sodium chloride. The name glucose is derived from Ancient Greek γλεῦκος (*gleûkos*, "wine, must"), from γλυκύς (*glykýs*, "sweet"). The suffix "-ose" is a chemical classifier, denoting a sugar. History ------- Glucose was first isolated from raisins in 1747 by the German chemist Andreas Marggraf. Glucose was discovered in grapes by another German chemist – Johann Tobias Lowitz – in 1792, and distinguished as being different from cane sugar (sucrose). Glucose is the term coined by Jean Baptiste Dumas in 1838, which has prevailed in the chemical literature. Friedrich August Kekulé proposed the term dextrose (from the Latin *dexter*, meaning "right"), because in aqueous solution of glucose, the plane of linearly polarized light is turned to the right. In contrast, l-fructose (a ketohexose) and l-glucose turn linearly polarized light to the left. The earlier notation according to the rotation of the plane of linearly polarized light (*d* and *l*-nomenclature) was later abandoned in favor of the d- and l-notation, which refers to the absolute configuration of the asymmetric center farthest from the carbonyl group, and in concordance with the configuration of d- or l-glyceraldehyde. Since glucose is a basic necessity of many organisms, a correct understanding of its chemical makeup and structure contributed greatly to a general advancement in organic chemistry. This understanding occurred largely as a result of the investigations of Emil Fischer, a German chemist who received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his findings. The synthesis of glucose established the structure of organic material and consequently formed the first definitive validation of Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff's theories of chemical kinetics and the arrangements of chemical bonds in carbon-bearing molecules. Between 1891 and 1894, Fischer established the stereochemical configuration of all the known sugars and correctly predicted the possible isomers, applying Van 't Hoff's theory of asymmetrical carbon atoms. The names initially referred to the natural substances. Their enantiomers were given the same name with the introduction of systematic nomenclatures, taking into account absolute stereochemistry (e.g. Fischer nomenclature, d/l nomenclature). For the discovery of the metabolism of glucose Otto Meyerhof received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1922. Hans von Euler-Chelpin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry along with Arthur Harden in 1929 for their "research on the fermentation of sugar and their share of enzymes in this process". In 1947, Bernardo Houssay (for his discovery of the role of the pituitary gland in the metabolism of glucose and the derived carbohydrates) as well as Carl and Gerty Cori (for their discovery of the conversion of glycogen from glucose) received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In 1970, Luis Leloir was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of glucose-derived sugar nucleotides in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates. Chemical and physical properties -------------------------------- Glucose forms white or colorless solids that are highly soluble in water and acetic acid but poorly soluble in methanol and ethanol. They melt at 146 °C (295 °F) (*α*) and 150 °C (302 °F) (*β*), and decompose starting at 188 °C (370 °F) with release of various volatile products, ultimately leaving a residue of carbon. Glucose has a pK value of 12.16 at 25 °C (77 °F) in water. With six carbon atoms, it is classed as a hexose, a subcategory of the monosaccharides. d-Glucose is one of the sixteen aldohexose stereoisomers. The d-isomer, d-glucose, also known as *dextrose*, occurs widely in nature, but the l-isomer, l-glucose, does not. Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk sugar (lactose), cane sugar (sucrose), maltose, cellulose, glycogen, etc. Dextrose is commonly commercially manufactured from cornstarch in the US and Japan, from potato and wheat starch in Europe, and from tapioca starch in tropical areas. The manufacturing process uses hydrolysis via pressurized steaming at controlled pH in a jet followed by further enzymatic depolymerization. Unbonded glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. ### Structure and nomenclature Glucose is usually present in solid form as a monohydrate with a closed pyran ring (dextrose hydrate). In aqueous solution, on the other hand, it is an open-chain to a small extent and is present predominantly as α- or β-pyranose, which interconvert. From aqueous solutions, the three known forms can be crystallized: α-glucopyranose, β-glucopyranose and β-glucopyranose hydrate. Glucose is a building block of the disaccharides lactose and sucrose (cane or beet sugar), of oligosaccharides such as raffinose and of polysaccharides such as starch, amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose. The glass transition temperature of glucose is 31 °C (88 °F) and the Gordon–Taylor constant (an experimentally determined constant for the prediction of the glass transition temperature for different mass fractions of a mixture of two substances) is 4.5. | Forms and projections of d-glucose in comparison | | --- | | Natta projection | Haworth projection | | | α-d-glucofuranose | β-d-glucofuranose | | α-d-glucopyranose | β-d-glucopyranose | | α-d-Glucopyranose in (1) Tollens/Fischer (2) Haworth projection (3) chair conformation (4) Mills projection | | | ### Open-chain form The open-chain form of glucose makes up less than 0.02% of the glucose molecules in an aqueous solution at equilibrium. The rest is one of two cyclic hemiacetal forms. In its open-chain form, the glucose molecule has an open (as opposed to cyclic) unbranched backbone of six carbon atoms, where C-1 is part of an aldehyde group H(C=O)−. Therefore, glucose is also classified as an aldose, or an aldohexose. The aldehyde group makes glucose a reducing sugar giving a positive reaction with the Fehling test. ### Cyclic forms Cyclic forms of glucoseFrom left to right: Haworth projections and ball-and-stick structures of the α- and β- anomers of D-glucopyranose (top row) and D-glucofuranose (bottom row) In solutions, the open-chain form of glucose (either "D-" or "L-") exists in equilibrium with several cyclic isomers, each containing a ring of carbons closed by one oxygen atom. In aqueous solution, however, more than 99% of glucose molecules exist as pyranose forms. The open-chain form is limited to about 0.25%, and furanose forms exist in negligible amounts. The terms "glucose" and "D-glucose" are generally used for these cyclic forms as well. The ring arises from the open-chain form by an intramolecular nucleophilic addition reaction between the aldehyde group (at C-1) and either the C-4 or C-5 hydroxyl group, forming a hemiacetal linkage, −C(OH)H−O−. The reaction between C-1 and C-5 yields a six-membered heterocyclic system called a pyranose, which is a monosaccharide sugar (hence "-ose") containing a derivatised pyran skeleton. The (much rarer) reaction between C-1 and C-4 yields a five-membered furanose ring, named after the cyclic ether furan. In either case, each carbon in the ring has one hydrogen and one hydroxyl attached, except for the last carbon (C-4 or C-5) where the hydroxyl is replaced by the remainder of the open molecule (which is −(C(CH2OH)HOH)−H or −(CHOH)−H respectively). The ring-closing reaction can give two products, denoted "α-" and "β-". When a glucopyranose molecule is drawn in the Haworth projection, the designation "α-" means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 and the −CH2OH group at C-5 lies on opposite sides of the ring's plane (a *trans* arrangement), while "β-" means that they are on the same side of the plane (a *cis* arrangement). Therefore, the open-chain isomer D-glucose gives rise to four distinct cyclic isomers: α-D-glucopyranose, β-D-glucopyranose, α-D-glucofuranose, and β-D-glucofuranose. These five structures exist in equilibrium and interconvert, and the interconversion is much more rapid with acid catalysis. Widely proposed arrow-pushing mechanism for acid-catalyzed dynamic equilibrium between the α- and β- anomers of D-glucopyranoseWidely proposed arrow-pushing mechanism for acid-catalyzed dynamic equilibrium between the α- and β- anomers of D-glucopyranose Chair conformations of α- (left) and β- (right) D-glucopyranose The other open-chain isomer L-glucose similarly gives rise to four distinct cyclic forms of L-glucose, each the mirror image of the corresponding D-glucose. The glucopyranose ring (α or β) can assume several non-planar shapes, analogous to the "chair" and "boat" conformations of cyclohexane. Similarly, the glucofuranose ring may assume several shapes, analogous to the "envelope" conformations of cyclopentane. In the solid state, only the glucopyranose forms are observed. Some derivatives of glucofuranose, such as 1,2-*O*-isopropylidene-D-glucofuranose are stable and can be obtained pure as crystalline solids. For example, reaction of α-D-glucose with *para*-tolylboronic acid H3C−(C6H4)−B(OH)2 reforms the normal pyranose ring to yield the 4-fold ester α-D-glucofuranose-1,2:3,5-bis(*p*-tolylboronate). ### Mutarotation Mutarotation consists of a temporary reversal of the ring-forming reaction, resulting in the open-chain form, followed by a reforming of the ring. The ring closure step may use a different −OH group than the one recreated by the opening step (thus switching between pyranose and furanose forms), or the new hemiacetal group created on C-1 may have the same or opposite handedness as the original one (thus switching between the α and β forms). Thus, though the open-chain form is barely detectable in solution, it is an essential component of the equilibrium. The open-chain form is thermodynamically unstable, and it spontaneously isomerizes to the cyclic forms. (Although the ring closure reaction could in theory create four- or three-atom rings, these would be highly strained, and are not observed in practice.) In solutions at room temperature, the four cyclic isomers interconvert over a time scale of hours, in a process called mutarotation. Starting from any proportions, the mixture converges to a stable ratio of α:β 36:64. The ratio would be α:β 11:89 if it were not for the influence of the anomeric effect. Mutarotation is considerably slower at temperatures close to 0 °C (32 °F). ### Optical activity Whether in water or the solid form, d-(+)-glucose is dextrorotatory, meaning it will rotate the direction of polarized light clockwise as seen looking toward the light source. The effect is due to the chirality of the molecules, and indeed the mirror-image isomer, l-(−)-glucose, is levorotatory (rotates polarized light counterclockwise) by the same amount. The strength of the effect is different for each of the five tautomers. Note that the d- prefix does not refer directly to the optical properties of the compound. It indicates that the C-5 chiral centre has the same handedness as that of d-glyceraldehyde (which was so labelled because it is dextrorotatory). The fact that d-glucose is dextrorotatory is a combined effect of its four chiral centres, not just of C-5; and indeed some of the other d-aldohexoses are levorotatory. The conversion between the two anomers can be observed in a polarimeter since pure α-d-glucose has a specific rotation angle of +112.2° mL/(dm·g), pure β-d-glucose of +17.5° mL/(dm·g). When equilibrium has been reached after a certain time due to mutarotation, the angle of rotation is +52.7° mL/(dm·g). By adding acid or base, this transformation is much accelerated. The equilibration takes place via the open-chain aldehyde form. ### Isomerisation In dilute sodium hydroxide or other dilute bases, the monosaccharides mannose, glucose and fructose interconvert (via a Lobry de Bruyn–Alberda–Van Ekenstein transformation), so that a balance between these isomers is formed. This reaction proceeds via an enediol: Glucose-Fructose-Mannose-isomerisation Biochemical properties ---------------------- | Metabolism of common monosaccharides and some biochemical reactions of glucose | | --- | | | Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide. Glucose is also the most widely used aldohexose in most living organisms. One possible explanation for this is that glucose has a lower tendency than other aldohexoses to react nonspecifically with the amine groups of proteins. This reaction—glycation—impairs or destroys the function of many proteins, e.g. in glycated hemoglobin. Glucose's low rate of glycation can be attributed to its having a more stable cyclic form compared to other aldohexoses, which means it spends less time than they do in its reactive open-chain form. The reason for glucose having the most stable cyclic form of all the aldohexoses is that its hydroxy groups (with the exception of the hydroxy group on the anomeric carbon of d-glucose) are in the equatorial position. Presumably, glucose is the most abundant natural monosaccharide because it is less glycated with proteins than other monosaccharides. Another hypothesis is that glucose, being the only d-aldohexose that has all five hydroxy substituents in the equatorial position in the form of β-d-glucose, is more readily accessible to chemical reactions, for example, for esterification or acetal formation. For this reason, d-glucose is also a highly preferred building block in natural polysaccharides (glycans). Polysaccharides that are composed solely of glucose are termed glucans. Glucose is produced by plants through photosynthesis using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide and can be used by all living organisms as an energy and carbon source. However, most glucose does not occur in its free form, but in the form of its polymers, i.e. lactose, sucrose, starch and others which are energy reserve substances, and cellulose and chitin, which are components of the cell wall in plants or fungi and arthropods, respectively. These polymers, when consumed by animals, fungi and bacteria, are degraded to glucose using enzymes. All animals are also able to produce glucose themselves from certain precursors as the need arises. Neurons, cells of the renal medulla and erythrocytes depend on glucose for their energy production. In adult humans, there is about 18 g (0.63 oz) of glucose, of which about 4 g (0.14 oz) is present in the blood. Approximately 180–220 g (6.3–7.8 oz) of glucose is produced in the liver of an adult in 24 hours. Many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, kidney failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids. In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of sugars to protein is called glycosylation and is essential for the function of many proteins. ### Uptake Ingested glucose initially binds to the receptor for sweet taste on the tongue in humans. This complex of the proteins T1R2 and T1R3 makes it possible to identify glucose-containing food sources. Glucose mainly comes from food—about 300 g (11 oz) per day is produced by conversion of food, but it is also synthesized from other metabolites in the body's cells. In humans, the breakdown of glucose-containing polysaccharides happens in part already during chewing by means of amylase, which is contained in saliva, as well as by maltase, lactase, and sucrase on the brush border of the small intestine. Glucose is a building block of many carbohydrates and can be split off from them using certain enzymes. Glucosidases, a subgroup of the glycosidases, first catalyze the hydrolysis of long-chain glucose-containing polysaccharides, removing terminal glucose. In turn, disaccharides are mostly degraded by specific glycosidases to glucose. The names of the degrading enzymes are often derived from the particular poly- and disaccharide; inter alia, for the degradation of polysaccharide chains there are amylases (named after amylose, a component of starch), cellulases (named after cellulose), chitinases (named after chitin), and more. Furthermore, for the cleavage of disaccharides, there are maltase, lactase, sucrase, trehalase, and others. In humans, about 70 genes are known that code for glycosidases. They have functions in the digestion and degradation of glycogen, sphingolipids, mucopolysaccharides, and poly(ADP-ribose). Humans do not produce cellulases, chitinases, or trehalases, but the bacteria in the gut microbiota do. In order to get into or out of cell membranes of cells and membranes of cell compartments, glucose requires special transport proteins from the major facilitator superfamily. In the small intestine (more precisely, in the jejunum), glucose is taken up into the intestinal epithelium with the help of glucose transporters via a secondary active transport mechanism called sodium ion-glucose symport via sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1). Further transfer occurs on the basolateral side of the intestinal epithelial cells via the glucose transporter GLUT2, as well uptake into liver cells, kidney cells, cells of the islets of Langerhans, neurons, astrocytes, and tanycytes. Glucose enters the liver via the portal vein and is stored there as a cellular glycogen. In the liver cell, it is phosphorylated by glucokinase at position 6 to form glucose 6-phosphate, which cannot leave the cell. Glucose 6-phosphatase can convert glucose 6-phosphate back into glucose exclusively in the liver, so the body can maintain a sufficient blood glucose concentration. In other cells, uptake happens by passive transport through one of the 14 GLUT proteins. In the other cell types, phosphorylation occurs through a hexokinase, whereupon glucose can no longer diffuse out of the cell. The glucose transporter GLUT1 is produced by most cell types and is of particular importance for nerve cells and pancreatic β-cells. GLUT3 is highly expressed in nerve cells. Glucose from the bloodstream is taken up by GLUT4 from muscle cells (of the skeletal muscle and heart muscle) and fat cells. GLUT14 is expressed exclusively in testicles. Excess glucose is broken down and converted into fatty acids, which are stored as triglycerides. In the kidneys, glucose in the urine is absorbed via SGLT1 and SGLT2 in the apical cell membranes and transmitted via GLUT2 in the basolateral cell membranes. About 90% of kidney glucose reabsorption is via SGLT2 and about 3% via SGLT1. ### Biosynthesis In plants and some prokaryotes, glucose is a product of photosynthesis. Glucose is also formed by the breakdown of polymeric forms of glucose like glycogen (in animals and mushrooms) or starch (in plants). The cleavage of glycogen is termed glycogenolysis, the cleavage of starch is called starch degradation. The metabolic pathway that begins with molecules containing two to four carbon atoms (C) and ends in the glucose molecule containing six carbon atoms is called gluconeogenesis and occurs in all living organisms. The smaller starting materials are the result of other metabolic pathways. Ultimately almost all biomolecules come from the assimilation of carbon dioxide in plants and microbes during photosynthesis. The free energy of formation of α-d-glucose is 917.2 kilojoules per mole. In humans, gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver and kidney, but also in other cell types. In the liver about 150 g (5.3 oz) of glycogen are stored, in skeletal muscle about 250 g (8.8 oz). However, the glucose released in muscle cells upon cleavage of the glycogen can not be delivered to the circulation because glucose is phosphorylated by the hexokinase, and a glucose-6-phosphatase is not expressed to remove the phosphate group. Unlike for glucose, there is no transport protein for glucose-6-phosphate. Gluconeogenesis allows the organism to build up glucose from other metabolites, including lactate or certain amino acids, while consuming energy. The renal tubular cells can also produce glucose. Glucose also can be found outside of living organisms in the ambient environment. Glucose concentrations in the atmosphere are detected via collection of samples by aircraft and are known to vary from location to location. For example, glucose concentrations in atmospheric air from inland China range from 0.8 to 20.1 pg/L, whereas east coastal China glucose concentrations range from 10.3 to 142 pg/L. ### Glucose degradation In humans, glucose is metabolized by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway. Glycolysis is used by all living organisms, with small variations, and all organisms generate energy from the breakdown of monosaccharides. In the further course of the metabolism, it can be completely degraded via oxidative decarboxylation, the citric acid cycle (synonym *Krebs cycle*) and the respiratory chain to water and carbon dioxide. If there is not enough oxygen available for this, the glucose degradation in animals occurs anaerobic to lactate via lactic acid fermentation and releases much less energy. Muscular lactate enters the liver through the bloodstream in mammals, where gluconeogenesis occurs (Cori cycle). With a high supply of glucose, the metabolite acetyl-CoA from the Krebs cycle can also be used for fatty acid synthesis. Glucose is also used to replenish the body's glycogen stores, which are mainly found in liver and skeletal muscle. These processes are hormonally regulated. In other living organisms, other forms of fermentation can occur. The bacterium *Escherichia coli* can grow on nutrient media containing glucose as the sole carbon source. In some bacteria and, in modified form, also in archaea, glucose is degraded via the Entner-Doudoroff pathway. Use of glucose as an energy source in cells is by either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, or fermentation. The first step of glycolysis is the phosphorylation of glucose by a hexokinase to form glucose 6-phosphate. The main reason for the immediate phosphorylation of glucose is to prevent its diffusion out of the cell as the charged phosphate group prevents glucose 6-phosphate from easily crossing the cell membrane. Furthermore, addition of the high-energy phosphate group activates glucose for subsequent breakdown in later steps of glycolysis. At physiological conditions, this initial reaction is irreversible. In anaerobic respiration, one glucose molecule produces a net gain of two ATP molecules (four ATP molecules are produced during glycolysis through substrate-level phosphorylation, but two are required by enzymes used during the process). In aerobic respiration, a molecule of glucose is much more profitable in that a maximum net production of 30 or 32 ATP molecules (depending on the organism) is generated. *Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles.* [[File: GlycolysisGluconeogenesis_WP534 [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] [[]] GlycolysisGluconeogenesis_WP534 |alt=Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis edit]] Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis edit 1. ↑ The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: "GlycolysisGluconeogenesis\_WP534". Tumor cells often grow comparatively quickly and consume an above-average amount of glucose by glycolysis, which leads to the formation of lactate, the end product of fermentation in mammals, even in the presence of oxygen. This is called the Warburg effect. For the increased uptake of glucose in tumors various SGLT and GLUT are overly produced. In yeast, ethanol is fermented at high glucose concentrations, even in the presence of oxygen (which normally leads to respiration rather than fermentation). This is called the Crabtree effect. Glucose can also degrade to form carbon dioxide through abiotic means. This has been demonstrated to occur experimentally via oxidation and hydrolysis at 22 °C and a pH of 2.5. ### Energy source Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. It is used as an energy source in organisms, from bacteria to humans, through either aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration (in bacteria), or fermentation. Glucose is the human body's key source of energy, through aerobic respiration, providing about 3.75 kilocalories (16 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g., starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation, glucose is oxidized to eventually form carbon dioxide and water, yielding energy mostly in the form of ATP. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. The physiological caloric value of glucose, depending on the source, is 16.2 kilojoules per gram or 15.7 kJ/g (3.74 kcal/g). The high availability of carbohydrates from plant biomass has led to a variety of methods during evolution, especially in microorganisms, to utilize glucose for energy and carbon storage. Differences exist in which end product can no longer be used for energy production. The presence of individual genes, and their gene products, the enzymes, determine which reactions are possible. The metabolic pathway of glycolysis is used by almost all living beings. An essential difference in the use of glycolysis is the recovery of NADPH as a reductant for anabolism that would otherwise have to be generated indirectly. Glucose and oxygen supply almost all the energy for the brain, so its availability influences psychological processes. When glucose is low, psychological processes requiring mental effort (e.g., self-control, effortful decision-making) are impaired. In the brain, which is dependent on glucose and oxygen as the major source of energy, the glucose concentration is usually 4 to 6 mM (5 mM equals 90 mg/dL), but decreases to 2 to 3 mM when fasting. Confusion occurs below 1 mM and coma at lower levels. The glucose in the blood is called blood sugar. Blood sugar levels are regulated by glucose-binding nerve cells in the hypothalamus. In addition, glucose in the brain binds to glucose receptors of the reward system in the nucleus accumbens. The binding of glucose to the sweet receptor on the tongue induces a release of various hormones of energy metabolism, either through glucose or through other sugars, leading to an increased cellular uptake and lower blood sugar levels. Artificial sweeteners do not lower blood sugar levels. The blood sugar content of a healthy person in the short-time fasting state, e.g. after overnight fasting, is about 70 to 100 mg/dL of blood (4 to 5.5 mM). In blood plasma, the measured values are about 10–15% higher. In addition, the values in the arterial blood are higher than the concentrations in the venous blood since glucose is absorbed into the tissue during the passage of the capillary bed. Also in the capillary blood, which is often used for blood sugar determination, the values are sometimes higher than in the venous blood. The glucose content of the blood is regulated by the hormones insulin, incretin and glucagon. Insulin lowers the glucose level, glucagon increases it. Furthermore, the hormones adrenaline, thyroxine, glucocorticoids, somatotropin and adrenocorticotropin lead to an increase in the glucose level. There is also a hormone-independent regulation, which is referred to as glucose autoregulation. After food intake the blood sugar concentration increases. Values over 180 mg/dL in venous whole blood are pathological and are termed hyperglycemia, values below 40 mg/dL are termed hypoglycaemia. When needed, glucose is released into the bloodstream by glucose-6-phosphatase from glucose-6-phosphate originating from liver and kidney glycogen, thereby regulating the homeostasis of blood glucose concentration. In ruminants, the blood glucose concentration is lower (60 mg/dL in cattle and 40 mg/dL in sheep), because the carbohydrates are converted more by their gut microbiota into short-chain fatty acids. Some glucose is converted to lactic acid by astrocytes, which is then utilized as an energy source by brain cells; some glucose is used by intestinal cells and red blood cells, while the rest reaches the liver, adipose tissue and muscle cells, where it is absorbed and stored as glycogen (under the influence of insulin). Liver cell glycogen can be converted to glucose and returned to the blood when insulin is low or absent; muscle cell glycogen is not returned to the blood because of a lack of enzymes. In fat cells, glucose is used to power reactions that synthesize some fat types and have other purposes. Glycogen is the body's "glucose energy storage" mechanism, because it is much more "space efficient" and less reactive than glucose itself. As a result of its importance in human health, glucose is an analyte in glucose tests that are common medical blood tests. Eating or fasting prior to taking a blood sample has an effect on analyses for glucose in the blood; a high fasting glucose blood sugar level may be a sign of prediabetes or diabetes mellitus. The glycemic index is an indicator of the speed of resorption and conversion to blood glucose levels from ingested carbohydrates, measured as the area under the curve of blood glucose levels after consumption in comparison to glucose (glucose is defined as 100). The clinical importance of the glycemic index is controversial, as foods with high fat contents slow the resorption of carbohydrates and lower the glycemic index, e.g. ice cream. An alternative indicator is the insulin index, measured as the impact of carbohydrate consumption on the blood insulin levels. The glycemic load is an indicator for the amount of glucose added to blood glucose levels after consumption, based on the glycemic index and the amount of consumed food. ### Precursor Organisms use glucose as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. Starch, cellulose, and glycogen ("animal starch") are common glucose polymers (polysaccharides). Some of these polymers (starch or glycogen) serve as energy stores, while others (cellulose and chitin, which is made from a derivative of glucose) have structural roles. Oligosaccharides of glucose combined with other sugars serve as important energy stores. These include lactose, the predominant sugar in milk, which is a glucose-galactose disaccharide, and sucrose, another disaccharide which is composed of glucose and fructose. Glucose is also added onto certain proteins and lipids in a process called glycosylation. This is often critical for their functioning. The enzymes that join glucose to other molecules usually use phosphorylated glucose to power the formation of the new bond by coupling it with the breaking of the glucose-phosphate bond. Other than its direct use as a monomer, glucose can be broken down to synthesize a wide variety of other biomolecules. This is important, as glucose serves both as a primary store of energy and as a source of organic carbon. Glucose can be broken down and converted into lipids. It is also a precursor for the synthesis of other important molecules such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid). In living organisms, glucose is converted to several other chemical compounds that are the starting material for various metabolic pathways. Among them, all other monosaccharides such as fructose (via the polyol pathway), mannose (the epimer of glucose at position 2), galactose (the epimer at position 4), fucose, various uronic acids and the amino sugars are produced from glucose. In addition to the phosphorylation to glucose-6-phosphate, which is part of the glycolysis, glucose can be oxidized during its degradation to glucono-1,5-lactone. Glucose is used in some bacteria as a building block in the trehalose or the dextran biosynthesis and in animals as a building block of glycogen. Glucose can also be converted from bacterial xylose isomerase to fructose. In addition, glucose metabolites produce all nonessential amino acids, sugar alcohols such as mannitol and sorbitol, fatty acids, cholesterol and nucleic acids. Finally, glucose is used as a building block in the glycosylation of proteins to glycoproteins, glycolipids, peptidoglycans, glycosides and other substances (catalyzed by glycosyltransferases) and can be cleaved from them by glycosidases. Pathology --------- ### Diabetes Diabetes is a metabolic disorder where the body is unable to regulate levels of glucose in the blood either because of a lack of insulin in the body or the failure, by cells in the body, to respond properly to insulin. Each of these situations can be caused by persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, through pancreatic burnout and insulin resistance. The pancreas is the organ responsible for the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is a hormone that regulates glucose levels, allowing the body's cells to absorb and use glucose. Without it, glucose cannot enter the cell and therefore cannot be used as fuel for the body's functions. If the pancreas is exposed to persistently high elevations of blood glucose levels, the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas could be damaged, causing a lack of insulin in the body. Insulin resistance occurs when the pancreas tries to produce more and more insulin in response to persistently elevated blood glucose levels. Eventually, the rest of the body becomes resistant to the insulin that the pancreas is producing, thereby requiring more insulin to achieve the same blood glucose-lowering effect, and forcing the pancreas to produce even more insulin to compete with the resistance. This negative spiral contributes to pancreatic burnout, and the disease progression of diabetes. To monitor the body's response to blood glucose-lowering therapy, glucose levels can be measured. Blood glucose monitoring can be performed by multiple methods, such as the fasting glucose test which measures the level of glucose in the blood after 8 hours of fasting. Another test is the 2-hour glucose tolerance test (GTT) – for this test, the person has a fasting glucose test done, then drinks a 75-gram glucose drink and is retested. This test measures the ability of the person's body to process glucose. Over time the blood glucose levels should decrease as insulin allows it to be taken up by cells and exit the blood stream. ### Hypoglycemia management Individuals with diabetes or other conditions that result in low blood sugar often carry small amounts of sugar in various forms. One sugar commonly used is glucose, often in the form of glucose tablets (glucose pressed into a tablet shape sometimes with one or more other ingredients as a binder), hard candy, or sugar packet. Most dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block (as in the polysaccharides starch and glycogen), or together with another monosaccharide (as in the hetero-polysaccharides sucrose and lactose). Unbound glucose is one of the main ingredients of honey. Glucose is extremely abundant and has been isolated from a variety of natural sources across the world, including male cones of the coniferous tree *Wollemia nobilis* in Rome, the roots of *Ilex asprella* plants in China, and straws from rice in California. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (in grams per 100 g)| Food item | Carbohydrate, total, including dietary fiber | Total sugars | Free fructose | Free glucose | Sucrose | Ratio of fructose/glucose | Sucrose as proportion of total sugars (%) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Fruits | | Apple | 13.8 | 10.4 | 5.9 | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 19.9 | | Apricot | 11.1 | 9.2 | 0.9 | 2.4 | 5.9 | 0.7 | 63.5 | | Banana | 22.8 | 12.2 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 2.4 | 1.0 | 20.0 | | Fig, dried | 63.9 | 47.9 | 22.9 | 24.8 | 0.9 | 0.93 | 0.15 | | Grapes | 18.1 | 15.5 | 8.1 | 7.2 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 1 | | Navel orange | 12.5 | 8.5 | 2.25 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 1.1 | 50.4 | | Peach | 9.5 | 8.4 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 4.8 | 0.9 | 56.7 | | Pear | 15.5 | 9.8 | 6.2 | 2.8 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 8.0 | | Pineapple | 13.1 | 9.9 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 1.1 | 60.8 | | Plum | 11.4 | 9.9 | 3.1 | 5.1 | 1.6 | 0.66 | 16.2 | | Vegetables | | Beet, red | 9.6 | 6.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 6.5 | 1.0 | 96.2 | | Carrot | 9.6 | 4.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 77 | | Red pepper, sweet | 6.0 | 4.2 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 0.0 | | Onion, sweet | 7.6 | 5.0 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 14.3 | | Sweet potato | 20.1 | 4.2 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 60.3 | | Yam | 27.9 | 0.5 | Traces | Traces | Traces | — | Traces | | Sugar cane | | 13–18 | 0.2–1.0 | 0.2–1.0 | 11–16 | 1.0 | high | | Sugar beet | | 17–18 | 0.1–0.5 | 0.1–0.5 | 16–17 | 1.0 | high | | Grains | | Corn, sweet | 19.0 | 6.2 | 1.9 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 0.61 | 15.0 | Commercial production --------------------- Glucose is produced industrially from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis using glucose amylase or by the use of acids. Enzymatic hydrolysis has largely displaced acid-catalyzed hydrolysis reactions. The result is glucose syrup (enzymatically with more than 90% glucose in the dry matter) with an annual worldwide production volume of 20 million tonnes (as of 2011). This is the reason for the former common name "starch sugar". The amylases most often come from *Bacillus licheniformis* or *Bacillus subtilis* (strain MN-385), which are more thermostable than the originally used enzymes. Starting in 1982, pullulanases from *Aspergillus niger* were used in the production of glucose syrup to convert amylopectin to starch (amylose), thereby increasing the yield of glucose. The reaction is carried out at a pH = 4.6–5.2 and a temperature of 55–60 °C. Corn syrup has between 20% and 95% glucose in the dry matter. The Japanese form of the glucose syrup, Mizuame, is made from sweet potato or rice starch. Maltodextrin contains about 20% glucose. Many crops can be used as the source of starch. Maize, rice, wheat, cassava, potato, barley, sweet potato, corn husk and sago are all used in various parts of the world. In the United States, corn starch (from maize) is used almost exclusively. Some commercial glucose occurs as a component of invert sugar, a roughly 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose that is produced from sucrose. In principle, cellulose could be hydrolyzed to glucose, but this process is not yet commercially practical. ### Conversion to fructose In the US, almost exclusively corn (more precisely, corn syrup) is used as glucose source for the production of isoglucose, which is a mixture of glucose and fructose, since fructose has a higher sweetening power – with same physiological calorific value of 374 kilocalories per 100 g. The annual world production of isoglucose is 8 million tonnes (as of 2011). When made from corn syrup, the final product is high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Commercial usage ---------------- Glucose is mainly used for the production of fructose and of glucose-containing foods. In foods, it is used as a sweetener, humectant, to increase the volume and to create a softer mouthfeel. Various sources of glucose, such as grape juice (for wine) or malt (for beer), are used for fermentation to ethanol during the production of alcoholic beverages. Most soft drinks in the US use HFCS-55 (with a fructose content of 55% in the dry mass), while most other HFCS-sweetened foods in the US use HFCS-42 (with a fructose content of 42% in the dry mass). In Mexico, on the other hand, soft drinks are sweetened by cane sugar, which has a higher sweetening power. In addition, glucose syrup is used, inter alia, in the production of confectionery such as candies, toffee and fondant. Typical chemical reactions of glucose when heated under water-free conditions are caramelization and, in presence of amino acids, the Maillard reaction. In addition, various organic acids can be biotechnologically produced from glucose, for example by fermentation with *Clostridium thermoaceticum* to produce acetic acid, with *Penicillium notatum* for the production of araboascorbic acid, with *Rhizopus delemar* for the production of fumaric acid, with *Aspergillus niger* for the production of gluconic acid, with *Candida brumptii* to produce isocitric acid, with *Aspergillus terreus* for the production of itaconic acid, with *Pseudomonas fluorescens* for the production of 2-ketogluconic acid, with *Gluconobacter suboxydans* for the production of 5-ketogluconic acid, with *Aspergillus oryzae* for the production of kojic acid, with *Lactobacillus delbrueckii* for the production of lactic acid, with *Lactobacillus brevis* for the production of malic acid, with *Propionibacter shermanii* for the production of propionic acid, with *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* for the production of pyruvic acid and with *Gluconobacter suboxydans* for the production of tartaric acid. Potent, bioactive natural products like triptolide that inhibit mammalian transcription via inhibition of the XPB subunit of the general transcription factor TFIIH has been recently reported as a glucose conjugate for targeting hypoxic cancer cells with increased glucose transporter expression. Recently, glucose has been gaining commercial use as a key component of "kits" containing lactic acid and insulin intended to induce hypoglycemia and hyperlactatemia to combat different cancers and infections. Analysis -------- When a glucose molecule is to be detected at a certain position in a larger molecule, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography analysis or lectin immunostaining is performed with concanavalin A reporter enzyme conjugate, which binds only glucose or mannose. ### Classical qualitative detection reactions These reactions have only historical significance: #### Fehling test The Fehling test is a classic method for the detection of aldoses. Due to mutarotation, glucose is always present to a small extent as an open-chain aldehyde. By adding the Fehling reagents (Fehling (I) solution and Fehling (II) solution), the aldehyde group is oxidized to a carboxylic acid, while the Cu2+ tartrate complex is reduced to Cu+ and forms a brick red precipitate (Cu2O). #### Tollens test In the Tollens test, after addition of ammoniacal AgNO3 to the sample solution, glucose reduces Ag+ to elemental silver. #### Barfoed test In Barfoed's test, a solution of dissolved copper acetate, sodium acetate and acetic acid is added to the solution of the sugar to be tested and subsequently heated in a water bath for a few minutes. Glucose and other monosaccharides rapidly produce a reddish color and reddish brown copper(I) oxide (Cu2O). #### Nylander's test As a reducing sugar, glucose reacts in the Nylander's test. #### Other tests Upon heating a dilute potassium hydroxide solution with glucose to 100 °C, a strong reddish browning and a caramel-like odor develops. Concentrated sulfuric acid dissolves dry glucose without blackening at room temperature forming sugar sulfuric acid.[*verification needed*] In a yeast solution, alcoholic fermentation produces carbon dioxide in the ratio of 2.0454 molecules of glucose to one molecule of CO2. Glucose forms a black mass with stannous chloride. In an ammoniacal silver solution, glucose (as well as lactose and dextrin) leads to the deposition of silver. In an ammoniacal lead acetate solution, white lead glycoside is formed in the presence of glucose, which becomes less soluble on cooking and turns brown. In an ammoniacal copper solution, yellow copper oxide hydrate is formed with glucose at room temperature, while red copper oxide is formed during boiling (same with dextrin, except for with an ammoniacal copper acetate solution). With Hager's reagent, glucose forms mercury oxide during boiling. An alkaline bismuth solution is used to precipitate elemental, black-brown bismuth with glucose. Glucose boiled in an ammonium molybdate solution turns the solution blue. A solution with indigo carmine and sodium carbonate destains when boiled with glucose. ### Instrumental quantification #### Refractometry and polarimetry In concentrated solutions of glucose with a low proportion of other carbohydrates, its concentration can be determined with a polarimeter. For sugar mixtures, the concentration can be determined with a refractometer, for example in the Oechsle determination in the course of the production of wine. #### Photometric enzymatic methods in solution The enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) converts glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide while consuming oxygen. Another enzyme, peroxidase, catalyzes a chromogenic reaction (Trinder reaction) of phenol with 4-aminoantipyrine to a purple dye. #### Photometric test-strip method The test-strip method employs the above-mentioned enzymatic conversion of glucose to gluconic acid to form hydrogen peroxide. The reagents are immobilised on a polymer matrix, the so-called test strip, which assumes a more or less intense color. This can be measured reflectometrically at 510 nm with the aid of an LED-based handheld photometer. This allows routine blood sugar determination by nonscientists. In addition to the reaction of phenol with 4-aminoantipyrine, new chromogenic reactions have been developed that allow photometry at higher wavelengths (550 nm, 750 nm). #### Amperometric glucose sensor The electroanalysis of glucose is also based on the enzymatic reaction mentioned above. The produced hydrogen peroxide can be amperometrically quantified by anodic oxidation at a potential of 600 mV. The GOx is immobilized on the electrode surface or in a membrane placed close to the electrode. Precious metals such as platinum or gold are used in electrodes, as well as carbon nanotube electrodes, which e.g. are doped with boron. Cu–CuO nanowires are also used as enzyme-free amperometric electrodes, reaching a detection limit of 50 μmol/L. A particularly promising method is the so-called "enzyme wiring", where the electron flowing during the oxidation is transferred via a molecular wire directly from the enzyme to the electrode. #### Other sensory methods There are a variety of other chemical sensors for measuring glucose. Given the importance of glucose analysis in the life sciences, numerous optical probes have also been developed for saccharides based on the use of boronic acids, which are particularly useful for intracellular sensory applications where other (optical) methods are not or only conditionally usable. In addition to the organic boronic acid derivatives, which often bind highly specifically to the 1,2-diol groups of sugars, there are also other probe concepts classified by functional mechanisms which use selective glucose-binding proteins (e.g. concanavalin A) as a receptor. Furthermore, methods were developed which indirectly detect the glucose concentration via the concentration of metabolized products, e.g. by the consumption of oxygen using fluorescence-optical sensors. Finally, there are enzyme-based concepts that use the intrinsic absorbance or fluorescence of (fluorescence-labeled) enzymes as reporters. #### Copper iodometry Glucose can be quantified by copper iodometry. ### Chromatographic methods In particular, for the analysis of complex mixtures containing glucose, e.g. in honey, chromatographic methods such as high performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography are often used in combination with mass spectrometry. Taking into account the isotope ratios, it is also possible to reliably detect honey adulteration by added sugars with these methods. Derivatization using silylation reagents is commonly used. Also, the proportions of di- and trisaccharides can be quantified. #### In vivo analysis Glucose uptake in cells of organisms is measured with 2-deoxy-D-glucose or fluorodeoxyglucose. (18F)fluorodeoxyglucose is used as a tracer in positron emission tomography in oncology and neurology, where it is by far the most commonly used diagnostic agent.

Glucose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose

**Liberal arts education** (from Latin *liberalis* "free" and *ars* "art or **principled practice**"), also known as the **liberal arts and pure sciences**, is the traditional academic course of study in Western higher education. *Liberal arts* takes the term *art* in the sense of a **learned skill** or **academic skill** rather than specifically the arts or fine arts. *Liberal arts education* can refer to studies in a College of Arts and Sciences degree program, a liberal arts college, or more generally, in its broadest sense, it can refer to education at a university, college, or community college. Such a course of study has a heavy emphasis on humanities, arts, and pure science forms of the natural sciences, formal sciences, and social sciences, contrasted by courses of study that emphasize vocational education or technical education over the aforementioned, or in some cases contrasted with those that have a sole emphasis in professional development, applied sciences, or religion-based courses - although professional development, applied sciences, and religious studies education can go hand-in-hand with liberal arts education, none of which are mutually exclusive, where a course of study can share elements of both liberal arts and professional development education. The term "liberal arts" for an educational curriculum dates back to classical antiquity in the West, but has changed its meaning considerably, mostly expanding it. The seven subjects in the ancient and medieval meaning came to be divided into the trivium of rhetoric, grammar, and logic, and the quadrivium of astronomy (often more astrology), mathematics, geometry, and music. A liberal arts education is known to bring about research and transferable skills in its students and practitioners. History ------- Before they became known by their Latin variations (*artes liberales*, *septem artes liberales*, *studia liberalia*), the **liberal arts** were the continuation of Ancient Greek methods of enquiry that began with a "desire for a universal understanding." Pythagoras argued that there was a mathematical and geometrical harmony to the cosmos or the universe; his followers linked the four arts of astronomy, mathematics, geometry, and music into one area of study to form the "disciplines of the mediaeval quadrivium". In 4th-century-BC Athens, the government of the polis, or city-state, respected the ability of rhetoric or public speaking above almost everything else. Eventually rhetoric, grammar, and dialectic (logic) became the educational programme of the trivium. Together they came to be known as the **seven liberal arts**. Originally these subjects or skills were held by classical antiquity to be essential for a free person (*liberalis*, "worthy of a free person") to acquire in order to take an active part in civic life, something that included among other things participating in public debate, defending oneself in court, serving on juries, and participating in military service. While the arts of the quadrivium might have appeared prior to the arts of the trivium, by the middle ages educational programmes taught the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) first while the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy) were the following stage of education. Rooted in the basic curriculum – the *enkuklios paideia* or "well-rounded education" – of late Classical and Hellenistic Greece, the "liberal arts" or "liberal pursuits" (Latin *liberalia studia*) were already so called in formal education during the Roman Empire. The first recorded use of the term "liberal arts" (*artes liberales*) occurs in *De Inventione* by Marcus Tullius Cicero, but it is unclear if he created the term. Seneca the Younger discusses liberal arts in education from a critical Stoic point of view in *Moral Epistles*. The exact classification of the liberal arts varied however in Roman times, and it was only after Martianus Capella in the 5th century influentially brought the seven liberal arts as bridesmaids to the *Marriage of Mercury and Philology*, that they took on canonical form. The four "scientific" *artes* – music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy – were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the *quadrivium*. After the 9th century, the remaining three arts of the "humanities" – grammar, logic, and rhetoric – were grouped as the *trivium*. It was in that two-fold form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university. During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the other parts of the *trivium*. In the 12th century the iconic image – *Philosophia et septem artes liberales* (Philosophy and seven liberal arts) *–* was produced by an Alsatian nun and abbess Herrad of Landsberg with her community of women as part of the *Hortus deliciarum*. Their encyclopedia compiled ideas drawn from philosophy, theology, literature, music, arts, and sciences and was intended as a teaching tool for women of the abbey. The image *Philosophy and seven liberal arts* represents the circle of philosophy, and is presented as a rosette of a cathedral: a central circle and a series of semicircles arranged all around. It shows learning and knowledge organised into seven relations, the *Septem Artes Liberales* or Seven Liberal Arts. Each of these arts find their source in the Greek φιλοσοφία, philosophia, literally “love of wisdom”. St. Albert the Great, a doctor of the Catholic Church, asserted that the seven liberal arts were referred to in Sacred Scripture, saying: "It is written, 'Wisdom hath built herself a house, she hath hewn her out seven pillars' (Proverbs 9:1). This house is the Blessed Virgin; the seven pillars are the seven liberal arts." In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, reversed that process. Re-christening the old trivium with a new and more ambitious name: *Studia humanitatis*, and also increasing its scope, they downplayed logic as opposed to the traditional Latin grammar and rhetoric, and added to them history, Greek, and moral philosophy (ethics), with a new emphasis on poetry as well. The educational curriculum of humanism spread throughout Europe during the sixteenth century and became the educational foundation for the schooling of European elites, the functionaries of political administration, the clergy of the various legally recognized churches, and the learned professions of law and medicine. The ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted in Europe until the middle of the twentieth century; in the United States, it had come under increasingly successful attack in the late 19th century by academics interested in reshaping American higher education around the natural and social sciences. Similarly, Wilhelm von Humboldt's educational model in Prussia (now Germany), which later became the role model for higher education also in North America, went beyond vocational training. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: > There are undeniably certain kinds of knowledge that must be of a general nature and, more importantly, a certain cultivation of the mind and character that nobody can afford to be without. People obviously cannot be good craftworkers, merchants, soldiers or businessmen unless, regardless of their occupation, they are good, upstanding and – according to their condition – well-informed human beings and citizens. If this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life. > > The philosopher Julian Nida-Rümelin has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and the contemporary European education policy, which narrowly understands education as a preparation for the labor market, arguing that we need to decide between "McKinsey and Humboldt". Modern usage ------------ The modern use of the term ***liberal arts*** consists of four areas: the natural sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities. Academic areas that are associated with the term liberal arts include: * Life sciences (biology, ecology, neuroscience) * Physical science (physics, astronomy, chemistry, geology, physical geography) * Logic, mathematics, statistics, computer science * Philosophy * History * Social science (anthropology, economics, human geography, linguistics, political science, jurisprudence, psychology, and sociology) * Creative arts (fine arts, music, performing arts, literature) For example, the core courses for Georgetown University's Doctor of Liberal Studies program cover philosophy, theology, history, art, literature, and the social sciences. Wesleyan University's Master of Arts in Liberal Studies program includes courses in visual arts, art history, creative and professional writing, literature, history, mathematics, film, government, education, biology, psychology, and astronomy. Secondary school ---------------- Liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares students for higher education at a university. Curricula differ from school to school, but generally include language, chemistry, biology, geography, art, mathematics, music, history, philosophy, civics, social sciences, and foreign languages. In the United States -------------------- In the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts. The teaching at liberal arts colleges is often Socratic, typically with small classes; professors are often allowed to concentrate more on their teaching responsibilities than are professors at research universities. In addition, most four-year colleges are not devoted exclusively or primarily to liberal arts degrees, but offer a liberal arts degree, and allow students not majoring in liberal arts to take courses to satisfy distribution requirements in liberal arts. Traditionally, a bachelor's degree in one particular area within liberal arts, with substantial study outside that main area, is earned over four years of full-time study. However, some universities such as Saint Leo University, Pennsylvania State University, Florida Institute of Technology, and New England College have begun to offer an associate degree in liberal arts. Colleges like the Thomas More College of Liberal Arts offer a unique program with only one degree offering, a Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies, while the Harvard Extension School offers both a Bachelor of Liberal Arts and a Master of Liberal Arts. Additionally, colleges like the University of Oklahoma College of Liberal Studies and the Harvard Extension School offer an online, part-time option for adult and nontraditional students. Most students earn either a Bachelor of Arts degree or a Bachelor of Science degree; on completing undergraduate study, students might progress to either a liberal arts graduate school or a graduate-level professional school (public administration, engineering, business, law, medicine, theology); although undergraduate professional schools exists too. ### Great Books movement In 1937 St. John's College changed its curriculum to focus on the *Great Books of the Western World* to provide a new sort of education that separated itself from the increasingly specialized nature of higher schooling. In Europe --------- In most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted. In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system it is called '*humanistische Bildung'* (humanistic education). The term is not to be confused with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording. Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a *Gymnasium* (high school, grammar school). They aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education (*Bildung*) to form personality with regard to a pupil's own humanity as well as their innate intellectual skills. Going back to the long tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking and re-shaped by the theorists of the Enlightenment; in particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt. Since students are considered to have received a comprehensive liberal arts education at *gymnasia*, very often the role of liberal arts education in undergraduate programs at universities is reduced compared to the US educational system. Students are expected to use their skills received at the *gymnasium* to further develop their personality in their own responsibility, e.g. in universities' music clubs, theatre groups, language clubs, etc. Universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities but do not make such activities part of the university's curriculum. Thus, on the level of higher education, despite the European origin of the liberal arts college, the term *liberal arts college* usually denotes liberal arts colleges in the United States. With the exception of pioneering institutions such as Franklin University Switzerland (formerly known as Franklin College), established as a Europe-based, US-style liberal arts college in 1969, only recently some efforts have been undertaken to systematically "re-import" liberal arts education to continental Europe, as with Leiden University College The Hague, University College Utrecht, University College Maastricht, Amsterdam University College, Roosevelt Academy (now University College Roosevelt), University College Twente (ATLAS), Erasmus University College, the University of Groningen, Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts, Leuphana University of Lüneburg, Central European University, and Bard College Berlin, formerly known as the European College of Liberal Arts. Central European University launched a liberal arts undergraduate degree in Culture, Politics, and Society in 2020 as part of its move to Vienna and accreditation in Austria. As well as the colleges listed above, some universities in the Netherlands offer bachelors programs in Liberal Arts and Sciences (Tilburg University). Liberal arts (as a degree program) is just beginning to establish itself in Europe. For example, University College Dublin offers the degree, as does St. Marys University College Belfast, both institutions coincidentally on the island of Ireland. In the Netherlands, universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the terminology *university college* since the late 1990s. The four-year bachelor's degree in Liberal Arts and Sciences at University College Freiburg is the first of its kind in Germany. It started in October 2012 with 78 students. The first Liberal Arts degree program in Sweden was established at Gothenburg University in 2011, followed by a Liberal Arts Bachelor Programme at Uppsala University's Campus Gotland in the autumn of 2013. The first Liberal Arts program in Georgia was introduced in 2005 by American-Georgian Initiative for Liberal Education (AGILE), an NGO. Thanks to their collaboration, Ilia State University became the first higher education institution in Georgia to establish a liberal arts program. In France, Chavagnes Studium, a Liberal Arts Study Centre in partnership with the Institut Catholique d'études supérieures, and based in a former Catholic seminary, is launching a two-year intensive BA in the Liberal Arts, with a distinctively Catholic outlook. It has been suggested that the liberal arts degree may become part of mainstream education provision in the United Kingdom, Ireland and other European countries. In 1999, the European College of Liberal Arts (now Bard College Berlin) was founded in Berlin and in 2009 it introduced a four-year Bachelor of Arts program in Value Studies taught in English, leading to an interdisciplinary degree in the humanities. In England, the first institution to retrieve and update a liberal arts education at the undergraduate level was the University of Winchester with their BA (Hons) Modern Liberal Arts programme which launched in 2010. In 2012, University College London began its interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences BASc degree (which has kinship with the liberal arts model) with 80 students. In 2013, the University of Birmingham created the School of Liberal Arts and Natural Sciences, home of a suite of flexible 4-year programmes in which students study a broad range of subjects drawn from across the University, and gain qualifications including both traditional Liberal Arts and Natural Sciences, but also novel thematic combinations linking both areas. King's College London launched the BA Liberal Arts, which has a slant towards arts, humanities and social sciences subjects. The New College of the Humanities also launched a new liberal education programme. Richmond American University London is a private liberal arts university where all undergraduate degrees are taught with a US liberal arts approach over a four year programme. Durham University has both a popular BA Liberal Arts and a BA Combined Honours in Social Sciences programme, both of which allow for interdisciplinary approaches to education. The University of Nottingham also has a Liberal Arts BA with study abroad options and links with its Natural Sciences degrees. In 2016, the University of Warwick launched a three/four-year liberal arts BA degree, which focuses on transdisciplinary approaches and problem-based learning techniques in addition to providing structured disciplinary routes and bespoke pathways. And for 2017 entry UCAS lists 20 providers of liberal arts programmes. In Scotland, the four-year undergraduate Honours degree, specifically the Master of Arts, has historically demonstrated considerable breadth in focus. In the first two years of Scottish MA and BA degrees students typically study a number of different subjects before specialising in their Honours years (third and fourth year). The University of Dundee and the University of Glasgow (at its Crichton Campus) are the only Scottish universities that currently offer a specifically named 'Liberal Arts' degree. In Slovakia, the Bratislava International School of Liberal Arts (BISLA) is located in the Old Town of Bratislava. It is the first liberal arts college in Central Europe. A private, accredited three-year degree-granting undergraduate institution, it opened in September 2006. In Asia ------- The Commission on Higher Education of the Philippines mandates a General Education curriculum required of all higher education institutions; it includes a number of liberal arts subjects, including history, art appreciation, and ethics, plus interdisciplinary electives. Many universities have much more robust liberal arts core curricula; most notably, the Jesuit universities such as Ateneo de Manila University have a strong liberal arts core curriculum that includes philosophy, theology, literature, history, and the social sciences. Forman Christian College is a liberal arts university in Lahore, Pakistan. It is one of the oldest institutions in the Indian subcontinent. It is a chartered university recognized by the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan. Habib University in Karachi, Pakistan offers a holistic liberal arts and sciences experience to its students through its uniquely tailored liberal core program which is compulsory for all undergraduate degree students. The Underwood International College of Yonsei University, Korea, has compulsory liberal arts courses for all the student body. In India, there are many institutions that offer undergraduate UG or bachelor's degree/diploma and postgraduate PG or master's degree/diploma as well as doctoral PhD and postdoctoral studies and research, in this academic discipline. The highly ranked IIT Guwahati offers a "Master's Degree in Liberal Arts". Manipal Academy of Higher Education – MAHE, an Institution of Eminence as recognised by MHRD of Govt of India in 2018, houses a Faculty of Liberal Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, and also others like Symbiosis & FLAME University in Pune, Ahmedabad University, and Pandit Deendayal Energy University (PDEU) in Ahmedabad, Ashoka University, and Azim Premji University in Bangalore. Lingnan University, Asian University for Women and University of Liberal Arts- Bangladesh (ULAB) are also a few such liberal arts colleges in Asia. International Christian University in Tokyo is the first and one of the very few liberal arts universities in Japan. Fulbright University Vietnam is the first liberal arts institution in Vietnam. In Australia ------------ Campion College is a Roman Catholic dedicated liberal arts college, located in the western suburbs of Sydney. Founded in 2006, it is the first tertiary educational liberal arts college of its type in Australia. Campion offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts as its sole undergraduate degree. The key disciplines studied are history, literature, philosophy, and theology. The Millis Institute is the School of Liberal Arts at Christian Heritage College located in Brisbane. Founded by Dr. Ryan Messmore, former President of Campion College, the Millis Institute offers a Bachelor of Arts in the Liberal Arts in which students can choose to major in Philosophy, Theology, History or Literature. It also endorses a 'Study Abroad' program whereby students can earn credit towards their degree by undertaking two units over a five-week program at the University of Oxford. As of 2022, Elizabeth Hillman is currently the President of the Millis Institute. A new school of Liberal Arts has been formed in the University of Wollongong; the new Arts course entitled 'Western Civilisation' was first offered in 2020. The interdisciplinary curriculum focuses on the classic intellectual and artistic literature of the Western tradition. Courses in the liberal arts have recently been developed at the University of Sydney and the University of Notre Dame. See also -------- * Artes Mechanicae  – Latin for "the mechanical arts" * Bachelor of General Studies * Bachelor of Liberal Arts * Bachelor of Liberal Studies * Classical education * Classical education movement * College of Arts and Sciences * Doctor of Liberal Studies * Education in ancient Greece * Education in ancient Rome * Education reform § Reforms of classical education * Four arts * General studies * Great books * Great Books programs in Canada * Humanitas * Humanities * Interdisciplinarity * Jesuit education (Eloquentia perfecta) * Liberal arts college * Liberal education * List of liberal arts colleges * STEAM fields * Transcendentalism General and cited references ---------------------------- * Castle, E.B. (1969). *Ancient Education and Today*. * Curtius, Ernst Robert (1973) [1948]. *European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages*. Translated by Trask, Willard R. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691097398. * Griffiths, Fiona J. (2011). *The Garden of Delights: Reform and Renaissance for Women in the Twelfth Century*. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812202113. * Kimball, Bruce A. *Orators and Philosophers: A History of the Idea of Liberal Education*. College Board, 1995. * Lausberg, H. (1998). *Handbook of Literary Rhetoric*. * Michael, William (2020). "The Virgin Mary and the Classical Liberal Arts". *Classical Liberal Arts Academy*. * Tidbury, Iain (5 August 2019). "Liberal Arts Education by and for Women". *Liberal Arts*. Retrieved 5 August 2019. * Tubbs, Nigel (2014). *Philosophy and Modern Liberal Arts Education: Freedom is to Learn*. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-35891-2. OCLC 882530818. * Waddell, Helen (1968). *The Wandering Scholars*. * Wagner, David Leslie (1983). *The Seven liberal arts in the Middle Ages*. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35185-2. Further reading --------------- * Anders, George (2019). *You Can Do Anything: The Surprising Power of a "Useless" Liberal Arts Education*. Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0316548885. * Barzun, Jacques. *The House of Intellect,* Reprint Harper Perennial, 2002. * Blaich, Charles, Anne Bost, Ed Chan, and Richard Lynch. "Defining Liberal Arts Education." Center of Inquiry in the Liberal Arts, 2004. * Blanshard, Brand. *The Uses of a Liberal Education: And Other Talks to Students*. (Open Court, 1973. ISBN 0-8126-9429-5) * Friedlander, Jack. *Measuring the Benefits of Liberal Arts Education in Washington's Community Colleges*. Los Angeles: Center for the Study of Community Colleges, 1982a. (ED 217 918) * Grafton Anthony and Lisa Jardine. *From Humanism to the Humanities: The Institutionalizing of the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-century Europe*, Harvard University Press, 1987. * Guitton, Jean. *A Student's Guide to Intellectual Work,* The University of Notre Dame Press, 1964. * Highet, Gilbert. *The Art of Teaching,* Vintage Books, 1950. * Joseph, Sister Miriam. *The Trivium: The Liberal Arts of Logic, Grammar, and Rhetoric*. Paul Dry Books Inc, 2002. * Kimball, Bruce A. *The Liberal Arts Tradition: A Documentary History*. University Press Of America, 2010. * T. Kaori Kitao; William R. Kenan, Jr. (27 March 1999). *The Usefulness Of Uselessness* (PDF). Keynote Address, The 1999 Institute for the Academic Advancement of Youth's Odyssey at Swarthmore College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link) * McGrath, Charles. "What Every Student Should Know", *New York Times*, 8 January 2006. * Parker, H. *"The Seven Liberal Arts,"* The English Historical Review, Vol. V, 1890. * Pfnister, Allan O. (1984). "The Role of the Liberal Arts College: A Historical Overview of the Debates". *The Journal of Higher Education*. Ohio State University Press. **55** (2): 145–70. doi:10.2307/1981183. ISSN 1538-4640. JSTOR 1981183. * Reeves, Floyd W. (1930). "The Liberal-Arts College". *The Journal of Higher Education*. Ohio State University Press. **1** (7): 373–80. doi:10.2307/1974170. ISSN 1538-4640. JSTOR 1974170. * Ruckdeschel, Christopher. *On the Nature of the Classical Liberal Arts*, Bookbaby, 2019. * Saint-Victor, Hugh of. *The Didascalicon,* Columbia University Press, 1961. * Schall, James V. *Another Sort of Learning,* Ignatius Press, 1988. * Seidel, George J. (1968). "Saving the Small College". *The Journal of Higher Education*. Ohio State University Press. **39** (6): 339–42. doi:10.2307/1979916. ISSN 1538-4640. JSTOR 1979916. * Sertillanges, A. G. *The Intellectual Life,* The Catholic University of America Press, 1998. * Tubbs, N. (2011) *"Know Thyself: Macrocosm and Microcosm"* in *Studies in Philosophy and Education* Volume 30 no.1 * Winterer, Caroline. *The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910.* Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. * Wriston, Henry M. *The Nature of a Liberal College*. Lawrence University Press, 1937. * Zakaria, Fareed. *In Defense of a Liberal Education*. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2015.

Liberal arts education

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_arts_education

A **hat** is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mechanical features, such as visors, spikes, flaps, braces or beer holders shade into the broader category of headgear. In the past, hats were an indicator of social status. In the military, hats may denote nationality, branch of service, rank or regiment. Police typically wear distinctive hats such as peaked caps or brimmed hats, such as those worn by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Some hats have a protective function. As examples, the hard hat protects construction workers' heads from injury by falling objects, a British police Custodian helmet protects the officer's head, a sun hat shades the face and shoulders from the sun, a cowboy hat protects against sun and rain and an ushanka fur hat with fold-down earflaps keeps the head and ears warm. Some hats are worn for ceremonial purposes, such as the mortarboard, which is worn (or carried) during university graduation ceremonies. Some hats are worn by members of a certain profession, such as the Toque worn by chefs, or the mitre worn by Christian bishops. Adherents of certain religions regularly wear hats, such as the turban worn by Sikhs, or the church hat that is worn as a headcovering by Christian women during prayer and worship. History ------- While there are not many official records of hats before 3,000 BC, they probably were commonplace before that. The 27,000-to-30,000-year-old Venus of Willendorf figurine may depict a woman wearing a woven hat. One of the earliest known confirmed hats was worn by a Bronze Age man (nicknamed Ötzi) whose body (including his hat) was found frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy, where he had been since around 3250 BC. He was found wearing a bearskin cap with a chin strap, made of several hides stitched together, essentially resembling a Russian fur hat without the flaps. One of the first pictorial depictions of a hat appears in a tomb painting from Thebes, Egypt, which shows a man wearing a conical straw hat, dated to around 3200 BC. Hats were commonly worn in ancient Egypt. Many upper-class Egyptians shaved their heads, then covered it in a headdress intended to help them keep cool. Ancient Mesopotamians often wore conical hats or ones shaped somewhat like an inverted vase. Other early hats include the Pileus, a simple skull-like cap; the Phrygian cap, worn by freed slaves in Greece and Rome (which became iconic in America during the Revolutionary War and the French Revolution, as a symbol of the struggle for liberty against the Monarchy); and the Greek petasos, the first known hat with a brim. Women wore veils, kerchiefs, hoods, caps and wimples. Like Ötzi, the Tollund Man was preserved to the present day with a hat on, probably having died around 400 BC in a Danish bog, which mummified him. He wore a pointed cap made of sheepskin and wool, fastened under the chin by a hide thong. St. Clement, the patron saint of felt hatmakers, is said to have discovered felt when he filled his sandals with flax fibers to protect his feet, around 800 AD. In the Middle Ages, hats were a marker of social status and used to single out certain groups. The 1215 Fourth Council of the Lateran required that all Jews identify themselves by wearing the Judenhat ("Jewish hat"), marking them as targets for anti-Semitism. The hats were usually yellow and were either pointed or square. In the Middle Ages, hats for women ranged from simple scarves to elaborate hennin, and denoted social status. Structured hats for women similar to those of male courtiers began to be worn in the late 16th century. The term 'milliner' comes from the Italian city of Milan, where the best quality hats were made in the 18th century. Millinery was traditionally a woman's occupation, with the milliner not only creating hats and bonnets but also choosing lace, trimmings and accessories to complete an outfit. In the first half of the 19th century, women wore bonnets that gradually became larger, decorated with ribbons, flowers, feathers, and gauze trims. By the end of the century, many other styles were introduced, among them hats with wide brims and flat crowns, the flower pot and the toque. By the middle of the 1920s, when women began to cut their hair short, they chose hats that hugged the head like a helmet. The tradition of wearing hats to horse racing events began at the Royal Ascot in Britain, which maintains a strict dress code. All guests in the Royal Enclosure must wear hats. This tradition was adopted at other horse racing events, such as the Kentucky Derby in the United States. Extravagant hats were popular in the 1980s, and in the early 21st century, flamboyant hats made a comeback, with a new wave of competitive young milliners designing creations that include turban caps, trompe-l'œil-effect felt hats and tall headpieces made of human hair. Some new hat collections have been described as "wearable sculpture". Many pop stars, among them Lady Gaga, have commissioned hats as publicity stunts. Famous hatmakers ---------------- One of the most famous London hatters is James Lock & Co. of St James's Street. The shop claims to be the oldest operating hat shop in the world. Another was Sharp & Davis of 6 Fish Street Hill. In the late 20th century, museums credited London-based David Shilling with reinventing hats worldwide. Notable Belgian hat designers are Elvis Pompilio and Fabienne Delvigne (Royal warrant of appointment holder), whose hats are worn by European royals. Philip Treacy OBE is an Irish milliner whose hats have been commissioned by top designers and worn at royal weddings. In North America, the well-known cowboy-hat manufacturer Stetson made the headgear for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Texas Rangers. John Cavanagh was one of the notable American hatters. Italian hat maker Borsalino has covered the heads of Hollywood stars and the world's rich and famous. Collections ----------- The Philippi Collection is a collection of religious headgear assembled by a German entrepreneur, Dieter Philippi, located in Kirkel. The collection features over 500 hats, and is currently the world's largest collection of clerical, ecclesiastical and religious head coverings. Styles ------ This is a short list of some common and iconic examples of hats. There is a longer version at List of hat styles. | Image | Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Ascot cap | **Ascot cap** | A hard men's cap, similar to the flat cap, but distinguished by its hardness and rounded shape. | | Balmoral bonnet | **Balmoral bonnet** | Traditional Scottish bonnet or cap worn with Scottish Highland dress. | | Baseball cap | **Baseball cap** | A type of soft, light cotton cap with a rounded crown and a stiff, frontward-projecting brim. | | Propeller beanie with a visor | **Beanie (North America)** | A brimless cap, made from triangular panels of material joined by a button at the crown and seamed together around the sides, with or without a small visor, once popular among school boys. Sometimes includes a propeller.In New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom and some parts of the United States, "beanie" refers to the knit cap. | | Bearskin | **Bearskin** | The tall, furry hat of the Brigade of Guards' full-dress uniform, originally designed to protect them against sword-cuts, etc. Commonly seen at Buckingham Palace in London, England. Sometimes mistakenly identified as a busby. | | Beret | **Beret** | A soft round cap, usually of woollen felt, with a bulging flat crown and tight-fitting brimless headband. Worn by both men and women and traditionally associated with Basque people, France, and the military. | | Bicorne | **Bicorne** | A broad-brimmed felt hat with brim folded up and pinned front and back to create a long-horned shape. Also known as a cocked hat. Worn by European military officers in the 1790s and, as illustrated, commonly associated with Napoleon. | | Bowler / Derby | **Bowler / Derby** | A hard felt hat with a rounded crown created in 1850 by Lock's of St James's, the hatters to Thomas Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester, for his servants. More commonly known as a Derby in the United States. | | Buntal | **Buntal** | A traditional straw hat from the Philippines woven from fibers extracted from buri palms. | | Chullo | **Chullo** | Peruvian or Bolivian hat with ear-flaps made from vicuña, alpaca, llama or sheep's wool. | | Cloche hat | **Cloche hat** | A bell-shaped ladies' hat that was popular during the Roaring Twenties. (Cloche hat as worn by silent film star Vilma Bánky, 1927) | | Cricket cap | **Cricket cap** | A type of soft cap traditionally worn by cricket players. (Sid Barnes with his Australian cap) | | Sombrero cordobés | **Cordovan hat** | A traditional flat-brimmed and flat-topped hat originating from Córdoba, Spain, associated with flamenco dancing and music and popularized by characters such as Zorro. | | Conical hat | **Conical Asian hat** | A conical straw hat associated with East and Southeast Asia. Sometimes known as a "coolie hat", although the term "coolie" may be interpreted as derogatory. | | Coonskin cap | **Coonskin cap** | A hat, fashioned from the skin and fur of a raccoon, that became associated with Canadian and American frontiersmen of the 18th and 19th centuries. | | Custodian helmet | **Custodian helmet** | A helmet traditionally worn by British police constables while on foot patrol. | | Deerstalker | **Deerstalker** | A warm, close-fitting tweed cap, with brims front and behind and ear-flaps that can be tied together either over the crown or under the chin. Originally designed for use while hunting in the climate of Scotland. Worn by – and so closely associated with – the character Sherlock Holmes. | | | **Fedora** | A soft felt hat with a medium brim and lengthwise crease in the crown. | | | **Fez** | Red felt hat in the shape of a truncated cone, common to Arab-speaking countries. | | | **Fulani hat** | A conical plant fiber hat covered in leather both at the brim and top, worn by men of the Fulani people in West Africa. | | | **Hard hat** | A rounded rigid helmet with a small brim predominantly used in workplace environments, such as construction sites, to protect the head from injury by falling objects, debris and bad weather. | | | **Keffiyeh** | Three piece ensemble consisting of a Thagiyah skull cap, Gutrah scarf, and Ogal black band. Gutrahs are plain white or checkered, denoting ethnic or national identities.. (Sultan bin Abdulaziz, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia wearing Keffiyeh) | | | **Kippah** | A hemispherical cap worn by Jews to fulfill the customary requirement held by halachic authorities that the head be covered at all times. (IDF soldier, Lt. Asael Lubotzky, prays with kippah and tefillin). | | | **Knit cap** | A knitted hat, worn in winter, usually made from wool or acrylic. In New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom and some parts of the United States, the term "beanie" is applied to this cap, while in Canada it is known as a "tuque". | | | **Kufi** | A brimless, short, rounded cap worn by Africans and people throughout the African diaspora. (Umaru Yar'Adua, President of Nigeria) | | | **Mitre** | Distinctive hat worn by bishops in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Communion. (Pope Benedict XVI) | | | **Montera** | A crocheted hat worn by bullfighters. | | | **Panama** | Straw hat made in Ecuador. | | | **Phrygian Cap** | A soft conical cap pulled forward. In sculpture, paintings and caricatures it represents freedom and the pursuit of liberty. The popular cartoon characters The Smurfs wear white Phrygian caps. | | Actress Doris Day wearing a pillbox hat in 1960 | **Pillbox hat** | A small hat with straight, upright sides, a flat crown, and no brim. (Actress Doris Day wearing a pillbox hat in 1960) | | | **Pith Helmet** | A lightweight rigid cloth-covered helmet made of cork or pith, with brims front and back. Worn by Europeans in tropical colonies in the 1800s. | | | **Rastacap** | A tall, round, usually crocheted and brightly colored, cap worn by Rastafarians and others with dreadlocks to tuck their locks away. | | | **Rogatywka** | An asymmetrical, peaked, four-pointed cap used by various Polish military formations throughout the ages. | | | **Santa Hat** | A floppy pointed red hat trimmed in white fur traditionally associated with Christmas. | | | **Sombrero** | A Mexican hat with a conical crown and a very wide, saucer-shaped brim, highly embroidered made of plush felt. | | | **Stetson** | Also known as a "Cowboy Hat". A high-crowned, wide-brimmed hat, with a sweatband on the inside, and a decorative hat band on the outside. Customized by creasing the crown and rolling the brim. | | | **Tam o'Shanter** | A traditional flat, round Scottish cap usually worn by men (in the British military sometimes abbreviated ToS). | | | **Top hat** | Also known as a beaver hat, a magician's hat, or, in the case of the tallest examples, a stovepipe hat. A tall, flat-crowned, cylindrical hat worn by men in the 19th and early 20th centuries, now worn only with morning dress or evening dress. Cartoon characters Uncle Sam and Mr. Monopoly are often depicted wearing such hats. Once made from felted beaver fur. | | | **Toque** | (informally, "chef's hat") A tall, pleated, brimless, cylindrical hat traditionally worn by chefs. | | | **Tricorne** | A soft hat with a low crown and broad brim, pinned up on either side of the head and at the back, producing a triangular shape. Worn by Europeans in the 18th century. Larger, taller, and heavily ornamented brims were present in France and the Papal States. | | | **Turban** | A headdress consisting of a scarf-like single piece of cloth wound around either the head itself or an inner hat. | | | **Ushanka** | A Russian fur hat with fold-down ear-flaps. | | | **Zucchetto** | Skullcap worn by clerics, typically in Roman Catholicism. | Size ---- Hat sizes are determined by measuring the circumference of a person's head about 1 centimetre (2⁄5 in) above the ears. Inches or centimeters may be used depending on the manufacturer. Felt hats can be stretched for a custom fit. Some hats, like hard hats and baseball caps, are adjustable. Cheaper hats come in "standard sizes", such as small, medium, large, extra large: the mapping of measured size to the various "standard sizes" varies from maker to maker and style to style, as can be seen by studying various catalogues, such as Hammacher Schlemmer. **Hat sizes**| size | | | | | Youth S/M | Youth L/XL | XXS | XS | S | M | L | XL | XXL | XXXL | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Age (years) | 0 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1+1⁄2 | 2 | | | | | | | | | | | Circumference in cm | 34 | 43 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51–52 | 53–54 | 55–56 | 57–58 | 59–60 | 61–62 | 63–64 | 65–66 | | Circumference in inches | 13+3⁄8 | 17 | 18+1⁄2 | 18+3⁄4 | 19+1⁄4 | 19+3⁄4 | 20+1⁄8–20+1⁄2 | 20+5⁄8–21+1⁄4 | 21+5⁄8–22 | 221⁄2–227⁄8 | 231⁄4–235⁄8 | 24–243⁄8 | 243⁄4–251⁄4 | 25–26 | | UK hat size | | | 5 | 53⁄4 | 6–61⁄8 | 61⁄4–63⁄8 | 61⁄2–65⁄8 | 63⁄4–67⁄8 | 7–71⁄8 | 71⁄4–73⁄8 | 71⁄2–75⁄8 | 73⁄4–77⁄8 | 8–81⁄8 | | US hat size | | | 57⁄8 | 6 | 61⁄8 | 61⁄4 | 63⁄8–61⁄2 | 65⁄8–63⁄4 | 67⁄8–7 | 71⁄8–71⁄4 | 73⁄8–71⁄2 | 75⁄8–73⁄4 | 77⁄8–8 | 81⁄8–81⁄4 | | French hat size | | | 0 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 11⁄2 | 2–21⁄2 | 3–31⁄2 | 4–41⁄2 | 5–51⁄2 | 6–61⁄2 | 7–71⁄2 | 8–81⁄2 | 9–91⁄2 | US hat size is a measurement of head diameter in inches. It can be computed from a measurement of circumference in centimeters by dividing by 8, because multiplying 2.54 (the number of centimeters per inch) by π (the multiplier to give circumference from diameter) is almost exactly 8. Gallery ------- * Hermes wearing a petasos hat, Attic red-figure krater, c. 380–370 BC.Hermes wearing a petasos hat, Attic red-figure krater, c. 380–370 BC. * Ancient Greek statue of a lady with blue and gilt garment, a fan and a sun hat, from Tanagra, c. 325–300 BC.Ancient Greek statue of a lady with blue and gilt garment, a fan and a sun hat, from Tanagra, c. 325–300 BC. * Paris millinery shop, France, 1822.Paris millinery shop, France, 1822. * Hat fashions have sometimes been the subject of ridicule. This 1908 cartoon by Ion Theodorescu-Sion, which first appeared in a Romanian publication, satirised the popularity of mushroom hats.Hat fashions have sometimes been the subject of ridicule. This 1908 cartoon by Ion Theodorescu-Sion, which first appeared in a Romanian publication, satirised the popularity of mushroom hats. * Women's picture hats from 1911.Women's picture hats from 1911. * New York City, 1918: A large crowd of people, almost all wearing hats.New York City, 1918: A large crowd of people, almost all wearing hats. * Family-owned hat factory in Montevarchi, Italy, date unknown.Family-owned hat factory in Montevarchi, Italy, date unknown. * Millinery department of Bourne & Hollingsworth, in London's Oxford Street in 1942. Unlike most other clothing, hats were not strictly rationed in wartime Britain and there was an explosion of adventurous millinery styles.Millinery department of Bourne & Hollingsworth, in London's Oxford Street in 1942. Unlike most other clothing, hats were not strictly rationed in wartime Britain and there was an explosion of adventurous millinery styles. * John Paul II wearing a zuchetto.John Paul II wearing a zuchetto. See also -------- * Chapeaugraphy * Headgear * List of hat styles * List of headgear * List of outerwear

Hat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hat

**Gothic architecture** is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture. It originated in the Île-de-France and Picardy regions of northern France. The style at the time was sometimes known as *opus Francigenum* (lit. 'French work'); the term *Gothic* was first applied contemptuously during the later Renaissance, by those ambitious to revive the architecture of classical antiquity. The defining design element of Gothic architecture is the pointed or ogival arch. The use of the pointed arch in turn led to the development of the pointed rib vault and flying buttresses, combined with elaborate tracery and stained glass windows. At the Abbey of Saint-Denis, near Paris, the choir was reconstructed between 1140 and 1144, drawing together for the first time the developing Gothic architectural features. In doing so, a new architectural style emerged that emphasized verticality and the effect created by the transmission of light through stained glass windows. Common examples are found in Christian ecclesiastical architecture, and Gothic cathedrals and churches, as well as abbeys, and parish churches. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guildhalls, universities and, less prominently today, private dwellings. Many of the finest examples of medieval Gothic architecture are listed by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. With the development of Renaissance architecture in Italy during the mid 15th century, the Gothic style was supplanted by the new style, but in some regions, notably England and Belgium, Gothic continued to flourish and develop into the 16th century. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for churches and university buildings, into the 20th century. Name ---- Gothic architecture is also known as ogival architecture. Medieval contemporaries described the style as Latin: *opus Francigenum*, lit. 'French work' or 'Frankish work', as *opus modernum*, 'modern work', *novum opus*, 'new work', or as Italian: *maniera tedesca*, lit. 'German style'. The term "Gothic architecture" originated as a pejorative description. Giorgio Vasari used the term "barbarous German style" in his *Lives of the Artists* to describe what is now considered the Gothic style, and in the introduction to the *Lives* he attributes various architectural features to the Goths, whom he held responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered Rome, and erecting new ones in this style. When Vasari wrote, Italy had experienced a century of building in the Vitruvian architectural vocabulary of classical orders revived in the Renaissance and seen as evidence of a new Golden Age of learning and refinement. Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication. The assumption that classical architecture was better than Gothic architecture was widespread and proved difficult to defeat. Vasari was echoed in the 16th century by François Rabelais, who referred to Goths and Ostrogoths (*Gotz* and *Ostrogotz*). The polymath architect Christopher Wren disapproved of the name Gothic for pointed architecture. He compared it to Islamic architecture, which he called the 'Saracen style', pointing out that the pointed arch's sophistication was not owed to the Goths but to the Islamic Golden Age. He wrote: > This we now call the Gothic manner of architecture (so the Italians called what was not after the Roman style) though the Goths were rather destroyers than builders; I think it should with more reason be called the Saracen style, for these people wanted neither arts nor learning: and after we in the west lost both, we borrowed again from them, out of their Arabic books, what they with great diligence had translated from the Greeks. > > — Christopher Wren, *Report on St Paul's* Wren was the first to popularize the belief that it was not the Europeans, but the Saracens that had created the Gothic style. The term ‘Saracen’ was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslims, including the Arabs and Berbers. Wren mentions Europe's architectural debt to the Saracens no fewer than twelve times in his writings. He also decidedly broke with tradition in his assumption that Gothic architecture did not merely represent a violent and bothersome mistake, as suggested by Vasari. Rather, he saw that the Gothic style had developed over time along the lines of a changing society, and that it was thus a legitimate architectural style in and of its own. It was no secret that Wren strongly disliked the building practices of the Gothic style. When he was appointed Surveyor of the Fabric at Westminster Abbey in the year 1698, he expressed his distaste for the Gothic style in a letter to the bishop of Rochester: > Nothing was thought magnificent that was not high beyond Measure, with the Flutter of Arch-buttresses, so we call the sloping Arches that poise the higher Vaultings of the Nave. The Romans always concealed their Butments, whereas the Normans thought them ornamental. These I have observed are the first Things that occasion the Ruin of Cathedrals, being so much exposed to the Air and Weather; the Coping, which cannot defend them, first failing, and if they give Way, the Vault must spread. Pinnacles are no Use, and as little Ornament. > > — Christopher Wren, *Parentalia* The chaos of the Gothic left much to be desired in Wren's eyes. His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so. Wren much preferred symmetry and straight lines in architecture, which is why he constantly praised the classic architecture of ‘the Ancients’ in his writings. Even though he openly expressed his distaste for the Gothic style, Wren did not blame the Saracens for the apparent lack of ingenuity. Quite the opposite: he praised the Saracens for their 'superior' vaulting techniques and their widespread use of the pointed arch. Wren claimed the inventors of the Gothic had seen the Saracen architecture during the Crusades, also called the Religious war or Holy War, organised by the Kingdom of France in the year 1095: > The Holy War gave the Christians, who had been there, an Idea of the Saracen Works, which were afterwards by them imitated in the West; and they refined upon it every day, as they proceeded in building Churches. > > — Christopher Wren, *Parentalia* There are several chronological issues that arise with this statement, which is one of the reasons why Wren's theory is rejected by many. The earliest examples of the pointed arch in Europe date from before the Holy War in the year 1095; this is widely regarded as proof that the Gothic style could not have possibly been derived from Saracen architecture. Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily. The Spanish architecture from the Moors could have influenced the emergence Gothic style long before the Crusades took place. This could have happened gradually through merchants, travelers and pilgrims. According to a 19th-century correspondent in the London journal *Notes and Queries*, Gothic was a derisive misnomer; the pointed arcs and architecture of the later Middle Ages was quite different from the rounded arches prevalent in late antiquity and the period of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy: > There can be no doubt that the term 'Gothic' as applied to pointed styles of ecclesiastical architecture was used at first contemptuously, and in derision, by those who were ambitious to imitate and revive the Grecian orders of architecture, after the revival of classical literature. But, without citing many authorities, such as Christopher Wren, and others, who lent their aid in depreciating the old mediaeval style, which they termed Gothic, as synonymous with every thing that was barbarous and rude, it may be sufficient to refer to the celebrated Treatise of Sir Henry Wotton, entitled *The Elements of Architecture*, ... printed in London so early as 1624. ... But it was a strange misapplication of the term to use it for the pointed style, in contradistinction to the circular, formerly called Saxon, now Norman, Romanesque, &c. These latter styles, like Lombardic, Italian, and the Byzantine, of course belong more to the Gothic period than the light and elegant structures of the pointed order which succeeded them. > > Influences ---------- The Gothic style of architecture was strongly influenced by the Romanesque architecture which preceded it; by the growing population and wealth of European cities, and by the desire to express local grandeur. It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows. It was also influenced by the necessity of many churches, such as Chartres Cathedral and Canterbury Cathedral, to accommodate growing numbers of pilgrims. It also adapted features from earlier styles, such as Islamic architecture. According to Charles Texier (French historian, architect, and archaeologist) and Josef Strzygowski (Polish-Austrian art historian), after lengthy research and study of cathedrals in the medieval city of Ani, the capital of the medieval kingdom of Armenia concluded to have discovered the oldest Gothic arch. According to these historians, the architecture of the Saint Hripsime Church near the Armenian religious seat Etchmiadzin was built in the fourth century A.D. and was repaired in 618. The cathedral of Ani was built in 980-1012 A.D. However many of the elements of Islamic and Armenian architecture that have been cited as influences on Gothic architecture also appeared in Late Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most noticeable example being the pointed arch and flying buttress. The most notable example is the capitals, which are forerunners of the Gothic style and deviated from the Classical standards of ancient Greece and Rome with serpentine lines and naturalistic forms. Periods ------- Architecture "became a leading form of artistic expression during the late Middle Ages". Gothic architecture began in the earlier 12th century in northwest France and England and spread throughout Latin Europe in the 13th century; by 1300, a first "international style" of Gothic had developed, with common design features and formal language. A second "international style" emerged by 1400, alongside innovations in England and central Europe that produced both the perpendicular and flamboyant varieties. Typically, these typologies are identified as: * *c*.1130–*c*.1240 *Early* to *High Gothic* and *Early English* * *c*.1240–*c*.1350 *Rayonnant* and *Decorated Style* * *c*.1350–*c*.1500 *Late Gothic*: *flamboyant* and *perpendicular* * Early Gothic: Abbey church of Saint-Denis, west façade (1135–40)Early Gothic: Abbey church of Saint-Denis, west façade (1135–40) * Early Gothic: Nave of Sens Cathedral (1135–1176)Early Gothic: Nave of Sens Cathedral (1135–1176) * Early English; choir of Canterbury Cathedral (1174–80)Early English; choir of Canterbury Cathedral (1174–80) * Early Gothic; Nave of Notre-Dame de Paris (1185–1200)Early Gothic; Nave of Notre-Dame de Paris (1185–1200) * High Gothic; Chartres Cathedral choir (1210-1250)High Gothic; Chartres Cathedral choir (1210-1250) * Rayonnant: West front of Strasbourg Cathedral (1277-1490)Rayonnant: West front of Strasbourg Cathedral (1277-1490) * Rayonnant: Sainte-Chapelle upper level (1238-1248)Rayonnant: Sainte-Chapelle upper level (1238-1248) * Rayonnant- Angel's Choir of Lincoln Cathedral (14th c.)Rayonnant- Angel's Choir of Lincoln Cathedral (14th c.) * Perpendicular Gothic; Choir of York Minister (1361-1405)Perpendicular Gothic; Choir of York Minister (1361-1405) * Flamboyant; "Butter Tower" of Rouen Cathedral (1488-1506)Flamboyant; "Butter Tower" of Rouen Cathedral (1488-1506) History ------- ### Early Gothic Norman architecture on either side of the English Channel developed in parallel towards *Early Gothic*. Gothic features, such as the rib vault, had appeared in England and Normandy in the 11th century. Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098). However, the first buildings to be considered fully Gothic are the royal funerary abbey of the French kings, the Abbey of Saint-Denis (1134–44), and the archiepiscopal cathedral at Sens (1143–63) They were the first buildings to systematically combine rib vaulting, buttresses, and pointed arches. Most of the characteristics of later *Early English* were already present in the lower *chevet* of Saint-Denis. The Duchy of Normandy, part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic. One of these was the Norman chevet, a small apse or chapel attached to the choir at the east end of the church, which typically had a half-dome. The lantern tower was another common feature in Norman Gothic. One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style. Lisieux Cathedral was begun in 1170. Rouen Cathedral (begun 1185) was rebuilt from Romanesque to Gothic with distinct Norman features, including a lantern tower, deeply moulded decoration, and high pointed arcades. Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220. Its most distinctive feature is the octagonal lantern on the crossing of the transept, decorated with ornamental ribs, and surrounded by sixteen bays and sixteen lancet windows. Saint-Denis was the work of the Abbot Suger, a close adviser of Kings Louis VI and Louis VII. Suger reconstructed portions of the old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows. He described the new ambulatory as "a circular ring of chapels, by virtue of which the whole church would shine with the wonderful and uninterrupted light of most luminous windows, pervading the interior beauty." To support the vaults He also introduced columns with capitals of carved vegetal designs, modelled upon the classical columns he had seen in Rome. In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the façade. These also became a common feature of Gothic cathedrals. Some elements of Gothic style appeared very early in England. Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104. The first cathedral built entirely in the new style was Sens Cathedral, begun between 1135 and 1140 and consecrated in 1160. Sens Cathedral features a Gothic choir, and six-part rib vaults over the nave and collateral aisles, alternating pillars and doubled columns to support the vaults, and buttresses to offset the outward thrust from the vaults. One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens, later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in the new Gothic style. Sens Cathedral was influential in its strongly vertical appearance and in its three-part elevation, typical of subsequent Gothic buildings, with a clerestory at the top supported by a triforium, all carried on high arcades of pointed arches. In the following decades flying buttresses began to be used, allowing the construction of lighter, higher walls. French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by the ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade. Sens was quickly followed by Senlis Cathedral (begun 1160), and Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1160). Their builders abandoned the traditional plans and introduced the new Gothic elements from Saint-Denis. The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside the walls connected by arches to the upper walls. The buttresses counterbalanced the outward thrust from the rib vaults. This allowed the builders to construct higher, thinner walls and larger windows. ### *Early English* and *High Gothic* Following the destruction by fire of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, a group of master builders was invited to propose plans for the reconstruction. The master-builder William of Sens, who had worked on Sens Cathedral, won the competition. Work began that same year, but in 1178 William was badly injured by fall from the scaffolding, and returned to France, where he died. His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178. The resulting structure of the choir of Canterbury Cathedral is considered the first work of *Early English Gothic*. The cathedral churches of Worcester (1175–), Wells (*c*.1180–), Lincoln (1192–), and Salisbury (1220–) are all, with Canterbury, major examples. *Tiercerons* – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed *c*.1200. Instead of a triforium, *Early English* churches usually retained a gallery. High Gothic (c. 1194–1250) was a brief but very productive period, which produced some of the great landmarks of Gothic art. The first building in the High Gothic (French: *Classique*) was Chartres Cathedral, an important pilgrimage church south of Paris. The Romanesque cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1194, but was swiftly rebuilt in the new style, with contributions from King Philip II of France, Pope Celestine III, local gentry, merchants, craftsmen, and Richard the Lionheart, king of England. The builders simplified the elevation used at Notre Dame, eliminated the tribune galleries, and used flying buttresses to support the upper walls. The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting the story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows. The model of Chartres was followed by a series of new cathedrals of unprecedented height and size. These were Reims Cathedral (begun 1211), where coronations of the kings of France took place; Amiens Cathedral (1220–1226); Bourges Cathedral (1195–1230) (which, unlike the others, continued to use six-part rib vaults); and Beauvais Cathedral (1225–). In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire, first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the *Reich*, beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and the cathedral at Metz (*c*.1235–). In High Gothic, the whole surface of the clerestory was given over to windows. At Chartres Cathedral, plate tracery was used for the rose window, but at Reims the bar-tracery was free-standing. Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by *geometrical* bar-tracery. Tracery of this kind distinguishes *Middle Pointed* style from the simpler *First Pointed*. Inside, the nave was divided into by regular bays, each covered by a quadripartite rib vaults. Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the façade and the fronts of the transept. Reims Cathedral had two thousand three hundred statues on the front and back side of the façade. The new High Gothic churches competed to be the tallest, with increasingly ambitious structures lifting the vault yet higher. Chartres Cathedral's height of 38 m (125 ft) was exceeded by Beauvais Cathedral's 48 m (157 ft), but on account of the latter's collapse in 1248, no further attempt was made to build higher. Attention turned from achieving greater height to creating more awe-inspiring decoration. ### *Rayonnant Gothic* and *Decorated Style* *Rayonnant Gothic* maximized the coverage of stained glass windows such that the walls are effectively entirely glazed; examples are the nave of Saint-Denis (1231–) and the royal chapel of Louis IX of France on the Île de la Cité in the Seine – the Sainte-Chapelle (*c*.1241–8). The high and thin walls of French *Rayonnant Gothic* allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork. Shortly after Saint-Denis, in the 1250s, Louis IX commissioned the rebuilt transepts and enormous rose windows of Notre-Dame de Paris (1250s for the north transept, 1258 for the beginning of south transept). This first 'international style' was also used in the clerestory of Metz Cathedral (*c*.1245–), then in the choir of Cologne's cathedral (*c*.1250–), and again in the nave of the cathedral at Strasbourg (*c*.1250–). Masons elaborated a series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic *geometrical* to the *reticulated* and the *curvilinear –* which had superseded the lancet window. Bar-tracery of the *curvilinear, flowing*, and *reticulated* types distinguish *Second Pointed* style. *Decorated Gothic* similarly sought to emphasize the windows, but excelled in the ornamentation of their tracery. Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–), the cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral (*c*.1320–). The *Rayonnant* developed its second 'international style' with increasingly autonomous and sharp-edged tracery mouldings apparent in the cathedral at Clermont-Ferrand (1248–), the papal collegiate church at Troyes, Saint-Urbain (1262–), and the west façade of Strasbourg Cathedral (1276–1439)). By 1300, there were examples influenced by Strasbourg in the cathedrals of Limoges (1273–), Regensburg (*c*.1275–), and in the cathedral nave at York (1292–). ### *Late Gothic*: *flamboyant* and *perpendicular* Central Europe began to lead the emergence of a new, international *flamboyant* style with the construction of a new cathedral at Prague (1344–) under the direction of Peter Parler. This model of rich and variegated tracery and intricate reticulated rib-vaulting was definitive in the *Late Gothic* of continental Europe, emulated not only by the collegiate churches and cathedrals, but by urban parish churches which rivalled them in size and magnificence. The minster at Ulm and other parish churches like the Heilig-Kreuz-Münster at Schwäbisch Gmünd (*c*.1320–), St Barbara's Church at Kutná Hora (1389–), and the Heilig-Geist-Kirche (1407–) and St Martin's Church (*c*.1385–) in Landshut are typical. Use of ogees was especially common. The *flamboyant* style was characterised by the multiplication of the ribs of the vaults, with new purely decorative ribs, called tiercons and liernes, and additional diagonal ribs. One common ornament of *flamboyant* in France is the *arc-en-accolade*, an arch over a window topped by a pinnacle, which was itself topped with fleuron, and flanked by other pinnacles. Examples of French *flamboyant* building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral, and especially the façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church (1448). In England, ornamental rib-vaulting and tracery of *Decorated Gothic* co-existed with, and then gave way to, the *perpendicular* style from the 1320s, with straightened, orthogonal tracery topped with fan-vaulting. *Perpendicular* *Gothic* was unknown in continental Europe and unlike earlier styles had no equivalent in Scotland or Ireland. It first appeared in the cloisters and chapter-house (c. 1332) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey. The chancel of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1337–57) and its latter 14th century cloisters are early examples. Four-centred arches were often used, and lierne vaults seen in early buildings were developed into fan vaults, first at the latter 14th century chapter-house of Hereford Cathedral (demolished 1769) and cloisters at Gloucester, and then at Reginald Ely's King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1461) and the brothers William and Robert Vertue's Henry VII Chapel (c. 1503–12) at Westminster Abbey. *Perpendicular* is sometimes called *Third Pointed* and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640. Lacey patterns of tracery continued to characterize continental Gothic building, with very elaborate and articulated vaulting, as at St Barbara's, Kutná Hora (1512). In certain areas, Gothic architecture continued to be employed until the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in provincial and ecclesiastical contexts, notably at Oxford. ### Decline and transition Beginning in the mid-15th century, the Gothic style gradually lost its dominance in Europe. It had never been popular in Italy, and in the mid-15th century the Italians, drawing upon ancient Roman ruins, returned to classical models. The dome of Florence Cathedral (1420–1436) by Filippo Brunelleschi, inspired by the Pantheon, Rome, was one of the first Renaissance landmarks, but it also employed Gothic technology; the outer skin of the dome was supported by a framework of twenty-four ribs. The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of the new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa. They brought back Italian paintings, sculpture and building plans, and, more important, Italian craftsmen and artists. The Cardinal Georges d'Amboise, chief minister of Louis XII, built the Chateau of Gaillon near Rouen (1502–10) with the assistance of Italian craftsmen. The Château de Blois (1515–24) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway. King Francois I installed Leonardo da Vinci at his Chateau of Chambord in 1516, and introduced a Renaissance long gallery at the Palace of Fontainebleau in 1528–1540. In 1546 Francois I began building the first example of French classicism, the square courtyard of the Louvre Palace designed by Pierre Lescot. In Germany, some Italian elements were introduced at the Fugger Chapel of St Anne's Church, Augsburg, (1510–1512) combined with Gothic vaults; and others appeared in the Church of St. Michael in Munich, but in Germany Renaissance elements were used primarily for decoration. Some Renaissance elements also appeared in Spain, in the new palace begun by Emperor Charles V in Granada, within the Alhambra (1485–1550), inspired by Bramante and Raphael, but it was never completed. The first major Renaissance work in Spain was El Escorial, the monastery-palace built by Philip II of Spain. Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent. The first classical building in England was the Old Somerset House in London (1547–1552) (since demolished), built by Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, who was regent as Lord Protector for Edward VI until the young king came of age in 1547. Somerset's successor, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, sent the architectural scholar John Shute to Italy to study the style. Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570. The first English houses in the new style were Burghley House (1550s–1580s) and Longleat, built by associates of Somerset. With those buildings, a new age of architecture began in England. Gothic architecture survived the early modern period and flourished again in a revival from the late 18th century and throughout the 19th. *Perpendicular* was the first Gothic style revived in the 18th century. Structural elements ------------------- ### Pointed arches The defining characteristic of the Gothic style is the pointed arch, which was widely used in both structure and decoration. The pointed arch did not originate in Gothic architecture; they had been employed for centuries in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture for arches, arcades, and ribbed vaults. In Gothic architecture, particularly in the later Gothic styles, they became the most visible and characteristic element, giving a sensation of verticality and pointing upward, like the spires. Gothic rib vaults covered the nave, and pointed arches were commonly used for the arcades, windows, doorways, in the tracery, and especially in the later Gothic styles decorating the façades. They were also sometimes used for more practical purposes, such as to bring transverse vaults to the same height as diagonal vaults, as in the nave and aisles of Durham Cathedral, built in 1093. The earliest Gothic pointed arches were lancet lights or lancet windows, narrow windows terminating in a lancet arch, an arch with a radius longer than their breadth, (width), and resembling the blade of a lancet. In the 12th century *First Pointed* phase of Gothic architecture, also called the *Lancet style* and before the introduction of tracery in the windows in later styles, lancet windows predominated Gothic building. The Flamboyant Gothic style was particularly known for such lavish pointed details as the *arc-en-accolade*, where the pointed arch over a doorway was topped by a pointed sculptural ornament called a fleuron and by pointed pinnacles on either side. the arches of the doorway were further decorated with small cabbage-shaped sculptures called "*chou-frisés*". * Eastern end of Wells Cathedral (begun 1175)Eastern end of Wells Cathedral (begun 1175) * West front of Reims Cathedral, pointed arches within arches (1211–1275)West front of Reims Cathedral, pointed arches within arches (1211–1275) * Lancet windows of transept of Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258)Lancet windows of transept of Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) * Pointed arches in the arcades, triforium, and clerestory of Lincoln Cathedral (1185–1311)Pointed arches in the arcades, triforium, and clerestory of Lincoln Cathedral (1185–1311) * A detail of the windows and galleries of the west front of Strasbourg Cathedral (1215–1439)A detail of the windows and galleries of the west front of Strasbourg Cathedral (1215–1439) ### Rib vaults The Gothic rib vault was one of the essential elements that made possible the great height and large windows of the Gothic style. Unlike the semi-circular barrel vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, where the weight pressed directly downward, and required thick walls and small windows, the Gothic rib vault was made of diagonal crossing arched ribs. These ribs directed the thrust outwards to the corners of the vault, and downwards via slender colonettes and bundled columns, to the pillars and columns below. The space between the ribs was filled with thin panels of small pieces of stone, which were much lighter than earlier groin vaults. The outward thrust against the walls was countered by the weight of buttresses and later flying buttresses. As a result, the massive thick walls of Romanesque buildings were no longer needed; Since the vaults were supported by the columns and piers, the walls could be thinner and higher, and filled with windows. The earlier Gothic rib vaults, used at Sens Cathedral (begun between 1135 and 1140) and Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1163), were divided by the ribs into six compartments. They were very difficult to build, and could only cross a limited space. Since each vault covered two bays, they needed support on the ground floor from alternating columns and piers. In later construction, the design was simplified, and the rib vaults had only four compartments. The alternating rows of alternating columns and piers receiving the weight of the vaults was replaced by simple pillars, each receiving the same weight. A single vault could cross the nave. This method was used at Chartres Cathedral (1194–1220), Amiens Cathedral (begun 1220), and Reims Cathedral. The four-part vaults made it possible for the building to be even higher. Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1163 with six-part vaults, reached a height of 35 m (115 ft). Amiens Cathedral, begun in 1220 with the newer four-part ribs, reached the height of 42.3 m (139 ft) at the transept. * Early six-part rib vaults in Sens Cathedral (1135–1164)Early six-part rib vaults in Sens Cathedral (1135–1164) * Rib vaults of choir of Canterbury Cathedral (1174–77)Rib vaults of choir of Canterbury Cathedral (1174–77) * Stronger four-part rib vaults in nave of Reims Cathedral (1211–1275)Stronger four-part rib vaults in nave of Reims Cathedral (1211–1275) * Salisbury Cathedral – rectangular four-part vault over a single bay (1220–1258)Salisbury Cathedral – rectangular four-part vault over a single bay (1220–1258) ### Later vaults (13th–15th century) In France, the four-part rib vault, with two diagonals crossing at the center of the traverse, was the type used almost exclusively until the end of the Gothic period. However, in England, several imaginative new vaults were invented which had more elaborate decorative features. They became a signature of the later English Gothic styles. The first of these new vaults had an additional rib, called a tierceron, which ran down the median of the vault. It first appeared in the vaults of the choir of Lincoln Cathedral at the end of the 12th century, then at Worcester Cathedral in 1224, and then the south transept of Lichfield Cathedral. The 14th century brought the invention of several new types of vaults which were more and more decorative. These vaults often copied the forms form of the elaborate tracery of the Late Gothic styles. These included the stellar vault, where a group of additional ribs between the principal ribs forms a star design. The oldest vaults of this kind were found in the crypt of Saint Stephen at Westminster Palace, built about 1320. A second type was called a reticulated vault, which had a network of additional decorative ribs, in triangles and other geometric forms, placed between or over the traverse ribs. These were first used in the choir of Bristol Cathedral in about 1311. Another late Gothic form, the fan vault, with ribs spreading upwards and outwards, appeared later in the 14th century. An example is the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1370). Another new form was the skeleton vault, which appeared in the English Decorated style. It has an additional network of ribs, like the ribs of an umbrella, which criss-cross the vault but are only directly attached to it at certain points. It appeared in a chapel of Lincoln Cathedral in 1300. and then several other English churches. This style of vault was adopted in the 14th century in particular by German architects, particularly Peter Parler, and in other parts of central Europe. Another exists in the south porch of the Prague Cathedral Elaborate vaults also appeared in civic architecture. An example is the ceiling of the Vladislav Hall in Prague Castle in Bohemia designed by Benedikt Ried in 1493. The ribs twist and intertwine in fantasy patterns, which later critics called "Rococo Gothic". * Lierne vaults of Gloucester Cathedral (Perpendicular Gothic)Lierne vaults of Gloucester Cathedral (Perpendicular Gothic) * Skeleton-vault in aisle of Bristol Cathedral (c. 1311–1340)Skeleton-vault in aisle of Bristol Cathedral (c. 1311–1340) * Lincoln Cathedral – quadripartite form, with tierceron ribs and ridge rib with carved bossesLincoln Cathedral – quadripartite form, with tierceron ribs and ridge rib with carved bosses * Bremen Cathedral – north aisle, a reticular (net) vault with intersecting ribsBremen Cathedral – north aisle, a reticular (net) vault with intersecting ribs * Church of the Assumption, St Marein, Austria – star vault with intersecting lierne ribsChurch of the Assumption, St Marein, Austria – star vault with intersecting lierne ribs * Salamanca Cathedral, Spain Flamboyant S-shaped and circular lierne ribs. (16th–18th century)Salamanca Cathedral, Spain Flamboyant S-shaped and circular lierne ribs. (16th–18th century) * Church of the Jacobins, Toulouse – palm tree vault (1275–1292)Church of the Jacobins, Toulouse – palm tree vault (1275–1292) * Peterborough Cathedral, retrochoir – intersecting fan vaultsPeterborough Cathedral, retrochoir – intersecting fan vaults * "Rococo Gothic" vaults of Vladislav Hall of Prague Castle (1493)"Rococo Gothic" vaults of Vladislav Hall of Prague Castle (1493) ### Columns and piers In Early French Gothic architecture, the capitals of the columns were modeled after Roman columns of the Corinthian order, with finely-sculpted leaves. They were used in the ambulatory of the Abbey church of Saint-Denis. According to its builder, the Abbot Suger, they were inspired by the columns he had seen in the ancient baths in Rome. They were used later at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and at Canterbury in England. In early Gothic churches with six-part rib vaults, the columns in the nave alternated with more massive piers to provide support for the vaults. With the introduction of the four-part rib vault, all of the piers or columns in the nave could have the same design. In the High Gothic period, a new form was introduced, composed of a central core surrounded several attached slender columns, or colonettes, going up to the vaults. These clustered columns were used at Chartres, Amiens, Reims and Bourges, Westminster Abbey and Salisbury Cathedral. Another variation was a quadrilobe column, shaped like a clover, formed of four attached columns. In England, the clustered columns were often ornamented with stone rings, as well as columns with carved leaves. Later styles added further variations. Sometimes the piers were rectangular and fluted, as at Seville Cathedral, In England, parts of columns sometimes had contrasting colours, using combining white stone with dark Purbeck marble. In place of the Corinthian capital, some columns used a stiff-leaf design. In later Gothic, the piers became much taller, reaching up more than half of the nave. Another variation, particularly popular in eastern France, was a column without a capital, which continued upward without capitals or other interruption, all the way to the vaults, giving a dramatic display of verticality. * Early Gothic – Alternating columns and piers, Sens Cathedral (12th century)Early Gothic – Alternating columns and piers, Sens Cathedral (12th century) * High Gothic – Clustered columns of Reims Cathedral (13th century)High Gothic – Clustered columns of Reims Cathedral (13th century) * Early English Gothic – Clustered columns in Salisbury Cathedral (13th century)Early English Gothic – Clustered columns in Salisbury Cathedral (13th century) * Perpendicular Gothic – columns without interruption from floor to the vaults. Canterbury Cathedral nave (late 14th century)Perpendicular Gothic – columns without interruption from floor to the vaults. Canterbury Cathedral nave (late 14th century) * Late Gothic- Clustered columns in Certosa di Pavia (15th century)Late Gothic- Clustered columns in Certosa di Pavia (15th century) ### Flying buttresses An important feature of Gothic architecture was the flying buttress, a half-arch outside the building which carried the thrust of weight of the roof or vaults inside over a roof or an aisle to a heavy stone column. The buttresses were placed in rows on either side of the building, and were often topped by heavy stone pinnacles, both to give extra weight and for additional decoration. Buttresses had existed since Roman times, usually set directly against the building, but the Gothic vaults were more sophisticated. In later structures, the buttresses often had several arches, each reaching in to a different level of the structure. The buttresses permitted the buildings to be both taller, and to have thinner walls, with greater space for windows. Over time, the buttresses and pinnacles became more elaborate supporting statues and other decoration, as at Beauvais Cathedral and Reims Cathedral. The arches had an additional practical purpose; they contained lead channels which carried rainwater off the roof; it was expelled from the mouths of stone gargoyles placed in rows on the buttresses. Flying buttresses were used less frequently in England, where the emphasis was more on length than height. One example of English buttresses was Canterbury Cathedral, whose choir and buttresses were rebuilt in Gothic style by William of Sens and William the Englishman. However, they were very popular in Germany: in Cologne Cathedral the buttresses were lavishly decorated with statuary and other ornament, and were a prominent feature of the exterior. * Canterbury Cathedral with simple wall buttresses and flying buttresses (rebuilt into Gothic 1174–1177)Canterbury Cathedral with simple wall buttresses and flying buttresses (rebuilt into Gothic 1174–1177) * East end of Lincoln Cathedral, with wall buttress, and chapter house with flying buttresses. (1185–1311)East end of Lincoln Cathedral, with wall buttress, and chapter house with flying buttresses. (1185–1311) * Flying buttresses of Notre Dame de Paris (c. 1230)Flying buttresses of Notre Dame de Paris (c. 1230) * Buttresses of Amiens Cathedral with pinnacles to give them added weight (1220–1266)Buttresses of Amiens Cathedral with pinnacles to give them added weight (1220–1266) * Section of Reims Cathedral showing the three levels of each buttress (1211–1275)Section of Reims Cathedral showing the three levels of each buttress (1211–1275) * Decorated buttresses of Cologne Cathedral (1248–1573)Decorated buttresses of Cologne Cathedral (1248–1573) ### Towers and spires Towers, spires and flèches were an important feature of Gothic churches. They presented a dramatic spectacle of great height, helped make their churches the tallest and most visible buildings in their city, and symbolised the aspirations of their builders toward heaven. They also had a practical purpose; they often served as bell towers supporting belfries, whose bells told the time by announcing religious services, warned of fire or enemy attack, and celebrated special occasions like military victories and coronations. Sometimes the bell tower is built separate from a church; the best-known example of this is the Leaning Tower of Pisa. The towers of cathedrals were usually the last part of the structure to be built. Since cathedral construction usually took many years, and was extremely expensive, by the time the tower were to be built public enthusiasm waned, and tastes changed. Many projected towers were never built, or were built in different styles than other parts of the cathedral, or with different styles on each level of the tower. At Chartres Cathedral, the south tower was built in the 12th century, in the simpler Early Gothic, while the north tower is the more highly decorated Flamboyant style. Chartres would have been even more exuberant if the second plan had been followed; it called for seven towers around the transept and sanctuary. In the Île-de-France, cathedral towers followed the Romanesque tradition of two identical towers, one on either side of the portals. The west front of the Saint-Denis, became the model for the early Gothic cathedrals and High Gothic cathedrals in northern France, including Notre-Dame de Paris, Reims Cathedral, and Amiens Cathedral. The early and High Gothic Laon Cathedral has a square lantern tower over the crossing of the transept; two towers on the western front; and two towers on the ends of the transepts. Laon's towers, with the exception of the central tower, are built with two stacked vaulted chambers pierced by lancet openings. The two western towers contain life-size stone statues of sixteen oxen in their upper arcades, said to honour the animals who hauled the stone during the cathedral's construction. In Normandy, cathedrals and major churches often had multiple towers, built over the centuries; the Abbaye aux Hommes (begun 1066), Caen has nine towers and spires, placed on the façade, the transepts, and the centre. A lantern tower was often placed the centre of the nave, at the meeting point with the transept, to give light to the church below. In later periods of Gothic, pointed needle-like spires were often added to the towers, giving them much greater height. A variation of the spire was the flèche, a slender, spear-like spire, which was usually placed on the transept where it crossed the nave. They were often made of wood covered with lead or other metal. They sometimes had open frames, and were decorated with sculpture. Amiens Cathedral has a flèche. The most famous example was that of Notre-Dame de Paris. The original flèche of Notre-Dame was built on the crossing of the transept in the middle of the 13th century, and housed five bells. It was removed in 1786 during a program to modernize the cathedral, but was put back in a new form designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. The new flèche, of wood covered with lead, was decorated with statues of the Apostles; the figure of St Thomas resembled Viollet-le-Duc. The flèche was destroyed in the 2019 fire, but is being restored in the same design. * Abbaye aux Hommes, Caen (tall west towers added in the 13th century)Abbaye aux Hommes, Caen (tall west towers added in the 13th century) * Towers of Chartres Cathedral; Flamboyant Gothic on left, early Gothic on the rightTowers of Chartres Cathedral; Flamboyant Gothic on left, early Gothic on the right * The 13th century flèche of Notre Dame, recreated in the 19th century, destroyed by fire in 2019, now being restoredThe 13th century flèche of Notre Dame, recreated in the 19th century, destroyed by fire in 2019, now being restored In English Gothic, the major tower was often placed at the crossing of the transept and nave, and was much higher than the other. The most famous example is the tower of Salisbury Cathedral, completed in 1320 by William of Farleigh. It was a remarkable feat of construction, since it was built upon the pillars of the much earlier church. A crossing tower was constructed at Canterbury Cathedral in 1493–1501 by John Wastell, who had previously worked on King's College at Cambridge. It was finished by Henry Yevele, who also built the present nave of Canterbury. The new central tower at Wells Cathedral caused a problem; it was too heavy for the original structure. An unusual double arch had to be constructed in the centre of the crossing to give the tower the extra support it needed. England's Gothic parish churches and collegiate churches generally have a single western tower. A number of the finest churches have masonry spires, with those of St James Church, Louth; St Wulfram's Church, Grantham; St Mary Redcliffe in Bristol; and Coventry Cathedral. These spires all exceed 85 m (280 ft) in height.[*page needed*] Westminster Abbey's crossing tower has for centuries remained unbuilt, and numerous architects have proposed various ways of completing it since the 1250s, when work began on the tower under Henry III. A century and half later, an octagonal roof lantern resembling that of Ely Cathedral was installed instead, which was then demolished in the 16th century. Construction began again in 1724 to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after first Christopher Wren had proposed a design in 1710, but stopped again in 1727. The crossing remains covered by the stub of the lantern and a 'temporary' roof. * Salisbury Cathedral tower and spire over the crossing (1320)Salisbury Cathedral tower and spire over the crossing (1320) * West towers of York Minster, in the Perpendicular Gothic style.West towers of York Minster, in the Perpendicular Gothic style. * The perpendicular west towers of Beverley Minster (c. 1400)The perpendicular west towers of Beverley Minster (c. 1400) * Crossing tower of Canterbury Cathedral (1493–1505)Crossing tower of Canterbury Cathedral (1493–1505) Later Gothic towers in Central Europe often followed the French model, but added even denser decorative tracery. Cologne Cathedral had been started in the 13th century, following the plan of Amiens Cathedral, but only the apse and the base of one tower were finished in the Gothic period. The original plans were conserved and rediscovered in 1817, and the building was completed in the 20th century following the origin design. It has two spectacularly ornamented towers, covered with arches, gables, pinnacles and openwork spires pointing upwards. The tower of Ulm Minster has a similar history, begun in 1377, stopped in 1543, and not completed until the 19th century. * Cologne Cathedral towers (begun 13th century, completed 20th centuryCologne Cathedral towers (begun 13th century, completed 20th century * Tower of Ulm Minster (begun 1377, completed 19th century)Tower of Ulm Minster (begun 1377, completed 19th century) * Tower of Freiburg Minster (begun 1340) noted for its lacelike openwork spireTower of Freiburg Minster (begun 1340) noted for its lacelike openwork spire * Prague Cathedral (begun 1344)Prague Cathedral (begun 1344) Regional variants of Gothic towers appeared in Spain and Italy. Burgos Cathedral was inspired by Northern Europe. It has an exceptional cluster of openwork spires, towers, and pinnacles, drenched with ornament. It was begun in 1444 by a German architect, Juan de Colonia (John of Cologne) and eventually completed by a central tower (1540) built by his grandson. In Italy the towers were sometimes separate from the cathedral; and the architects usually kept their distance from the Northern European style. the leaning tower of Pisa Cathedral, built between 1173 and 1372, is the best-known example. The Campanile of Florence Cathedral was built by Giotto in the Florentine Gothic style, decorated with encrustations of polychrome marble. It was originally designed to have a spire. * West towers of Burgos Cathedral (1444–1540)West towers of Burgos Cathedral (1444–1540) * Giotto's Campanile of Florence Cathedral (1334–1359)Giotto's Campanile of Florence Cathedral (1334–1359) ### Tracery Tracery is an architectural solution by which windows (or screens, panels, and vaults) are divided into sections of various proportions by stone *bars* or *ribs* of moulding. Pointed arch windows of Gothic buildings were initially (late 12th–late 13th centuries) lancet windows, a solution typical of the *Early Gothic* or *First Pointed* style and of the *Early English* Gothic. Plate tracery was the first type of tracery to be developed, emerging in the later phase of *Early Gothic* or *First Pointed*. *Second Pointed* is distinguished from *First* by the appearance of *bar–tracery*, allowing the construction of much larger window openings, and the development of *Curvilinear*, *Flowing*, and *Reticulated* tracery, ultimately contributing to the *Flamboyant* style. *Late Gothic* in most of Europe saw tracery patterns resembling lace develop, while in England *Perpendicular Gothic* or *Third Pointed* preferred plainer vertical mullions and transoms. Tracery is practical as well as decorative, because the increasingly large windows of Gothic buildings needed maximum support against the wind. Plate tracery, in which lights were pierced in a thin wall of ashlar, allowed a window arch to have more than one light – typically two side by side and separated by flat stone spandrels. The spandrels were then sculpted into figures like a roundel or a quatrefoil. Plate tracery reached the height of its sophistication with the 12th century windows of Chartres Cathedral and in the "Dean's Eye" rose window at Lincoln Cathedral. At the beginning of the 13th century, plate tracery was superseded by bar-tracery. Bar-tracery divides the large lights from one another with moulded mullions. Stone bar-tracery, an important decorative element of Gothic styles, first was used at Reims Cathedral shortly after 1211, in the chevet built by Jean D'Orbais. It was employed in England around 1240. After 1220, master builders in England had begun to treat the window openings as a series of openings divided by thin stone bars, while before 1230 the apse chapels of Reims Cathedral were decorated with bar-tracery with cusped circles (with bars radiating from the centre). Bar-tracery became common after c.1240, with increasing complexity and decreasing weight. The lines of the mullions continued beyond the tops of the window lights and subdivided the open spandrels above the lights into a variety of decorative shapes. *Rayonnant* style (c.1230–c.1350) was enabled by the development of bar-tracery in Continental Europe and is named for the radiation of lights around a central point in circular rose windows. *Rayonnant* also deployed mouldings of two different types in tracery, where earlier styles had used moulding of a single size, with different sizes of mullions. The rose windows of Notre-Dame de Paris (c.1270) are typical. The early phase of *Middle Pointed* style (late 13th century) is characterized by *Geometrical* tracery – simple bar-tracery forming patterns of foiled arches and circles interspersed with triangular lights. The mullions of *Geometrical* style typically had capitals with curved bars emerging from them. *Intersecting* bar-tracery (c.1300) deployed mullions without capitals which branched off equidistant to the window-head. The window-heads themselves were formed of equal curves forming a pointed arch and the tracery-bars were curved by drawing curves with differing radii from the same centres as the window-heads. The mullions were in consequence branched into Y-shaped designs further ornamented with cusps. The intersecting branches produced an array of lozenge-shaped lights in between numerous lancet arched lights.*Y-tracery* was often employed in two-light windows c.1300. *Second Pointed* (14th century) saw *Intersecting* tracery elaborated with ogees, creating a complex reticular (net-like) design known as *Reticulated* tracery. *Second Pointed* architecture deployed tracery in highly decorated fashion known as *Curvilinear* and *Flowing* (*Undulating*). These types of bar-tracery were developed further throughout Europe in the 15th century into the *Flamboyant* style, named for the characteristic flame-shaped spaces between the tracery-bars. These shapes are known as *daggers*, *fish-bladders*, or *mouchettes*. *Third Pointed* or *Perpendicular Gothic* developed in England from the later 14th century and is typified by *Rectilinear* tracery (*panel*-tracery). The mullions are often joined together by transoms and continue up their straight vertical lines to the top of the window's main arch, some branching off into lesser arches, and creating a series of panel-like lights. *Perpendicular* strove for verticality and dispensed with the *Curvilinear* style's sinuous lines in favour of unbroken straight mullions from top to bottom, transected by horizontal transoms and bars. Four-centred arches were used in the 15th and 16th centuries to create windows of increasing size with flatter window-heads, often filling the entire wall of the bay between each buttress. The windows were themselves divided into panels of lights topped by pointed arches struck from four centres. The transoms were often topped by miniature crenellations. The windows at Cambridge of King's College Chapel (1446–1515) represent the heights of *Perpendicular* tracery. Tracery was used on both the interior and exterior of buildings. It frequently covered the façades, and the interior walls of the nave and choir were covered with blind arcades. It also often picked up and repeated the designs in the stained glass windows. Strasbourg Cathedral has a west front lavishly ornamented with bar tracery matching the windows. * Lancet Gothic, Ripon Minster west front (begun 1160)*Lancet Gothic*, Ripon Minster west front (begun 1160) * Plate tracery, Chartres Cathedral clerestory (1194–1220)*Plate tracery*, Chartres Cathedral clerestory (1194–1220) * Geometrical Decorated Gothic, Ripon Minster east window*Geometrical* *Decorated Gothic*, Ripon Minster east window * Rayonnant rose window, Strasbourg Cathedral west front*Rayonnant* rose window, Strasbourg Cathedral west front * Flamboyant rose window, Amiens Cathedral west front*Flamboyant* rose window, Amiens Cathedral west front * Curvilinear window, Limoges Cathedral nave*Curvilinear* window, Limoges Cathedral nave * Perpendicular four-centred arch, King's College Chapel, Cambridge west front*Perpendicular* four-centred arch, King's College Chapel, Cambridge west front * Blind tracery, Tours Cathedral (16th century)Blind tracery, Tours Cathedral (16th century) Influences upon Gothic architecture ----------------------------------- The Gothic style of architecture was strongly influenced by the Romanesque architecture which preceded it; by the growing population and wealth of European cities, and by the desire to express national grandeur. It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light, by technical improvements in vaulting and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows, and by the necessity of many churches to accommodate large numbers of pilgrims. Elements of Romanesque and Gothic architecture compared ------------------------------------------------------- | # | Structural element | Romanesque | Gothic | Developments | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Arches | Round | Pointed | The pointed Gothic arch varied from a very sharp form, to a wide, flattened form. | | 2 | Vaults | Barrel or groin | Ribbed | Ribbed vaults appeared in the Romanesque era and were elaborated in the Gothic era. | | 3 | Walls | Thick, with small openings | Thinner, with large openings | Wall structure diminshed during the Gothic era to a framework of mullions supporting windows. | | 4 | Buttresses | Wall buttresses of low projection. | Wall buttresses of high projection, and flying buttresses | Complex Gothic buttresses supported the high vaults and the walls pierced with windows | | 5 | Windows | Round arches, sometimes paired | Pointed arches, often with tracery | Gothic windows varied from simple lancet form to ornate flamboyant patterns | | 6 | Piers and columns | Cylindrical columns, rectangular piers | Cylindrical and clustered columns, complex piers | Columns and piers developed increasing complexity during the Gothic era | | 7 | Gallery arcades | Two openings under an arch, paired. | Two pointed openings under a pointed arch | The Gothic gallery became increasingly complex and unified with the clerestory | |   The south western tower at Ely Cathedral, EnglandThe nave vault with pointed transverse arches at Durham CathedralThe sexpartite ribbed vault at Saint Etienne, CaenInterior of the Cathedral of Cefalu Plans ----- The plan of Gothic cathedrals and churches was usually based on the Latin cross (or "cruciform") plan, taken from the ancient Roman Basilica.,and from the later Romanesque churches. They have a long nave making the body of the church, where the parishioners worshipped; a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it to the east, the choir, also known as a chancel or presbytery, that was usually reserved for the clergy. The eastern end of the church was rounded in French churches, and was occupied by several radiating chapels, which allowed multiple ceremonies to go on simultaneously. In English churches the eastern end also had chapels, but was usually rectangular. A passage called the ambulatory circled the choir. This allowed parishioners, and especially pilgrims, to walk past the chapels to see the relics displayed there without disturbing other services going on. Each vault of the nave formed a separate cell, with its own supporting piers or columns. The early cathedrals, like Notre-Dame, had six-part rib vaults, with alternating columns and piers, while later cathedrals had the simpler and stronger four-part vaults, with identical columns. Following the model of Romanesque architecture and the Basilica of Saint Denis, cathedrals usual had two towers flanking the west façade. Towers over the crossing were common in England (Salisbury Cathedral), York Minister) but rarer in France. Transepts were usually short in early French Gothic architecture, but became longer and were given large rose windows in the Rayonnant period. The choirs became more important. The choir was often flanked by a double disambulatory, which was crowned by a ring of small chapels. In England, transepts were more important, and the floor plans were usually much more complex than in French cathedrals, with the addition of attached Lady Chapels, an octagonal Chapter House, and other structures (See plans of Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster below). This reflected a tendency in France to carry out multiple functions in the same space, while English cathedrals compartmentalized them. This contrast is visible in the difference between Amiens Cathedral, with its minimal transepts and semicircular apse, filled with chapels, on the east end, compared with the double transepts, projecting north porch, and rectangular east end of Salisbury and York. Notre Dame de Paris, France, length 128 m.Amiens Cathedral, France, length 145 m.Cologne Cathedral, Germany, length 144 m, Its plan was modeled after Amiens Cathedral, but widenedSalisbury Cathedral, England, length 135 m, with a central tower over the crossingYork Minster, England, length 159 m, with its attached octagonal Chapter House Elevations and the search for height ------------------------------------   Early Gothic Laon Cathedral (1150s–1230) ArcadeArcade TribuneTribune TriforiumTriforium ClerestoryClerestory Early Gothic Laon Cathedral (1150s–1230) Gothic architecture was a continual search for greater height, thinner walls, and more light. This was clearly illustrated in the evolving elevations of the cathedrals. In Early Gothic architecture, following the model of the Romanesque churches, the buildings had thick, solid walls with a minimum of windows in order to give enough support for the vaulted roofs. An elevation typically had four levels. On the ground floor was an arcade with massive piers alternating with thinner columns, which supported the six-part rib vaults. Above that was a gallery, called the tribune, which provided stability to the walls, and was sometimes used to provide seating for the nuns. Above that was a narrower gallery, called the triforium, which also helped provide additional thickness and support. At the top, just beneath the vaults, was the clerestory, where the high windows were placed. The upper level was supported from the outside by the flying buttresses. This system was used at Noyon Cathedral, Sens Cathedral, and other early structures. In the High Gothic period, thanks to the introduction of the four part rib vault, a simplified elevation appeared at Chartres Cathedral and others. The alternating piers and columns on the ground floor were replaced by rows of identical circular piers wrapped in four engaged columns. The tribune disappeared, which meant that the arcades could be higher. This created more space at the top for the upper windows, which were expanded to include a smaller circular window above a group of lancet windows. The new walls gave a stronger sense of verticality and brought in more light. A similar arrangement was adapted in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral. An important characteristic of Gothic church architecture is its height, both absolute and in proportion to its width, the verticality suggesting an aspiration to Heaven. The increasing height of cathedrals over the Gothic period was accompanied by an increasing proportion of the wall devoted to windows, until, by the late Gothic, the interiors became like cages of glass. This was made possible by the development of the flying buttress, which transferred the thrust of the weight of the roof to the supports outside the walls. As a result, the walls gradually became thinner and higher, and masonry was replaced with glass. The four-part elevation of the naves of early Cathedrals such as Notre-Dame (arcade, tribune, triforium, clerestory) was transformed in the choir of Beauvais Cathedral to very tall arcades, a thin triforium, and soaring windows up to the roof. Beauvais Cathedral reached the limit of what was possible with Gothic technology. A portion of the choir collapsed in 1284, causing alarm in all of the cities with very tall cathedrals. Panels of experts were created in Sienna and Chartres to study the stability of those structures. Only the transept and choir of Beauvais were completed, and in the 21st century, the transept walls were reinforced with cross-beams. No cathedral built since exceeded the height of the choir of Beauvais. * Noyon Cathedral nave showing the four early Gothic levels (late 12h century)Noyon Cathedral nave showing the four early Gothic levels (late 12h century) * Three-part elevation of Wells Cathedral (begun 1176)Three-part elevation of Wells Cathedral (begun 1176) * Nave of Lincoln Cathedral (begun 1185) showing three levels; arcade (bottom); tribune (middle) and clerestory (top)Nave of Lincoln Cathedral (begun 1185) showing three levels; arcade (bottom); tribune (middle) and clerestory (top) * Notre-Dame de Paris nave (rebuilt 1180–1220)Notre-Dame de Paris nave (rebuilt 1180–1220) * Three-part elevation of Chartres Cathedral, with larger clerestory windowsThree-part elevation of Chartres Cathedral, with larger clerestory windows * Nave of Amiens Cathedral, looking west (1220–1270)Nave of Amiens Cathedral, looking west (1220–1270) * Nave of Strasbourg Cathedral (mid-13th century), looking eastNave of Strasbourg Cathedral (mid-13th century), looking east * The medieval east end of Cologne Cathedral (begun 1248)The medieval east end of Cologne Cathedral (begun 1248) West Front ---------- Churches traditionally face east, with the altar at the east, and the west front, or façade, was considered the most important entrance. Gothic façades were adapted from the model of the Romanesque façades. The façades usually had three portals, or doorways, leading into the nave. Over each doorway was a tympanum, a work of sculpture crowded with figures. The sculpture of the central tympanum was devoted to the Last Judgement, that to the left to the Virgin Mary, and that to the right to the Saints honoured at that particular cathedral. In the early Gothic, the columns of the doorways took the form of statues of saints, making them literally "pillars of the church". In the early Gothic, the façades were characterized by height, elegance, harmony, unity, and a balance of proportions. They followed the doctrine expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas that beauty was a "harmony of contrasts." Following the model of Saint-Denis and later Notre-Dame de Paris, the façade was flanked by two towers proportional to the rest of the façade, which balanced the horizontal and vertical elements. Early Gothic façades often had a small rose window placed above the central portal. In England the rose window was often replaced by several lancet windows. In the High Gothic period, the façades grew higher, and had more dramatic architecture and sculpture. At Amiens Cathedral (c. 1220), the porches were deeper, the niches and pinnacles were more prominent. The portals were crowned with high arched gables, composed of concentric arches filled with sculpture. The rose windows became enormous, filling an entirely wall above the central portal, and they were themselves covered with a large pointed arch. The rose windows were pushed upwards by the growing profusion of decoration below. The towers were adorned with their own arches, often crowned with pinnacles. The towers themselves were crowned with spires, often of open-work sculpture. One of the finest examples of a Flamboyant façade is Notre-Dame de l'Épine (1405–1527). While French cathedrals emphasized the height of the façade, English cathedrals, particularly in earlier Gothic, often emphasized the width. The west front of Wells Cathedral is 146 feet across, compared with 116 feet wide at the nearly contemporary Amiens Cathedral, though Amiens is twice as high. The west front of Wells was almost entirely covered with statuary, like Amiens, and was given even further emphasis by its colors; traces of blue, scarlet, and gold are found on the sculpture, as well as painted stars against the dark background on other sections. Italian Gothic façades have the three traditional portals and rose windows, or sometimes simply a large circular window without tracery plus an abundance of flamboyant elements, including sculpture, pinnacles and spires. However, they added distinctive Italian elements. as seen in the façades of Siena Cathedral ) and of Orvieto Cathedral, The Orvieto façade was largely the work of a master mason, Lorenzo Maitani, who worked on the façade from 1308 until his death in 1330. He broke away from the French emphasis on height, and eliminated the column statutes and statuary in the arched entries, and covered the façade with colourful mosaics of biblical scenes (The current mosaics are of a later date). He also added sculpture in relief on the supporting contreforts. Another important feature of the Italian Gothic portal was the sculpted bronze door. The sculptor Andrea Pisano made the celebrated bronze doors for Florence Baptistry (1330–1336). They were not the first; Abbot Suger had commissioned bronze doors for Saint-Denis in 1140, but they were replaced with wooden doors when the Abbey was enlarged. Pisano's work, with its realism and emotion, pointed toward the coming Renaissance. * Wells Cathedral (1176–1450). Early English Gothic. The façade was a Great Wall of sculptureWells Cathedral (1176–1450). Early English Gothic. The façade was a Great Wall of sculpture * Amiens Cathedral, (13th century). Vertical emphasis. High GothicAmiens Cathedral, (13th century). Vertical emphasis. High Gothic * Salisbury Cathedral – wide sculptured screen, lancet windows, turrets with pinnacles. (1220–1258)Salisbury Cathedral – wide sculptured screen, lancet windows, turrets with pinnacles. (1220–1258) * Strasbourg Cathedral (1275–1486), a façade entirely covered in sculpture and traceryStrasbourg Cathedral (1275–1486), a façade entirely covered in sculpture and tracery * Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula in Brussels, a towered highly decorated façadeCathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula in Brussels, a towered highly decorated façade * Flamboyant façade of Notre-Dame de l'Épine (1405–1527) with openwork towersFlamboyant façade of Notre-Dame de l'Épine (1405–1527) with openwork towers * Orvieto Cathedral (1310–), with polychrome mosaicsOrvieto Cathedral (1310–), with polychrome mosaics East end -------- Cathedrals and churches were traditionally constructed with the altar at the east end, so that the priest and congregation faced the rising sun during the morning liturgy. The sun was considered the symbol of Christ and the Second Coming, a major theme in Cathedral sculpture. The portion of the church east of altar is the choir, reserved for members of the clergy. There is usually a single or double ambulatory, or aisle, around the choir and east end, so parishioners and pilgrims could walk freely easily around east end. In Romanesque churches, the east end was very dark, due to the thick walls and small windows. In the ambulatory the Basilica of Saint Denis. Abbot Suger first used the novel combination rib vaults and buttresses to replace the thick walls and replace them with stained glass, opening up that portion of the church to what he considered "divine light". In French Gothic churches, the east end, or chevet, often had an apse, a semi-circular projection with a vaulted or domed roof. The chevet of large cathedrals frequently had a ring of radiating chapels, placed between the buttresses to get maximum light. There are three such chapels at Chartres Cathedral, seven at Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens Cathedral, Prague Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral, and nine at Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Italy. In England, the east end is more often rectangular, and gives access to a separate and large Lady Chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Lady Chapels were also common in Italy. * High Gothic Chevet of Amiens Cathedral, with chapels between the buttresses (13th century)High Gothic Chevet of Amiens Cathedral, with chapels between the buttresses (13th century) * Ambulatory and Chapels of the chevet of Notre Dame de Paris (14th century)Ambulatory and Chapels of the chevet of Notre Dame de Paris (14th century) * The Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey (begun 1503)The Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey (begun 1503) * Ely Cathedral – square east end: Early English chancel (left) and Decorated Lady Chapel (right)Ely Cathedral – square east end: Early English chancel (left) and Decorated Lady Chapel (right) * Interior of the Ely Cathedral Lady Chapel (14th century)Interior of the Ely Cathedral Lady Chapel (14th century) Sculpture --------- ### Portals and Tympanum Sculpture was an important element of Gothic architecture. Its intent was present the stories of the Bible in vivid and understandable fashion to the great majority of the faithful who could not read. The iconography of the sculptural decoration on the façade was not left to the sculptors. An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had declared: "The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition. Only the art belongs to the artist; the composition belongs to the Fathers." * Monsters and devils tempting Christians - South portal of Chartres Cathedral (13th century)Monsters and devils tempting Christians - South portal of Chartres Cathedral (13th century) * Gallery of Kings and Saints on the façade of Wells Cathedral (13th century)Gallery of Kings and Saints on the façade of Wells Cathedral (13th century) * Amiens Cathedral, tympanum detail – "Christ in majesty" (13th century)Amiens Cathedral, tympanum detail – "Christ in majesty" (13th century) * Illumination of portals of Amiens Cathedral to show how it may have appeared with original colorsIllumination of portals of Amiens Cathedral to show how it may have appeared with original colors * West portal Annunciation group at Reims Cathedral with smiling angel at left (13th century)West portal Annunciation group at Reims Cathedral with smiling angel at left (13th century) In Early Gothic churches, following the Romanesque tradition, sculpture appeared on the façade or west front in the triangular tympanum over the central portal. Gradually, as the style evolved, the sculpture became more and more prominent, taking over the columns of the portal, and gradually climbing above the portals, until statues in niches covered the entire façade, as in Wells Cathedral, to the transepts, and, as at Amiens Cathedral, even on the interior of the façade. Some of the earliest examples are found at Chartres Cathedral, where the three portals of the west front illustrate the three epiphanies in the Life of Christ. At Amiens, the tympanum over the central portal depicted the Last Judgement, the right portal showed the Coronation of the Virgin, and the left portal showed the lives of saints who were important in the diocese. This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other churches. The columns below the tympanum are in the form of statues of saints, literally representing them as "the pillars of the church." Each saint had his own symbol at his feet so viewers could recognize them; a winged lion meant Saint Mark, an eagle with four wings meant Saint John the Apostle, and a winged bull symbolized Saint Luke... Floral and vegetal decoration was also very common, representing the Garden of Eden; grapes represented the wines of Eucharist. The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven. The sculpture of the right portal shows the coronation of the Virgin Mary, and the left portal shows the lives of saints who were important to Parisians, particularly Saint Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary. To make the message even more prominent, the sculpture of the tympanum was painted in bright colors. following a system of colours codified in the 12th century; yellow, called *gold*, symbolized intelligence, grandeur and virtue; white, called *argent*, symbolized purity, wisdom, and correctness; black, or *sable*, meant sadness, but also will; green, or *sinople*, represented hope, liberty and joy; red or *gueules* (see gules) meant charity or victory; blue or *azure* symbolised the sky, faithfulness and perseverance; and violet, or *pourpre*, was the colour of royalty and sovereignty. * More naturalistic later Gothic. Temptation of the foolish Virgins, Strasbourg CathedralMore naturalistic later Gothic. Temptation of the foolish Virgins, Strasbourg Cathedral * Sculpture from façade of Siena Cathedral by Nino Pisano (14th century)Sculpture from façade of Siena Cathedral by Nino Pisano (14th century) In the later Gothic, the sculpture became more naturalistic; the figures were separated from the walls, and had much more expressive faces, showing emotion and personality. The drapery was very skilfully carved. The torments of hell were even more vividly depicted. The late Gothic sculpture at Siena Cathedral, by Nino Pisano, pointing toward the Renaissance, is particularly notable. Much of it is now kept in a museum to protect it from deterioration. ### Grotesques and Labyrinths Besides saints and apostles, the exteriors of Gothic churches were also decorated with sculptures of a variety of fabulous and frightening grotesques or monsters. These included the chimera, a mythical hybrid creature which usually had the body of a lion and the head of a goat, and the strix or stryge, a creature resembling an owl or bat, which was said to eat human flesh. The strix appeared in classical Roman literature; it was described by the Roman poet Ovid, who was widely read in the Middle Ages, as a large-headed bird with transfixed eyes, rapacious beak, and greyish white wings. They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church. The gargoyles, which were added to Notre-Dame in about 1240, had a more practical purpose. They were the rain spouts of the church, designed to divide the torrent of water which poured from the roof after rain, and to project it outwards as far as possible from the buttresses and the walls and windows so that it would not erode the mortar binding the stone. To produce many thin streams rather than a torrent of water, a large number of gargoyles were used, so they were also designed to be a decorative element of the architecture. The rainwater ran from the roof into lead gutters, then down channels on the flying buttresses, then along a channel cut in the back of the gargoyle and out of the mouth away from the church. Many of the statues at Notre-Dame, particularly the grotesques, were removed from the façade in the 17th and 18th century, or were destroyed during the French Revolution. They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration. Similar figures appear on the other major Gothic churches of France and England. Another common feature of Gothic cathedrals in France was a labyrinth or maze on the floor of the nave near the choir, which symbolised the difficult and often complicated journey of a Christian life before attaining paradise. Most labyrinths were removed by the 18th century, but a few, like the one at Amiens Cathedral, have been reconstructed, and the labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral still exists essentially in its original form. * Gargoyle of Amiens Cathedral (13rh century)Gargoyle of Amiens Cathedral (13rh century) * A strix at Notre-Dame de Paris (19th century copy)A strix at Notre-Dame de Paris (19th century copy) * Labyrinth of Chartres Cathedral (13th century)Labyrinth of Chartres Cathedral (13th century) * Labyrinth with Chartres pattern at Amiens CathedralLabyrinth with Chartres pattern at Amiens Cathedral Windows and stained glass ------------------------- Increasing the amount of light in the interior was a primary objective of the founders of the Gothic movement. Abbot Suger described the new kind of architecture he had created in the east end of the Saint-Denis: "a circular ring of chapels, by virtue of which the whole church would shine with the wonderful and uninterrupted light of most luminous windows, pervading the interior beauty." Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 6th-century mystic whose book, *De Coelesti Hierarchia*, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine. When the Abbot Suger ordered the reconstruction of choir of the his abbey church at Saint-Denis, he had the builders create seventy windows, admitting as much light as possible, as the means by which the faithful could be elevated from the material world to the immaterial world. The placement of the windows was also determined by religious doctrine. The windows on the north side, frequently in the shade, had windows depicting the Old Testament. The windows of the east, corresponding to the direction of the sunrise, had images of Christ and scenes from the New Testament. In the Early Gothic period, the glass was particularly thick and was deeply coloured with metal oxides; cobalt for blue, copper for a ruby red, iron for green, and antimony for yellow. The process of making the windows was described detail by the 12th-century monk known as Theophilus Presbyter. The glass of each colour was melted with the oxide, blown, shaped into small sheets, cracked with a hot iron into small pieces, and assembled on a large table. The details were painted onto the glass in vitreous enamel, then baked in a kiln to fuse the enamel on the glass. The pieces were fit into a framework of thin lead strips, and then put into a more solid frame or iron armatures between the panels. The finished window was set into the stone opening. Thin vertical and horizontal bars of iron, called *vergettes* or *barlotierres*, were placed inside the window to reinforce the glass against the wind. The use of iron rods between the panels of glass and a framework of stone mullions, or ribs, made it possible to create much larger windows. The three rose windows at Chartres (1203–1240) each were more than 12 m (40 ft) in diameter. Larger windows also appeared at York Minster (1140–1160) and Canterbury Cathedral (1178–1200) The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create. King Louis IX paid for the rose windows in the transept of Notre-Dame de Paris, but other windows were financed by the contributions of the professions or guilds of the city. These windows usually had a panel which illustrated the work of the guild which funded it, such as the drapers, stonemasons, or coopers. * Abbey of Saint-Denis, Abbot Suger represented at feet of Virgin Mary (12th century)Abbey of Saint-Denis, Abbot Suger represented at feet of Virgin Mary (12th century) * Detail of the Apocalypse window, Bourges Cathedral, early 13th centuryDetail of the Apocalypse window, Bourges Cathedral, early 13th century * Thomas Becket figure from Canterbury Cathedral (13th century)Thomas Becket figure from Canterbury Cathedral (13th century) * Glass of Sainte-Chapelle depicting a baptism (13th century), now in Cluny MuseumGlass of Sainte-Chapelle depicting a baptism (13th century), now in Cluny Museum * Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (14th century)Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (14th century) * Windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1451)Windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1451) The 13th century saw the introduction of a new kind of window, with grisaille, or white glass, with a geometric pattern, usually joined with medallions of stained glass. These windows allowed much more light into the cathedral, but diminished the vividness of the stained glass, since there was less contrast between the dark interior and bright exterior. The most remarkable and influential work of stained glass in the 13th century was the royal chapel, Sainte-Chapelle (1243–1248), where the windows of the upper chapel, 15 m (49 ft) high, occupied all of the walls on the three sides, with 1,134 individual scenes. Sainte-Chapelle became the model for other chapels across Europe. The 14th century brought a variety of new colours, and the use of more realistic shading and half-toning. This was done by the development of flashed glass. Clear glass was dipped into coloured glass, then portions of the coloured glass were ground away to give exactly the right shade. In the 15th century, artists began painting directly onto the glass with enamel colours. Gradually the art of glass came closer and closer to traditional painting. * The Visitation window (1480) from Ulm Minster, by Peter Hemmel of Andlau. Late Gothic with fine shading and painted details.The Visitation window (1480) from Ulm Minster, by Peter Hemmel of Andlau. Late Gothic with fine shading and painted details. * Late Gothic grisaille glass and painted figures, depicting Saint Nicholas (France, 1500–1510), Cluny MuseumLate Gothic grisaille glass and painted figures, depicting Saint Nicholas (France, 1500–1510), Cluny Museum * Detail of the Late Gothic stained glass of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, (1531)Detail of the Late Gothic stained glass of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, (1531) One of the most celebrated Flamboyant buildings was the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s), with walls of glass from floor to ceiling. The original glass was destroyed, and is replaced by grisaille glass. King's College Chapel (15th century), also followed the model of walls entirely filled with glass. The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create. King Louis IX paid for the rose windows in the transept of Notre-Dame de Paris, while other windows were often financed by the contributions of the professions or guilds of the city. These windows usually incorporated a panel which illustrates the work of the guild which funded it, such as the drapers, stonemasons, or barrel-makers. In England, the stained glass windows also grew in size and importance; major examples were the Becket Windows at Canterbury Cathedral (1200–1230) and the windows of Lincoln Cathedral (1200–1220). Enormous windows were also an important element of York Minster and Gloucester Cathedral. Much of the stained glass in Gothic churches today dates from later restorations, but a few, notably Chartres Cathedral and Bourges Cathedral, still have many of their original windows ### Rose windows Rose windows were a prominent feature of many Gothic churches and cathedrals. The rose was a symbol of the Virgin Mary, and they were particularly used in churches dedicated to her, including Notre-Dame de Paris. Nearly all the major Gothic cathedrals had them in the west façade, and many, such as Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens, Chartres, Strasbourg cathedral and Westminster Abbey, had them transepts as well. The designs of their tracery became increasingly complex, and gave their names to two periods; the Rayonnant and the Flamboyant. Two of the most famous Rayonnant rose windows were constructed in the transepts of Notre-Dame in the 13th century. * Notre Dame de Laon west window (13th century)Notre Dame de Laon west window (13th century) * South rose window of Notre Dame de Paris (13th century)South rose window of Notre Dame de Paris (13th century) * South rose window of Chartres Cathedral (13th century)South rose window of Chartres Cathedral (13th century) * West rose window of Reims Cathedral (13th century)West rose window of Reims Cathedral (13th century) * Grand rose of Strasbourg Cathedral (14th century)Grand rose of Strasbourg Cathedral (14th century) * Orvieto Cathedral rose window (14th c.)Orvieto Cathedral rose window (14th c.) ### High Gothic architectural elements, 1180–1230 * Flying buttresses developed * Higher vaults were possible because of the flying buttresses * Larger clerestory windows because of the flying buttresses. * Clerestory windows had geometric tracery * Rose windows became larger, with Geometric tracery * The west front of Notre-Dame set a formula adopted by other cathedrals. * Transept ends had ornate portals like the west front ### Rayonnant Gothic architectural elements 1230–1350 * Cathedrals increasingly tall in relation to width, facilitated by the development of complex systems of buttressing * Quadripartite vaults over a single bay * Vaults in France maintained simple forms but elsewhere the patterns of ribs became more elaborate. * Emphasis on the appearance of high internally. * Abandonment of fourth stage, either the deep triforium gallery or the shallow tribune gallery, in the internal elevation. * Columns of Classical proportion disappear in favour of increasingly tall columns surrounded by clusters of shafts. * Complex shafted piers * Large windows divided by mullions into several lights (vertical panels) with Geometric tracery in the arch * Large rose windows in Geometric or Radiating designs ### Flamboyant Gothic architectural elements 1350–1550 * The design of tracery no longer dependent on circular shapes, developed S curves and flame-like shapes. * Complex vaults with Flamboyant shapes in the ribs, particularly in Spain and Central Europe, but rare in France * Many rose windows built with Flamboyant tracery, many in France. * Large windows of several lights with Flamboyant tracery in the arch * The Flamboyant arch, drafted from four centres, used for smaller openings, e.g. doorways and niches. * Mouldings of Flamboyant shape often used as non structural decoration over openings, topped by a floral finial (*poupée*) Palaces ------- The Gothic style was used in royal and papal residences as well as in churches. Prominent examples include the Palais de la Cité the Medieval Louvre, the Chateau de Vincennes in Paris, residences of the French kings, the Doge's Palace in Venice, and the Palace of the Kings of Navarre in Olite (1269–1512). Another is the Palais des Papes (Palace of the Popes), the former Papal residence in Avignon. It was constructed between 1252 and 1364, during the Avignon Papacy. Given the complicated political situation, it combined the functions of a church, a seat of government and a fortress.( The Palais de la Cité in Paris, close to Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1119, which was the principal residence of the French kings until 1417. Most of the Palais de la Cité is gone, but two of the original towers along the Seine, of the towers, the vaulted ceilings of the Hall of the Men-at-Arms (1302), (now in the Conciergerie; and the original chapel, Sainte-Chapelle, can still be seen. The Louvre Palace was originally built by Philippe II of France beginning in 1190 to house the King's archives and treasures, and given machicoulis and features of a Gothic fortress. However, it was soon made obsolete by the development of artillery, and in the 15th century it was remodelled into a comfortable residential palace. While the outer walls retained their original military appearance, the castle itself, with a profusion of spires, towers, pinnacles, arches and gables, became a visible symbol of royalty and aristocracy. The style was copied in chateaux and other aristocratic residences across France and other parts of Europe. * Palais de la Cité (1119–) and Sainte-Chapelle (1238–48), ParisPalais de la Cité (1119–) and Sainte-Chapelle (1238–48), Paris * Hall of men-at-arms, Conciergerie of the Palais de la CitéHall of men-at-arms, Conciergerie of the Palais de la Cité * Façade of the Palais des Papes, Avignon (1252–1364)Façade of the Palais des Papes, Avignon (1252–1364) * The Doge's Palace, Venice (1340–1442)The Doge's Palace, Venice (1340–1442) * Palace of the Kings of Navarre, Olite (1269–1512)Palace of the Kings of Navarre, Olite (1269–1512) * Great Gatehouse at Hampton Court Palace, London (1522)Great Gatehouse at Hampton Court Palace, London (1522) Civic architecture ------------------ In the 15th century, following the late Gothic period or flamboyant style, elements of Gothic decoration began to appear in the town halls of northern France, Flanders and the Netherlands. The Rouen Courthouse in Normandy is representative of Flamboyant Gothic in France. The Hôtel de Ville of Compiègne has an imposing Gothic bell tower, featuring a spire surrounded by smaller towers, and its windows are decorated with ornate accolades or ornamental arches. Similarly flamboyant town halls were found in Arras, Douai, and Saint-Quentin, Aisne, and in modern Belgium, in Brussels, Ghent, Bruges, Audenarde, Mons and Leuven. Gothic civil architecture in Spain includes the Silk Exchange in Valencia, Spain (1482–1548), a major marketplace, which has a main hall with twisting columns beneath its vaulted ceiling. * Hildesheim Town Hall, Germany (13/14th c.)Hildesheim Town Hall, Germany (13/14th c.) * Gdańsk Town Hall, Poland (15th c.)Gdańsk Town Hall, Poland (15th c.) * Bell tower of the Hotel de Ville of Douai, France (14th c.)Bell tower of the Hotel de Ville of Douai, France (14th c.) * Brussels' Town Hall (15th century)Brussels' Town Hall (15th century) * Belfry of Bruges in Bruges, Belgium (13th c. (lower stages), 15th c. (upper stages)Belfry of Bruges in Bruges, Belgium (13th c. (lower stages), 15th c. (upper stages) * Silk Exchange, Valencia (1482–1548)Silk Exchange, Valencia (1482–1548) * Gallery of Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona (1403)Gallery of Palau de la Generalitat, Barcelona (1403) * Middelburg Town Hall, Netherlands (1520)Middelburg Town Hall, Netherlands (1520) * Town Hall Gouda, Netherlands (1459)Town Hall Gouda, Netherlands (1459) University Gothic ----------------- The Gothic style was adopted in the late 13th to 15th centuries in early English university buildings, with inspiration coming from monasteries and manor houses.[*page needed*] The oldest existing example in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College at Oxford University, constructed between 1288 and 1378. The style was further refined by William of Wykeham, Chancellor of England and founder of New College, Oxford, in 1379. His architect, William Wynford, designed the New College quadrangle in the 1380s, which combined a hall, chapel, library, and residences for Fellows and undergraduates. A similar kind of academic cloister was created at Queen's College, Oxford, in the 1140s, likely designed by Reginald Ely. The design of the colleges was influenced not only by abbeys, but also the design of English manor houses of the 14th and 15th century, such as Haddon Hall in Derbyshire. They were was composed of rectangular courtyards with covered walkways which separated the wings. Some colleges, like Balliol College, Oxford, borrowed a military style from Gothic castles, with battlements and crenolated walls. King's College Chapel, Cambridge is one of the finest examples of the late Gothic style. It was built by King Henry VI, who was displeased by the excessive decoration of earlier styles. He wrote in 1447 that he wanted his chapel "to proceed in large form, clean and substantial, setting apart superfluity of too great curious works of entail and busy moulding." The chapel, built between 1508 and 1515, has glass walls from floor to ceiling, rising to spreading fan vaults designed by John Wastell. The glass walls are supported by large external buttresses concealed at the base by side chapels. Other European examples include Collegio di Spagna in the University of Bologna, built during the 14th and 15th centuries; the Collegium Carolinum of the Charles University in Prague in Bohemia (c. 1400); the Escuelas mayores of the University of Salamanca in Spain; and the Collegium Maius of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland. * Mob Quad of Merton College, Oxford University (1288–1378)Mob Quad of Merton College, Oxford University (1288–1378) * Balliol College, Oxford, front quad, with decorative battlements (1431)Balliol College, Oxford, front quad, with decorative battlements (1431) * Fan vaults and glass walls of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1508–1515)Fan vaults and glass walls of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1508–1515) * Gothic oriel window, Karolinum, Charles University, Prague (c.1380)Gothic oriel window, Karolinum, Charles University, Prague (c.1380) * Cloister, Collegium Maius, Kraków (late 15th century)Cloister, Collegium Maius, Kraków (late 15th century) Military architecture --------------------- In the 13th century, the design of the castle (French: *château fort*) evolved in response to contact with the more sophisticated fortifications of the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world during the Crusades. These new fortifications were more geometric, with a central high tower called a keep (French: *donjon*) which could be defended even if the curtain walls of the castle were breached. The donjon of the Château de Vincennes, begun by Philip VI of France was a good example. It was 52 m (171 ft) high, and, even though within the moat and walls of the fortress, had its own separate drawbridge to going to higher floor. Towers, usually round, were placed at the corners and along the walls in the Phillipienne castle, close enough together to support each other. The walls had two levels of walkways on the inside, a crennellated parapet with merlons, and projecting machicolations from which missiles could be dropped on besiegers. The upper walls also had protected protruding balconies, *échauguettes* and *bretèches*, from which soldiers could see what was happening at the corners or on the ground below. In addition, the towers and walls were pierced with arrowslits, which sometimes took the form of crosses to enable a wider field of fire for archers and crossbowmen. Castles were surrounded by a deep moat, spanned by a single drawbridge. The entrance was also protected by a grill of iron which could be opened and closed. The walls at the bottom were often sloping, and protected with earthen barriers. One good surviving example is the Château de Dourdan, near Nemours. After the end of the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), with improvements in artillery, the castles lost most of their military importance. They remained as symbols of the rank of their noble occupants; the narrowing openings in the walls were often widened into the windows of bedchambers and ceremonial halls. The tower of the Château de Vincennes became a part-time royal residence until the Palace of Versailles was completed. * Restored outer walls of the medieval city of Carcassonne (13th–14th century)Restored outer walls of the medieval city of Carcassonne (13th–14th century) * Malbork Castle in Poland (13th century)Malbork Castle in Poland (13th century) * Alcazar of Segovia (12th–13th centuries)Alcazar of Segovia (12th–13th centuries) * Hohenzollern Castle (1454–1461) in Baden-Württemberg, southern GermanyHohenzollern Castle (1454–1461) in Baden-Württemberg, southern Germany * Visconti Castle, 1360- 1365, Pavia Visconti Castle, 1360- 1365, Pavia Synagogues ---------- * Romanesque Worms Synagogue from the 11th century with Gothic windows (after 1355)Romanesque Worms Synagogue from the 11th century with Gothic windows (after 1355) * Scolanova Synagogue, Trani, Apulia (1247)Scolanova Synagogue, Trani, Apulia (1247) * Old New Synagogue, Prague (c. 1270)Old New Synagogue, Prague (c. 1270) * Main portal of the Old New Synagogue, Prague (c. 1270)Main portal of the Old New Synagogue, Prague (c. 1270) * Old Synagogue, Erfurt (c. 1270)Old Synagogue, Erfurt (c. 1270) * Late Gothic vaulting of Pinkas Synagogue, Prague (1535)Late Gothic vaulting of Pinkas Synagogue, Prague (1535) * Renaissance interior of the Old Synagogue in Kraków using Gothic vaults (1570)Renaissance interior of the Old Synagogue in Kraków using Gothic vaults (1570) Although Christianity played a dominant role in the Gothic sacred architecture, Jewish communities were present in many European cities during the Middle Ages and they also built their houses of prayer in the Gothic style. Unfortunately, most of the Gothic synagogues did not survive, because they were often destroyed in connection with persecution of the Jews (e. g. in Bamberg, Nürnberg, Regensburg, Vienna). One of the best preserved examples of a Gothic synagogue is the Old New Synagogue in Prague which was completed around 1270 and never rebuilt.[*clarification needed*] Mosques ------- * The mihrab of the Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque of Famagusta is located on a side chapelThe mihrab of the Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque of Famagusta is located on a side chapel * The carpet pattern marks the ranks for the faithful to pray towards Mecca (obliquely on the right) in the Selimiye Mosque of Northern NicosiaThe carpet pattern marks the ranks for the faithful to pray towards Mecca (obliquely on the right) in the Selimiye Mosque of Northern Nicosia * A minaret has been added to the Fethija mosque of BihaćA minaret has been added to the Fethija mosque of Bihać * Arap MosqueArap Mosque There are a few mosques in Gothic style. They are Latin Catholic churches converted into mosques. The conversion implied compromises since Latin churches are oriented towards the East and mosques are oriented towards Mecca. * The Arap Mosque in Galata, Istanbul, Turkey. * Fethija Mosque, in Bihać, Bosnia and Herzegovina. * Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, originally Saint Nicholas Cathedral in Famagusta, Cyprus. The minaret was added during Ottoman times and was later adapted to the building's overall Gothic style by British colonial architects * Selimiye Mosque, Nicosia, originally Saint Sophia Cathedral, Cyprus Decline ------- Beginning in the 16th century, as Renaissance architecture from Italy began to appear in France and other countries in Europe, the dominance of Gothic architecture began to wane. Nonetheless, new Gothic buildings, particularly churches, continued to be built. New Gothic churches built in Paris in this period included Saint-Merri (1520–1552) and Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois. The first signs of classicism in Paris churches did not appear until 1540, at Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais. The largest new church, Saint-Eustache (1532–1560), rivalled Notre-Dame in size, 105 m (344 ft) long, 44 m (144 ft) wide, and 35 m (115 ft) high. As construction of this church continued, elements of Renaissance decoration, including the system of classical orders of columns, were added to the design, making it a Gothic-Renaissance hybrid. The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric. The term "Gothic" was first used as a pejorative description. Giorgio Vasari used the term "barbarous German style" in his 1550 *Lives of the Artists* to describe what is now considered the Gothic style. In the introduction to the *Lives* he attributed various architectural features to the Goths whom he held responsible for destroying the ancient buildings after they conquered Rome, and erecting new ones in this style. In the 17th century, Molière also mocked the Gothic style in the 1669 poem *La Gloire*: "...the insipid taste of Gothic ornamentation, these odious monstrosities of an ignorant age, produced by the torrents of barbarism..." The dominant styles in Europe became in turn Italian Renaissance architecture, Baroque architecture, and the grand classicism of the *style Louis XIV*. Survival, rediscovery and revival --------------------------------- Gothic architecture, usually churchs or university buildings, continued to be built. Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral (c. 1730), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples. In the 17th and 18th century several important Gothic buildings were constructed at Oxford University and Cambridge University, including Tom Tower (1681–82) at Christ Church, Oxford, by Christopher Wren. It also appeared, in a whimsical fashion, in Horace Walpole's Twickenham villa, Strawberry Hill (1749–1776). The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, opening a new period of Gothic Revival. In England, partly in response to a philosophy propounded by the Oxford Movement and others associated with the emerging revival of 'high church' or Anglo-Catholic ideas during the second quarter of the 19th century, neo-Gothic began to become promoted by influential establishment figures as the preferred style for ecclesiastical, civic and institutional architecture. The appeal of this Gothic revival (which after 1837, in Britain, is sometimes termed Victorian Gothic), gradually widened to encompass "low church" as well as "high church" clients. This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic. The Palace of Westminster in London by Sir Charles Barry with interiors by a major exponent of the early Gothic Revival, Augustus Welby Pugin, is an example of the Gothic revival style from its earlier period in the second quarter of the 19th century. Examples from the *High Victorian Gothic* period include George Gilbert Scott's design for the Albert Memorial in London, and William Butterfield's chapel at Keble College, Oxford. From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types. Gothic details even began to appear in working-class housing schemes subsidised by philanthropy, though given the expense, less frequently than in the design of upper and middle-class housing. The middle of the 19th century was a period marked by the restoration, and in some cases modification, of ancient monuments and the construction of neo-Gothic edifices such as the nave of Cologne Cathedral and the Sainte-Clotilde of Paris as speculation of mediaeval architecture turned to technical consideration. London's Palace of Westminster, St Pancras railway station, New York's Trinity Church and St Patrick's Cathedral are also famous examples of Gothic Revival buildings. The style also reached the Far East in the period, for instance the Anglican St John's Cathedral located at the centre of Victoria City in Central, Hong Kong. * Tom Tower, Christ Church, Oxford, (1681–82), designed by Christopher WrenTom Tower, Christ Church, Oxford, (1681–82), designed by Christopher Wren * Strawberry Hill House, Twickenham (begun 1749, completed in 1776), designed for Horace WalpoleStrawberry Hill House, Twickenham (begun 1749, completed in 1776), designed for Horace Walpole * Guildhall, London, main entrance (completed 1788) designed by George DanceGuildhall, London, main entrance (completed 1788) designed by George Dance * Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben) (completed in 1859) and the Houses of Parliament in London (1840–1876)Elizabeth Tower (Big Ben) (completed in 1859) and the Houses of Parliament in London (1840–1876) * Ohel David Synagogue, Pune (completed 1867)Ohel David Synagogue, Pune (completed 1867) * Frere Hall, Karachi, (completed 1865)Frere Hall, Karachi, (completed 1865) * St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York City, (completed 1878)St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York City, (completed 1878) * Palazzo del Governatore, Rhodes (1927) designed by Florestano Di Fausto*Palazzo del Governatore*, Rhodes (1927) designed by Florestano Di Fausto Sub Varieties ------------- ### Styles #### French Styles * French Gothic + Early Gothic + High Gothic + Rayonnant + Flamboyant * Southern French Gothic #### Mediterranean Styles * Iberian Gothic + Portuguese Gothic - Manueline + Spanish Gothic - Castilian Gothic - Levantine Gothic - Valencian Gothic - Catalan Gothic * Balearic Gothic - Isabelline - Plateresque * Italian Gothic + Lombard Gothic + Venetian Gothic #### Northern Styles * English Gothic + Early English Gothic + Decorated Gothic + Perpendicular Gothic * Low Country Gothic + Scheldt Gothic + Mosan Gothic + Brabantian Gothic * Czech Gothic * Sondergotik * Lithuanian Gothic + Belarusian Gothic * Polish Gothic ### Chronological Subsets * Romano-Gothic * Gothic Survival * Neo-Gothic ### Type * Brick Gothic * Jettied Buildings * Gothic Ecclesiastic Architecture + Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England * Gothic Secular Architecture + Military Notable Examples ---------------- ### Austria * St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna ### Belarus * Mir Castle Complex * Muravanka Church * Church of St.Barys And St.Hlieb, Navahradak * Church of St. Michael, Synkavichy * Church of the Holy Trinity, Iškaldź ### Belgium * Brussels Town Hall * Brussels Cathedral * Belfry of Bruges * Belfry of Ghent * Tournai Cathedral * Antwerp Cathedral * Leuven Town Hall * Mechelen Cathedral ### Croatia * Zagreb Cathedral ### Czech Republic * Prague Cathedral * Charles Bridge * Vladislav Hall * Old Town Hall (Prague) ### France * Albi Cathedral * Amiens Cathedral * Blois-Vienne Church * Chartres Cathedral * Fontevraud Abbey * Notre-Dame de Paris * Palais des papes * Reims Cathedral * Rouen Cathedral * Saint Denis Basilica * Sainte-Chapelle * Strasbourg Cathedral ### Germany * Ulm Minster * Cologne Cathedral * Maulbronn Monastery * Regensburg Cathedral * Freiburg Minster * Bremen Town Hall * Frauenkirche ### Hungary * Matthias Church ### Italy * Milan Cathedral * Orvieto Cathedral * Siena Cathedral * Naples Cathedral * Doge's palace * Palazzo Pubblico * Palazzo Vecchio * Giotto's Campanile * White Tower (Brixen) ### Lithuania * Kaunas Castle * Trakai Peninsula Castle * Trakai Island Castle * Medininkai Castle * Vilnius Upper Castle * Saint Nicholas Church * Vytautas' the Great Church * Kaunas Cathedral Basilica * Church of St. Anne * House of Perkūnas ### Netherlands * St. John's Cathedral ('s-Hertogenbosch) * Ridderzaal, The Hague * Grote or Sint-Jacobskerk (The Hague) * Middelburg Town Hall, Middelburg * St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht * Nieuwe Kerk (Amsterdam) * Nieuwe Kerk (Delft) * Cathedral of St Bavo, Haarlem * Grote Kerk, Haarlem * City Hall (Haarlem) * Grote Kerk (Breda) * St. Christopher's Cathedral, Roermond * Dinghuis, Maastricht * Oude Kerk (Delft) * Grote Kerk, Dordrecht * Hooglandse Kerk, Leiden * Grote of Sint-Laurenskerk (Rotterdam) * St Eusebius' Church, Arnhem ### Norway * Nidaros Cathedral * Haakon's Hall, Bergenhus ### Poland * Wrocław Town Hall * Gdańsk Town Hall * Copernicus House in Toruń * Frombork Cathedral * Gniezno Cathedral * Wawel Cathedral * Pelplin Abbey * Toruń Cathedral * Wrocław Cathedral * Gniew Castle * Kwidzyn Castle * Lidzbark Castle * Malbork Castle * St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków * Basilica of St. James and St. Agnes, Nysa * Collegiate Basilica of the Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Wiślica * St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk * St. Catherine's Church, Gdańsk * St. Mary's Church, Stargard * Basilica of Holy Trinity, Kraków * Corpus Christi Basilica * St Elizabeth's Church, Wrocław * St Dorothea Church, Wrocław * Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew, Wrocław * Church of St Mary on the Sand * St. John the Evangelist's Church, Paczków * Saints Peter and Paul Basilica, Strzegom * Kraków Barbican * Collegium Maius, Kraków * St. Florian's Gate ### Portugal * Jeronimos Monastery * Monastery of Batalha * Monastery of Alcobaça * Evora Cathedral * Carmo Convent * Guarda Cathedral * Lisbon Cathedral * Oporto Cathedral * Silves Cathedral * Cathedral of Funchal * Convent of Christ * Castle of Leiria * Sabugal Castle * Castle of Estremoz * Castle of Bragança * Castle of Santa Maria da Feira * Belém Tower * Monastery of Jesus of Setúbal * Convent of Nossa Senhora da Conceição de Beja * Graça Church * Santa Maria dos Olivais Church * Leça do Balio Monastery * Saint John of Alporão Church * Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha * Monastery of São Francisco ### Romania * Black Church * Corvin Castle * Saschiz fortified church * Sebeș Lutheran church * Sibiu Lutheran Cathedral * St. Michael's Church, Cluj-Napoca ### Spain * Palace of the Kings of Navarre of Olite * Palau de la Generalitat * Llotja de la Seda * León Cathedral * Burgos Cathedral * Toledo Cathedral * Cathedral of Avila * Palace of the Borgias * Oviedo Cathedral * Valencia Cathedral * Seville Cathedral, the largest Gothic church * Palma Cathedral ### Sweden * Linköping Cathedral * Uppsala Cathedral * Visby Cathedral ### Switzerland * Basel Minster ### Slovakia * St Elisabeth Cathedral * St Martin's Cathedral, Bratislava ### United Kingdom * Bath Abbey * Beverley Minster * Bristol Cathedral * Canterbury Cathedral * Christ Church, Oxford * Ely Cathedral * Glasgow Cathedral * King's College Chapel, Cambridge * Lichfield Cathedral * Lincoln Cathedral * Peterborough Cathedral * Salisbury Cathedral * St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle * Westminster Abbey * Winchester Cathedral * York Minster See also -------- * Architectural history * Architecture of cathedrals and great churches * Carpenter Gothic * Collegiate Gothic in North America * Gothicmed * Gothic cathedrals and churches * List of Gothic architecture * Mudéjar * Tented roof Bibliography ------------ * Bechmann, Roland 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Payot. ISBN 978-2-228-90651-7. * Burton, Janet B.; Kerr, Julie (2011). *The Cistercians in the Middle Ages*. Monastic orders. Vol. 4 (Illustrated ed.). Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843836674. * Bony, Jean (1983). *French Gothic Architecture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02831-9. * Chastel, André (2000). *L'Art Français Pré-Moyen Âge Moyen Âge* (in French). Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 2-08-012298-3. * Ching, Francis D.K. (2012). *A Visual Dictionary of Architecture* (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-470-64885-8. * Clark, W. W.; King, R. (1983). Laon Cathedral, Architecture. Courtauld Institute Illustration Archives. 1. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. ISBN 9780905203553. * Der Manuelian, Lucy (2001). "Ani: The Fabled Capital of Armenia". In Cowe, S. Peter (ed.). *Ani: World Architectural Heritage of a Medieval Armenian Capital*. Leuven Sterling. ISBN 978-90-429-1038-6. * Draper, Peter (2005). "Islam and the West: The Early Use of the Pointed Arch Revisited". *Architectural History*. **5**: 1–20. doi:10.1017/S0066622X00003701. ISSN 0066-622X. JSTOR 40033831. S2CID 194947480. * Ducher, Robert (1988). *Caractéristique des Styles* (in French). Flammarion. ISBN 978-2-08-011539-3. * Ducher, Robert (2014). *Caractéristique des Styles* (in French). Flammarion. ISBN 978-2-0813-4383-2. * Fiske, Kimball (1943). *The Creation of the Rococo*. Philadelphia Museum of Art. * Fletcher, Banister (2001). *A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method*. Elsevier Science & Technology. ISBN 978-0-7506-2267-7. * Garsoïan, Nina G. (2015). "Sirarpie Der Nersessian (1896–1989)". In Damico, Helen (ed.). *Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies on the Formation of a Discipline: Religion and Art*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-77636-9. * Giese, Francine; Pawlak, Anna; Thome, Markus (2018). *Tomb – Memory – Space: Concepts of Representation in Premodern Christian and Islamic Art* (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 9783110517347. * Grodecki, Louis (1977). Nervi, Luigi (ed.). *Gothic Architecture*. In collaboration with Anne Prache and Roland Recht, translated from French by I. Mark Paris. Abrams Books. ISBN 978-0-8109-1008-9. * Harvey, John (1950). *The Gothic World, 1100–1600*. Batsford. ISBN 978-0-00-255228-8. * Harvey, John (1974). *Châteaux et Cathédrals-L'Art des Batisseurs, L'Encyclopedie de la Civilisation* (in French). London: Thames and Hudson. * Hughes, William; Punter, David; Smith, Andrew (2015). *The Encyclopedia of the Gothic*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119210412. * Jones, Colin (1999). *The Cambridge Illustrated History of France*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66992-4. * Lang, David Marshall (1980). *Armenia: Cradle of Civilization*. Allen & Unwin. * Martin, G. H.; Highfield, J. R. L. (1997). *A history of Merton College, Oxford*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-920183-8. * Martindale, Andrew (1993). *Gothic Art*. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-2-87811-058-6. * McNamara, Denis (2017). *Comprendre l'Art des Églises* (in French). Larousse. ISBN 978-2-03-589952-1. * Mignon, Olivier (2017). *Architecture du Patrimoine Française - Abbayes, Églises, Cathédrales et Châteaux* (in French). Éditions Ouest-France. ISBN 978-27373-7611-5. * Mignon, Olivier (2015). *Architecture des Cathédrales Gothiques* (in French). Éditions Ouest-France. ISBN 978-2-7373-6535-5. * Mitchell, Ann (1968). *Cathedrals of Europe*. Great Buildings of the World. Hamlyn. ASIN B0006C19ES. * Moffat, Fazio & Wodehouse (2003). *A World History of Architecture*. Laurence King Publishing. ISBN 1-85669-353-8. * Montagnon, Pierre (2016). *La France des Clochers* (in French). Editions Telemaque. ISBN 978-2-7533-0307-2. * Oggins, R.O. (2000). *Cathedrals*. *Metrobooks*. Friedman/Fairfax Publishers. ISBN 9781567993462. Retrieved 6 October 2010. * Pevsner, Nikolaus (1964). *An Outline of European Architecture*. Pelican Books. ISBN 978-0-14-061613-2. * Poisson, Georges; Poisson, Olivier (2014). *Eugène Viollet-le-Duc* (in French). Paris: Picard. ISBN 978-2-7084-0952-1. * Raeburn, Michael (1980). "The Middle Ages". In Coldstream, Nicola (ed.). *Architecture of the Western World*. With a foreword by Sir Hugh Casson. Rizzoli International. ISBN 978-0-8478-0349-1. * Renault, Christophe; Lazé, Christophe (2006). *Les Styles de l'architecture et du mobilier* (in French). Gisserot. ISBN 978-2-87747-465-8. * Ovid (1851). Riley, Henry T. (ed.). *The Fasti, Tristia, Pontic Epistles, Ibis, and Halieuticon of Ovid*. H. G. Bohn. p. 216. * Scott, Robert A. (2003). *The Gothic enterprise: a guide to understanding the Medieval cathedral*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23177-1. * Stewart, Cecil (1959). *History of Architectural Development: Early Christian, Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture*. Longman. * Swaan, Wim (1988). *The Gothic Cathedral*. Omega Books. ISBN 978-0-907853-48-0. * Rice, David Talbot (1972). *The Appreciation of Byzantine Art*. Oxford University Press. * Texier, Simon (2012). *Paris Panorama de l'architecture de l'Antiquité à nos jours* (in French). Parigramme. ISBN 978-2-84096-667-8. * Toman, Rolf (2007). *Néoclassicisme et Romantisme*. Ulmann. ISBN 978-3-8331-3557-6. * Vasari, Giorgio (1907). Brown, Gerald Baldwin; Maclehose, Louisa (eds.). *Vasari on Technique: Being the Introduction to the Three Arts of Design, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting, Prefixed to the Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects*. J. M. Dent & Co. * Vasari, Giorgio (1991). *The Lives of the Artists*. Translated with an introduction and notes by J.C. and P. Bondanella. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953719-8. * Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène (1868). *Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle*. Édition BANCE. * Watkin, David (1986). *A History of Western Architecture*. Barrie and Jenkins. ISBN 0-7126-1279-3. * Wenzler, Claude (2018). *Les cathédrales gothiques: Un défi médiéval* (in French). Éditions Ouest-France. ISBN 978-2-7373-7712-9. ### Further reading * Buttitta, Antonino, ed. (2006). *Les Normands en Sicile*. Musée de Normandie. ISBN 978-88-7439-328-2. * Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, *Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture*, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 14. * Bumpus, T. Francis (1928). *The Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium*. T. Werner Laurie. ISBN 978-1-313-40185-2. * Clifton-Taylor, Alec (1967). *The Cathedrals of England*. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-18070-9. * Cram, Ralph Adams (1909). "Gothic Architecture." *The Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. * Gardner, Helen; Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2004). *Gardner's Art Through the Ages*. Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7. * Harvey, John (1961). *English Cathedrals*. Batsford. ASIN B0000CL4S8. * Huyghe, René, ed. (1963). *Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and Medieval Art*. Hamlyn. ISBN 978-0-600-02357-9. * Icher, Francois (1998). *Building the Great Cathedrals*. Abrams Books. ISBN 978-0-8109-4017-8. * Simson, Otto Georg (1988). *The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order*. ISBN 978-0-691-09959-0. * Glaser, Stephanie, "The Gothic Cathedral and Medievalism," in: *Falling into Medievalism*, ed. Anne Lair and Richard Utz. Special Issue of *UNIversitas: The University of Northern Iowa Journal of Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity*, 2.1 (2006). (on the Gothic revival of the 19th century and the depictions of Gothic cathedrals in the Arts) * Moore, Charles (1890). *Development & Character of Gothic Architecture*. Macmillan and Co. ISBN 978-1-4102-0763-0. * Rudolph, Conrad ed., *A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe*, 2nd ed. (2016) * Tonazzi, Pascal (2007) *Florilège de Notre-Dame de Paris (anthologie)*, Editions Arléa, Paris, ISBN 2-86959-795-9 * Wilson, Christopher (2005). *The Gothic Cathedral – Architecture of the Great Church*. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27681-5. * Summerson, John (1983). Pelican Books (ed.). *Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830*. ISBN 978-0-14-056003-9. * Swaan, Wim (1982). *Art and Architecture of the Late Middle Ages*. Omega Books. ISBN 978-0-907853-35-0. * Tatton-Brown, Tim; Crook, John (2002). *The English Cathedral*. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84330-120-2. * Ceccarini, Patrizio (2013). *La structure fondatrice gothique. Théologie, sciences et architecture au XIIIe siècle à Saint-Denis (tomeI)*. Vol. I. ISBN 978-2-336-30184-6. * Ceccarini, Patrizio (2013). *Le système architectural gothique. Théologie, sciences et architecture au XIIIe siècle à Saint-Denis*. Vol. II. ISBN 978-2-336-30185-3. * Rivière, Rémi; Lavoye, Agnès (2007). *La Tour Jean sans Peur*, Association des Amis de la tour Jean sans Peur. ISBN 978-2-95164-940-8

Gothic architecture

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture

**Palestinians** (Arabic: الفلسطينيون, *al-Filasṭīniyyūn*; Hebrew: פָלַסְטִינִים, *Fālasṭīnīm*) or **Palestinian people** (الشعب الفلسطيني, *ash-sha‘b al-Filasṭīnī*), also referred to as **Palestinian Arabs** (الفلسطينيين العرب, *al-Filasṭīniyyīn al-ʿArab*), are an ethnonational group descending from peoples who have inhabited the region of Palestine over the millennia, and who are today culturally and linguistically Arab. Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the world's Palestinian population continues to reside in the territory of former Mandatory Palestine, now encompassing the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (the Palestinian territories) as well as Israel. In this combined area, as of 2022[update], Palestinians constitute a demographic majority, with an estimated population of 7.503 million or 51.16% (as compared to Jews at 46-47%) of all inhabitants, taking in the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and almost 21 percent of the population of Israel proper as part of its Arab citizens. Many are Palestinian refugees or internally displaced Palestinians, including more than a million in the Gaza Strip, around 750,000 in the West Bank, and around 250,000 in Israel proper. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, known as the Palestinian diaspora, more than half are stateless, lacking legal citizenship in any country. Between 2.1 and 3.24 million of the diaspora population live as refugees in neighboring Jordan; over 1 million live between Syria and Lebanon, and about 750,000 live in Saudi Arabia, with Chile holding the largest Palestinian diaspora concentration (around half a million) outside of the Arab world. In 1919, Palestinian Muslims and Palestinian Christians constituted 90 percent of the population of Palestine, just before the third wave of Jewish immigration under the British Mandate after World War I. Opposition to Jewish immigration spurred the consolidation of a unified national identity, though Palestinian society was still fragmented by regional, class, religious, and family differences. The history of the Palestinian national identity is a disputed issue amongst scholars; the term "Palestinian" was used to refer to the nationalist concept of a Palestinian people by Palestinian Arabs from the late 19th century and in the pre-World War I period. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and subsequent creation of an individual British Mandate for the region replaced Ottoman citizenship with Palestinian citizenship, solidifying a national identity. After the Israeli Declaration of Independence, the 1948 Palestinian expulsion, and more so after the 1967 Palestinian exodus, the term "Palestinian" evolved into a sense of a shared future in the form of aspirations for a Palestinian state. Today, the Palestinian identity encompasses the heritage of all ages from biblical times up to the Ottoman period. Founded in 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization is an umbrella organization for groups that represent the Palestinian people before international states. The Palestinian National Authority, officially established in 1994 as a result of the Oslo Accords, is an interim administrative body nominally responsible for governance in Palestinian population centres in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Since 1978, the United Nations has observed an annual International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People. According to British historian Perry Anderson, it is estimated that half of the population in the Palestinian territories are refugees, and that they have collectively suffered approximately US$300 billion in property losses due to Israeli confiscations, at 2008–2009 prices. Etymology --------- The Greek toponym *Palaistínē* (Παλαιστίνη), which is the origin of the Arabic *Filasṭīn* (فلسطين), first occurs in the work of the 5th century BCE Greek historian Herodotus, where it denotes generally the coastal land from Phoenicia down to Egypt. Herodotus also employs the term as an ethnonym, as when he speaks of the 'Syrians of Palestine' or 'Palestinian-Syrians', an ethnically amorphous group he distinguishes from the Phoenicians. Herodotus makes no distinction between the Jews and other inhabitants of Palestine. The Greek word reflects an ancient Eastern Mediterranean-Near Eastern word which was used either as a toponym or ethnonym. In Ancient Egyptian *Peleset/Purusati* has been conjectured to refer to the "Sea Peoples", particularly the Philistines. Among Semitic languages, Akkadian *Palaštu* (variant *Pilištu*) is used of 7th-century Philistia and its, by then, four city states. Biblical Hebrew's cognate word *Plištim*, is usually translated Philistines. When the Romans conquered the region in the first century BCE, they used the name "Judaea" for the province that covered most of the region. At the same time, the name *Syria Palestina* continued to be used by historians and geographers and others alongside the term Judaea to refer to the area between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, as in the writings of Philo, Josephus and Pliny the Elder. During the second or third decades of the 2nd century, Syria Palaestina became the official administrative name for the new province that encompassed most of Judaea, in a move commonly viewed by scholars as an action by emperor Hadrian to "disassociate the Jewish people from their historical homeland" or as a "punishment" for the Bar Kokhba revolt. There is no evidence as to when the name change was implemented or by whom. Jacobson suggested the name to be rationalized by the fact that the new province was far larger than geographical Judea, with the name of *Syria Palaestina* already in use for centuries by the time the Bar Kokhba revolt took place. The new administrative name was printed on coins, in inscriptions and even appeared, starting in the fifth century CE, in rabbinic texts. However, some writers continued to use the term Judaea, most likely out of habit and since in the eyes of the ancients[*who?*], the area belonged in first place to the Jews. The Arabic word *Filastin* has been used to refer to the region since the time of the earliest medieval Arab geographers. It appears to have been used as an Arabic adjectival noun in the region since as early as the 7th century CE. In modern times, the first person to self-describe Palestine's Arabs as "Palestinians" was Khalil Beidas in 1898, followed by Salim Quba'in and Najib Nassar in 1902. After the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, which eased press censorship laws in the Ottoman Empire, dozens of newspapers and periodicals were founded in Palestine, and the term "Palestinian" expanded in usage. Among those were the Al-Quds, Al-Munadi, Falastin, Al-Karmil and Al-Nafir newspapers, which used the term "Filastini" more than 170 times in 110 articles from 1908 to 1914. They also made references to a "Palestinian society", "Palestinian nation", and a "Palestinian diaspora". Article writers included Christian and Muslim Arab Palestinians, Palestinian emigrants, and non-Palestinian Arabs. During the Mandatory Palestine period, the term "Palestinian" was used to refer to all people residing there, regardless of religion or ethnicity, and those granted citizenship by the British Mandatory authorities were granted "Palestinian citizenship". Other examples include the use of the term Palestine Regiment to refer to the Jewish Infantry Brigade Group of the British Army during World War II, and the term "Palestinian Talmud", which is an alternative name of the Jerusalem Talmud, used mainly in academic sources. Following the 1948 establishment of Israel, the use and application of the terms "Palestine" and "Palestinian" by and to Palestinian Jews largely dropped from use. For example, the English-language newspaper *The Palestine Post*, founded by Jews in 1932, changed its name in 1950 to *The Jerusalem Post*. Jews in Israel and the West Bank today generally identify as Israelis. Arab citizens of Israel identify themselves as Israeli, Palestinian or Arab. The Palestinian National Charter, as amended by the PLO's Palestinian National Council in July 1968, defined "Palestinians" as "those Arab nationals who, until 1947, normally resided in Palestine regardless of whether they were evicted from it or stayed there. Anyone born, after that date, of a Palestinian father – whether in Palestine or outside it – is also a Palestinian." Note that "Arab nationals" is *not* religious-specific, and it includes not only the Arabic-speaking Muslims of Palestine but also the Arabic-speaking Christians and other religious communities of Palestine who were at that time Arabic-speakers, such as the Samaritans and Druze. Thus, the Jews of Palestine were/are also included, although limited only to "the [Arabic-speaking] Jews who had normally resided in Palestine until the beginning of the [pre-state] Zionist invasion." The Charter also states that "Palestine with the boundaries it had during the British Mandate, is an indivisible territorial unit." Origins ------- The origins of Palestinians are complex and diverse. The region was not originally Arab – its Arabization was a consequence of the gradual inclusion of Palestine within the rapidly expanding Islamic Caliphates established by Arabian tribes and their local allies. Like in other "Arabized" Arab nations, the Arab identity of Palestinians, largely based on linguistic and cultural affiliation, is independent of the existence of any actual Arabian origins. Palestine has undergone many demographic and religious upheavals throughout history. During the 2nd millennium BCE, it was inhabited by the Canaanites, Semitic-speaking peoples who practiced the Canaanite religion. The Israelites emerged later as a separate ethnic and religious community in the region. Jews eventually formed the majority of the population in Palestine during classical antiquity, however the Jewish population in Jerusalem and its surroundings in Judea never fully recovered as a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars. In the centuries that followed, the region experienced political and economic unrest, mass conversions to Christianity (and subsequent Christianization of the Roman Empire), and the religious persecution of minorities. The emigration of Jews and the immigration of Christians, as well as the conversion of pagans, Jews and Samaritans, contributed to a Christian majority forming in Late Roman and Byzantine Palestine. In the 7th century, the Arab Rashiduns conquered the Levant; they were later succeeded by other Arabic-speaking Muslim dynasties, including the Umayyads, Abbasids and the Fatimids. Over the following several centuries, the population of Palestine drastically decreased, from an estimated 1 million during the Roman and Byzantine periods to about 300,000 by the early Ottoman period. Over time, much of the existing population adopted Arab culture and language and converted to Islam. The settlement of Arabs before and after the Muslim conquest is thought to have played a role in accelerating the Islamization process. Some scholars suggest that by the arrival of the Crusaders, Palestine was already overwhelmingly Muslim, while others claim that it was only after the Crusades that the Christians lost their majority, and that the process of mass Islamization took place much later, perhaps during the Mamluk period. For several centuries during the Ottoman period the population in Palestine declined and fluctuated between 150,000 and 250,000 inhabitants, and it was only in the 19th century that a rapid population growth began to occur. This growth was aided by the immigration of Egyptians (during the reigns of Muhammad Ali and Ibrahim Pasha) and Algerians (following Abdelkader El Djezaïri's revolt) in the first half of the 19th century, and the subsequent immigration of Algerians, Bosnians, and Circassians during the second half of the century. ### Pre-Arab/Islamic influences on the Palestinian national identity While Palestinian culture is today primarily Arab and Islamic, many Palestinians identify with earlier civilizations that inhabited the land of Palestine. According to Walid Khalidi, in Ottoman times "the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial." In 1876, Claude R. Conder of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) wrote that: > It is well known to those familiar to the country that whatever else they may be, the Fellahin, or native peasantry of Palestine, are not Arabs; and if we judge from the names of the topographical features their language can scarcely be called Arabic. > > Similarly Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, argues: > Throughout history a great diversity of peoples has moved into the region and made Palestine their homeland: Canaanites, Jebusites, Philistines from Crete, Anatolian and Lydian Greeks, Hebrews, Amorites, Edomites, Nabataeans, Arameans, Romans, Arabs, and Western European Crusaders, to name a few. Each of them appropriated different regions that overlapped in time and competed for sovereignty and land. Others, such as Ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Persians, Babylonians, and the Mongol raids of the late 1200s, were historical 'events' whose successive occupations were as ravaging as the effects of major earthquakes ... Like shooting stars, the various cultures shine for a brief moment before they fade out of official historical and cultural records of Palestine. The people, however, survive. In their customs and manners, fossils of these ancient civilizations survived until modernity—albeit modernity camouflaged under the veneer of Islam and Arabic culture. > > George Antonius, founder of modern Arab nationalist history, wrote in his seminal 1938 book *The Arab Awakening*: > The Arabs' connection with Palestine goes back uninterruptedly to the earliest historic times, for the term 'Arab' [in Palestine] denotes nowadays not merely the incomers from the Arabian Peninsula who occupied the country in the seventh century, but also the older populations who intermarried with their conquerors, acquired their speech, customs and ways of thought and became permanently arabised. > > American historian Bernard Lewis writes: > Clearly, in Palestine as elsewhere in the Middle East, the modern inhabitants include among their ancestors those who lived in the country in antiquity. Equally obviously, the demographic mix was greatly modified over the centuries by migration, deportation, immigration, and settlement. This was particularly true in Palestine, where the population was transformed by such events as the Jewish rebellion against Rome and its suppression, the Arab conquest, the coming and going of the Crusaders, the devastation and resettlement of the coastlands by the Mamluk and Turkish regimes, and, from the nineteenth century, by extensive migrations from both within and from outside the region. Through invasion and deportation, and successive changes of rule and of culture, the face of the Palestinian population changed several times. No doubt, the original inhabitants were never entirely obliterated, but in the course of time they were successively Judaized, Christianized, and Islamized. Their language was transformed to Hebrew, then to Aramaic, then to Arabic. > > ### Arabization of Palestine The term "Arab", as well as the presence of Arabians in the Syrian Desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century BCE (Eph'al 1984). Southern Palestine had a large Edomite and Arab population by the 4th century BCE. Inscriptional evidence over a millennium from the peripheral areas of Palestine, such as the Golan and the Negev, show a prevalence of Arab names over Aramaic names from the Persian period, 550-330 BCE onwards. Bedouins have drifted in waves into Palestine since at least the 7th century, after the Muslim conquest. Some of them, like the Arab al-Sakhr south of Lake Kinneret trace their origins to the Hejaz or Najd in the Arabian Peninsula, while the Ghazawiyya's ancestry is said to go back to the Hauran's Misl al-Jizel tribes. They speak distinct dialects of Arabic in the Galilee and the Negev. Arab populations had existed in some parts of Palestine prior to the conquest, and some of these local Arab tribes and Bedouin fought as allies of Byzantium in resisting the invasion, which the archaeological evidence indicates was a 'peaceful conquest',[*dubious – discuss*] and the newcomers were allowed to settle in the old urban areas. Theories of population decline compensated by the importation of foreign populations are not confirmed by the archaeological record. Following the Muslim conquest of the Levant by the Arab Muslim Rashiduns, the formerly dominant languages of the area, Aramaic and Greek, were gradually replaced by the Arabic language introduced by the new conquering administrative minority. Among the cultural survivals from pre-Islamic times are the significant Palestinian Christian community, roughly 10% of the overall population in late Ottoman times and 45% of Jerusalem's citizens, and smaller Jewish and Samaritan ones, as well as an Aramaic substratum in some local Palestinian Arabic dialects.[*page needed*] The Christians appear to have maintained a majority in much of both Palestine and Syria under Muslim rule until the Crusades. The original conquest in the 630s had guaranteed religious freedom, improving that of the Jews and the Samaritans, who were classified with the former. However, as dhimmi, adult males had to pay the jizya or "protection tax". The economic burden inflicted on some dhimmi communities (especially that of the Samaritans) sometimes promoted mass conversions. When the Crusaders arrived in Palestine during the 11th century, they made no distinction between Christians who for the Latin rite were considered heretics, Jews and Muslims, slaughtering all indiscriminately. The Crusaders, in wresting holy sites such as the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem from the Orthodox church were among several factors that deeply alienated the traditional Christian community, which sought relief in the Muslims. When Saladin overthrew the Crusaders, he restored these sites to Orthodox Christian control. Together with the alienating policies of the Crusaders, the Mongol Invasion and the rise of the Mamluks were turning points in the fate of Christianity in this region, and their congregations – many Christians having sided with the Mongols – were noticeably reduced under the Mamluks. Stricter regulations to control Christian communities ensued, theological enmities grew, and the process of Arabization and Islamicization strengthened, abetted with the inflow of nomadic Bedouin tribes in the 13th and 14th centuries. Palestinian villagers generally trace the origins of their clan (hamula) to the Arabian peninsula. Many avow oral traditions of descent from nomadic Arab tribes that migrated to Palestine during or shortly after the Islamic conquest. By this claim they attempt to connect themselves to the greater narrative of Arab-Islamic civilization, with origins that are more highly valued Arab socio-cultural context than to genealogical descent from local ancient pre-Arab or pre-Islamic peoples. Many Palestinian families of the notable class (a'yan) claim to trace their origins back to tribes in the Arabian peninsula who settled the area after the Muslim conquest. This includes the Nusaybah family of Jerusalem, the Tamimi family of Nabi Salih, and the Barghouti family of Bani Zeid. The Shawish, al-Husayni, and Al-Zayadina clans trace their heritage to Muhammad through his grandsons, Husayn ibn Ali and Hassan ibn Ali. Arabs in Palestine, both Christian and Muslim, settled and Bedouin were historically split between the Qays and Yaman factions. These divisions had their origins in pre-Islamic tribal feuds between Northern Arabians (*Qaysis*) and Southern Arabians (*Yamanis*). The strife between the two tribal confederacies spread throughout the Arab world with their conquests, subsuming even uninvolved families so that the population of Palestine identified with one or the other. Their conflicts continued after the 8th century Civil war in Palestine until the early 20th century and gave rise to differences in customs, tradition, and dialect which remain to this day. Beit Sahour was first settled in the 14th century by a handful of Christian and Muslim clans (*hamula*) from Wadi Musa in Jordan, the Christian Jaraisa and the Muslim Shaybat and Jubran, who came to work as shepherds for Bethlehem's Christian landowners, and they were subsequently joined by other Greek Orthodox immigrants from Egypt in the 17th–18th centuries. During the first half of the 19th century, there were several waves of immigration from Egypt to Palestine. They favored settling in already established localities. There used to be 19 villages in the southern coastal plains and near Ramla with families of Egyptian descent, and to this day, some villages in the northern parts of the region of Samaria, especially the 'Ara Valley, have a sizeable population of Egyptian descent. In addition, some rural and urban Palestinians have Albanian, Bosnian, Circassian, or other non-Arab ancestry due to the legacy of the Ottoman period, which brought non-Arab communities to the region in the 19th century. ### Canaanism Claims emanating from certain circles within Palestinian society and their supporters, proposing that Palestinians have direct ancestral connections to the ancient Canaanites, without an intermediate Israelite link, has been an issue of contention within the context of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Bernard Lewis wrote that "the rewriting of the past is usually undertaken to achieve specific political aims ... In bypassing the biblical Israelites and claiming kinship with the Canaanites, the pre-Israelite inhabitants of Palestine, it is possible to assert a historical claim antedating the biblical promise and possession put forward by the Jews." Some Palestinian scholars, like Zakariyya Muhammad, have criticized pro-Palestinian arguments based on Canaanite lineage, or what he calls "Canaanite ideology". He states that it is an "intellectual fad, divorced from the concerns of ordinary people." By assigning its pursuit to the desire to predate Jewish national claims, he describes *Canaanism* as a "losing ideology", whether or not it is factual, "when used to manage our conflict with the Zionist movement" since *Canaanism* "concedes a priori the central thesis of Zionism. Namely that we have been engaged in a perennial conflict with Zionism—and hence with the Jewish presence in Palestine—since the Kingdom of Solomon and before ... thus in one stroke Canaanism cancels the assumption that Zionism is a European movement, propelled by modern European contingencies..." Commenting on the implications of Canaanite ideology, Eric M. Meyers, a Duke University historian of religion, writes: > What is the significance of the Palestinians really being descended from the Canaanites? In the early and more conservative reconstruction of history, it might be said that this merely confirms the historic enmity between Israel and its enemies. However, some scholars believe that Israel actually emerged from within the Canaanite community itself (Northwest Semites) and allied itself with Canaanite elements against the city-states and elites of Canaan. Once they were disenfranchised by these city-states and elites, the Israelites and some disenfranchised Canaanites joined to challenge the hegemony of the heads of the city-states and forged a new identity in the hill country based on egalitarian principles and a common threat from without. This is another irony in modern politics: the Palestinians in truth are blood brothers or cousins of the modern Israelis — they are all descendants of Abraham and Ishmael, so to speak. > > ### Relationship to the Jewish people A number of pre-Mandatory Zionists, from Ahad Ha'am and Ber Borochov to David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Ben Zvi thought of the Palestinian peasant population as descended from the ancient biblical Hebrews, but this belief was disowned when its ideological implications became problematic. Ahad Ha'am believed that, "the Moslems [of Palestine] are the ancient residents of the land ... who became Christians on the rise of Christianity and became Moslems on the arrival of Islam." Israel Belkind, the founder of the Bilu movement also asserted that the Palestinian Arabs were the blood brothers of the Jews. Ber Borochov, one of the key ideological architects of Marxist Zionism, claimed as early as 1905 that "[t]he Fellahin in Eretz-Israel are the descendants of remnants of the Hebrew agricultural community", believing them to be descendants of the ancient Hebrew residents "together with a small admixture of Arab blood". He further believed that the Palestinian peasantry would embrace Zionism and that the lack of a crystallized national consciousness among Palestinian Arabs would result in their likely assimilation into the new Hebrew nationalism, and that Arabs and Jews would unite in class struggle. David Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Ben Zvi, later becoming Israel's first Prime Minister and second President, respectively, suggested in a 1918 paper written in Yiddish that The fellahin are descended from ancient Jewish and Samaritan farmers, "Am ha'aretz" (People of the Land), who continued farming the land after the Jewish-Roman Wars and despite the ensuing persecution for their faith. While the wealthier, more educated, and more religious Jews departed and joined centers of religious freedom in the diaspora, many of those who remained converted their religions, first to Christianity, then to Islam. They also claimed that these peasants and their mode of life were living historical testimonies to ancient Israelite practices described in the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud. Ben Zvi stated in a later writing that "Obviously, it would be incorrect to claim that all fellahin are descended from the ancient Jews; rather, we are discussing their majority or their foundation", and that "The vast majority of the fellahin are not descended from Arab conquerors but rather from the Jewish peasants who made up the majority in the region before the Islamic conquest". Tamari notes that "the ideological implications of this claim became very problematic and were soon withdrawn from circulation." Salim Tamari notes the paradoxes produced by the search for "nativist" roots among these Zionist figures, particularly the Canaanist followers of Yonatan Ratosh, who sought to replace the "old" diasporic Jewish identity with a nationalism that embraced the existing residents of Palestine. In his book on the Palestinians, *The Arabs in Eretz-Israel*, Belkind advanced the idea that the dispersion of Jews out of the Land of Israel after the destruction of the Second Temple by the Roman emperor Titus is a "historic error" that must be corrected. While it dispersed much of the land's Jewish community around the world, those "workers of the land that remained attached to their land," stayed behind and were eventually converted to Christianity and then Islam. He therefore, proposed that this historical wrong be corrected, by embracing the Palestinians as their own and proposed the opening of Hebrew schools for Palestinian Arab Muslims to teach them Arabic, Hebrew and universal culture. Tsvi Misinai, an Israeli researcher, entrepreneur and proponent of a controversial alternative solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, asserts that nearly 90% of all Palestinians living within Israel and the occupied territories (including Israel's Arab citizens and Negev Bedouin) are descended from the Jewish Israelite peasantry that remained on the land, after the others, mostly city dwellers, were exiled or left. According to Israeli historian Moshe Gil, in order to accept the theory of the Jewish origin of the Palestinians, it must be assumed that there was a mass conversion of Jews to Islam at some time, but according to him "there is no information in the sources - Jewish, Christian or Muslim - about a mass conversion of Jews to Islam in any place and at any time, unless it is a case of a forced conversion," and in any case "there is no such information about the Land of Israel" and therefore "there is no reason to think that the Arabs of the Land of Israel were descendants of Jews". Many Palestinians referred to their Jewish neighbors as their *awlâd 'ammnâ* or paternal cousins. Under Ottoman rule, Palestinian Arabs distinguished between their compatriot Jews, whom they referred to as *abna al-balad*, 'natives', or *yahūd awlâd 'arab*, 'Arab-born Jews', and recent Zionist immigrants. Some Palestinians claim descent from Arab tribes who entered the region during the Islamic conquest, and consider themselves to have historical precedence to the Jews, whom they regard as Europeans who only began to immigrate to Palestine in the 19th century. By such a claim, they inserted their family's history into the narrative of Islamic civilization and connected themselves to genealogy that possessed greater prestige than that of ancient or pre-Islamic descent. Several Palestinian extended families, most notably the Makhamra family of Yatta, have recent traditions of having a Jewish ancestry. ### DNA and genetic studies A study found that the Palestinians, like Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, Turks, and Kurds have what appears to be Female-Mediated gene flow in the form of Maternal DNA Haplogroups from Sub-Saharan Africa. 15% of the 117 Palestinian individuals tested carried maternal haplogroups that originated in Sub-Saharan Africa. These results are consistent with female migration from eastern Africa into Near Eastern communities within the last few thousand years. There have been many opportunities for such migrations during this period. However, the most likely explanation for the presence of predominantly female lineages of African origin in these areas is that they may trace back to women brought from Africa as part of the Arab slave trade, assimilated into the areas under Arab rule. According to a study published in June 2017 by Ranajit Das, Paul Wexler, Mehdi Pirooznia, and Eran Elhaik in *Frontiers in Genetics*, "in a principal component analysis (PCA) [of DNA], the ancient Levantines [from the Natufian and Neolithic periods] clustered predominantly with modern-day Palestinians and Bedouins..." In a study published in August 2017 by Marc Haber et al. in *The American Journal of Human Genetics*, the authors concluded that "The overlap between the Bronze Age and present-day Levantines suggests a degree of genetic continuity in the region." In a 2003 genetic study, Bedouins showed the highest rates (62.5%) of the subclade Haplogroup J-M267 among all populations tested, followed by Palestinian Arabs (38.4%), Iraqis (28.2%), Ashkenazi Jews (14.6%) and Sephardic Jews (11.9%), according to Semino et al. Semitic-speaking populations usually possess an excess of J1 Y chromosomes compared to other populations harboring Y-haplogroup J. The haplogroup J1, the ancestor of subclade M267, originates south of the Levant and was first disseminated from there into Ethiopia and Europe in Neolithic times. J1 is most common in Palestine, as well as Syria, Iraq, Algeria, and Arabia, and drops sharply at the border of non-semitic areas like Turkey and Iran. A second diffusion of the J1 marker took place in the 7th century CE when Arabians brought it from Arabia to North Africa. A 2013 study by Haber et al. found that "The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen." The authors explained that "religious affiliation had a strong impact on the genomes of the Levantines. In particular, conversion of the region's populations to Islam appears to have introduced major rearrangements in populations' relations through admixture with culturally similar but geographically remote populations leading to genetic similarities between remarkably distant populations." The study found that Christians and Druze became genetically isolated following the arrival of Islam. The authors reconstructed the genetic structure of pre-Islamic Levant and found that "it was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners." In a genetic study of Y-chromosomal STRs in two populations from Israel and the Palestinian Authority Area: Christian and Muslim Palestinians showed genetic differences. The majority of Palestinian Christians (31.82%) were a subclade of E1b1b, followed by G2a (11.36%), and J1 (9.09%). The majority of Palestinian Muslims were haplogroup J1 (37.82%) followed by E1b1b (19.33%), and T (5.88%). The study sample consisted of 44 Palestinian Christians and 119 Palestinian Muslims. #### Between the Jews and Palestinians In recent years, genetic studies have demonstrated that, at least paternally, Jewish ethnic divisions and the Palestinians are related to each other. Genetic studies on Jews have shown that Jews and Palestinians are closer to each other than the Jews are to their host countries. At the haplogroup level, defined by the binary polymorphisms only, the Y chromosome distribution in Arabs and Jews was similar but not identical. According to a 2010 study by Behar et al. titled "The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people", Palestinians tested clustered genetically close to Bedouins, Jordanians and Saudi Arabians which was described as "consistent with a common origin in the Arabian Peninsula". In the same year a study by Atzmon and Harry Ostrer concluded that the Palestinians were, together with Bedouins, Druze and southern European groups, the closest genetic neighbors to most Jewish populations. One DNA study by Nebel found substantial genetic overlap among Israeli/Palestinian Arabs and Jews. Nebel proposed that "part, or perhaps the majority" of Muslim Palestinians descend from "local inhabitants, mainly Christians and Jews, who had converted after the Islamic conquest in the seventh century AD". A 2020 study on remains from Canaanaite (Bronze Age southern Levantine) populations suggests a significant degree of genetic continuity in Arabic-speaking Levantine populations (such as Palestinians, Druze, Lebanese, Jordanians, Bedouins, and Syrians), as well as in several Jewish groups (such as Ashkenazi, Iranian, and Moroccan Jews), suggesting that the aforementioned groups derive over half of their entire atDNA ancestry from Canaanite/Bronze Age Levantine populations, albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group. The results also show that a significant European component was added to the region since the Bronze Age (on average ~8.7%), excluding the Ashkenazi populations who harbour a ~41% European-related component. The European component is highest in Moroccan and Ashkenazi Jews, both having a history in Europe. The study concludes that this does not mean that any of these present-day groups bear direct ancestry from people who lived in the Middle-to-Late Bronze Age Levant or in Chalcolithic Zagros; rather, it indicates that they have ancestries from populations whose ancient proxy can be related to the Middle East. These present-day groups also show ancestries that cannot be modeled by the available ancient DNA data, highlighting the importance of additional major genetic effects on the region since the Bronze Age. Identity -------- ### Emergence of a distinct identity The timing and causes behind the emergence of a distinctively Palestinian national consciousness among the Arabs of Palestine are matters of scholarly disagreement. Some argue that it can be traced as far back as the peasants' revolt in Palestine in 1834 (or even as early as the 17th century), while others argue that it did not emerge until after the Mandatory Palestine period. Legal historian Assaf Likhovski states that the prevailing view is that Palestinian identity originated in the early decades of the 20th century, when an embryonic desire among Palestinians for self-government in the face of generalized fears that Zionism would lead to a Jewish state and the dispossession of the Arab majority crystallised among most editors, Christian and Muslim, of local newspapers. The term itself *Filasṭīnī* was first introduced by Khalīl Beidas in a translation of a Russian work on the Holy Land into Arabic in 1898. After that, its usage gradually spread so that, by 1908, with the loosening of censorship controls under late Ottoman rule, a number of Muslim, Christian and Jewish correspondents writing for newspapers began to use the term with great frequency in referring to the 'Palestinian people'(*ahl/ahālī Filasṭīn*), 'Palestinians' (*al-Filasṭīnīyūn*) the 'sons of Palestine(*abnā’ Filasṭīn*) or to 'Palestinian society',(*al-mujtama' al-filasṭīnī*). Whatever the differing viewpoints over the timing, causal mechanisms, and orientation of Palestinian nationalism, by the early 20th century strong opposition to Zionism and evidence of a burgeoning nationalistic Palestinian identity is found in the content of Arabic-language newspapers in Palestine, such as *Al-Karmil* (est. 1908) and *Filasteen* (est. 1911). Filasteen initially focused its critique of Zionism around the failure of the Ottoman administration to control Jewish immigration and the large influx of foreigners, later exploring the impact of Zionist land-purchases on Palestinian peasants (Arabic: فلاحين, *fellahin*), expressing growing concern over land dispossession and its implications for the society at large. Historian Rashid Khalidi's 1997 book *Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness* is considered a "foundational text" on the subject. He notes that the archaeological strata that denote the history of Palestine – encompassing the Biblical, Roman, Byzantine, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Crusader, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods – form part of the identity of the modern-day Palestinian people, as they have come to understand it over the last century. Noting that Palestinian identity has never been an exclusive one, with "Arabism, religion, and local loyalties" playing an important role, Khalidi cautions against the efforts of some extreme advocates of Palestinian nationalism to "anachronistically" read back into history a nationalist consciousness that is in fact "relatively modern". Khalidi argues that the modern national identity of Palestinians has its roots in nationalist discourses that emerged among the peoples of the Ottoman empire in the late 19th century that sharpened following the demarcation of modern nation-state boundaries in the Middle East after World War I. Khalidi also states that although the challenge posed by Zionism played a role in shaping this identity, that "it is a serious mistake to suggest that Palestinian identity emerged mainly as a response to Zionism." Conversely, historian James L. Gelvin argues that Palestinian nationalism was a direct reaction to Zionism. In his book *The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War* he states that "Palestinian nationalism emerged during the interwar period in response to Zionist immigration and settlement." Gelvin argues that this fact does not make the Palestinian identity any less legitimate: "The fact that Palestinian nationalism developed later than Zionism and indeed in response to it does not in any way diminish the legitimacy of Palestinian nationalism or make it less valid than Zionism. All nationalisms arise in opposition to some 'other.' Why else would there be the need to specify who you are? And all nationalisms are defined by what they oppose." David Seddon writes that "[t]he creation of Palestinian identity in its contemporary sense was formed essentially during the 1960s, with the creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization." He adds, however, that "the existence of a population with a recognizably similar name ('the Philistines') in Biblical times suggests a degree of continuity over a long historical period (much as 'the Israelites' of the Bible suggest a long historical continuity in the same region)." Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal consider the 1834 Peasants' revolt in Palestine as constituting the first formative event of the Palestinian people. From 1516 to 1917, Palestine was ruled by the Ottoman Empire save a decade from the 1830s to the 1840s when an Egyptian vassal of the Ottomans, Muhammad Ali, and his son Ibrahim Pasha successfully broke away from Ottoman leadership and, conquering territory spreading from Egypt to as far north as Damascus, asserted their own rule over the area. The so-called Peasants' Revolt by Palestine's Arabs was precipitated by heavy demands for conscripts. The local leaders and urban notables were unhappy about the loss of traditional privileges, while the peasants were well aware that conscription was little more than a death sentence. Starting in May 1834 the rebels took many cities, among them Jerusalem, Hebron and Nablus and Ibrahim Pasha's army was deployed, defeating the last rebels on 4 August in Hebron. Benny Morris argues that the Arabs in Palestine nevertheless remained part of a larger national pan-Arab or, alternatively, pan-Islamist movement. Walid Khalidi argues otherwise, writing that Palestinians in Ottoman times were "[a]cutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history ..." and "[a]lthough proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient Hebrews and the Canaanites before them." Zachary J. Foster argued in a 2015 *Foreign Affairs* article that "based on hundreds of manuscripts, Islamic court records, books, magazines, and newspapers from the Ottoman period (1516–1918), it seems that the first Arab to use the term "Palestinian" was Farid Georges Kassab, a Beirut-based Orthodox Christian." He explained further that Kassab's 1909 book *Palestine, Hellenism, and Clericalism* noted in passing that "the Orthodox Palestinian Ottomans call themselves Arabs, and are in fact Arabs," despite describing the Arabic speakers of Palestine as Palestinians throughout the rest of the book." Bernard Lewis argues it was not as a Palestinian nation that the Arabs of Ottoman Palestine objected to Zionists, since the very concept of such a nation was unknown to the Arabs of the area at the time and did not come into being until very much later. Even the concept of Arab nationalism in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, "had not reached significant proportions before the outbreak of World War I." Tamir Sorek, a sociologist, submits that, "Although a distinct Palestinian identity can be traced back at least to the middle of the nineteenth century (Kimmerling and Migdal 1993; Khalidi 1997b), or even to the seventeenth century (Gerber 1998), it was not until after World War I that a broad range of optional *political* affiliations became relevant for the Arabs of Palestine." Israeli historian Efraim Karsh takes the view that the Palestinian identity did not develop until after the 1967 war because the Palestinian exodus/expulsion had fractured society so greatly that it was impossible to piece together a national identity. Between 1948 and 1967, the Jordanians and other Arab countries hosting Arab refugees from Palestine/Israel silenced any expression of Palestinian identity and occupied their lands until Israel's conquests of 1967. The formal annexation of the West Bank by Jordan in 1950, and the subsequent granting of its Palestinian residents Jordanian citizenship, further stunted the growth of a Palestinian national identity by integrating them into Jordanian society. The idea of a unique Palestinian state distinct from its Arab neighbors was at first rejected by Palestinian representatives. The First Congress of Muslim-Christian Associations (in Jerusalem, February 1919), which met for the purpose of selecting a Palestinian Arab representative for the Paris Peace Conference, adopted the following resolution: "We consider Palestine as part of Arab Syria, as it has never been separated from it at any time. We are connected with it by national, religious, linguistic, natural, economic and geographical bonds." Rise of Palestinian nationalism ------------------------------- An independent Palestinian state has not exercised full sovereignty over the land in which the Palestinians have lived during the modern era. Palestine was administered by the Ottoman Empire until World War I, and then overseen by the British Mandatory authorities. Israel was established in parts of Palestine in 1948, and in the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the West Bank was ruled by Jordan, and the Gaza Strip by Egypt, with both countries continuing to administer these areas until Israel occupied them in the Six-Day War. Historian Avi Shlaim states that the Palestinians' lack of sovereignty over the land has been used by Israelis to deny Palestinians their rights to self-determination. Today, the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination has been affirmed by the United Nations General Assembly, the International Court of Justice and several Israeli authorities. A total of 133 countries recognize Palestine as a state. However, Palestinian sovereignty over the areas claimed as part of the Palestinian state remains limited, and the boundaries of the state remain a point of contestation between Palestinians and Israelis. ### British Mandate (1917–1947) The first Palestinian nationalist organizations emerged at the end of the World War I. Two political factions emerged. *al-Muntada al-Adabi*, dominated by the Nashashibi family, militated for the promotion of the Arabic language and culture, for the defense of Islamic values and for an independent Syria and Palestine. In Damascus, *al-Nadi al-Arabi*, dominated by the Husayni family, defended the same values. Article 22 of The Covenant of the League of Nations conferred an international legal status upon the territories and people which had ceased to be under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire as part of a 'sacred trust of civilization'. Article 7 of the League of Nations Mandate required the establishment of a new, separate, Palestinian nationality for the inhabitants. This meant that Palestinians did not become British citizens, and that Palestine was not annexed into the British dominions. The Mandate document divided the population into Jewish and non-Jewish, and Britain, the Mandatory Power considered the Palestinian population to be composed of religious, not national, groups. Consequently, government censuses in 1922 and 1931 would categorize Palestinians confessionally as Muslims, Christians and Jews, with the category of Arab absent. The articles of the Mandate mentioned the civil and religious rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine, but not their political status. At the San Remo conference, it was decided to accept the text of those articles, while inserting in the minutes of the conference an undertaking by the Mandatory Power that this would not involve the surrender of any of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine. In 1922, the British authorities over Mandatory Palestine proposed a draft constitution that would have granted the Palestinian Arabs representation in a Legislative Council on condition that they accept the terms of the mandate. The Palestine Arab delegation rejected the proposal as "wholly unsatisfactory", noting that "the People of Palestine" could not accept the inclusion of the Balfour Declaration in the constitution's preamble as the basis for discussions. They further took issue with the designation of Palestine as a British "colony of the lowest order." The Arabs tried to get the British to offer an Arab legal establishment again roughly ten years later, but to no avail. After the British general, Louis Bols, read out the Balfour Declaration in February 1920, some 1,500 Palestinians demonstrated in the streets of Jerusalem. A month later, during the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, the protests against British rule and Jewish immigration became violent and Bols banned all demonstrations. In May 1921 however, further anti-Jewish riots broke out in Jaffa and dozens of Arabs and Jews were killed in the confrontations. After the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, the San Remo conference and the failure of Faisal to establish the Kingdom of Greater Syria, a distinctive form of Palestinian Arab nationalism took root between April and July 1920. With the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the French conquest of Syria, coupled with the British conquest and administration of Palestine, the formerly pan-Syrianist mayor of Jerusalem, Musa Qasim Pasha al-Husayni, said "Now, after the recent events in Damascus, we have to effect a complete change in our plans here. Southern Syria no longer exists. We must defend Palestine". Conflict between Palestinian nationalists and various types of pan-Arabists continued during the British Mandate, but the latter became increasingly marginalized. Two prominent leaders of the Palestinian nationalists were Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, appointed by the British, and Izz ad-Din al-Qassam. After the killing of sheikh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam by the British in 1935, his followers initiated the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, which began with a general strike in Jaffa and attacks on Jewish and British installations in Nablus. The Arab Higher Committee called for a nationwide general strike, non-payment of taxes, and the closure of municipal governments, and demanded an end to Jewish immigration and a ban of the sale of land to Jews. By the end of 1936, the movement had become a national revolt, and resistance grew during 1937 and 1938. In response, the British declared martial law, dissolved the Arab High Committee and arrested officials from the Supreme Muslim Council who were behind the revolt. By 1939, 5,000 Arabs had been killed in British attempts to quash the revolt; more than 15,000 were wounded. ### War (1947–1949) In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Partition Plan, which divided the mandate of Palestine into two states: one majority Arab and one majority Jewish. The Palestinian Arabs rejected the plan and attacked Jewish civilian areas and paramilitary targets. Following Israel's declaration of independence in May 1948, five Arab armies (Lebanon, Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Transjordan) came to the Palestinian Arabs' aid against the newly founded State of Israel. The Palestinian Arabs suffered such a major defeat at the end of the war, that the term they use to describe the war is Nakba (the "catastrophe"). Israel took control of much of the territory that would have been allocated to the Arab state had the Palestinian Arabs accepted the UN partition plan. Along with a military defeat, hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled or were expelled from what became the State of Israel. Israel did not allow the Palestinian refugees of the war to return to Israel. ### "Lost years" (1949–1967) After the war, there was a hiatus in Palestinian political activity. Khalidi attributes this to the traumatic events of 1947–49, which included the depopulation of over 400 towns and villages and the creation of hundreds of thousands of refugees. 418 villages had been razed, 46,367 buildings, 123 schools, 1,233 mosques, 8 churches and 68 holy shrines, many with a long history, destroyed by Israeli forces. In addition, Palestinians lost from 1.5 to 2 million acres of land, an estimated 150,000 urban and rural homes, and 23,000 commercial structures such as shops and offices. Recent estimates of the cost to Palestinians in property confiscations by Israel from 1948 onwards has concluded that Palestinians have suffered a net $300 billion loss in assets. Those parts of British Mandatory Palestine which did not become part of the newly declared Israeli state were occupied by Egypt or annexed by Jordan. At the Jericho Conference on 1 December 1948, 2,000 Palestinian delegates supported a resolution calling for "the unification of Palestine and Transjordan as a step toward full Arab unity". During what Khalidi terms the "lost years" that followed, Palestinians lacked a center of gravity, divided as they were between these countries and others such as Syria, Lebanon, and elsewhere. In the 1950s, a new generation of Palestinian nationalist groups and movements began to organize clandestinely, stepping out onto the public stage in the 1960s. The traditional Palestinian elite who had dominated negotiations with the British and the Zionists in the Mandate, and who were largely held responsible for the loss of Palestine, were replaced by these new movements whose recruits generally came from poor to middle-class backgrounds and were often students or recent graduates of universities in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. The potency of the pan-Arabist ideology put forward by Gamal Abdel Nasser—popular among Palestinians for whom Arabism was already an important component of their identity—tended to obscure the identities of the separate Arab states it subsumed. ### 1967–present Since 1967, Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip have lived under military occupation, creating, according to Avram Bornstein, a carceralization of their society. In the meantime, pan-Arabism has waned as an aspect of Palestinian identity. The Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip and West Bank triggered a second Palestinian exodus and fractured Palestinian political and militant groups, prompting them to give up residual hopes in pan-Arabism. They rallied increasingly around the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which had been formed in Cairo in 1964. The group grew in popularity in the following years, especially under the nationalistic orientation of the leadership of Yasser Arafat. Mainstream secular Palestinian nationalism was grouped together under the umbrella of the PLO whose constituent organizations include Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, among other groups who at that time believed that political violence was the only way to "liberate" Palestine. These groups gave voice to a tradition that emerged in the 1960s that argues Palestinian nationalism has deep historical roots, with extreme advocates reading a Palestinian nationalist consciousness and identity back into the history of Palestine over the past few centuries, and even millennia, when such a consciousness is in fact relatively modern. The Battle of Karameh and the events of Black September in Jordan contributed to growing Palestinian support for these groups, particularly among Palestinians in exile. Concurrently, among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, a new ideological theme, known as *sumud*, represented the Palestinian political strategy popularly adopted from 1967 onward. As a concept closely related to the land, agriculture and indigenousness, the ideal image of the Palestinian put forward at this time was that of the peasant (in Arabic, *fellah*) who stayed put on his land, refusing to leave. A strategy more passive than that adopted by the Palestinian fedayeen, *sumud* provided an important subtext to the narrative of the fighters, "in symbolizing continuity and connections with the land, with peasantry and a rural way of life." In 1974, the PLO was recognized as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people by the Arab nation-states and was granted observer status as a national liberation movement by the United Nations that same year. Israel rejected the resolution, calling it "shameful". In a speech to the Knesset, Deputy Premier and Foreign Minister Yigal Allon outlined the government's view that: "No one can expect us to recognize the terrorist organization called the PLO as representing the Palestinians—because it does not. No one can expect us to negotiate with the heads of terror-gangs, who through their ideology and actions, endeavor to liquidate the State of Israel." In 1975, the United Nations established a subsidiary organ, the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People, to recommend a program of implementation to enable the Palestinian people to exercise national independence and their rights to self-determination without external interference, national independence and sovereignty, and to return to their homes and property. The First Intifada (1987–93) was the first popular uprising against the Israeli occupation of 1967. Followed by the PLO's 1988 proclamation of a State of Palestine, these developments served to further reinforce the Palestinian national identity. After the Gulf War in 1991, Kuwaiti authorities forcibly pressured nearly 200,000 Palestinians to leave Kuwait. The policy which partly led to this exodus was a response to the alignment of PLO leader Yasser Arafat with Saddam Hussein. The Oslo Accords, the first Israeli–Palestinian interim peace agreement, were signed in 1993. The process was envisioned to last five years, ending in June 1999, when the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip and the Jericho area began. The expiration of this term without the recognition by Israel of the Palestinian State and without the effective termination of the occupation was followed by the Second Intifada in 2000. The second intifada was more violent than the first. The International Court of Justice observed that since the government of Israel had decided to recognize the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people, their existence was no longer an issue. The court noted that the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip of 28 September 1995 also referred a number of times to the Palestinian people and its "legitimate rights". According to Thomas Giegerich, with respect to the Palestinian people's right to form a sovereign independent state, "The right of self-determination gives the Palestinian people collectively the inalienable right freely to determine its political status, while Israel, having recognized the Palestinians as a separate people, is obliged to promote and respect this right in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations". Following the failures of the Second Intifada, a younger generation is emerging that cares less about nationalist ideology than about economic growth. This has been a source of tension between some of the Palestinian political leadership and Palestinian business professionals who desire economic cooperation with Israelis. At an international conference in Bahrain, Palestinian businessman Ashraf Jabari said, "I have no problem working with Israel. It is time to move on. ... The Palestinian Authority does not want peace. They told the families of the businessmen that they are wanted [by police] for participating in the Bahrain workshop." Demographics ------------ | Country or region | Population | | --- | --- | | Palestinian Territories (Gaza Strip and West Bank including East Jerusalem) | 4,420,549 | | Jordan | 2,700,000 | | Israel | 1,318,000 | | Chile | 500,000 (largest community outside the Middle East) | | Syria | 434,896 | | Lebanon | 405,425 | | Saudi Arabia | 327,000 | | The Americas | 225,000 | | Egypt | 44,200 | | Kuwait | (approx) 40,000 | | Other Gulf states | 159,000 | | Other Arab states | 153,000 | | Other countries | 308,000 | | **TOTAL** | 10,574,521 | In the absence of a comprehensive census including all Palestinian diaspora populations, and those that have remained within what was British Mandate Palestine, exact population figures are difficult to determine. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) announced at the end of 2015 that the number of Palestinians worldwide at the end of 2015 was 12.37 million of which the number still residing within historic Palestine was 6.22 million. In 2005, a critical review of the PCBS figures and methodology was conducted by the American-Israel Demographic Research Group (AIDRG). In their report, they claimed that several errors in the PCBS methodology and assumptions artificially inflated the numbers by a total of 1.3 million. The PCBS numbers were cross-checked against a variety of other sources (e.g., asserted birth rates based on fertility rate assumptions for a given year were checked against Palestinian Ministry of Health figures as well as Ministry of Education school enrollment figures six years later; immigration numbers were checked against numbers collected at border crossings, etc.). The errors claimed in their analysis included: birth rate errors (308,000), immigration & emigration errors (310,000), failure to account for migration to Israel (105,000), double-counting Jerusalem Arabs (210,000), counting former residents now living abroad (325,000) and other discrepancies (82,000). The results of their research was also presented before the United States House of Representatives on 8 March 2006. The study was criticised by Sergio DellaPergola, a demographer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. DellaPergola accused the authors of the AIDRG report of misunderstanding basic principles of demography on account of their lack of expertise in the subject, but he also acknowledged that he did not take into account the emigration of Palestinians and thinks it has to be examined, as well as the birth and mortality statistics of the Palestinian Authority. He also accused AIDRG of selective use of data and multiple systematic errors in their analysis, claiming that the authors assumed the Palestinian Electoral registry to be complete even though registration is voluntary, and they used an unrealistically low Total Fertility Ratio (a statistical abstraction of births per woman) to reanalyse that data in a "typical circular mistake." DellaPergola estimated the Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza at the end of 2005 as 3.33 million, or 3.57 million if East Jerusalem is included. These figures are only slightly lower than the official Palestinian figures. The Israeli Civil Administration put the number of Palestinians in the West Bank at 2,657,029 as of May 2012. The AIDRG study was also criticized by Ian Lustick, who accused its authors of multiple methodological errors and a political agenda. In 2009, at the request of the PLO, "Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to keep them from remaining permanently in the country." Many Palestinians have settled in the United States, particularly in the Chicago area. In total, an estimated 600,000 Palestinians are thought to reside in the Americas. Palestinian emigration to South America began for economic reasons that pre-dated the Arab-Israeli conflict, but continued to grow thereafter. Many emigrants were from the Bethlehem area. Those emigrating to Latin America were mainly Christian. Half of those of Palestinian origin in Latin America live in Chile. El Salvador and Honduras also have substantial Palestinian populations. These two countries have had presidents of Palestinian ancestry (Antonio Saca in El Salvador and Carlos Roberto Flores in Honduras). Belize, which has a smaller Palestinian population, has a Palestinian minister – Said Musa. Schafik Jorge Handal, Salvadoran politician and former guerrilla leader, was the son of Palestinian immigrants. ### Refugees Palestinians is located in 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Clickable map of the more than 400 depopulated towns and villages of the 1948 Palestinian exodus (red) and the c.60 modern day Palestinian refugee camps (blue) In 2006, there were 4,255,120 Palestinians registered as refugees with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). This number includes the descendants of refugees who fled or were expelled during the 1948 war, but excludes those who have since then emigrated to areas outside of UNRWA's remit. Based on these figures, almost half of all Palestinians are registered refugees. The 993,818 Palestinian refugees in the Gaza Strip and 705,207 Palestinian refugees in the West Bank, who hail from towns and villages now located within the borders of Israel, are included in these figures. UNRWA figures do not include some 274,000 people, or 1 in 5.5 of all Arab residents of Israel, who are internally displaced Palestinian refugees. Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank are organized according to a refugee family's village or place of origin. Among the first things that children born in the camps learn is the name of their village of origin. David McDowall writes that, "[...] a yearning for Palestine permeates the whole refugee community and is most ardently espoused by the younger refugees, for whom home exists only in the imagination." Israeli policy to prevent the refugees from returning to their homes was initially formulated by David Ben Gurion and Joseph Weitz, director of the Jewish National Fund was formally adopted by the Israeli cabinet in June 1948. In December of that year the UN adopted resolution 194, which resolved "that the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbors should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property which, under principles of international law or in equity, should be made good by the Governments or authorities responsible." Despite much of the international community, including the US President Harry Truman, insisting that the repatriation of Palestinian refugees was essential, Israel refused to accept the principle. In the intervening years Israel has consistently refused to change its position and has introduced further legislation to hinder Palestinians refugees from returning and reclaiming their land and confiscated property. In keeping with an Arab League resolution in 1965, most Arab countries have refused to grant citizenship to Palestinians, arguing that it would be a threat to their right of return to their homes in Palestine. In 2012, Egypt deviated from this practice by granting citizenship to 50,000 Palestinians, mostly from the Gaza Strip. Palestinians living in Lebanon are deprived of basic civil rights. They cannot own homes or land and are barred from becoming lawyers, engineers and doctors. ### Religion The majority of Palestinians are Muslim, the vast majority of whom are followers of the Sunni branch of Islam, with a small minority of Ahmadiyya. Palestinian Christians represent a significant minority of 6%, followed by much smaller religious communities, including Druze and Samaritans. Palestinian Jews – considered Palestinian by the Palestinian National Charter adopted by the PLO which defined them as those "Jews who had normally resided in Palestine until the beginning of the Zionist invasion" – today identify as Israelis (with the exception of a very few individuals). Palestinian Jews almost universally abandoned any such identity after the establishment of Israel and their incorporation into the Israeli Jewish population, which was originally composed of Jewish immigrants from around the world. Until the end of the 19th century, most Palestinian Muslim villages in the countryside did not have local mosques. Cross-cultural syncretism between Christian and Islamic symbols and figures in religious practice was common. Popular feast days, like Thursday of the Dead, were celebrated by both Muslims and Christians and shared prophets and saints include Jonah, who is venerated in Halhul as both a Biblical and Islamic prophet, and St. George, who is known in Arabic as el-Khader. Villagers would pay tribute to local patron saints at maqams – domed single rooms often placed in the shadow of an ancient carob or oak tree; many of them are rooted in Jewish, Samaritan, Christian and sometimes pagan traditions. Saints, taboo by the standards of orthodox Islam, mediated between man and Allah, and shrines to saints and holy men dotted the Palestinian landscape. Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, states that this built evidence constitutes "an architectural testimony to Christian/Moslem Palestinian religious sensibility and its roots in ancient Semitic religions." Religion as constitutive of individual identity was accorded a minor role within Palestinian tribal social structure until the latter half of the 19th century. Jean Moretain, a priest writing in 1848, wrote that a Christian in Palestine was "distinguished only by the fact that he belonged to a particular clan. If a certain tribe was Christian, then an individual would be Christian, but without knowledge of what distinguished his faith from that of a Muslim." The concessions granted to France and other Western powers by the Ottoman Sultanate in the aftermath of the Crimean War had a significant impact on contemporary Palestinian religious cultural identity. Religion was transformed into an element "constituting the individual/collective identity in conformity with orthodox precepts", and formed a major building block in the political development of Palestinian nationalism. The British census of 1922 registered 752,048 inhabitants in Palestine, consisting of 660,641 Palestinian Arabs (Christian and Muslim Arabs), 83,790 Palestinian Jews, and 7,617 persons belonging to other groups. The corresponding percentage breakdown is 87% Christian and Muslim Arab and 11% Jewish. Bedouins were not counted in the census, but a 1930 British study estimated their number at 70,860. Bernard Sabella of Bethlehem University estimates that 6% of the Palestinian population worldwide is Christian and that 56% of them live outside of historic Palestine. According to the Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs, the Palestinian population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip is 97% Muslim and 3% Christian. The vast majority of the Palestinian community in Chile follow Christianity, largely Orthodox Christian and some Roman Catholic, and in fact the number of Palestinian Christians in the diaspora in Chile alone exceeds the number of those who have remained in their homeland. Saint George is the patron saint of the Palestinian Christians. The Druze became Israeli citizens and Druze males serve in the Israel Defense Forces, though some individuals identify as "Palestinian Druze". According to Salih al-Shaykh, most Druze do not consider themselves to be Palestinian: "their Arab identity emanates in the main from the common language and their socio-cultural background, but is detached from any national political conception. It is not directed at Arab countries or Arab nationality or the Palestinian people, and does not express sharing any fate with them. From this point of view, their identity is Israel, and this identity is stronger than their Arab identity". There are also about 350 Samaritans who carry Palestinian identity cards and live in the West Bank while a roughly equal number live in Holon and carry Israeli citizenship. Those who live in the West Bank also are represented in the legislature for the Palestinian National Authority. They are commonly referred to among Palestinians as the "Jews of Palestine," and maintain their own unique cultural identity. Jews who identify as Palestinian Jews are few, but include Israeli Jews who are part of the Neturei Karta group, and Uri Davis, an Israeli citizen and self-described Palestinian Jew (who converted to Islam in 2008 in order to marry Miyassar Abu Ali) who serves as an observer member in the Palestine National Council. Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, was from Iran, but ended his life in Acre, Israel, then part of the Ottoman Empire. He was confined there for 24 years. A shrine has been erected there in his honor. * Palestinians attending prayers at the Dome of the Rock in JerusalemPalestinians attending prayers at the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem * The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the holiest site in ChristianityThe Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, the holiest site in Christianity * Palestinian Christian Scouts on Christmas Eve in front of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem, 2006Palestinian Christian Scouts on Christmas Eve in front of the Nativity Church in Bethlehem, 2006 * Cave of the Patriarchs in HebronCave of the Patriarchs in Hebron * Jews in 'Ben Zakai' house of prayer, Jerusalem, 1893.Jews in 'Ben Zakai' house of prayer, Jerusalem, 1893. * Tomb of Jethro in Hittin, Northern Israel.Tomb of Jethro in Hittin, Northern Israel. * Muslims pray in Jerusalem, 1840. By David Roberts, in The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and NubiaMuslims pray in Jerusalem, 1840. By David Roberts, in *The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia* * A Palestinian Christian family in Ramallah, Ottoman Palestine, 1905A Palestinian Christian family in Ramallah, Ottoman Palestine, 1905 * Married Eastern Orthodox priest from Jerusalem with his family (three generations), circa 1893Married Eastern Orthodox priest from Jerusalem with his family (three generations), circa 1893 ### Current demographics According to the PCBS, there are an estimated 4,816,503 Palestinians in the Palestinian territories as of 2016[update], of whom 2,935,368 live in the West Bank and 1,881,135 in the Gaza Strip. According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, there were 1,658,000 Arab citizens of Israel as of 2013. Both figures include Palestinians in East Jerusalem. In 2008, Minority Rights Group International estimated the number of Palestinians in Jordan to be about 3 million. The UNRWA put their number at 2.1 million as of December 2015. Society ------- ### Language Palestinian Arabic is a subgroup of the broader Levantine Arabic dialect. Prior to the 7th century Islamic Conquest and Arabization of the Levant, the primary languages spoken in Palestine, among the predominantly Christian and Jewish communities, were Aramaic, Greek, and Syriac. Arabic was also spoken in some areas. Palestinian Arabic, like other variations of the Levantine dialect, exhibits substantial influences in lexicon from Aramaic. Palestinian Arabic has three primary sub-variations, Rural, Urban, and Bedouin, with the pronunciation of the *Qāf* serving as a shibboleth to distinguish between the three main Palestinian sub-dialects: The urban variety notes a [Q] sound, while the rural variety (spoken in the villages around major cities) have a [K] for the [Q]. The Bedouin variety of Palestine (spoken mainly in the southern region and along the Jordan valley) use a [G] instead of [Q]. Barbara McKean Parmenter has noted that the Arabs of Palestine have been credited with the preservation of the original Semitic place names of many sites mentioned in the Bible, as was documented by the American geographer Edward Robinson in the 19th century. Palestinians who live or work in Israel generally can also speak Modern Hebrew, as do some who live in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. ### Education The literacy rate of Palestine was 96.3% according to a 2014 report by the United Nations Development Programme, which is high by international standards. There is a gender difference in the population aged above 15 with 5.9% of women considered illiterate compared to 1.6% of men. Illiteracy among women has fallen from 20.3% in 1997 to less than 6% in 2014. Palestinian intellectuals, among them May Ziadeh and Khalil Beidas, were an integral part of the Arab intelligentsia.[*when?*] Educational levels among Palestinians have traditionally been high. In the 1960s the West Bank had a higher percentage of its adolescent population enrolled in high school education than did Lebanon. Claude Cheysson, France's Minister for Foreign Affairs under the first Mitterrand Presidency, held in the mid-eighties that, ‘even thirty years ago, (Palestinians) probably already had the largest educated elite of all the Arab peoples.’ Contributions to Palestinian culture have been made by diaspora figures like Edward Said and Ghada Karmi, Arab citizens of Israel like Emile Habibi, and Jordanians like Ibrahim Nasrallah. * Palestinian students and John KerryPalestinian students and John Kerry * Palestinian studentsPalestinian students * Palestinian studentsPalestinian students ### Women and family In the 19th and early 20th century, there were some well known Palestinian families, which included the Khalidi family, the al-Husayni family, the Nashashibi family, the Tuqan family, the Nusaybah family, Qudwa family, Shawish clan, Shurrab family, Al-Zaghab family, Al-Khalil family, Ridwan dynasty, Al-Zeitawi family, Abu Ghosh clan, Barghouti family, Doghmush clan, Douaihy family, Hilles clan, Jarrar family, and the Jayyusi family. Since various conflicts with Zionists began, some of the communities have subsequently left Palestine. The role of women varies among Palestinians, with both progressive and ultra-conservative opinions existing. Other groups of Palestinians, such as the Negev Bedouins or Druze may no longer self-identify as Palestinian for political reasons. Culture ------- Ali Qleibo, a Palestinian anthropologist, has critiqued Muslim historiography for assigning the beginning of Palestinian cultural identity to the advent of Islam in the 7th century. In describing the effect of such historiography, he writes: > Pagan origins are disavowed. As such the peoples who populated Palestine throughout history have discursively rescinded their own history and religion as they adopted the religion, language, and culture of Islam. > > That the peasant culture of the large fellahin class showed features of cultures other than Islam was a conclusion arrived at by some Western scholars and explorers who mapped and surveyed Palestine during the latter half of the 19th century, and these ideas were to influence 20th-century debates on Palestinian identity by local and international ethnographers. The contributions of the 'nativist' ethnographies produced by Tawfiq Canaan and other Palestinian writers and published in *The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society* (1920–48) were driven by the concern that the "native culture of Palestine", and in particular peasant society, was being undermined by the forces of modernity. Salim Tamari writes that: > Implicit in their scholarship (and made explicit by Canaan himself) was another theme, namely that the peasants of Palestine represent—through their folk norms ... the living heritage of all the accumulated ancient cultures that had appeared in Palestine (principally the Canaanite, Philistine, Hebraic, Nabatean, Syrio-Aramaic and Arab). > > Palestinian culture is closely related to those of the nearby Levantine countries such as Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan, and the Arab World. Cultural contributions to the fields of art, literature, music, costume and cuisine express the characteristics of the Palestinian experience and show signs of common origin despite the geographical separation between the Palestinian territories, Israel and the diaspora. Al-Quds Capital of Arab Culture is an initiative undertaken by UNESCO under the Cultural Capitals Program to promote Arab culture and encourage cooperation in the Arab region. The opening event was launched in March 2009. ### Cuisine Palestine's history of rule by many different empires is reflected in Palestinian cuisine, which has benefited from various cultural contributions and exchanges. Generally speaking, modern Syrian-Palestinian dishes have been influenced by the rule of three major Islamic groups: the Arabs, the Persian-influenced Arabs and the Turks. The Arabs who conquered Syria and Palestine had simple culinary traditions primarily based on the use of rice, lamb and yogurt, as well as dates. The already simple cuisine did not advance for centuries due to Islam's strict rules of parsimony and restraint, until the rise of the Abbasids, who established Baghdad as their capital. Baghdad was historically located on Persian soil and henceforth, Persian culture was integrated into Arab culture during the 9th–11th centuries and spread throughout central areas of the empire. There are several foods native to Palestine that are well known in the Arab world, such as, *kinafe Nabulsi*, Nabulsi cheese (cheese of Nablus), Ackawi cheese (cheese of Acre) and *musakhan*. *Kinafe* originated in Nablus, as well as the sweetened *Nabulsi* cheese used to fill it. Another very popular food is Palestinian Kofta or Kufta. Mezze describes an assortment of dishes laid out on the table for a meal that takes place over several hours, a characteristic common to Mediterranean cultures. Some common mezze dishes are *hummus*, *tabouleh*,*baba ghanoush*, *labaneh*, and *zate 'u zaatar*, which is the pita bread dipping of olive oil and ground thyme and sesame seeds. Entrées that are eaten throughout the Palestinian territories, include *waraq al-'inib* – boiled grape leaves wrapped around cooked rice and ground lamb. *Mahashi* is an assortment of stuffed vegetables such as, zucchinis, potatoes, cabbage and in Gaza, chard. * Musakhan: The Palestinian National dish.Musakhan: The Palestinian National dish. * A plate of hummus, garnished with paprika and olive oil and pine nutsA plate of hummus, garnished with paprika and olive oil and pine nuts * A Palestinian youth serving Falafel in Ramallah.A Palestinian youth serving Falafel in Ramallah. * Kanafeh: a Palestinian dessert.Kanafeh: a Palestinian dessert. ### Art Similar to the structure of Palestinian society, the Palestinian field of arts extends over four main geographic centers: the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel, the Palestinian diaspora in the Arab world, and the Palestinian diaspora in Europe, the United States and elsewhere. Cinema Palestinian cinematography, relatively young compared to Arab cinema overall, receives much European and Israeli support. Palestinian films are not exclusively produced in Arabic; some are made in English, French or Hebrew. More than 800 films have been produced about Palestinians, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and other related topics. Examples include *Divine Intervention* and *Paradise Now*. * The Alhamra Cinema, Jaffa, 1937, bombed December 1947The Alhamra Cinema, Jaffa, 1937, bombed December 1947 * Villagers in Halhul at an open-air cinema screening c. 1940Villagers in Halhul at an open-air cinema screening c. 1940 Handicrafts A wide variety of handicrafts, many of which have been produced in the area of Palestine for hundreds of years, continue to be produced today. Palestinian handicrafts include embroidery and weaving, pottery-making, soap-making, glass-making, and olive-wood and Mother of Pearl carvings, among others. Costumes Foreign travelers to Palestine in the late 19th and early 20th centuries often commented on the rich variety of costumes among the area's inhabitants, and particularly among the fellaheen or village women. Until the 1940s, a woman's economic status, whether married or single, and the town or area they were from could be deciphered by most Palestinian women by the type of cloth, colors, cut, and embroidery motifs, or lack thereof, used for the robe-like dress or "thoub" in Arabic. New styles began to appear in the 1960s. For example, the "six-branched dress" named after the six wide bands of embroidery running down from the waist. These styles came from the refugee camps, particularly after 1967. Individual village styles were lost and replaced by an identifiable "Palestinian" style. The shawal, a style popular in the West Bank and Jordan before the First Intifada, probably evolved from one of the many welfare embroidery projects in the refugee camps. It was a shorter and narrower fashion, with a western cut. * A woman from Bethlehem, c. 1940s.A woman from Bethlehem, c. 1940s. * Young woman of Ramallah wearing dowry headdress, c. 1898–1914Young woman of Ramallah wearing dowry headdress, c. 1898–1914 * Ramallah woman, c. 1920, Library of CongressRamallah woman, c. 1920, Library of Congress * A Traditional Women's Dress in Ramallah, c. 1920.A Traditional Women's Dress in Ramallah, c. 1920. * Girls in Bethlehem costume pre-1885.Girls in Bethlehem costume pre-1885. ### Literature Palestinian literature forms part of the wider genre of Arabic literature. Unlike its Arabic counterparts, Palestinian literature is defined by national affiliation rather than territorially. For example, Egyptian literature is the literature produced in Egypt. This too was the case for Palestinian literature up to the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, but following the Palestinian Exodus of 1948 it has become "a literature written by Palestinians" regardless of their residential status. Contemporary Palestinian literature is often characterized by its heightened sense of irony and the exploration of existential themes and issues of identity. References to the subjects of resistance to occupation, exile, loss, and love and longing for homeland are also common. Palestinian literature can be intensely political, as underlined by writers like Salma Khadra Jayyusi and novelist Liana Badr, who have mentioned the need to give expression to the Palestinian "collective identity" and the "just case" of their struggle. There is also resistance to this school of thought, whereby Palestinian artists have "rebelled" against the demand that their art be "committed". Poet Mourid Barghouti for example, has often said that "poetry is not a civil servant, it's not a soldier, it's in nobody's employ." Rula Jebreal's novel *Miral* tells the story of Hind al-Husseini's effort to establish an orphanage in Jerusalem after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Deir Yassin massacre, and the establishment of the state of Israel. Since 1967, most critics have theorized the existence of three "branches" of Palestinian literature, loosely divided by geographic location: 1) from inside Israel, 2) from the occupied territories, 3) from among the Palestinian diaspora throughout the Middle East. Hannah Amit-Kochavi recognizes only two branches: that written by Palestinians from inside the State of Israel as distinct from that written outside (ibid., p. 11). She also posits a temporal distinction between literature produced before 1948 and that produced thereafter. In a 2003 article published in *Studies in the Humanities*, Steven Salaita posits a fourth branch made up of English language works, particularly those written by Palestinians in the United States, which he defines as "writing rooted in diasporic countries but focused in theme and content on Palestine." Poetry, using classical pre-Islamic forms, remains an extremely popular art form, often attracting Palestinian audiences in the thousands. Until 20 years ago, local folk bards reciting traditional verses were a feature of every Palestinian town. After the 1948 Palestinian exodus and discrimination by neighboring Arab countries, poetry was transformed into a vehicle for political activism. From among those Palestinians who became Arab citizens of Israel after the passage of the Citizenship Law in 1952, a school of resistance poetry was born that included poets like Mahmoud Darwish, Samih al-Qasim, and Tawfiq Zayyad. The work of these poets was largely unknown to the wider Arab world for years because of the lack of diplomatic relations between Israel and Arab governments. The situation changed after Ghassan Kanafani, another Palestinian writer in exile in Lebanon, published an anthology of their work in 1966. Palestinian poets often write about the common theme of a strong affection and sense of loss and longing for a lost homeland. Among the new generation of Palestinian writers, the work of Nathalie Handal an award-winning poet, playwright, and editor has been widely published in literary journals and magazines and has been translated into twelve languages. Palestinian folklore is the body of expressive culture, including tales, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of Palestinian culture. There was a folklorist revival among Palestinian intellectuals such as Nimr Sirhan, Musa Allush, Salim Mubayyid, and the Palestinian Folklore Society during the 1970s. This group attempted to establish pre-Islamic (and pre-Hebraic) cultural roots for a re-constructed Palestinian national identity. The two putative roots in this patrimony are Canaanite and Jebusite. Such efforts seem to have borne fruit as evidenced in the organization of celebrations like the Qabatiya Canaanite festival and the annual Music Festival of Yabus by the Palestinian Ministry of Culture. Traditional storytelling among Palestinians is prefaced with an invitation to the listeners to give blessings to God and the Prophet Mohammed or the Virgin Mary as the case may be, and includes the traditional opening: "There was, or there was not, in the oldness of time..." Formulaic elements of the stories share much in common with the wider Arab world, though the rhyming scheme is distinct. There are a cast of supernatural characters: djinns who can cross the Seven Seas in an instant, giants, and ghouls with eyes of ember and teeth of brass. Stories invariably have a happy ending, and the storyteller will usually finish off with a rhyme like: "The bird has taken flight, God bless you tonight," or "Tutu, tutu, finished is my *haduttu* (story)." ### Music Palestinian music is well known throughout the Arab world. After 1948, a new wave of performers emerged with distinctively Palestinian themes relating to dreams of statehood and burgeoning nationalist sentiments. In addition to *zajal* and *ataaba*, traditional Palestinian songs include: *Bein Al-dawai*, *Al-Rozana*, *Zarif – Al-Toul*, and *Al-Maijana*, *Dal'ona*, *Sahja/Saamir*, *Zaghareet*. Over three decades, the Palestinian National Music and Dance Troupe (El Funoun) and Mohsen Subhi have reinterpreted and rearranged traditional wedding songs such as *Mish'al* (1986), *Marj Ibn 'Amer*(1989) and *Zaghareed* (1997). *Ataaba* is a form of folk singing that consists of four verses, following a specific form and meter. The distinguishing feature of ataaba is that the first three verses end with the same word meaning three different things, and the fourth verse serves as a conclusion. It is usually followed by a *dalouna*. Reem Kelani is one of the foremost researchers and performers in the present day of music with a specifically Palestinian narrative and heritage. Her 2006 debut solo album *Sprinting Gazelle – Palestinian Songs from the Motherland and the Diaspora* comprised Kelani's research and an arrangement of five traditional Palestinian songs, whilst the other five songs were her own musical settings of popular and resistance poetry by the likes of Mahmoud Darwish, Salma Khadra Jayyusi, Rashid Husain and Mahmoud Salim al-Hout. All the songs on the album relate to 'pre-1948 Palestine'. #### Palestinian hip hop Palestinian hip hop reportedly started in 1998 with Tamer Nafar's group DAM. These Palestinian youth forged the new Palestinian musical subgenre, which blends Arabic melodies and hip hop beats. Lyrics are often sung in Arabic, Hebrew, English, and sometimes French. Since then, the new Palestinian musical subgenre has grown to include artists in the Palestinian territories, Israel, Great Britain, the United States and Canada. Borrowing from traditional rap music that first emerged in New York in the 1970s, "young Palestinian musicians have tailored the style to express their own grievances with the social and political climate in which they live and work." Palestinian hip hop works to challenge stereotypes and instigate dialogue about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Palestinian hip-hop artists have been strongly influenced by the messages of American rappers. Tamar Nafar says, "When I heard Tupac sing 'It's a White Man's World' I decided to take hip hop seriously". In addition to the influences from American hip hop, it also includes musical elements from Palestinian and Arabic music including "zajal, mawwal, and saj" which can be likened to Arabic spoken word, as well as including the percussiveness and lyricism of Arabic music. Historically, music has served as an integral accompaniment to various social and religious rituals and ceremonies in Palestinian society (Al-Taee 47). Much of the Middle-Eastern and Arabic string instruments utilized in classical Palestinian music are sampled over Hip-hop beats in both Israeli and Palestinian hip-hop as part of a joint process of localization. Just as the percussiveness of the Hebrew language is emphasized in Israeli Hip-hop, Palestinian music has always revolved around the rhythmic specificity and smooth melodic tone of Arabic. "Musically speaking, Palestinian songs are usually pure melody performed monophonically with complex vocal ornamentations and strong percussive rhythm beats". The presence of a hand-drum in classical Palestinian music indicates a cultural esthetic conducive to the vocal, verbal and instrumental percussion which serve as the foundational elements of Hip-hop. This hip hop is joining a "longer tradition of revolutionary, underground, Arabic music and political songs that have supported Palestinian Resistance". This subgenre has served as a way to politicize the Palestinian issue through music. #### Dance The Dabke, a Levantine Arab folk dance style whose local Palestinian versions were appropriated by Palestinian nationalism after 1967, has, according to one scholar, possible roots that may go back to ancient Canaanite fertility rites. It is marked by synchronized jumping, stamping, and movement, similar to tap dancing. One version is performed by men, another by women. * Palestinian Dabke folk dance being performed by menPalestinian Dabke folk dance being performed by men * Palestinian women dancing traditionally, Bethlehem c. 1936Palestinian women dancing traditionally, Bethlehem c. 1936 ### Sport Although sport facilities did exist before the 1948 Palestinian exodus, many such facilities and institutions were subsequently shut down. Today there remains sport centers such as in Gaza and Ramallah, but the difficulty of mobility and travel restrictions means most Palestinian are not able to compete internationally to their full potential. However, Palestinian sport authorities have indicated that Palestinians in the diaspora will be eligible to compete for Palestine once the diplomatic and security situation improves. * Marco Zaror is a Chilean martial artist of Palestinian descent.Marco Zaror is a Chilean martial artist of Palestinian descent. * Nicolás Massú is a Chilean tennis player of Palestinian descent.Nicolás Massú is a Chilean tennis player of Palestinian descent. * Roberto Bishara Adawi is a footballer of Palestinian descent.Roberto Bishara Adawi is a footballer of Palestinian descent. See also -------- * List of Palestinians References ---------- ### Sources * Al-Ali, Nadje; Koser, Khalid (2004). *New Approaches to Migration?: Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home*. ISBN 978-0203167144. * Ankori, Gannit (2006). *Palestinian Art*. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1861892591. * Barzilai, Gad. (2003). *Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.* Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11315-1 * Boyle, Kevin and Sheen, Juliet (1997). *Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report*. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15977-6 * Cohen, Getzel M. (2006). *The Hellenistic settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa* (Illustrated ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520931022. * Cohen, Hillel, Army of Shadows, Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948 * Cohen, Robin (1995). *The Cambridge Survey of World Migration*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44405-5 * Cordesman, Anthony H (2005). *The Israeli-Palestinian War: Escalating to Nowhere*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-98758-2 * Drummond, Dorothy Weitz (2004). *Holy Land, Whose Land?: Modern Dilemma, Ancient Roots*. Fairhurst Press. ISBN 0-9748233-2-5 * Farsoun, Samih K. (2004). *Culture and Customs of the Palestinians*. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32051-9 * Feldman, Louis H. (1990). "Some Observations on the Name of Palestine". *Hebrew Union College Annual*. Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion. **61**: 1–23. JSTOR 23508170. * Feldman, Louis (1996). "Some Observations on the Name of Palestine". *Studies in Hellenistic Judaism*. BRILL. pp. 553–576. ISBN 9789004104181. Retrieved 17 October 2014. * Gelvin, James L (2005). *The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War*. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. ISBN 0-521-85289-7 * Greenfield, Jonas C.; Paul, Shalom M.; Stone, Michael E; Pinnick, Avital (2001). *Al Kanfei Yonah: Collected Studies of Jonas C. Greenfield on Semitic Philology* (Illustrated ed.). BRILL. ISBN 978-9004121706. * Guzmán, Roberto Marín (2000). *A Century of Palestinian Immigration into Central America*. Editorial Universidad de C.R. ISBN 9977-67-587-2 * Healey, John F. (2001). *The Religion of the Nabataeans: A Conspectus*. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10754-1 * Hobsbawn, Eric (1990). *Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, myth, reality*. Cambridge University Press. * Howell, Mark (2007). *What Did We Do to Deserve This? Palestinian Life under Occupation in the West Bank*, Garnet Publishing. ISBN 1-85964-195-4 * Jacobs, Daniel; Eber, Shirley; Silvani, Francesca (1998). *Israel and the Palestinian Territories: the rough guide*. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-85828-248-0. * Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", *Biblical Archaeology Review*, **27** (3) * Karmi, Ghada (2005). *In Search of Fatima: A Palestinian Story*. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-694-0. * Kasher, Aryeh (1990). *Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel.* Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-145241-0 * Khalidi, Rashid (1997). *Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness*. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10514-2 * "Beshara Doumani's "Rediscovering Ottoman Palestine: Writing Palestinians into History" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2013. * McCarthy, Justin (1994). "Palestine's Population During The Ottoman And The British Mandate Periods". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **114**: 106–107. doi:10.2307/604972. JSTOR 604972. * Khalidi, Rashid (2006). *The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood*, Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-8070-0308-5 * Khalidi, Walid (1984). *Before Their Diaspora*. Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington D.C. * Kimmerling, Baruch and Joseph S. Migdal (2003). *The Palestinian People: A History*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01129-5. ISBN 978-0-674-01129-8. * Kish, George (1978). *A Source Book in Geography* (Reissue, illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674822702. * Kunstel, Marcia and Joseph Albright (1990). *Their Promised Land: Arab and Jew in History's Cauldron-One Valley in the Jerusalem Hills*. Crown. ISBN 0-517-57231-1 * Lewis, Bernard (1999). *Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice*. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31839-7 * Lewis, Bernard (2002). *The Arabs in History*. Oxford University Press, USA, 6th ed. freedomofbleep.com * Lybarger, Loren (2007). *Identity and religion in Palestine: the struggle between Islamism and secularism in the occupied territories*. Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-12729-3 * Lynd, S., Bahour, S. and Lynd, A. (editors) *Homeland: Oral Histories of Palestine and Palestinians*. New York: Olive Branch Press. ISBN 1-56656-132-9 * McCarthy, Justin (1990). "The Population of Palestine: Population Statistics of the Late Ottoman Period and the Mandate". Columbia University Press, ISBAN: 0231071108 * McDowall, David (1989). *The Uprising and Beyond*. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-289-9 * Muhawi, Ibrahim (1989). *Speak, Bird, Speak Again: Palestinian Arab Folktales*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06292-4 * Parkes, James (1970). *Whose Land? A History of the Peoples of Palestine*. * Parmenter, Barbara McKean (1994). *Giving Voice to Stones Place and Identity in Palestinian Literature* University of Texas Press * Porath, Yehoshua (1974). *The Emergence of the Palestinian-Arab National Movement 1918–1929*. London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd. ISBN 0-7146-2939-1 * Porath, Yehoshua (1977). *Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion: 1929–1939*, vol. 2, London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd. * Shahin, Mariam (2005). *Palestine: A Guide*. Interlink Books. * Schulz, Helena Lindholm; Hammer, Juliane (2003). *The Palestinian Diaspora: Formation of Identities and Politics of Homeland*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26820-2. * Whitelam, Keith (1997). *The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History*, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-10759-8, ISBN 978-0-415-10759-4 * Charles Wilson, "Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt". New York, 1881. * Semino; et al. (2004). "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". *American Journal of Human Genetics*. **74** (5): 1023–1034. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965. PMID 15069642. * Ateek, Naim (1992) Jerusalem in Islam and For Palestinian Christians.

Palestinians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinians

**Monégasque** (*Munegascu*, pronounced [mune'gasku]; French: *Monégasque*); Italian: *Monegasco* is the variety of Ligurian spoken in Monaco. It is closely related to the Ligurian dialects spoken in Ventimiglia and is considered a national language of Monaco, though it is not the official language of the country, which is French. Monégasque has been officially taught in the schools of Monaco since 1972 and was made a compulsory subject in 1976, but is the native language of only a handful of people. History ------- In 1191, the Republic of Genoa took possession of Monaco and began settling in 1215. These Genoese settlers brought their vernacular language with them which would develop into Monégasque. Prior to the Genoese settlers, the main language of the region was Provençal, as spoken in the nearby localities of Menton and Roquebrune. By 1355, Menton, Roquebrune, and Monaco were under the political union of the Grimaldis, but despite this, there was a linguistic divide as the primary language of Monaco was Ligurian. Overtime Monégasque began to split from the Genoese vernacular as Monaco came under the political influence of foreign powers, namely taking influences from French and Italian, but also briefly from Spanish and Catalan as Monaco had been under Spanish occupation for over a hundred years, ending in 1641. Afterwards, Monaco would be under French protection and prior to the French Revolution, Italian and Monégasque were the primary languages of the political elite, administration, clergy and natives. French would however begin to become a major influence as France instituted bilingual government. At this time the population of Monaco was mainly made up of immigrants and descendants from Genoa and other parts Liguria, and though Monégasque was not written, it was openly spoken and passed down through families by oral tradition. People coming in from the Italian city-states were considered closer neighbours than those coming in from Grimaldi-led cities of Menton and Roquebrune, who were considered foreigners despite their union with Monaco. In 1793, Monaco was annexed by France and by 1805, decrees from the Napoleon, Emperor of the French, imposed French language instruction and limited the use of other languages. The Grimaldis reestablished a sovereign principality in 1814, but maintained French as the only official language though Italian and Monégasque remained national languages. In 1815, Prince Honoré IV decreed French and Italian equal status in education, though Italian gradually declined as the nearby regions became more French, noticeably in 1860 with the French annexation of Nice. Monégasque was then demoted to a "patois," and barred from being taught or spoken in public and religious schools until 1976, in a similar manner to that of Occitan in France. The first written traces of Monégasque appear between 1721 and 1729 in the correspondence of Antonio I with his daughter Louise Hippolyte, as well as in a few notarial deeds, but the language remained above all, oral. From 1860, the population of Monaco City rose from 1,200 inhabitants in 1860 to 22,000 in 1880; Monégasque found itself threatened by the massive influx of foreign workers and by the development of a pidgin mixing Provençal, Piedmontese, CorsicanFrench, and Ligurian. At that time, Monégasque was banned from school and parents encouraged their children to speak French. In 1927, Louis Notari undertook the written codification of the language, drawing inspiration from the writing of French and Italian. The first Monegasque grammar and dictionary appeared in 1960 and 1963. By 1924, Monégasque was close to extinction if not for the efforts of the National Committee of Monégasque Traditions (*Cumitáu Naçiunale d'ë Tradiçiúe Munegasche*). In 1927, Louis Notari published the *A Legenda de Santa Devota,* the first literary work in Monégasque. This was soon followed by all kinds of literature, such as poetry, stories, and theatre being written in Monégasque attracting more attention to the language. In 1972, the first class in Monégasque was taught by clergymen, Georges Franzi, with support from the Félibrige, an Occitan language association, and by 1976, Monégasque was made a compulsory subject in public and private primary education thanks to an initiative by the government. This was later expanded in 1979 and 1989 to make it a compulsory subject in secondary education and as an optional subject for the baccalaureate. In 1982, Prince Rainier III created a sovereign ordinance that established the Commission for the Monégasque Language, which is responsible for the education and study of the language. Classification -------------- Monégasque shares many features with the Genoese dialect and is closely related the dialect of Ventimiglia. Despite earlier attempts to link it to Occitan, Monégasque is a Ligurian dialect with Occitan contributions while the nearby Menton dialect is an Occitan dialect with Ligurian features. Monégasque, like all other Ligurian language variants, is derived directly from the Vulgar Latin of what is now northwestern Italy and southeastern France and has some influence in vocabulary, morphology and syntax from French and related Gallo-Romance languages. Speakers -------- The sole official language of Monaco is French as stated in their constitution with Monégasque being used informally. As Monégasques are only a minority in Monaco, the language was threatened with extinction in the 1970s. In a nation with other 130 different nationalities, Monégasque struggles in a time of globalisation. Despite being compulsory in education, it's not common for students in Monaco to use it outside the classroom or to take their bachelor's degree in the Monégasque option. Adult education and lessons to foreign residents are carried out, and yearly there is language competition for schoolchildren that is presided by the Prince. Literature ---------- Beginning with Louis Notari’s *A Legenda de Santa Devota.* Any semblance of written Monégasque was usually referred to as Ligurian, Genoese, Italian, and sometimes even French. Other authors in Monégasque also include: * Louis Barral, curator of the Museum of Prehistoric Anthropology, lexicographer of the Monégasque dictionary, and author of science and fiction. * Suzanne Simone [fr], co-author the dictionary with Barral. * Robert Boisson, founder of the Academy of Dialectal Languages ( French: *Academie des languages dialectales*) and poet of works such as *Vibrations intérieures – Harmonies Humaines.* * Louis Frolla, clergyman and grammatician the grammar of Monégasque. * Georges Franzi [fr; lij; it] teacher of Monégasque via sermons and activist for education in Monégasque. * Étienne Clerissi [fr], actor, artist, and author of plays in Monégasque. * Jules Soccal, sailor and author of *Le Vocabulaire monégasque de la marine et de la mer,* a description Monégasque sea jargon. Spelling Standard ----------------- The modern spelling standard has had some adjustments, but remains close to the system imagined by Louis Notari who wanted to be as transparent as possible while taking into account the etymology of words. Thus, in Literature, it is necessary to write qatru and not catru because the word comes from the Latin quattŭor; çento and not sento for the same reasons (centum). Orthography ----------- The Monégasque alphabet comprises 23 letters: seventeen consonants and nine vowels, plus the letter "k" at the initial of certain foreign words (such as kaki̍). The "j" and the "h" are never found at the beginning of a word. In Monegasque, each vowel is pronounced separately. Monégasque orthography generally follows Italian principles, with a few unique graphemes and features borrowed from French: | Letter | IPA | **Diacritics** | | --- | --- | --- | | **A** | /a/ | | | **B** | /b/ | | | **C** | /k/ *or* /tʃ/1 | **Ch** /k/ | | **Ç** | /s/ | | | **D** | /d/ | | | **E** | /e/ | **Œ** /œ/, **Ë** /iː/ | | **F** | /f/ | | | **G** | /ɡ/ *or* /dʒ/2 | **Gh** /g/, **Gl** /ʎ/ | | **H** | ∅ *silent*3 | | | **I** | /i/ | | | **J** | /ʒ/ | | | **L** | /l/ | | | **M** | /m/ | | | **N** | /n/ | | | **O** | /o/ | | | **P** | /p/ | | | **Q** | /k/ | | | **R** | /ɾ/ *or* /ʁ/4 | | | **S** | /s/ *or* /z/ *or* /ʃ/5 | **Sc** /sk/ *or* /ʃ/6, **Scc** /ʃtʃ/ | | **T** | /t/ | | | **U** | /u/ | **Ü** /y/ | | **V** | /v/ | | | **Z** | /z/ | | **Notes:** 1. Similar to Italian hard and soft C. /k/ before *a, o, u, ü,* and *ch*. 2. Similar to Italian hard and soft G. /dʒ/ before *e* and *i*. 3. *H* is used like it is in Italian, after *C* and *G* for *Ch* /k/ and *Gh* /g/. 4. Pronounced as in French, although it may be intervolalic. 5. /ʃ/ before *t, s*, and *p*. /z/ in between vowels. 6. /ʃ/ before *e* or *i*. Diphthongs ---------- Caption text| Diphthong | IPA | Example | | --- | --- | --- | | ai | [aj] | aiga (water) | | au | [aw] | auriva (olive) | | ei | [ej] | pei (feet) | | œi | [ej or øj] | pignœi (pine cone nuts) | | eu | [ew] | bureu (mushroom) | | ia | [ja] | piatu (flat) | | ie | [je] | ientrà (to enter) | | oi | [oj] | soi (his) | | ou | [ow] | sou (a type of money) | | ui | [ui] | nui (us) | | üu | [yu] | cugiüu (mackerel) | Grammar ------- Present tense -à| | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | 1st person | -u | -amu | | 2nd person | -i | -è | | 3rd person | -a | -u(n) | Esse (être)| | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | 1st person | sun | semu | | 2nd person | si | si | | 3rd person | è | sun | Avè (Avoir)| | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | 1st person | o | amu | | 2nd person | ai | avi | | 3rd person | a | an | Samples ------- Below is an excerpt from the Monégasque national anthem, written by Louis Notari. In addition, there is an older French version of the anthem; its lyrics have a different meaning. The choice between the two forms is generally subject to the occasion and the circumstance. Despœi tugiù sciü d'u nostru paise Se ride au ventu, u meme pavayùn Despœi tugiù a curù russa e gianca E stà l'emblema, d'a nostra libertà Grandi e i piciui, l'an sempre respetà The following is a Monégasque rendering of the Hail Mary: Ave Maria, Tüta de graçia u Signù è cun tü si benedëta tra tüt'ë done e Gesü u to Fiyu è benejiu. {Santa Maria, maire de Diu, prega per nùi, pecatùi aùra e à l'ura d'a nostra morte AMEN. (Che sice cusci.) See also -------- * Languages of Monaco * Languages of Europe * Languages of Italy

Monégasque dialect

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mon%C3%A9gasque_dialect

***Coccinella septempunctata***, the **seven-spot ladybird** (or, in North America, **seven-spotted ladybug** or "**C-7**"), is the most common ladybird in Europe. Its elytra are of a red colour, but punctuated with three black spots each, with one further spot being spread over the junction of the two, making a total of seven spots, from which the species derives both its common and scientific names (from the Latin **septem** = "seven" and **punctus** = "spot"). Biology ------- Although *C. septempunctata* larvae and adults mainly eat aphids, they also feed on Thysanoptera, Aleyrodidae, on the larvae of Psyllidae and Cicadellidae, and on eggs and larvae of some beetles and butterflies. There are one or two generations per year. Adults overwinter in ground litter in parks, gardens and forest edges and under tree bark and rocks. *C. septempunctata* has a broad ecological range, generally living wherever there are aphids for it to eat. This includes, amongst other biotopes, meadows, fields, Pontic–Caspian steppe, parkland, gardens, Western European broadleaf forests and mixed forests. In the United Kingdom, there are fears that the seven-spot ladybird is being outcompeted for food by the harlequin ladybird. * MatingMating * LarvaLarva * In addition to insect prey, seven-spot lady-birds consume pollen and nectar.In addition to insect prey, seven-spot lady-birds consume pollen and nectar. An adult seven-spot ladybird may reach a body length of 7.6–12.7 mm (0.3–0.5 in). Their distinctive spots and conspicuous colours warn of their toxicity, making them unappealing to predators. The species can secrete a fluid from joints in their legs which gives them a foul taste. A threatened ladybird may both play dead and secrete the unappetising substance to protect itself. The seven-spot ladybird synthesizes the toxic alkaloids, N-oxide coccinelline and its free base precoccinelline; depending on sex and diet, the spot size and coloration can provide some indication of how toxic the individual insect is to potential predators. Distribution ------------ The species can be found in Europe, North Africa, Australia, Cyprus, European Russia, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Russian Far East, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, the Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia, Western Asia, Middle East, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, North and South Korea, Pakistan, Nepal, North India, Japan, Sri Lanka, southeast Asia, and tropical Africa. Interaction with humans ----------------------- ### Biological control, introductions, and infestations The species has been repeatedly introduced to North America as a biological control agent to reduce aphid numbers. The first record of successful establishment (after numerous failed attempts to introduce the species) in the United States was in 1973. It has since spread by natural dispersion to New York and Connecticut and to Oklahoma, Georgia and Delaware by recolonization.[*clarification needed*] In North America, this species has outcompeted many native species, including other *Coccinella*. Massive swarms of *C. septempunctata* took place in the drought summer of 1976 in the UK. The species has undergone significant declines on the island of Malta, yet it is unclear whether this decline has occurred at the same rate elsewhere. ### In culture *C. septempunctata* has been designated the national insect of Finland. In the United States, it is also the official state insect of five different states (Delaware, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Tennessee).

Coccinella septempunctata

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccinella_septempunctata

**Music** is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise expressive content. Definitions of music vary depending on culture, though it is an aspect of all human societies and a cultural universal. While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on their precise definitions. The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance, though the topic itself extends into academic disciplines, criticism, philosophy, and psychology. Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments, including the human voice. In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised. For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs. In modal jazz, the performers may take turns leading and responding while sharing a changing set of notes. In a free jazz context, there may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion. Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable or agglomerated electronically from many performances. Music is played in public and private areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra performances, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film, TV show, opera, or video game. Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones. Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities. The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music. Compositions, performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs. Etymology and terminology ------------------------- The modern English word 'music' came into use in the 1630s. It is derived from a long line of successive precursors: the Old English '*musike*' of the mid-13th century; the Old French *musique* of the 12th century; and the Latin *mūsica*. The Latin word itself derives from the Ancient Greek *mousiké* (*technē*)—μουσική (τέχνη)—literally meaning "(art) of the Muses". The Muses were nine deities in Ancient Greek mythology who presided over the arts and sciences. They were included in tales by the earliest Western authors, Homer and Hesiod, and eventually came to be associated with music specifically. Over time, Polyhymnia would reside over music more prominently than the other muses. The Latin word *musica* was also the originator for both the Spanish *música* and French *musique* via spelling and linguistic adjustment, though other European terms were probably loanwords, including the Italian *musica*, German *Musik*, Dutch *muziek*, Norwegian *musikk*, Polish *muzyka* and Russian *muzïka*. The modern Western world usually defines music as an all-encompassing term, used to describe diverse genres, styles and traditions. This is not the case worldwide, and languages such as modern Indonesian (**musik**) and Shona (**musakazo**) have recently adopted words to reflect this universal conception, as they did not have words that fit exactly the Western scope. In East Asia, neither Japan nor China have a single word which encompasses music in a broad sense, but culturally often regard music in such a fashion. The closest word to mean music in Chinese, *yue*, shares a character with *le*, meaning joy, and originally referred to all the arts before its narrowing in meaning. Africa is too diverse to make firm generalizations, but the musicologist J. H. Kwabena Nketia has emphasized African music's often inseparable connection to dance and speech in general. Some African cultures, such as the Songye people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tiv people of Nigeria, have a strong and broad conception of 'music' but no corresponding word in their native languages. Other words commonly translated as 'music' often have more specific meanings in their respective cultures: the Hindi word for music, **sangita**, properly refers to art music, while the many Indigenous languages of the Americas have words for music that refer specifically to song but describe instrumental music regardless. Though the Arabic **musiqi** can refer to all music, it is usually used for instrumental and metric music, while **khandan** identifies vocal and improvised music. History ------- ### Origins and prehistory It is often debated as to what extent the origins of music will ever be understood, and there are many competing theories that aim to explain it. Many scholars highlight a relationship between the origin of music and the origin of language, and there is disagreement surrounding whether music developed before, after, or simultaneously with language. A similar source of contention surrounds whether music was the intentional result of natural selection or was a byproduct spandrel of evolution. The earliest influential theory was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1871, who stated that music arose as a form of sexual selection, perhaps via mating calls. Darwin's original perspective has been heavily criticized for its inconsistencies with other sexual selection methods, though many scholars in the 21st century have developed and promoted the theory. Other theories include that music arose to assist in organizing labor, improving long-distance communication, benefiting communication with the divine, assisting in community cohesion or as a defense to scare off predators. Prehistoric music can only be theorized based on findings from paleolithic archaeology sites. The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old, though there is considerable debate surrounding whether it is truly a musical instrument or an object formed by animals. The earliest objects whose designations as musical instruments are widely accepted are bone flutes from the Swabian Jura, Germany, namely from the Geissenklösterle, Hohle Fels and Vogelherd caves. Dated to the Aurignacian (of the Upper Paleolithic) and used by Early European modern humans, from all three caves there are eight examples, four made from the wing bones of birds and four from mammoth ivory; three of these are near complete. Three flutes from the Geissenklösterle are dated as the oldest, c. 43,150–39,370 BP.Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley civilization archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (*marga*) are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition. The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE. ### Antiquity The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes and double clarinets were played. Percussion instruments, lyres, and lutes were added to orchestras by the Middle Kingdom. Cymbals frequently accompanied music and dance, much as they still do in Egypt today. Egyptian folk music, including the traditional Sufi *dhikr* rituals, are the closest contemporary music genre to ancient Egyptian music, having preserved many of its features, rhythms and instruments. The "Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal", found on clay tablets that date back to approximately 1400 BCE, is the oldest surviving notated work of music. Music was an important part of social and cultural life in ancient Greece, in fact it was one of the main subjects taught to children. Musical education was considered to be important for the development of an individual's soul. Musicians and singers played a prominent role in Greek theater, and those who received a musical education were seen as nobles and in perfect harmony (as can be read in the Republic, Plato). Mixed gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration, and spiritual ceremonies. Instruments included the double-reed *aulos* and a plucked string instrument, the *lyre*, principally a special kind called a *kithara*. Music was an important part of education, and boys were taught music starting at age six. Greek musical literacy created significant musical development. Greek music theory included the Greek musical modes, that eventually became the basis for Western religious and classical music. Later, influences from the Roman Empire, Eastern Europe, and the Byzantine Empire changed Greek music. The Seikilos epitaph is the oldest surviving example of a complete musical composition, including musical notation, from anywhere in the world. The oldest surviving work written on the subject of music theory is *Harmonika Stoicheia* by Aristoxenus. ### Asian cultures Asian music covers a vast swath of music cultures surveyed in the articles on Arabia, Central Asia, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Several have traditions reaching into antiquity. Indian classical music is one of the oldest musical traditions in the world. Sculptures from the Indus Valley civilization show dance and old musical instruments, like the seven holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler. The Rigveda, an ancient Hindu text, has elements of present Indian music, with musical notation to denote the meter and the mode of chanting. Indian classical music (marga) is monophonic, and based on a single melody line or raga rhythmically organized through talas. *Silappadhikaram* by Ilango Adigal provides information about how new scales can be formed by modal shifting of the tonic from an existing scale. Present day Hindi music was influenced by Persian traditional music and Afghan Mughals. Carnatic music, popular in the southern states, is largely devotional; the majority of the songs are addressed to the Hindu deities. There are also many songs emphasizing love and other social issues. Indonesian music has been formed since the Bronze Age culture migrated to the Indonesian archipelago in the 2nd to 3rd centuries BCE. Indonesian traditional music often uses percussion instruments, especially kendang and gongs. Some of them developed elaborate and distinctive musical instruments, such as the sasando stringed instrument on the island of Rote, the Sundanese angklung, and the complex and sophisticated Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras. Indonesia is the home of gong chime, a general term for a set of small, high pitched pot gongs. Gongs are usually placed in order of note, with the boss up on a string held in a low wooden frame. The most popular and famous form of Indonesian music is probably gamelan, an ensemble of tuned percussion instruments that include metallophones, drums, gongs and spike fiddles along with bamboo suling. Chinese classical music, the traditional art or court music of China, has a history stretching over around three thousand years. It has its own unique systems of musical notation, as well as musical tuning and pitch, musical instruments and styles or musical genres. Chinese music is pentatonic-diatonic, having a scale of twelve notes to an octave (5 + 7 = 12) as does European-influenced music. ### Western classical #### Early music Breves dies hominis by Léonin or Pérotin The medieval music era (476 to 1400), which took place during the Middle Ages, started with the introduction of monophonic (single melodic line) chanting into Roman Catholic Church services. Musical notation was used since Ancient times in Greek culture, but in the Middle Ages, notation was first introduced by the Catholic church so that the chant melodies could be written down, to facilitate the use of the same melodies for religious music across the entire Catholic empire. The only European Medieval repertory that has been found in written form from before 800 is the monophonic liturgical plainsong chant of the Roman Catholic Church, the central tradition of which was called Gregorian chant. Alongside these traditions of sacred and church music there existed a vibrant tradition of secular song (non-religious songs). Examples of composers from this period are Léonin, Pérotin, Guillaume de Machaut, and Walther von der Vogelweide. Renaissance music (c. 1400 to 1600) was more focused on secular (non-religious) themes, such as courtly love. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was hand-copied). The increased availability of sheet music helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. Musicians and singers often worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of music. By the middle of the 15th century, composers wrote richly polyphonic sacred music, in which different melody lines were interwoven simultaneously. Prominent composers from this era include Guillaume Dufay, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Thomas Morley, and Orlande de Lassus. As musical activity shifted from the church to the aristocratic courts, kings, queens and princes competed for the finest composers. Many leading important composers came from the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France. They are called the Franco-Flemish composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical activity included Germany, England, and Spain. #### Common practice period ##### Baroque Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565 Toccata and Fugue by J.S. Bach The Baroque era of music took place from 1600 to 1750, as the Baroque artistic style flourished across Europe; and during this time, music expanded in its range and complexity. Baroque music began when the first operas (dramatic solo vocal music accompanied by orchestra) were written. During the Baroque era, polyphonic contrapuntal music, in which multiple, simultaneous independent melody lines were used, remained important (counterpoint was important in the vocal music of the Medieval era). German Baroque composers wrote for small ensembles including strings, brass, and woodwinds, as well as for choirs and keyboard instruments such as pipe organ, harpsichord, and clavichord. During this period several major music forms were defined that lasted into later periods when they were expanded and evolved further, including the fugue, the invention, the sonata, and the concerto. The late Baroque style was polyphonically complex and richly ornamented. Important composers from the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach (*Cello suites*), George Frideric Handel (*Messiah*), Georg Philipp Telemann and Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (*The Four Seasons*). ##### Classicism Symphony No. 40 G minor Symphony 40 G minor by W.A. Mozart The music of the Classical period (1730 to 1820) aimed to imitate what were seen as the key elements of the art and philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome: the ideals of balance, proportion and disciplined expression. (Note: the music from the Classical period should not be confused with Classical music in general, a term which refers to Western art music from the 5th century to the 2000s, which includes the Classical period as one of a number of periods). Music from the Classical period has a lighter, clearer and considerably simpler texture than the Baroque music which preceded it. The main style was homophony, where a prominent melody and a subordinate chordal accompaniment part are clearly distinct. Classical instrumental melodies tended to be almost voicelike and singable. New genres were developed, and the fortepiano, the forerunner to the modern piano, replaced the Baroque era harpsichord and pipe organ as the main keyboard instrument (though pipe organ continued to be used in sacred music, such as Masses). Importance was given to instrumental music. It was dominated by further development of musical forms initially defined in the Baroque period: the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony. Others main kinds were the trio, string quartet, serenade and divertimento. The sonata was the most important and developed form. Although Baroque composers also wrote sonatas, the Classical style of sonata is completely distinct. All of the main instrumental forms of the Classical era, from string quartets to symphonies and concertos, were based on the structure of the sonata. The instruments used chamber music and orchestra became more standardized. In place of the basso continuo group of the Baroque era, which consisted of harpsichord, organ or lute along with a number of bass instruments selected at the discretion of the group leader (e.g., viol, cello, theorbo, serpent), Classical chamber groups used specified, standardized instruments (e.g., a string quartet would be performed by two violins, a viola and a cello). The Baroque era improvised chord-playing of the continuo keyboardist or lute player was gradually phased out between 1750 and 1800. One of the most important changes made in the Classical period was the development of public concerts. The aristocracy still played a significant role in the sponsorship of concerts and compositions, but it was now possible for composers to survive without being permanent employees of queens or princes. The increasing popularity of classical music led to a growth in the number and types of orchestras. The expansion of orchestral concerts necessitated the building of large public performance spaces. Symphonic music including symphonies, musical accompaniment to ballet and mixed vocal/instrumental genres such as opera and oratorio became more popular. The best known composers of Classicism are Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Christoph Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert. Beethoven and Schubert are also considered to be composers in the later part of the Classical era, as it began to move towards Romanticism. ##### Romanticism Die Walküre *Die Walküre* by Richard Wagner Romantic music (c. 1810 to 1900) from the 19th century had many elements in common with the Romantic styles in literature and painting of the era. Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature. Romantic music expanded beyond the rigid styles and forms of the Classical era into more passionate, dramatic expressive pieces and songs. Romantic composers such as Wagner and Brahms attempted to increase emotional expression and power in their music to describe deeper truths or human feelings. With symphonic tone poems, composers tried to tell stories and evoke images or landscapes using instrumental music. Some composers promoted nationalistic pride with patriotic orchestral music inspired by folk music. The emotional and expressive qualities of music came to take precedence over tradition. Romantic composers grew in idiosyncrasy, and went further in the syncretism of exploring different art-forms in a musical context, (such as literature), history (historical figures and legends), or nature itself. Romantic love or longing was a prevalent theme in many works composed during this period. In some cases, the formal structures from the classical period continued to be used (e.g., the sonata form used in string quartets and symphonies), but these forms were expanded and altered. In many cases, new approaches were explored for existing genres, forms, and functions. Also, new forms were created that were deemed better suited to the new subject matter. Composers continued to develop opera and ballet music, exploring new styles and themes. In the years after 1800, the music developed by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert introduced a more dramatic, expressive style. In Beethoven's case, short motifs, developed organically, came to replace melody as the most significant compositional unit (an example is the distinctive four note figure used in his Fifth Symphony). Later Romantic composers such as Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Antonín Dvořák, and Gustav Mahler used more unusual chords and more dissonance to create dramatic tension. They generated complex and often much longer musical works. During the late Romantic period, composers explored dramatic chromatic alterations of tonality, such as extended chords and altered chords, which created new sound "colors." The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra, and the industrial revolution helped to create better instruments, creating a more powerful sound. Public concerts became an important part of well-to-do urban society. It also saw a new diversity in theatre music, including operetta, and musical comedy and other forms of musical theatre. ### 20th and 21st century In the 19th century, one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which middle class amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other common instruments, such as violin. With 20th-century music, the invention of new electric technologies such as radio broadcasting and the mass market availability of gramophone records meant that sound recordings of songs and pieces heard by listeners (either on the radio or on their record player) became the main way to learn about new songs and pieces. There was a vast increase in music listening as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music, anyone with a radio or record player could hear operas, symphonies and big bands right in their own living room, while during the 19th century, the focus on sheet music restricted access to new music to the middle class and upper-class people who could read music and who owned pianos and instruments. This allowed lower-income people, who could not afford an opera or symphony concert ticket to hear this music. It also meant that people could hear music from different parts of the country, or even different parts of the world, even if they could not afford to travel to these locations. This helped to spread musical styles. The focus of art music in the 20th century was characterized by exploration of new rhythms, styles, and sounds. The horrors of World War I influenced many of the arts, including music, and some composers began exploring darker, harsher sounds. Traditional music styles such as jazz and folk music were used by composers as a source of ideas for classical music. Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and John Cage were all influential composers in 20th-century art music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic and Musique concrète schools of electronic composition. Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it could do much more than record a band's performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance. Jazz evolved and became an important genre of music over the course of the 20th century, and during the second half of that century, rock music did the same. Jazz is an American musical artform that originated in the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note. Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed in the 1950s from 1960s rock and roll, rockabilly, blues, and country music. The sound of rock often revolves around the electric guitar or acoustic guitar, and it uses a strong back beat laid down by a rhythm section. Along with the guitar or keyboards, saxophone and blues-style harmonica are used as soloing instruments. In its "purest form", it "has three chords, a strong, insistent back beat, and a catchy melody."[*This quote needs a citation*] The traditional rhythm section for popular music is rhythm guitar, electric bass guitar, drums. Some bands also have keyboard instruments such as organ, piano, or, since the 1970s, analog synthesizers. In the 1980s, pop musicians began using digital synthesizers, such as the DX-7 synthesizer, electronic drum machines such as the TR-808 and synth bass devices (such as the TB-303) or synth bass keyboards. In the 1990s, an increasingly large range of computerized hardware musical devices and instruments and software (e.g. digital audio workstations) were used. In the 2020s, soft synths and computer music apps make it possible for bedroom producers to create and record some types of music, such as electronic dance music, in their own home, adding sampled and digital instruments and editing the recording digitally. In the 1990s, some bands in genres such as nu metal began including DJs in their bands. DJs create music by manipulating recorded music on record players or CD players, using a DJ mixer. Innovation in music technology continued into the 21st century, including the development of isomorphic keyboards and Dynamic Tonality. Creation -------- ### Composition "Composition" is the act or practice of creating a song, an instrumental music piece, a work with both singing and instruments, or another type of music. In many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of composing also includes the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music "score", which is then performed by the composer or by other singers or musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, the composer typically orchestrates his or her own compositions, but in musical theatre and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use notation at all, and instead, compose the song in her mind and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music. Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in classical music, there are many decisions that a performer has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements of music precisely. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and notated is termed "interpretation". Different performers' interpretations of the same work of music can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies. Composers and songwriters who present their own music are interpreting their songs, just as much as those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual choices of a performer. Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is not always the case. A work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third person orchestrates the songs. In some styles of music, such as the blues, a composer/songwriter may create, perform and record new songs or pieces without ever writing them down in music notation. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from avant-garde music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as *Aus den sieben Tagen*, to computer programs that select sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold Lutosławski. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a breeze. The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough to include the creation of popular music and traditional music songs and instrumental pieces as well as spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and African percussionists such as Ewe drummers. ### Performance Performance is the physical expression of music, which occurs when a song is sung or when a piano piece, electric guitar melody, symphony, drum beat or other musical part is played by musicians. In classical music, a musical work is written in music notation by a composer and then it is performed once the composer is satisfied with its structure and instrumentation. However, as it gets performed, the interpretation of a song or piece can evolve and change. In classical music, instrumental performers, singers or conductors may gradually make changes to the phrasing or tempo of a piece. In popular and traditional music, the performers have a lot more freedom to make changes to the form of a song or piece. As such, in popular and traditional music styles, even when a band plays a cover song, they can make changes to it such as adding a guitar solo to or inserting an introduction. A performance can either be planned out and rehearsed (practiced)—which is the norm in classical music, jazz big bands, and many popular music styles–or improvised over a chord progression (a sequence of chords), which is the norm in small jazz and blues groups. Rehearsals of orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. Rock, blues and jazz bands are usually led by the bandleader. A rehearsal is a structured repetition of a song or piece by the performers until it can be sung or played correctly and, if it is a song or piece for more than one musician, until the parts are together from a rhythmic and tuning perspective. Improvisation is the creation of a musical idea–a melody or other musical line–created on the spot, often based on scales or pre-existing melodic riffs. Many cultures have strong traditions of solo performance (in which one singer or instrumentalist performs), such as in Indian classical music, and in the Western art-music tradition. Other cultures, such as in Bali, include strong traditions of group performance. All cultures include a mixture of both, and performance may range from improvised solo playing to highly planned and organized performances such as the modern classical concert, religious processions, classical music festivals or music competitions. Chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble with only one or a few of each type of instrument, is often seen as more intimate than large symphonic works. ### Improvisation Musical improvisation is the creation of spontaneous music, often within (or based on) a pre-existing harmonic framework or chord progression. Improvisers use the notes of the chord, various scales that are associated with each chord, and chromatic ornaments and passing tones which may be neither chord tones nor from the typical scales associated with a chord. Musical improvisation can be done with or without preparation. Improvisation is a major part of some types of music, such as blues, jazz, and jazz fusion, in which instrumental performers improvise solos, melody lines, and accompaniment parts. In the Western art music tradition, improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque era and during the Classical era. In the Baroque era, performers improvised ornaments, and basso continuo keyboard players improvised chord voicings based on figured bass notation. As well, the top soloists were expected to be able to improvise pieces such as preludes. In the Classical era, solo performers and singers improvised virtuoso cadenzas during concerts. However, in the 20th and early 21st century, as "common practice" Western art music performance became institutionalized in symphony orchestras, opera houses, and ballets, improvisation has played a smaller role, as more and more music was notated in scores and parts for musicians to play. At the same time, some 20th and 21st century art music composers have increasingly included improvisation in their creative work. In Indian classical music, improvisation is a core component and an essential criterion of performances. Art and entertainment --------------------- Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. When music was only available through sheet music scores, such as during the Classical and Romantic eras, music lovers would buy the sheet music of their favourite pieces and songs so that they could perform them at home on the piano. With the advent of the phonograph, records of popular songs, rather than sheet music became the dominant way that music lovers would enjoy their favourite songs. With the advent of home tape recorders in the 1980s and digital music in the 1990s, music lovers could make tapes or playlists of their favourite songs and take them with them on a portable cassette player or MP3 player. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their favourite songs, which serve as a "self-portrait, a gesture of friendship, prescription for an ideal party... [and] an environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved". Amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians are employed by a range of institutions and organisations, including armed forces (in marching bands, concert bands and popular music groups), religious institutions, symphony orchestras, broadcasting or film production companies, and music schools. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings. There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians. In community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. A distinction is often made between music performed for a live audience and music that is performed in a studio so that it can be recorded and distributed through the music retail system or the broadcasting system. However, there are also many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in both classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers. In the jam band scene, live, improvised jam sessions are preferred to studio recordings. ### Notation In the 2000s, music notation typically means the written expression of music notes and rhythms on paper using symbols. When music is written down, the pitches and rhythm of the music, such as the notes of a melody, are notated. Music notation also often provides instructions on how to perform the music. For example, the sheet music for a song may state that the song is a "slow blues" or a "fast swing", which indicates the tempo and the genre. To read music notation, a person must have an understanding of music theory, harmony and the performance practice associated with a particular song or piece's genre. Written notation varies with the style and period of music. In the 2000s, notated music is produced as sheet music or, for individuals with computer scorewriter programs, as an image on a computer screen. In ancient times, music notation was put onto stone or clay tablets. To perform music from notation, a singer or instrumentalist requires an understanding of the rhythmic and pitch elements embodied in the symbols and the performance practice that is associated with a piece of music or a genre. In genres requiring musical improvisation, the performer often plays from music where only the chord changes and form of the song are written, requiring the performer to have a great understanding of the music's structure, harmony and the styles of a particular genre (e.g., jazz or country music). In Western art music, the most common types of written notation are scores, which include all the music parts of an ensemble piece, and parts, which are the music notation for the individual performers or singers. In popular music, jazz, and blues, the standard musical notation is the lead sheet, which notates the melody, chords, lyrics (if it is a vocal piece), and structure of the music. Fake books are also used in jazz; they may consist of lead sheets or simply chord charts, which permit rhythm section members to improvise an accompaniment part to jazz songs. Scores and parts are also used in popular music and jazz, particularly in large ensembles such as jazz "big bands." In popular music, guitarists and electric bass players often read music notated in tablature (often abbreviated as "tab"), which indicates the location of the notes to be played on the instrument using a diagram of the guitar or bass fingerboard. Tablature was also used in the Baroque era to notate music for the lute, a stringed, fretted instrument. ### Oral and aural tradition Many types of music, such as traditional blues and folk music were not written down in sheet music; instead, they were originally preserved in the memory of performers, and the songs were handed down orally, from one musician or singer to another, or aurally, in which a performer learns a song "by ear". When the composer of a song or piece is no longer known, this music is often classified as "traditional" or as a "folk song". Different musical traditions have different attitudes towards how and where to make changes to the original source material, from quite strict, to those that demand improvisation or modification to the music. A culture's history and stories may also be passed on by ear through song. Elements -------- Music has many different fundamentals or elements. Depending on the definition of "element" being used, these can include pitch, beat or pulse, tempo, rhythm, melody, harmony, texture, style, allocation of voices, timbre or color, dynamics, expression, articulation, form, and structure. The elements of music feature prominently in the music curriculums of Australia, the UK, and the US. All three curriculums identify pitch, dynamics, timbre, and texture as elements, but the other identified elements of music are far from universally agreed upon. Below is a list of the three official versions of the "elements of music": * Australia: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics and expression, rhythm, form and structure. * UK: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, duration, tempo, structure. * USA: pitch, timbre, texture, dynamics, rhythm, form, harmony, style/articulation. In relation to the UK curriculum, in 2013 the term: "appropriate musical notations" was added to their list of elements and the title of the list was changed from the "elements of music" to the "inter-related dimensions of music". The inter-related dimensions of music are listed as: pitch, duration, dynamics, tempo, timbre, texture, structure, and appropriate musical notations. The phrase "the elements of music" is used in a number of different contexts. The two most common contexts can be differentiated by describing them as the "rudimentary elements of music" and the "perceptual elements of music". ### Pitch Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note, or tone is "higher" or "lower" than another musical sound, note, or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum. We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck. ### Melody A melody (also called a "tune") is a series of pitches (notes) sounding in succession (one after the other), often in a rising and falling pattern. The notes of a melody are typically created using pitch systems such as scales or modes. Melodies also often contain notes from the chords used in the song. The melodies in simple folk songs and traditional songs may use only the notes of a single scale, the scale associated with the tonic note or key of a given song. For example, a folk song in the key of C (also referred to as C major) may have a melody that uses only the notes of the C major scale (the individual notes C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and C; these are the "white notes" on a piano keyboard. On the other hand, Bebop-era jazz from the 1940s and contemporary music from the 20th and 21st centuries may use melodies with many chromatic notes (i.e., notes in addition to the notes of the major scale; on a piano, a chromatic scale would include all the notes on the keyboard, including the "white notes" and "black notes" and unusual scales, such as the whole tone scale (a whole tone scale in the key of C would contain the notes C, D, E, F♯, G♯ and A♯). A low, deep musical line played by bass instruments such as double bass, electric bass, or tuba is called a bassline. ### Harmony Harmony refers to the "vertical" sounds of pitches in music, which means pitches that are played or sung together at the same time to create a chord. Usually, this means the notes are played at the same time, although harmony may also be implied by a melody that outlines a harmonic structure (i.e., by using melody notes that are played one after the other, outlining the notes of a chord). In music written using the system of major-minor tonality ("keys"), which includes most classical music written from 1600 to 1900 and most Western pop, rock, and traditional music, the key of a piece determines the "home note" or tonic to which the piece generally resolves, and the character (e.g. major or minor) of the scale in use. Simple classical pieces and many pop and traditional music songs are written so that all the music is in a single key. More complex Classical, pop, and traditional music songs and pieces may have two keys (and in some cases three or more keys). Classical music from the Romantic era (written from about 1820–1900) often contains multiple keys, as does jazz, especially Bebop jazz from the 1940s, in which the key or "home note" of a song may change every four bars or even every two bars. ### Rhythm Rhythm is the arrangement of sounds and silences in time. Meter animates time in regular pulse groupings, called measures or bars, which in Western classical, popular, and traditional music often group notes in sets of two (e.g., 2/4 time), three (e.g., 3/4 time, also known as Waltz time, or 3/8 time), or four (e.g., 4/4 time). Meters are made easier to hear because songs and pieces often (but not always) place an emphasis on the first beat of each grouping. Notable exceptions exist, such as the backbeat used in much Western pop and rock, in which a song that uses a measure that consists of four beats (called 4/4 time or common time) will have accents on beats two and four, which are typically performed by the drummer on the snare drum, a loud and distinctive-sounding percussion instrument. In pop and rock, the rhythm parts of a song are played by the rhythm section, which includes chord-playing instruments (e.g., electric guitar, acoustic guitar, piano, or other keyboard instruments), a bass instrument (typically electric bass or for some styles such as jazz and bluegrass, double bass) and a drum kit player. ### Texture Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music or song. The texture of a piece or song is determined by how the melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic materials are combined in a composition, thus determining the overall nature of the sound in a piece. Texture is often described in regard to the density, or thickness, and range, or width, between lowest and highest pitches, in relative terms as well as more specifically distinguished according to the number of voices, or parts, and the relationship between these voices (see common types below). For example, a thick texture contains many 'layers' of instruments. One of these layers could be a string section or another brass. The thickness also is affected by the amount and the richness of the instruments. Texture is commonly described according to the number of and relationship between parts or lines of music: * monophony: a single melody (or "tune") with neither instrumental accompaniment nor a harmony part. A mother singing a lullaby to her baby would be an example. * heterophony: two or more instruments or singers playing/singing the same melody, but with each performer slightly varying the rhythm or speed of the melody or adding different ornaments to the melody. Two bluegrass fiddlers playing the same traditional fiddle tune together will typically each vary the melody by some degree and each add different ornaments. * polyphony: multiple independent melody lines that interweave together, which are sung or played at the same time. Choral music written in the Renaissance music era was typically written in this style. A round, which is a song such as "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", which different groups of singers all start to sing at a different time, is an example of polyphony. * homophony: a clear melody supported by chordal accompaniment. Most Western popular music songs from the 19th century onward are written in this texture. Music that contains a large number of independent parts (e.g., a double concerto accompanied by 100 orchestral instruments with many interweaving melodic lines) is generally said to have a "thicker" or "denser" texture than a work with few parts (e.g., a solo flute melody accompanied by a single cello). ### Timbre Timbre, sometimes called "color" or "tone color" is the quality or sound of a voice or instrument. Timbre is what makes a particular musical sound different from another, even when they have the same pitch and loudness. For example, a 440 Hz A note sounds different when it is played on oboe, piano, violin, or electric guitar. Even if different players of the same instrument play the same note, their notes might sound different due to differences in instrumental technique (e.g., different embouchures), different types of accessories (e.g., mouthpieces for brass players, reeds for oboe and bassoon players) or strings made out of different materials for string players (e.g., gut strings versus steel strings). Even two instrumentalists playing the same note on the same instrument (one after the other) may sound different due to different ways of playing the instrument (e.g., two string players might hold the bow differently). The physical characteristics of sound that determine the perception of timbre include the spectrum, envelope, and overtones of a note or musical sound. For electric instruments developed in the 20th century, such as electric guitar, electric bass and electric piano, the performer can also change the tone by adjusting equalizer controls, tone controls on the instrument, and by using electronic effects units such as distortion pedals. The tone of the electric Hammond organ is controlled by adjusting drawbars. ### Expression Expressive qualities are those elements in music that create change in music without changing the main pitches or substantially changing the rhythms of the melody and its accompaniment. Performers, including singers and instrumentalists, can add musical expression to a song or piece by adding phrasing, by adding effects such as vibrato (with voice and some instruments, such as guitar, violin, brass instruments, and woodwinds), dynamics (the loudness or softness of piece or a section of it), tempo fluctuations (e.g., ritardando or accelerando, which are, respectively slowing down and speeding up the tempo), by adding pauses or fermatas on a cadence, and by changing the articulation of the notes (e.g., making notes more pronounced or accented, by making notes more legato, which means smoothly connected, or by making notes shorter). Expression is achieved through the manipulation of pitch (such as inflection, vibrato, slides etc.), volume (dynamics, accent, tremolo etc.), duration (tempo fluctuations, rhythmic changes, changing note duration such as with legato and staccato, etc.), timbre (e.g. changing vocal timbre from a light to a resonant voice) and sometimes even texture (e.g. doubling the bass note for a richer effect in a piano piece). Expression therefore can be seen as a manipulation of all elements in order to convey "an indication of mood, spirit, character etc." and as such cannot be included as a unique perceptual element of music, although it can be considered an important rudimentary element of music. ### Form In music, form describes the overall structure or plan of a song or piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections. In the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley songs and Broadway musical songs were often in AABA 32 bar form, in which the A sections repeated the same eight bar melody (with variation) and the B section provided a contrasting melody or harmony for eight bars. From the 1960s onward, Western pop and rock songs are often in verse-chorus form, which comprises a sequence of verse and chorus ("refrain") sections, with new lyrics for most verses and repeating lyrics for the choruses. Popular music often makes use of strophic form, sometimes in conjunction with the twelve bar blues. In the tenth edition of *The Oxford Companion to Music*, Percy Scholes defines musical form as "a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration." Examples of common forms of Western music include the fugue, the invention, sonata-allegro, canon, strophic, theme and variations, and rondo. Scholes states that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, compound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.) Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem, story or programme), it is said to be through-composed. Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody, etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu, etc. Professor Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as "sectional, developmental, or variational." Philosophy ---------- The philosophy of music is the study of fundamental questions regarding music. The philosophical study of music has many connections with philosophical questions in metaphysics and aesthetics. Some basic questions in the philosophy of music are [*according to whom?*]: * What is the definition of music? (What are the necessary and sufficient conditions for classifying something as music?) * What is the relationship between music and mind? * What does music history reveal to us about the world? * What is the connection between music and emotions? * What is meaning in relation to music? In ancient times, such as with the Ancient Greeks, the aesthetics of music explored the mathematical and cosmological dimensions of rhythmic and harmonic organization. In the 18th century, focus shifted to the experience of hearing music, and thus to questions about its beauty and human enjoyment (*plaisir* and *jouissance*) of music. The origin of this philosophic shift is sometimes attributed to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten in the 18th century, followed by Immanuel Kant. Through their writing, the ancient term 'aesthetics', meaning sensory perception, received its present-day connotation. In the 2000s, philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment. For example, music's capacity to express emotion has been a central issue. In the 20th century, important contributions were made by Peter Kivy, Jerrold Levinson, Roger Scruton, and Stephen Davies. However, many musicians, music critics, and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music. In the 19th century, a significant debate arose between Eduard Hanslick, a music critic and musicologist, and composer Richard Wagner regarding whether music can express meaning. Harry Partch and some other musicologists, such as Kyle Gann, have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music and the usage of alternate musical scales. Also many modern composers like La Monte Young, Rhys Chatham and Glenn Branca paid much attention to a scale called just intonation. It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions, intellect, and psychology; it can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. The philosopher Plato suggests in *The Republic* that music has a direct effect on the soul. Therefore, he proposes that in the ideal regime music would be closely regulated by the state (Book VII). In Ancient China, the philosopher Confucius believed that music and rituals or rites are interconnected and harmonious with nature; he stated that music was the harmonization of heaven and earth, while the order was brought by the rites order, making them extremely crucial functions in society. Psychology ---------- Modern music psychology aims to explain and understand musical behavior and experience. Research in this field and its subfields are primarily empirical; their knowledge tends to advance on the basis of interpretations of data collected by systematic observation of and interaction with human participants. In addition to its focus on fundamental perceptions and cognitive processes, music psychology is a field of research with practical relevance for many areas, including music performance, composition, education, criticism, and therapy, as well as investigations of human aptitude, skill, intelligence, creativity, and social behavior. ### Neuroscience Cognitive neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, performing, composing, reading, writing, and ancillary activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. The field is distinguished by its reliance on direct observations of the brain, using such techniques as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetoencephalography (MEG), electroencephalography (EEG), and positron emission tomography (PET). ### Cognitive musicology Cognitive musicology is a branch of cognitive science concerned with computationally modeling musical knowledge with the goal of understanding both music and cognition. The use of computer models provides an exacting, interactive medium in which to formulate and test theories and has roots in artificial intelligence and cognitive science. This interdisciplinary field investigates topics such as the parallels between language and music in the brain. Biologically inspired models of computation are often included in research, such as neural networks and evolutionary programs. This field seeks to model how musical knowledge is represented, stored, perceived, performed, and generated. By using a well-structured computer environment, the systematic structures of these cognitive phenomena can be investigated. ### Psychoacoustics Psychoacoustics is the scientific study of sound perception. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological and physiological responses associated with sound (including speech and music). It can be further categorized as a branch of psychophysics. ### Evolutionary musicology Evolutionary musicology concerns the "origins of music, the question of animal song, selection pressures underlying music evolution", and "music evolution and human evolution". It seeks to understand music perception and activity in the context of evolutionary theory. Charles Darwin speculated that music may have held an adaptive advantage and functioned as a protolanguage, a view which has spawned several competing theories of music evolution.[*page needed*] An alternate view sees music as a by-product of linguistic evolution; a type of "auditory cheesecake" that pleases the senses without providing any adaptive function. This view has been directly countered by numerous music researchers. ### Cultural effects An individual's culture or ethnicity plays a role in their music cognition, including their preferences, emotional reaction, and musical memory. Musical preferences are biased toward culturally familiar musical traditions beginning in infancy, and adults' classification of the emotion of a musical piece depends on both culturally specific and universal structural features. Additionally, individuals' musical memory abilities are greater for culturally familiar music than for culturally unfamiliar music. ### Perceptual Since the emergence of the study of psychoacoustics in the 1930s, most lists of elements of music have related more to how we *hear* music than how we learn to play it or study it. C.E. Seashore, in his book *Psychology of Music*, identified four "psychological attributes of sound". These were: "pitch, loudness, time, and timbre" (p. 3). He did not call them the "elements of music" but referred to them as "elemental components" (p. 2). Nonetheless, these elemental components link precisely with four of the most common musical elements: "Pitch" and "timbre" match exactly, "loudness" links with dynamics, and "time" links with the time-based elements of rhythm, duration, and tempo. This usage of the phrase "the elements of music" links more closely with *Webster's New 20th Century Dictionary* definition of an element as: "a substance which cannot be divided into a simpler form by known methods" and educational institutions' lists of elements generally align with this definition as well. Although writers of lists of "rudimentary elements of music" can vary their lists depending on their personal (or institutional) priorities, the perceptual elements of music should consist of an established (or proven) list of discrete elements which can be independently manipulated to achieve an intended musical effect. It seems at this stage that there is still research to be done in this area. A slightly different way of approaching the identification of the elements of music, is to identify the "elements of sound" as: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location, and then to define the "elements of music" as: sound, structure, and artistic intent. Sociological aspects -------------------- Many ethnographic studies demonstrate that music is a participatory, community-based activity. Music is experienced by individuals in a range of social settings ranging from being alone to attending a large concert, forming a music community, which cannot be understood as a function of individual will or accident; it includes both commercial and non-commercial participants with a shared set of common values. Musical performances take different forms in different cultures and socioeconomic milieus. In Europe and North America, there is often a divide between what types of music are viewed as a "high culture" and "low culture." "High culture" types of music typically include Western art music such as Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and modern-era symphonies, concertos, and solo works, and are typically heard in formal concerts in concert halls and churches, with the audience sitting quietly in seats. Other types of music—including, but not limited to, jazz, blues, soul, and country—are often performed in bars, nightclubs, and theatres, where the audience may be able to drink, dance, and express themselves by cheering. Until the later 20th century, the division between "high" and "low" musical forms was widely accepted as a valid distinction that separated out better quality, more advanced "art music" from the popular styles of music heard in bars and dance halls. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, musicologists studying this perceived divide between "high" and "low" musical genres argued that this distinction is not based on the musical value or quality of the different types of music. Rather, they argued that this distinction was based largely on the socioeconomics standing or social class of the performers or audience of the different types of music. For example, whereas the audience for Classical symphony concerts typically have above-average incomes, the audience for a rap concert in an inner-city area may have below-average incomes. Even though the performers, audience, or venue where non-"art" music is performed may have a lower socioeconomic status, the music that is performed, such as blues, rap, punk, funk, or ska may be very complex and sophisticated. When composers introduce styles of music that break with convention, there can be a strong resistance from academic music experts and popular culture. Late-period Beethoven string quartets, Stravinsky ballet scores, serialism, bebop-era jazz, hip hop, punk rock, and electronica have all been considered non-music by some critics when they were first introduced. Such themes are examined in the sociology of music. The sociological study of music, sometimes called sociomusicology, is often pursued in departments of sociology, media studies, or music, and is closely related to the field of ethnomusicology. ### Role of women Women have played a major role in music throughout history, as composers, songwriters, instrumental performers, singers, conductors, music scholars, music educators, music critics/music journalists and other musical professions. In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of popular music and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, rock critics and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of women composers in classical music, from the medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the commonly performed classical music repertoire, music history textbooks and music encyclopedias; for example, in the *Concise Oxford History of Music*, Clara Schumann is one of the few female composers who is mentioned. Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the Orchestre Symphonique de Montreal were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and all-female bands. Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres. In the 1960s pop-music scene, "[l]ike most aspects of the...music business, [in the 1960s,] songwriting was a male-dominated field. Though there were plenty of female singers on the radio, women ...were primarily seen as consumers:... Singing was sometimes an acceptable pastime for a girl, but playing an instrument, writing songs, or producing records simply wasn't done." Young women "...were not socialized to see themselves as people who create [music]." Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women musicologists, women became involved in music education "...to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century." According to Jessica Duchen, a music writer for London's *The Independent*, women musicians in classical music are "...too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent" and they face pressure "...to look sexy onstage and in photos." Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks,...the ones who do tend to be more materially successful." According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the conductor of an orchestra. In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the audio console acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process. One of the most recorded artists is Asha Bhosle, an Indian singer best known as a playback singer in Hindi cinema. Media and technology -------------------- Since the 20th century, live music can be broadcast over the radio, television or the Internet, or recorded and listened to on a CD player or MP3 player. In the early 20th century (in the late 1920s), as talking pictures emerged in the early 20th century, with their prerecorded musical tracks, an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work. During the 1920s, live musical performances by orchestras, pianists, and theater organists were common at first-run theaters. With the coming of the talking motion pictures, those featured performances were largely eliminated. The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices. One 1929 ad that appeared in the *Pittsburgh Press* features an image of a can labeled "Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever" Sometimes, live performances incorporate prerecorded sounds. For example, a disc jockey uses disc records for scratching, and some 20th-century works have a solo for an instrument or voice that is performed along with music that is prerecorded onto a tape. Some pop bands use recorded backing tracks. Computers and many keyboards can be programmed to produce and play Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) music. Audiences can also *become* performers by participating in karaoke, an activity of Japanese origin centered on a device that plays voice-eliminated versions of well-known songs. Most karaoke machines also have video screens that show lyrics to songs being performed; performers can follow the lyrics as they sing over the instrumental tracks. The advent of the Internet and widespread high-speed broadband access has transformed the experience of music, partly through the increased ease of access to recordings of music via streaming video and vastly increased choice of music for consumers. Another effect of the Internet arose with online communities and social media websites like YouTube and Facebook, a social networking service. These sites make it easier for aspiring singers and amateur bands to distribute videos of their songs, connect with other musicians, and gain audience interest. Professional musicians also use YouTube as a free publisher of promotional material. YouTube users, for example, no longer only download and listen to MP3s, but also actively create their own. According to Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, in their book *Wikinomics*, there has been a shift from a traditional consumer role to what they call a "prosumer" role, a consumer who both creates content and consumes. Manifestations of this in music include the production of mashes, remixes, and music videos by fans. Education --------- ### Non-institutional The incorporation of some music or singing training into general education from preschool to post secondary education is common in North America and Europe. Involvement in playing and singing music is thought to teach basic skills such as concentration, counting, listening, and cooperation while also promoting understanding of language, improving the ability to recall information, and creating an environment more conducive to learning in other areas. In elementary schools, children often learn to play instruments such as the recorder, sing in small choirs, and learn about the history of Western art music and traditional music. Some elementary school children also learn about popular music styles. In religious schools, children sing hymns and other religious music. In secondary schools (and less commonly in elementary schools), students may have the opportunity to perform in some types of musical ensembles, such as choirs (a group of singers), marching bands, concert bands, jazz bands, or orchestras. In some school systems, music lessons on how to play instruments may be provided. Some students also take private music lessons after school with a singing teacher or instrument teacher. Amateur musicians typically learn basic musical rudiments (e.g., learning about musical notation for musical scales and rhythms) and beginner- to intermediate-level singing or instrument-playing techniques. At the university level, students in most arts and humanities programs can receive credit for taking a few music courses, which typically take the form of an overview course on the history of music, or a music appreciation course that focuses on listening to music and learning about different musical styles. In addition, most North American and European universities have some types of musical ensembles that students in arts and humanities are able to participate in, such as choirs, marching bands, concert bands, or orchestras. The study of Western art music is increasingly common outside of North America and Europe, such as the Indonesian Institute of the Arts in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, or the classical music programs that are available in Asian countries such as South Korea, Japan, and China. At the same time, Western universities and colleges are widening their curriculum to include music of non-Western cultures, such as the music of Africa or Bali (e.g. Gamelan music). ### Institutional People aiming to become professional musicians, singers, composers, songwriters, music teachers and practitioners of other music-related professions such as music history professors, sound engineers, and so on study in specialized post-secondary programs offered by colleges, universities and music conservatories. Some institutions that train individuals for careers in music offer training in a wide range of professions, as is the case with many of the top U.S. universities, which offer degrees in music performance (including singing and playing instruments), music history, music theory, music composition, music education (for individuals aiming to become elementary or high school music teachers) and, in some cases, conducting. On the other hand, some small colleges may only offer training in a single profession (e.g., sound recording). While most university and conservatory music programs focus on training students in classical music, there are a number of universities and colleges that train musicians for careers as jazz or popular music musicians and composers, with notable U.S. examples including the Manhattan School of Music and the Berklee College of Music. Two important schools in Canada which offer professional jazz training are McGill University and Humber College. Individuals aiming at careers in some types of music, such as heavy metal music, country music or blues are less likely to become professionals by completing degrees or diplomas in colleges or universities. Instead, they typically learn about their style of music by singing or playing in many bands (often beginning in amateur bands, cover bands and tribute bands), studying recordings available on CD, DVD and the Internet and working with already-established professionals in their style of music, either through informal mentoring or regular music lessons. Since the 2000s, the increasing popularity and availability of Internet forums and YouTube "how-to" videos have enabled many singers and musicians from metal, blues and similar genres to improve their skills. Many pop, rock and country singers train informally with vocal coaches and singing teachers. Academic study -------------- ### Musicology Musicology, the academic study of the subject of music, is studied in universities and music conservatories. The earliest definitions from the 19th century defined three sub-disciplines of musicology: systematic musicology, historical musicology, and comparative musicology or ethnomusicology. In 2010-era scholarship, one is more likely to encounter a division of the discipline into music theory, music history, and ethnomusicology. Research in musicology has often been enriched by cross-disciplinary work, for example in the field of psychoacoustics. The study of music of non-Western cultures, and the cultural study of music, is called ethnomusicology. Students can pursue the undergraduate study of musicology, ethnomusicology, music history, and music theory through several different types of degrees, including bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhD degrees. ### Music theory Music theory is the study of music, generally in a highly technical manner outside of other disciplines. More broadly it refers to any study of music, usually related in some form with compositional concerns, and may include mathematics, physics, and anthropology. What is most commonly taught in beginning music theory classes are guidelines to write in the style of the common practice period, or tonal music. Theory, even of music of the common practice period, may take many other forms. Musical set theory is the application of mathematical set theory to music, first applied to atonal music. *Speculative music theory*, contrasted with *analytic music theory*, is devoted to the analysis and synthesis of music materials, for example tuning systems, generally as preparation for composition. ### Zoomusicology Zoomusicology is the study of the music of non-human animals, or the musical aspects of sounds produced by non-human animals. As George Herzog (1941) asked, "do animals have music?" François-Bernard Mâche's *Musique, mythe, nature, ou les Dauphins d'Arion* (1983), a study of "ornitho-musicology" using a technique of Nicolas Ruwet's *Langage, musique, poésie* (1972) paradigmatic segmentation analysis, shows that bird songs are organised according to a repetition-transformation principle. Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), argues that "in the last analysis, it is a human being who decides what is and is not musical, even when the sound is not of human origin. If we acknowledge that sound is not organised and conceptualised (that is, made to form music) merely by its producer, but by the mind that perceives it, then music is uniquely human." ### Ethnomusicology In the West, much of the history of music that is taught deals with the Western civilization's art music, which is known as classical music. The history of music in non-Western cultures ("world music" or the field of "ethnomusicology") is also taught in Western universities. This includes the documented classical traditions of Asian countries outside the influence of Western Europe, as well as the folk or indigenous music of various other cultures. Popular or folk styles of music in non-Western countries varied widely from culture to culture, and from period to period. Different cultures emphasised different instruments, techniques, singing styles and uses for music. Music has been used for entertainment, ceremonies, rituals, religious purposes and for practical and artistic communication. Non-Western music has also been used for propaganda purposes, as was the case with Chinese opera during the Cultural Revolution. There is a host of music classifications for non-Western music, many of which are caught up in the argument over the definition of music. Among the largest of these is the division between classical music (or "art" music), and popular music (or commercial music – including non-Western styles of rock, country, and pop music-related styles). Some genres do not fit neatly into one of these "big two" classifications, (such as folk music, world music, or jazz-related music). As world cultures have come into greater global contact, their indigenous musical styles have often merged with other styles, which produces new styles. For example, the United States bluegrass style contains elements from Anglo-Irish, Scottish, Irish, German and African instrumental and vocal traditions, which were able to fuse in the United States' multi-ethnic "melting pot" society. Some types of world music contain a mixture of non-Western indigenous styles with Western pop music elements. Genres of music are determined as much by tradition and presentation as by the actual music. Some works, like George Gershwin's *Rhapsody in Blue*, are claimed by both jazz and classical music, while Gershwin's *Porgy and Bess* and Leonard Bernstein's *West Side Story* are claimed by both opera and the Broadway musical tradition. Many current music festivals for non-Western music include bands and singers from a particular musical genre, such as world music. Indian music, for example, is one of the oldest and longest living types of music, and is still widely heard and performed in South Asia, as well as internationally (especially since the 1960s). Indian music has mainly three forms of classical music, Hindustani, Carnatic, and Dhrupad styles. It has also a large repertoire of styles, which involve only percussion music such as the talavadya performances famous in South India. Therapy ------- Music therapy is an interpersonal process in which a trained therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. In some instances, the client's needs are addressed directly through music; in others they are addressed through the relationships that develop between the client and therapist. Music therapy is used with individuals of all ages and with a variety of conditions, including: psychiatric disorders, medical problems, physical disabilities, sensory impairments, developmental disabilities, substance abuse issues, communication disorders, interpersonal problems, and aging. It is also used to improve learning, build self-esteem, reduce stress, support physical exercise, and facilitate a host of other health-related activities. Music therapists may encourage clients to sing, play instruments, create songs, or do other musical activities. In the 10th century, the philosopher Al-Farabi described how vocal music can stimulate the feelings and souls of listeners. Music has long been used to help people deal with their emotions. In the 17th century, the scholar Robert Burton's *The Anatomy of Melancholy* argued that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia. He noted that music has an "excellent power ...to expel many other diseases" and he called it "a sovereign remedy against despair and melancholy." He pointed out that in Antiquity, Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, used music to "make a melancholy man merry, ...a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout." In the Ottoman Empire, mental illnesses were treated with music. In November 2006, Michael J. Crawford and his colleagues also found that music therapy helped schizophrenic patients. See also -------- * Glossary of music terminology * LGBT music * Lists of musicians * List of musicology topics * Music and emotion * Music archaeology * Music history * Music-specific disorders Further reading --------------- * Kennedy, Michal; Kennedy, Joyce Bourne (2013) [2012]. Tim Rutherford-Johnson (ed.). *The Oxford Dictionary of Music* (6th paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957854-2. * Small, Christopher (1977). *Music, Society, Education*. John Calder Publishers, London. ISBN 0-7145-3614-8 * Tymoczko, Dmitri (2011). *A Geometry of Music: Harmony and Counterpoint in the Extended Common Practice*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533667-2.

Music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music

**Hecate** or **Hekate** is a goddess in ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches, a key, snakes, or accompanied by dogs, and in later periods depicted as three-formed or triple-bodied. She is variously associated with crossroads, entrance-ways, night, light, magic, protection from witchcraft, the Moon, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, graves, ghosts, necromancy, and sorcery. Her earliest appearance in literature was in Hesiod's *Theogony* in the 8th century BCE as a goddess of great honour with domains in sky, earth, and sea. Her place of origin is debated by scholars, but she had popular followings amongst the witches of Thessaly and an important sanctuary among the Carian Greeks of Asia Minor in Lagina. Her oldest known representation was found in Selinunte, in Sicily. Hecate was one of several deities worshipped in ancient Athens as a protector of the *oikos* (household), alongside Zeus, Hestia, Hermes, and Apollo. In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd–3rd century CE) she was also regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea, and sky, as well as a more universal role as Savior (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul. Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, "she is more at home on the fringes than in the centre of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition." The Romans knew her by the epithet of ***Trivia***, an epithet she shares with Diana/Artemis, each in their roles as protector of travel and of the crossroads (trivia, "three ways"). Name and origin --------------- The origin of the name *Hecate* (Ἑκάτη, *Hekátē*) and the original country of her worship are both unknown, though several theories have been proposed. ### Greek origin Whether or not Hecate's worship originated in Greece, some scholars have suggested that the name derives from a Greek root, and several potential source words have been identified. For example, ἑκών "willing" (thus, "she who works her will" or similar), may be related to the name Hecate. However, no sources suggested list will or willingness as a major attribute of Hecate, which makes this possibility unlikely. Another Greek word suggested as the origin of the name Hecate is Ἑκατός *Hekatos*, an obscure epithet of Apollo interpreted as "the far reaching one" or "the far-darter". This has been suggested in comparison with the attributes of the goddess Artemis, strongly associated with Apollo and frequently equated with Hecate in the classical world. Supporters of this etymology suggest that Hecate was originally considered an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon. Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood, on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshipped separately under her title Hecate. Though often considered the most likely Greek origin of the name, the Ἑκατός theory does not account for her worship in Asia Minor, where her association with Artemis seems to have been a late development, and the competing theories that the attribution of darker aspects and magic to Hecate were themselves not originally part of her cult. R. S. P. Beekes rejected a Greek etymology and suggested a Pre-Greek origin. ### Egyptian origin A strong possibility for the foreign origin of the name may be Heqet (*ḥqt*), a frog-headed Egyptian goddess of fertility and childbirth, who, like Hecate, was also associated with *ḥqꜣ*, ruler. The word "heka" in the Egyptian language is also both the word for "magic" and the name of the god of magic and medicine, Heka. ### Anatolian origin Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia, the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested, and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favour the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess." The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date. William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving *hekat-* refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens." In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna) based on similar attributes. If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, then it possibly presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the *Theogony*, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage or of her relations in the Greek pantheon. ### Older English pronunciation In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as /ˈhɛk.ɪt/) and sometimes spelled *Hecat*. It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final *e*, well into the 19th century. The spelling *Hecat* is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's *Metamorphoses*, and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period. Webster's Dictionary of 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then-predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name. Iconography ----------- Hecate was generally represented as three-formed or triple-bodied, though the earliest known images of the goddess are singular. Her earliest known representation is a small terracotta statue found in Athens. An inscription on the statue is a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century, but it otherwise lacks any other symbols typically associated with the goddess. She is seated on a throne, with a chaplet around her head; the depiction is otherwise relatively generic. Farnell states: "The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature." A 6th century fragment of pottery from Boetia depicts a goddess which may be Hecate in a maternal or fertility mode. Crowned with leafy branches as in later descriptions, she is depicted offering a "maternal blessing" to two maidens who embrace her. The figure is flanked by lions, an animal associated with Hecate both in the *Chaldean Oracles*, coinage, and reliefs from Asia Minor. In artwork, she is often portrayed in three statues standing back to back, each with its own special attributes (torch, keys, daggers, snakes, dogs). The 2nd-century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alcamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE, whose sculpture was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Though Alcamenes' original statue is lost, hundreds of copies exist, and the general motif of a triple Hecate situated around a central pole or column, known as a *hekataion*, was used both at crossroads shrines as well as at the entrances to temples and private homes. These typically depict her holding a variety of items, including torches, keys, serpents, and daggers. Some *hekataia*, including a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE, include additional dancing figures identified as the Charites circling the triple Hecate and her central column. It is possible that the representation of a triple Hecate surrounding a central pillar was originally derived from poles set up at three-way crossroads with masks hung on them, facing in each road direction. In the 1st century CE, Ovid wrote: "Look at Hecate, standing guard at the crossroads, one face looking in each direction." Apart from traditional *hekataia*, Hecate's triplicity is depicted in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon." While Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art generally represented Hecate's triple form as three separate bodies, the iconography of the triple Hecate eventually evolved into representations of the goddess with a single body, but three faces. In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in the Greek Magical Papyri of Late Antiquity, Hecate is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations, her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar. The east frieze of a Hellenistic temple of hers at Lagina shows her helping protect the newborn Zeus from his father Cronus; this frieze is the only evidence of Hecate's involvement in the myth of his birth. ### Sacred animals Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament." The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens. A 4th century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Images of her attended by a dog are also found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Cybele in reliefs. Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or daemons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's underworld associations." The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth in Lycophron: the friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hecuba, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar. The polecat is also associated with Hecate. Antoninus Liberalis used a myth to explain this association: "At Thebes Proetus had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alcmene, daughter of Electryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alcmene, the Moirai (fates) and Eileithyia (birth-goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alcmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alcmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eileithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alcmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished. At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alcmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hecate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself." Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: "I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (*pharmakis*); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me: Fables and their telling I leave to others." Athenaeus of Naucratis, drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens, notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is *trimorphos*, of a triple form". The Greek word for mullet was *trigle* and later *trigla*. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse: "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis With three forms and three faces Propitiated with mullets". In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (*trigle*), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things', and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep." At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate *Triglathena*, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice. After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, "Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca, and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change." In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent, and horse. Lions are associated with Hecate in early artwork from Asia Minor, as well as later coins and literature, including the *Chaldean Oracles*. The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly named Egyptian goddess Heqet, has also become sacred to Hecate in modern pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements. Comparative mythologist Alexander Haggerty Krappe cited that Hecate was also named ίππεύτρια (*hippeutria* – 'the equestrienne'), since the horse was "the chthonic animal *par excellence*". ### Sacred plants Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the *Argonautica* mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs." The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play *The Root Diggers* (or *The Root Cutters*), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak. The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. > Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, *taxus*, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, **toxos**, which is hauntingly similar to **toxon**, their word for bow and **toxicon**, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison. > > Hecate was said to favour offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult. She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities. A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate. These include aconite (also called *hecateis*), belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic. Functions --------- ### As a goddess of boundaries Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes—Olympian and Titan—but also between mortal and divine spheres." This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: *Apotropaia* (that turns away/protects); *Enodia* (on the way); *Propulaia*/*Propylaia* (before the gate); *Triodia*/*Trioditis* (who frequents crossroads); *Klêidouchos* (holding the keys), etc. > As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also *refuse* to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals. > > > It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia's very name ("In-the-Road") suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants. > > This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honour were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions." This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans. Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates). In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his *Sermo* warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads", and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...". ### As a goddess of the underworld Thanks to her association with boundaries and the liminal spaces between worlds, Hecate is also recognized as a chthonic (underworld) goddess. As the holder of the keys that can unlock the gates between realms, she can unlock the gates of death, as described in a 3rd-century BCE poem by Theocritus. In the 1st century CE, Virgil described the entrance to hell as "Hecate's Grove", though he says that Hecate is equally "powerful in Heaven and Hell." The Greek Magical Papyri describe Hecate as the holder of the keys to Tartaros. Like Hermes, Hecate takes on the role of guardian not just of roads, but of all journeys, including the journey to the afterlife. In art and myth, she is shown, along with Hermes, guiding Persephone back from the underworld with her torches. By the 5th century BCE, Hecate had come to be strongly associated with ghosts, possibly due to conflation with the Thessalian goddess Enodia (meaning "traveller"), who travelled the earth with a retinue of ghosts and was depicted on coinage wearing a leafy crown and holding torches, iconography strongly associated with Hecate. ### As a goddess of witchcraft By the 1st century CE, Hecate's chthonic and nocturnal character had led to her transformation into a goddess heavily associated with witchcraft, witches, magic, and sorcery. In Lucan's *Pharsalia*, the witch Erichtho invokes Hecate as "Persephone, who is the third and lowest aspect of Hecate, the goddess we witches revere", and describes her as a "rotting goddess" with a "pallid decaying body", who has to "wear a mask when [she] visit[s] the gods in heaven." Like Hecate, "the dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it." ### As a goddess of the moon Hecate was seen as a triple deity, identified with the goddesses Luna (Moon) in the sky and Diana (hunting) on the earth, while she represents the Underworld. Hecate's association with Helios in literary sources and especially in cursing magic has been cited as evidence for her lunar nature, although this evidence is pretty late; no artwork before the Roman period connecting Hecate to the Moon exists. Nevertheless, the *Homeric Hymn to Demeter* shows Helios and Hecate informing Demeter of Persephone's abduction, a common theme found in many parts of the world where the Sun and the Moon are questioned concerning events that happen on earth based on their ability to witness everything and implies Hecate's capacity as a moon goddess in the hymn. Another work connecting Hecate to Helios possibly as a moon goddess is Sophocles' lost play *The Root Cutters*, where Helios is described as Hecate's spear: > > O Sun our lord and sacred fire, the spear of Hecate of the > > roads, which she carries as she attends her mistress in the sky > > > This speech from the *Root Cutters* may or may not be an intentional association of Hecate with the Moon. In Seneca's *Medea*, the titular Medea invokes her patron Hecate whom she addresses as "Moon, orb of the night" and "triple form". Hecate and the moon goddess Selene were frequently identified with each other and a number of Greek and non-Greek deities; the Greek Magical Papyri and other magical texts emphasize a syncretism between Selene-Hecate with Artemis and Persephone among others. In Italy, the triple unity of the lunar goddesses Diana (the huntress), Luna (the Moon) and Hecate (the underworld) became a ubiquitous feature in depictions of sacred groves, where Hecate/Trivia marked intersections and crossroads along with other liminal deities. The Romans celebrated enthusiastically the multiple identities of Diana as Hecate, Luna and Trivia. From her father Perses, Hecate is often called “Perseis” (meaning “daughter of Perses”) which is also the name of one of the Oceanid nymphs, Helios’ wife and Circe’s mother in other versions. In one version of Hecate's parentage, she is the daughter of Perses not the son of Crius but the son of Helios, whose mother is the Oceanid Perse. Karl Kerenyi noted the similarity between the names, perhaps denoting a chthonic connection among the two and the goddess Persephone; it is possible that this epithet gives evidence of a lunar aspect of Hecate. Fowler also noted that the pairing (i. e. Helios and Perse) made sense given Hecate’s association with the Moon. Mooney however notes that when it comes to the nymph Perse herself, there's no evidence of her actually being a moon goddess on her own right. Cult ---- Worship of Hecate existed alongside other deities in major public shrines and temples in antiquity, and she had a significant role as household deity. Shrines to Hecate were often placed at doorways to homes, temples, and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits. Home shrines often took the form of a small *Hekataion*, a shrine centred on a wood or stone carving of a triple Hecate facing in three directions on three sides of a central pillar. Larger Hekataions, often enclosed within small walled areas, were sometimes placed at public crossroads near important sites – for example, there was one on the road leading to the Acropolis. Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new Moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils. Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road. This can be compared to Pausanias' report that in the Ionian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as "the wayside goddess", and Plutarch's observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess. ### History The earliest definitive record of Hecate's worship dates to the 6th century BCE, in the form of a small terracotta statue of a seated goddess, identified as Hecate in its inscription. This and other early depictions of Hecate lack distinctive attributes that would later be associated with her, such as a triple form or torches, and can only be identified as Hecate thanks to their inscriptions. Otherwise, they are typically generic, or Artemis-like. Hecate's cult became established in Athens about 430 BCE. At this time, the sculptor Alcamenes made the earliest known triple-formed Hecate statue for use at her new temple. While this sculpture has not survived to the present day, numerous later copies are extant. It has been speculated that this triple image, usually situated around a pole or pillar, was derived from earlier representations of the goddess using three masks hung on actual wooden poles, possibly placed at crossroads and gateways. ### Sanctuaries Hecate was a popular divinity, and her cult was practiced with many local variations all over Greece and Western Anatolia. Caria was a major center of worship and her most famous temple there was located in the town of Lagina. The oldest known direct evidence of Hecate's cult comes from Selinunte (near modern-day Trapani in Sicily), where she had a temple in the 6th–5th centuries BCE. There was a Temple of Hecate in Argolis: > Over against the sanctuary of Eileithyia is a temple of Hecate [the goddess probably here identified with the apotheosed Iphigenia, and the image is a work of Skopas. This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polykleitos and his brother Naukydes. > > There was also a shrine to Hecate in Aigina, where she was very popular: > Of the gods, the Aiginetans worship most Hecate, in whose honour every year they celebrate mystic rites which, they say, Orpheus the Thrakian established among them. Within the enclosure is a temple; its wooden image is the work of Myron, and it has one face and one body. It was Alkamenes, in my opinion, who first made three images of Hecate attached to one another [in Athens]. > > Aside from her own temples, Hecate was also worshipped in the sanctuaries of other gods, where she was apparently sometimes given her own space. A round stone altar dedicated to the goddess was found in the Delphinion (a temple dedicated to Apollo) at Miletus. Dated to the 7th century BCE, this is one of the oldest known artefacts dedicated to the worship of Hecate. In association with her worship alongside Apollo at Miletus, worshipers used a unique form of offering: they would place stone cubes, often wreathes, known as γυλλοι (*gylloi*) as protective offerings at the door or gateway. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, *megabyzi*, officiated. This sanctuary was called *Hecatesion* (Shrine of Hecate). Hecate was also worshipped in the Temple of Athena in Titane: "In Titane there is also a sanctuary of Athena, into which they bring up the image of Koronis [mother of Asklepios] ... The sanctuary is built upon a hill, at the bottom of which is an Altar of the Winds, and on it the priest sacrifices to the winds one night in every year. He also performs other secret rites [of Hecate] at four pits, taming the fierceness of the blasts [of the winds], and he is said to chant as well the charms of Medea." She was most commonly worshipped in nature, where she had many natural sanctuaries. An important sanctuary of Hecate was a holy cave on the island of Samothrake called Zerynthos: > In Samothrake there were certain initiation-rites, which they supposed efficacious as a charm against certain dangers. In that place were also the mysteries of the Korybantes [Kabeiroi] and those of Hekate and the Zerinthian cave, where they sacrificed dogs. The initiates supposed that these things save [them] from terrors and from storms. > > #### Cult at Lagina Hecate's most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs. The temple is mentioned by Strabo: > Stratonikeia [in Karia, Asia Minor] is a settlement of Makedonians ... There are two temples in the country of the Stratonikeians, of which the most famous, that of Hecate, is at Lagina; and it draws great festal assemblies every year. > > Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city's patron. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a ruler of liminal regions, particularly gates, and the wilderness. #### Cult at Byzantium Hecate was greatly worshipped in Byzantium. She was said to have saved the city from Philip II of Macedon, warning the citizens of a night time attack by a light in the sky, for which she was known as *Hecate Lampadephoros*. The tale is preserved in the Suda. As Hecate Phosphorus (the 'star' Venus) she is said to have lit the sky during the Siege of Philip II in 340 BCE, revealing the attack to its inhabitants. The Byzantines dedicated a statue to her as the "lamp carrier". According to Hesychius of Miletus there was once a statue of Hecate at the site of the Hippodrome in Constantinople. #### Hecate's island Hecate's island (Ἑκάτης νήσου) also called Psamite (Ψαμίτη), was an islet in the vicinity of Delos. It was called Psamite, because Hecate was honoured with a cake, which was called psamiton (ψάμιτον). The island is the modern Megalos (Great) Reumatiaris. ### Deipnon The Athenian Greeks honoured Hecate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hecate's Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hecate and the restless dead once a lunar month during the New Moon. On the night of the new moon, a meal would be set outside, in a small shrine to Hecate by the front door; as the street in front of the house and the doorway create a crossroads, known to be a place Hecate dwelled. Food offerings might include cake or bread, fish, eggs and honey. The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia, when the first sliver of the sunlit Moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that. The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honour Hecate and to placate the souls in her wake who "longed for vengeance." A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hecate, causing her to withhold her favour from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home 2) an expiation sacrifice, and 3) purification of the household. ### Epithets Hecate was known by a number of epithets: * **Aenaos**(Aἰώνιος), eternal, agelong, ever-flowing. * **Aglaos** (Αγλάος), beautiful, bright, pleasing. * **Apotropaia** (Ἀποτρόπαια), the one that turns away/protects. * Brimo (Βριμώ), the furious, the avenging, the dreaded, crackling flame. * Chthonia (Χθωνία), of the earth/underworld. * Enodia (Ἐννοδία), she on the way/road. * **Erototokos** (Ερωτοτόκος), producing love, bearer of love. * **Indalimos** (Ινδαλίμος), the beautiful. * **Klêidouchos** (Κλειδοῦχος), holding the keys. As the keeper of the keys of Hades. * **Kourotrophos** (Κουροτρόφος), nurse of children. * **Krokopeplos** (Κροκόπεπλος), saffron cloaked. * Melinoe (Μηλινόη). * Phosphoros, **Lampadephoros** (Φωσφόρος, Λαμπαδηφόρος), bringing or bearing light. * **Propolos** (Πρόπολος), who serves/attends. * **Propulaia/Propylaia** (Προπύλαια), before the gate. * Soteria (Σωτηρία), savior. * **Trimorphe** (Τρίμορφη), three-formed. * **Triodia/Trioditis** (Τριοδία, Τριοδίτης), who frequents crossroads. Historical and literary sources ------------------------------- ### Archaic period Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. The first literature mentioning Hecate is the *Theogony* (c. 700 BCE) by Hesiod: > And [Asteria] conceived and bore Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea. > > According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things: > Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honours. > > Hesiod's inclusion and praise of Hecate in the *Theogony* has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception. One theory is that Hesiod's original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the *Theogony* was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers. Another theory is that Hecate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship. In Athens, Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Athena, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household. However, it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins of Hecate on the hand of Zeus as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (composed c. 600 BCE), Hecate is called "tender-hearted", an epithet perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the Sun, Helios. Subsequently, Hecate became Persephone's companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades, serving as a psychopomp. Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone, and there was a temple dedicated to her near the main sanctuary at Eleusis. ### Classical period Variations in interpretations of Hecate's roles can be traced in classical Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres. One surviving group of stories[*clarification needed*] suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigenia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide. In the *Argonautica*, a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material, Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of a ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs. All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity. ### Late Antiquity During the Gigantomachy, Hecate fought by the side of the Olympian gods, and slew the giant Clytius using her torches. Hecate is depicted fighting Clytius in the east frieze of the Gigantomachy, in the Pergamon Altar next to Artemis; she appears with a different weapon in each of her three right hands, a torch, a sword and a lance. Her fight with the Giant appears in a number of ancient vase paintings and other artwork. Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the *Chaldean Oracles* (2nd–3rd century CE), where she is associated in fragment 194 with a *strophalos* (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate." This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus. In Hellenistic syncretism, Hecate also became closely associated with Isis. Lucius Apuleius in *The Golden Ass* (2nd century) equates Juno, Bellona, Hecate and Isis: > Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis. > > In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian ("Chaldean") elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, *Hecate Erschigal* is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife. Schwemer believes that this use of Ereshkigal's name merely furnished "the Greek Netherworld goddess with a mysterious-sounding, foreign name". Hecate is also referenced in the Gnostic text Pistis Sophia. ### Parents, consorts and children In the earliest written source mentioning Hecate, Hesiod emphasized that she was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titan goddess whose name was often used for the moon goddess. In various later accounts, Hecate was given different parents. She was said to be the daughter of Zeus by either Asteria, according to Musaeus, Hera, thus identified with Angelos, or Pheraea, daughter of Aeolus; the daughter of Aristaeus the son of Paion, according to Pherecydes; the daughter of Nyx, according to Bacchylides; the daughter of Perses, the son of Helios, by an unknown mother, according to Diodorus Siculus; while in Orphic literature, she was said to be the daughter of Demeter or Leto or even Tartarus. As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla through either Phorbas or Phorcys. Sometimes she is also stated to be the mother (by Aeëtes) of the goddess Circe and the sorceress Medea, who in later accounts was herself associated with magic while initially just being a herbalist goddess, similar to how Hecate's association with Underworld and Mysteries had her later converted into a deity of witchcraft. Once, Hermes chased Hecate (or Persephone) with the aim to rape her; but the goddess snored or roared in anger, frightening him off so that he desisted, hence her earning the name "Brimo" ("angry"). Genealogy --------- | Hecate's family tree | | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus | | Gaia | | | | | | | | | | | Pontus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Oceanus | | Tethys | | | | Hyperion | | Theia | | | | | Crius | | Eurybia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Rivers | | The Oceanids | | Helios | | Selene  | | Eos | | Astraeus | | Pallas | | Perses | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cronus | | Rhea | | | | | | | | Coeus | | Phoebe | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hestia | | | Hera | | | Poseidon | | Zeus | | | | Leto | | Asteria | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Demeter | | Hades | | | | | Apollo | | Artemis | | | | | | **HECATE** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Iapetus | | Clymene (or Asia)  | | | | | | Themis | | | | (Zeus) | | | | Mnemosyne | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Atlas  | | Menoetius | | Prometheus  | | Epimetheus | | | | | The Horae | | | | The Muses | | | Legacy ------ Strmiska (2005) claimed that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the Early Middle Ages as part of an "emerging legend complex" known as "The Society of Diana" associated with gatherings of women, the Moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans." This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 and is reflected[*dubious – discuss*] in etymological claims by early modern lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, connecting *hag, hexe* "witch" to the name of Hecate. Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority A medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word "jinx" with Hecate: "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a *iunx* (hence "jinx"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate." Shakespeare mentions Hecate both before the end of the 16th century (*A Midsummer Night's Dream*, 1594–1596), and just after, in *Macbeth* (1605): specifically, in the title character's "dagger" soliloquy: "Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate's offerings..." Shakespeare mentions Hecate also in *King Lear*. While disclaiming all his paternal care for Cordelia, Lear says, "The mysteries of Hecate and the night, By all the operations of the orbs From whom we do exist and cease to be, Here I disclaim all my paternal care" (The Arden Shakespeare, King Lear, Page no.165) ### Modern reception In 1929, Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, "The Cult of the Great Eleven,") with Hecate worship rituals. He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its "queens" with seven dogs. Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult's focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection. As a "goddess of witchcraft", Hecate has been incorporated in various systems of modern witchcraft, Wicca, and neopaganism, in some cases associated with the Wild Hunt of Germanic tradition, in others as part of a reconstruction of specifically Greek polytheism, in English also known as "Hellenismos". In Wicca, Hecate has in some cases become identified with the "crone" aspect of the "Triple Goddess". See also -------- * *Hecate* (journal) * Janus – Roman god * Lampad – Nymphs of the Underworld in Greek mythology Sources ------- ### Primary sources * Apollonius Rhodius, *Argonautica, with an English translation by R. C. Seaton*. Loeb Classical Library 1. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912. * Hesiod, *Theogony*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * *Orphic Argonautica*, translated by Jason Colavito, derived from his text at argonauts-book.com, 2011. * Ovid, *Metamorphoses, translated by Brookes More (1859-1942)*, from the Cornhill edition of 1922. * Pausanias, *Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.* Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Strabo, *The Geography of Strabo.* Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. ### Secondary sources * Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, *The Orphic Hymns*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4214-0882-8. Google Books. * Berg, William, "Hecate: Greek or "Anatolian"?", *Numen* 21.2 (August 1974:128-40) * Betz, Hans Dieter (May 1980). "Fragments from a Catabasis Ritual in a Greek Magical Papyrus". *History of Religions*. **19** (4): 287–295. doi:10.1086/462853. S2CID 162089947. * Burkert, Walter, 1985. *Greek Religion* (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as *Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical*, 1987. (Oxford: Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-15624-0. * de’Este, Sorita. Circle for Hekate: volume 1. 1910191078 * Farnell, Lewis Richard, (1896). "Hekate: Representations in Art", *The Cults of the Greek States*. Oxford University Press, Oxford. * Fowler, R. L. (2000), *Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction*, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0198147404. * Gantz, Timothy, *Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). * Green, C. M. C., *Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia*, Cambridge University Press, University of Iowa, 2007, ISBN 978-0-521-85158-9. Online text available at Google books. * Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). *Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature*. * Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). *Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece*. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 * Kerenyi, Karl. *The Gods of the Greeks*. 1951. * Kern, Otto. *Orphicorum Fragmenta*, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive * Mallarmé, Stéphane, (1880). *Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée*. * Merriam-Webster (1995). *Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature*. Inc, Merriam-Webster. ISBN 9780877790426.. * Mooney, Carol M., *Hekate: Her Role and Character in Greek Literature from before the Fifth Century B.C.*, a thesis submitted to the faculty of graduate studies, McMaster University, 1971. * Rabinovich, Yakov. *The Rotting Goddess*. 1990. * Ruickbie, Leo. *Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History*. Robert Hale, 2004. * Schwemer, Daniel (2019). "Beyond Ereškigal? Mesopotamian Magic Traditions in the Papyri Graecae Magicae". *Cultural Plurality in Ancient Magical Texts and Practices*. * Seyffert, Oskar, *A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art*, from the German of Dr. Oskar Seyffert, S. Sonnenschein, 1901. * *The Classical Review*, volume IX, 1985, Library of Illinois. * Von Rudloff, Robert. *Hekate in Ancient Greek Religion*. Horned Owl Publishing (July 1999)

Hecate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate

The **T-72** is a family of Soviet main battle tanks that entered production in 1969. The T-72 was a development of the T-64, which was troubled by high costs and its reliance on immature developmental technology. About 25,000 T-72 tanks have been built, and refurbishment has enabled many to remain in service for decades. It has been widely exported and has seen service in 40 countries and in numerous conflicts. The Russian T-90 introduced in 1992 and the Chinese Type 99 are further developments of the T-72. Production and development of various modernized T-72 models continues today. Development ----------- ### Development from the T-64 The T-72 was a product of a rivalry between design teams. Morozov KB was led by Alexander Morozov in Kharkiv. Uralvagon KB was led by Leonid Kartsev in Nizhny Tagil. To improve on the T-62, two designs based on the tank were tested in 1964: Nizhny Tagil's Object 167 (T-62B) and Kharkiv's Object 434. Ob. 434 was a technically ambitious prototype. Under the direction of Morozov in Kharkiv, a new design emerged with the hull reduced to the minimum size possible. To do this, the crew was reduced to three soldiers, removing the loader by introducing an automated loading system. Ob. 167 was designed based on an Object 140 rebuilt by Kartsev and Valeri Venediktov. Ob. 167 was more advanced than Kartsev's Ob. 165 and Ob. 166, and was also Kartsev's favored model. In October 1961, when asked to ready Ob. 166 for production, Kartsev disagreed and instead offered to prepare the Ob. 167. This suggestion was rejected, and the Ob. 166 and Ob. 165 were readied as the T-62 and T-62A respectively. Unlike the Kharkiv tank, it eschewed the state-of-the-art. Prototypes used the turret from the T-62, and a manual loader. In 1964, the tank underwent comparative testing with the Ob. 434, in which the former proved its superiority to both the T-62 and T-55. Ob. 167 was favored by Uralvagonzavod director I.V. Okunev and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, who believed the tank was more affordable. Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Dmitry Ustinov, believed the parallel development of Ob. 167 jeopardized the future of the Kharkiv tank. In December 1962, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union ordered Ob. 432 (later serialized as the T-64) into production, dooming Kartsev's tank. Kartsev continued to work on the Ob. 167. Ob. 167M incorporated an autoloader. This model too was rejected in May 1964. Problems with the early production run were evident from the start, but a strong lobby formed around Morozov who advocated for Ob. 434 in Moscow, preventing rival developments and ideas from being discussed. Ob. 434 was accepted into Soviet Army service in May 1968 as the T-64A. The T-64's smaller design presented a problem when selecting a suitable engine. The chosen 700 hp 5TDF engine was unreliable, difficult to repair, and had a guaranteed lifespan similar to World War II designs. ### Object 172 In 1967, the Uralvagonzavod formed "Section 520", which was to prepare the serial production of the T-64 for 1970. Because of the time-consuming construction of the 5TDF engines, which took about twice as long as the contemporary V-45, the Malyshev Factory in Kharkiv could not provide a sufficient number of 5TDF engines for all Soviet tank factories. The Military-Industrial Commission (VPK) authorized work on two alternative engines for a wartime T-64, a so-called "mobilization model" that could be produced more quickly and at half the cost. Obj. 219 (which became the T-80, with a GTD-1000T gas-turbine) was designed in Leningrad. Ob. 439 with a diesel V-45 engine was designed by Uralvagon KB at Uralvagonzavod in Nizhny Tagil. GABTU sent a T-64A prototype with a team to Uralvagonzavod. Kartsev was to lead this team. Kartsev was unsatisfied with the innovations of the T-64, and began instead a more comprehensive project to redesign the tank. Kartsev melded what he believed were the best aspects of the T-64A, Object 167, and an upgunned T-62. During development the tank was code-named "Ural" after the Ural mountain region. Uralvagonzavod produced the first prototype with a T-62 turret, D-81 125-mm gun and V-45 engine in January 1968. Ob. 439 differed so greatly from the T-64 that it was redesignated as "Object 172". Kartsev's defiance angered GABTU, which initially reprimanded him for his insubordination. However, after the tank proved indeed to possess potential as a less costly alternative to the T-64, Kartsev was allowed to continue work on his design. Politically motivated opposition continued to beset the tank throughout its development. Vagonka tank plant manager I.F. Krutyakov sought to subordinate Uralvagonzavod under Josef Kotin. Kartsev skillfully beat back this play for power, embarrassing Krutyakov in the process. Kartsev retired in August 1969, and was succeeded by Venediktov. The team soon found out that the more powerful V-45 engine put a lot of stress on the T-64 hull, so that after some time cracks started to materialize. A more stable solution was sought. Finally, an idea from 1960 was used, when a modification of the T-62 had been discussed: In 1961, two prototypes of "Object 167" had been built by Uralvagonzavod to test a stronger hull and running gear combination for that tank. Under influence from Kharkiv, the idea had been turned down by Moscow. But this construction, with its big, rubbercoated roadwheels now formed the basis for the mobilisation model of the T-64. Additional changes were made to the automatic loading system, which also was taken from an earlier project, originally intended for a T-62 upgrade. The 125 mm ammunition, consisting of a separate projectile and a propellant charge, was now stored horizontally on two levels, not vertically on one level as in the T-64. It was said to be more reliable than the T-64 autoloader. In 1964, two 125-mm guns of the D-81 type had been used to evaluate their installation in to the T-62, so the Ural plant was ready to adopt the 125 mm calibre for the T-64A as well. Venediktov's team later replaced the T-64-style suspension with the Obj. 167's suspension. The tank was trialed in Kubinka in 1968, and Central Asia in 1969. After intensive comparative testing with the T-64A, Object 172 was re-engineered in 1970 to deal with some minor problems. Further trials took place in Transbaikal in 1971. ### T-72 Being only a mobilisation model, serial production of Object 172 was not possible in peacetime. However, by 1971, even Ustinov was growing tired of problems with the T-64. In an unclear political process decree number 326-113 was issued, which allowed the production of Object 172 in the Soviet Union from 1 January 1972, and freed Uralvagonzavod from the T-64A production. An initial production run began in 1972 at Nizhni Tagil. These were trialed in the Soviet Army. A final trial batch was built as "Object 172M" and tested in 1973 and accepted into service as the "T-72" in 1974. Uralvagon KB continued to iterate on the T-72 in a series of block improvements. Obj. 174 introduced ceramic/steel laminate turret armour. The coincidence rangefinder was replaced with a laser rangefinder. Obj. 174 was designated as the T-72A when it entered production in 1978. Turret armour was greatly improved with Obj. 174M. A more powerful V-84 engine was introduced to offset the increased weight. Obj. 174M entered service in 1985 as the T-72B. At least some technical documentation on the T-72 is known to have been passed to the CIA by the Polish Colonel Ryszard Kukliński between 1971 and 1982. Production history ------------------ The first series production of T-72 Object 172M began in July at UKBM in Nizhny Tagil. However, due to difficulties in getting the factory organised for the change in production from T-64 to T-72, only 30 completed tanks were delivered in 1973. Troubles continued in 1974 where out of a state production quota of 440 only 220 were officially declared, with the actual number of completed tanks being close to 150. As a result, substantial investment in tooling was undertaken. Only after modernisation, could the factory begin full-scale production of the T-72. Nizhny Tagil produced the tank in various modifications until 1992. The T-72 was the most common tank used by the Warsaw Pact from the 1970s until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. It was also exported to other countries, such as Finland, India, Iran, Iraq, Syria and Yugoslavia, as well as being copied elsewhere, both with and without licenses. Licensed versions of the T-72 were made in Poland and Czechoslovakia, for Warsaw Pact consumers. These tanks had better and more consistent quality of make but with inferior armour, lacking the resin-embedded ceramics layer inside the turret front and glacis plate armour, replaced with all steel. The Polish-made T-72G tanks also had thinner armour compared to Soviet Army standard (410 mm for turret). Before 1990, Soviet-made T-72 export versions were similarly downgraded for non-Warsaw Pact customers (mostly the Arab countries). Many parts and tools are not interchangeable between the Soviet, Polish and Czechoslovakian versions, which caused logistics problems. Yugoslavia developed the T-72 into the more advanced M-84, and sold hundreds of them around the world during the 1980s. The Iraqis called their T-72 copies the "Lion of Babylon" (*Asad Babil*). These Iraqi tanks were assembled from kits sold to them by the Soviet Union as a means of evading the UN-imposed weapons embargo. More modern derivatives include the Polish PT-91 *Twardy*. Several countries, including Russia and Ukraine, also offer modernization packages for older T-72s. Various versions of the T-72 have been in production for decades, and the specifications for its armour have changed considerably. Original T-72 tanks had homogeneous cast steel armour incorporating spaced armour technology and were moderately well protected by the standards of the early 1970s. In 1979, the Soviets began building T-72 modification with composite armour similar to the T-64 composite armour, in the front of the turret and the front of the hull. Late in the 1980s, T-72 tanks in Soviet inventory (and many of those elsewhere in the world as well) were fitted with reactive armour tiles. TPD-K1 laser rangefinder system have appeared in T-72 tanks since 1974; earlier examples were equipped with parallax optical rangefinders, which could not be used for distances under 1,000 metres (1,100 yd). Some export versions of the T-72 lacked the laser rangefinder until 1985 or sometimes only the squadron and platoon commander tanks (version K) received them. After 1985, all newly made T-72s came with reactive armour as standard, the more powerful 840 bhp (630 kW) V-84 engine and an upgraded design main gun, which can fire guided anti-tank missiles from the barrel. With these developments, the T-72 eventually became almost as powerful as the more expensive T-80 tank, but few of these late variants reached the economically ailing Warsaw Pact allies and foreign customers before the Soviet bloc fell apart in 1990. Since 2000, export vehicles have been offered with thermal imaging night-vision gear of French manufacture as well (though it may be more likely that they might simply use the locally manufactured 'Buran-Catherine' system, which incorporates a French thermal imager). Depleted uranium armour-piercing ammunition for the 125 mm (4.9 in) gun has been manufactured in Russia in the form of the BM-32 projectile since around 1978, though it has never been deployed, and is less penetrating than the later tungsten BM-42 and the newer BM-42M. In 2010, Russia started an upgrade using the enormous stocks of T-72B's held in reserve. The rebuild tank is called T72B3 (Ob'yekt 184-M3). In 2018, the 3rd Central Research Institute in Moscow had tested a proof-of-concept demonstration for robotic tank mobility, and was planning to further develop it based on the T-72B3 and other platforms. In 2022, according to pro-Ukrainian intelligence sources, the upgrade of the Russian T-72 fleet has slowed during the war in Ukraine while production of the more modern T-90s and T-14 Armatas has slowed down because of the international sanctions affecting the Russian military industry. However, more tanks of T-72 and T-90 types were ordered in August 2022. A new batch of T-72B3M tanks was reportedly delivered in late 2022. ### Models Main models of the T-72, built in the Soviet Union and Russia. Command tanks have *K* added to their designation for *komandirskiy*, "command", for example *T-72K* is the command version of the basic T-72. Versions with reactive armour have *V* added, for *vzryvnoy*, "explosive". T-72 Ural (1973) Original version, armed with 125 mm smoothbore tank gun and optical coincidence rangefinder. T-72A (1979) Coincidence rangefinder replaced with laser rangefinder and electronic fire control added, turret front and top being heavily reinforced with composite armour (nicknamed *Dolly Parton* by US intelligence), provisions for mounting reactive armour, smoke grenade launchers, flipper armour mount on front mudguards, internal changes. T-72M Export version, similar to T-72A but lacking composite armour (decreasing the weight to 37 tonnes), much simpler fire control system, and usually supplied with inferior ammunition compared to the Soviet army standard. Also built in Poland and former Czechoslovakia. T-72B (1985) New main gun, stabilizer, sights and fire control, 9K120 Svir guided missile system, additional armour including 20 mm (0.8 in) of appliqué armour in the front of hull, improved composites in the turret armour, improved 840 hp (630 kW) engine. T-72B3 model 2011 (~2010) This upgrade was initiated in 2010 using the enormous stocks of T-72B's held in reserve. They are rebuilt with new technologies including Sosna-U multichannel gunner's sight, new digital VHF radio, improved autoloader, 2A46M-2 gun to accommodate new ammunition, 9K119 Refleks guided missile system. New V-92S2 engine. Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour. Lacks satellite navigation. T-72B3 model 2016 or T-72B3M Upgrade for T-72B3, with Relikt explosive reactive armour on the sides, side skirts with soft-container reactive armour and slat screens, 2A46M-5 gun with new ammunition, 9K119M Refleks-M guided missile system, V-92S2F 1,130 hp (840 kW) engine, automatic transmission, digital display and rear-view video. Often incorrectly referred to as "T-72B4" The T-72 design has been used into the following foreign models: T-72M4CZ (Czech Republic), PT-91 Twardy (Poland), M-84 (Yugoslavia), M-84AS1 (Serbia), M-84D (Croatia) and Lion of Babylon (Iraq). ### Variants In addition, the T-72 hull has been used as the basis for other heavy vehicle designs, including the following: * **BMPT Terminator** – Heavy convoy and close tank support vehicle. * **TOS-1** – Thermobaric multiple rocket launcher, with 30-tube launcher in place of the turret. * **BREM-1** (*Bronirovannaya Remonto-Evakuatsionnaya Mashina*) – Armoured recovery vehicle with a 12-tonne crane, 25-tonne winch, dozer blade, towing equipment, and tools. * **IMR-2** (*Inzhenernaya Mashina Razgrashdeniya*) – Combat engineering vehicle with an 11-tonne telescoping crane and pincers, configurable dozer blade/plough, and mine-clearing system. * **MTU-72** (*Tankovyy Mostoukladchik*) – Armoured bridge layer, capable of laying a 50 t (55 short tons) capacity bridge spanning 18 m (59 ft) in three minutes. * **BMR-3 Vepr** (*Bronirovannaja Mashina Razminirovanija*) – Mine clearing vehicle. Design characteristics ---------------------- The T-72 shares many design features with other tank designs of Soviet origin. Some of these are viewed as deficiencies in a straight comparison to NATO tanks, but most are a product of the way these tanks were envisioned to be employed, based on the Soviets' practical experiences in World War II. ### Weight The T-72 is extremely lightweight, at forty-one tonnes, and very small compared to Western main battle tanks. Some of the roads and bridges in former Warsaw Pact countries were designed such that T-72s can travel along in formation, but NATO tanks could not pass at all, or just one-by-one, significantly reducing their mobility. The basic T-72 is relatively underpowered, with a 780 hp (580 kW) supercharged version of the basic 500 hp (370 kW) V12 diesel engine originally designed for the World War II-era T-34. The 0.58 m (1 ft 11 in) wide tracks run on large-diameter road wheels, which allows for easy identification of the T-72 and descendants (the T-64 family has relatively small road wheels). The T-72 is designed to cross rivers up to 5 m (16.4 ft) deep submerged using a small diameter snorkel assembled on-site. The crew is individually supplied with simple rebreather chest-pack apparatuses for emergency situations. If the engine stops underwater, it must be restarted within six seconds, or the T-72's engine compartment becomes flooded due to pressure loss. The snorkeling procedure is considered dangerous, but is important for maintaining operational mobility. ### Nuclear, biological, and chemical protection The T-72 has a nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection system. The inside of both hull and turret is lined with a synthetic fabric made of boron compound, meant to reduce the penetrating radiation from neutron bomb explosions. The crew is supplied clean air via an air filter system. A slight over-pressure prevents entry of contamination via bearings and joints. Use of an autoloader for the main gun allows for more efficient forced smoke removal compared to traditional manually loaded ("pig-loader") tank guns, so NBC isolation of the fighting compartment can, in theory, be maintained indefinitely. ### Interior Like all Soviet-legacy tanks, the T-72's design has traded off interior space in return for a very small silhouette and efficient use of armour, to the point of replacing the fourth crewman with a mechanical loader. The low height of the tank places constraints on the height of crews, with the USSR having a height limit of 5ft 4in for crews for the T-72. The basic T-72 design has extremely small periscope viewports, even by the constrained standards of battle tanks and the driver's field of vision is significantly reduced when his hatch is closed. The steering system is a traditional dual-tiller layout instead of the easier-to-use steering wheel or steering yoke common in modern Western tanks. This set-up requires the near-constant use of both hands, which complicates employment of the seven speed manual transmission. ### Armour Armour protection of the T-72 was strengthened with each succeeding generation. The original T-72 "Ural" Object 172M's (from 1973) turret is made from conventional cast high hardness steel (HHS) armour with no laminate inserts. It is believed that the maximum thickness is 280 mm (11 in) and the nose is 80 mm (3.1 in). The glacis of the new laminated armour is 205 mm (8.1 in) thick, comprising 80 mm (3.1 in) HHS, 105 mm (4.1 in) double layer of laminate and 20 mm (0.79 in) RHA steel, which when inclined gives about 500–600 mm (20–24 in) thickness along the line of sight. In 1977 the armour of the T-72 Object 172M was slightly changed. The turret now featured insert filled with ceramic sand bars "kwartz" rods and the glacis plate composition was changed. It was now made up of 60 mm (2.4 in) HHA steel,105 mm (4.1 in) glass Tekstolit laminate and 50 mm (2.0 in) RHA steel. This version was often known in Soviet circles as T-72 "Ural-1". The next armour update was introduced by the T-72A (Object 176), which was designed in 1976 and replaced the original on the production lines during 1979–1985. T-72 Object 1976 is also known as T-72A. With the introduction of the T-72B (Object 184) in 1985, the composite armour was again changed. According to retired major, James M. Warford, variants developed after the T-72 base model and T-72M/T-72G MBT, featured a cast steel turret that included a cavity filled with quartz or sand in a form similar to US "fused-silica" armour. The T-72 Model 1978 (Obiekt 172M sb-4), which entered production in 1977, featured a new turret with special armour composed of ceramic rods. The T-72A featured a new turret with thicker, nearly vertical, frontal armour. Due to its appearance, it was unofficially nicknamed "Dolly Parton" armour by the US Army. This used the new ceramic-rod turret filler, incorporated improved glacis laminate armour, and mounted new anti-shaped-charge sideskirts. The T-72M was identical to the base T-72 Ural model in terms of protection, retaining the monolithic steel turret. The modernized T-72M1 was closer to the T-72A in terms of protection. It featured an additional 16 mm (0.63 in) of high hardness steel appliqué armour on the glacis plate, which produced an increase of 43 mm (1.7 in) in line of sight thickness. It was also the first export variant with composite armour in the turret, containing ceramic rods sometimes called "sandbar armour". The turret armour composition was essentially identical to the T-72 "Ural-1" whereas Soviet-only T-72As had slightly increased turret protection. Several T-72 models featured explosive reactive armour (ERA), which increased protection primarily against high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) type weapons. Certain late-model T-72 tanks featured Kontakt-5 ERA, a form of *universal* ERA partly effective against kinetic penetrators. It was added to the T-72 as a response to testing conducted by the Soviet Union against captured Israeli Magach-4 tanks which found that the glacis of the T-72 could be penetrated by the 105mm M111 APDSFS *Hetz* ammunition. Late model T-72s, such as the T-72B, featured improved turret armour, visibly bulging the turret front—nicknamed "super-Dolly Parton" armour by Western intelligence. The turret armour of the T-72B was the thickest and most effective of all Soviet tank armour; it was even thicker than the frontal armour of the T-80B. The T-72B used a new "reflecting-plate armour" (*bronya s otrazhayushchimi listami*), in which the frontal cavity of the cast turret was filled with a laminate of alternating steel and non-metallic (rubber) layers. The glacis was also fitted with 20 mm (0.8 in) of appliqué armour. The late production versions of the T-72B/B1 and T-72A variants also featured an anti-radiation layer on the hull roof. Early model T-72s did not feature side skirts; instead, the original base model featured gill or flipper-type armour panels on either side of the forward part of the hull. When the T-72A was introduced in 1979, it was the first model to feature the plastic side skirts covering the upper part of the suspension, with separate panels protecting the side of the fuel and stowage panniers. After the collapse of the USSR, US and German analysts had a chance to examine Soviet-made T-72 tanks equipped with Kontakt-5 ERA, and they proved impenetrable to most Cold War US and German tank projectiles and anti-tank weapons. A U.S. Army spokesperson claimed at the show, "the myth of Soviet inferiority in this sector of arms production that has been perpetuated by the failure of downgraded T-72 export tanks in the Gulf Wars has, finally, been laid to rest. The results of these tests show that if a NATO/Warsaw Pact confrontation had erupted in Europe, the Soviets would have had parity (or perhaps even superiority) in armour". KE-effective ERA, such as Kontakt-5, drove the development of M829A3 ammunition. Late 1980s, Soviet developed Object 187 (Объект 187, or ***T-72BI***), it was a parallel project to Object 188 (the T-90 tank). It was based on the T-72B, with a heavily modified turret. The 'Object 187' used composite armour for the turret ("Super Dolly Parton" composite armour) and the hull front, and RHA for the rest of the tank. It possibly consisted of special materials including ceramic or high density uranium alloys. Maximum physical thickness of the passive armour (not counting the reactive armour – ERA) was up to 950 mm RHA. With Kontakt-5 ERA, T-72BI's frontal armour was immune to the NATO's 120 mm L/44 tank gun. However, after the Soviet collapse, the tank was not accepted. In 2021, Russian Army T-72B3s were seen fitted with raised mesh screens above their turrets. The screens appeared to act as a type of slat armour attempting to protect the tanks from top attack weapons such as the FGM-148 Javelin ATGM and small air-to-ground munitions fired from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the cages proved ineffective at defending the tanks and were removed. #### Estimated protection level The following table shows the estimated protection level of different T-72 models in rolled homogeneous armour equivalency, i.e., the composite armour of the turret of a T-72B offers as much protection against an armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) round as a 520 mm (20 in) thick armour steel layer. | Model | Turret vs APFSDS | Turret vs HEAT | Hull vs APFSDS | Hull vs HEAT | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | T-72 'Ural' (1973) | 380–410 mm (15–16 in) | 450–500 mm (18–20 in) | 335–410 mm (13.2–16.1 in) | 410–450 mm (16–18 in) | | T-72A (1979–1985)/(1988)+Kontakt 1 | 410–500 mm (16–20 in) | 500–560 mm (20–22 in) | 360–420 mm (14–17 in) | 490–500 mm (19–20 in) | | T-72M (1980) | 380 mm (15 in) | 490 mm (19 in) | 335 mm (13.2 in) | 450 mm (18 in) | | T-72M1 (1982) | 380 mm (15 in) | 490 mm (19 in) | 400 mm (16 in) | 490 mm (19 in) | | T-72B+Kontakt 1 (1985) | 520–540 mm (20–21 in) | 900–950 mm (35–37 in) | 480–530 mm (19–21 in) | 900 mm (35 in) | | T-72B+Kontakt 5 (1988) | 770–800 mm (30–31 in) | 1,180 mm (46 in) | 690 mm (27 in) | 940 mm (37 in) | Possible easy replacement of Kontakt 5 (or 1) with Relikt. Relikt defends against tandem-charge warheads and reduces penetration of APFSDS rounds by over 50 percent. *Calculation* T-72B + Relikt vs APFSDS, on turret 1,000–1,050 mm, on hull 950–1,000 mm. For T-90MS Relikt is a basic set, for the T-90S basic set – Kontakt 5. ### Gun The T-72 is equipped with the 125 mm (4.9 in) 2A46 series main gun, a significantly larger (20-mm larger) calibre than the standard 105 mm (4.1 in) gun found in contemporary Western MBTs, and still slightly larger than the 120 mm/L44 found in many modern Western MBTs. As is typical of Soviet tanks, the gun can fire anti-tank guided missiles, and standard main gun ammunition, including HEAT and APFSDS rounds. The original T-72 Object 172M (1973) used 2A26M2 model gun first mounted on T-64. The barrel had a length of 6350mm or 50.8 calibers and had maximum rated chamber pressure of 450 MPa. The cannon had an electroplated chrome lining but lacked a thermal sleeve. The cannon was capable of firing 3VBM-3 round with 3BM-9 steel projectile sabot and 3VBM-6 round with 3BM-12 Tungsten sabot APFSDS projectile. Allowing respectively 245 mm (9.6 in) and 280 mm (11 in) penetration of RHA steel at 2000m at 0 degree angle. In addition to APFSDS rounds T-72 Object 172M could also fire 3VBK-7 round incorporating 3BK-12 HEAT warhead and 3VBK-10 round incorporating 3BK-14 HEAT warhead. HEAT rounds allowed respectively 420 mm (17 in) and 450 mm (18 in) penetration of RHA steel at 0 degree angle. The High Explosive rounds provided included 3WOF-22 with 3OF-19 warhead or 3WOF-36 with the 3OF-26 warhead. For all rounds, the Zh40 propellant was used. Complementing the original gun setup was 2E28M "Siren" two-plane electrohydraulic stabilizer allowing automatic stabilization with speeds from 0.05 to 6 degrees per second. Even as the T-72 Object 172M (1973) was entering production new ammunition was developed to offset armour developments in the West. Beginning in 1972, two new APFSDS rounds were introduced, the 3VBM-7 round with 3BM-15 Tungsten sabot projectile and the "cheaper" 3VBM-8 round with 3BM-17 sabot but without the tungsten carbide plug. These allowed penetration of respectively 310 mm (12 in) and 290 mm (11 in) RHA steel at 2000m at 0 degree angle. At the same time, a universal Zh52 propellant charge was introduced. The 3VBM-7 was the most common APFSDS round found in T-72 Object 172M tanks during the 70s. The stated barrel life expectancy of the 2A26M2 model gun was 600 rounds of HE/HEAT equivalent to 600 EFC (Effective Full Charge) or 150 rounds of APFSDS. The main gun of the T-72 has a mean error of 1 m (39.4 in) at a range of 1,800 m (1,968.5 yd), considered substandard today. Its maximum firing distance is 3,000 m (3,280.8 yd), due to limited positive elevation. The limit of aimed fire is 4,000 m (4,374.5 yd) (with the gun-launched anti-tank guided missile, which is rarely used outside of former Soviet states). The T-72's main gun is fitted with an integral pressure reserve drum, which assists in rapid smoke evacuation from the bore after firing. The 125 millimeter gun barrel is certified strong enough to ram the tank through forty centimeters of iron-reinforced brick wall, though doing so will negatively affect the gun's accuracy when subsequently fired. Rumours in NATO armies of the late Cold War claimed that the tremendous recoil of the huge 125 mm gun could damage the fully mechanical transmission of the T-72. The tank commander reputedly had to order firing by repeating his command, when the T-72 is on the move: "Fire! Fire!" The first shout supposedly allowed the driver to disengage the clutch to prevent wrecking the transmission when the gunner fired the cannon on the second order. In reality, this still-common tactic substantially improves the tank's firing accuracy and has nothing to do with recoil or mechanical damage to anything. This might have to do with the lower quality (compared to Western tanks) of the T-72's stabilizers. The vast majority of T-72s do not have FLIR thermal imaging sights, though all T-72s (even those exported to the Third World) possess the characteristic (and inferior) 'Luna' Infrared illuminator. Thermal imaging sights are extremely expensive, and the new Russian FLIR system, the 'Buran-Catherine Thermal Imaging Suite' was introduced only recently on the T-80UM tank. ### Autoloader Like the earlier domestic-use-only T-64, the T-72 is equipped with an automatic loading system, eliminating the need for a dedicated crewmember, decreasing the size and weight of the tank. However, the autoloader is of a noticeably different design. Both the T-64 and T-72 carry their two-section 125 mm ammunition (shell and full propellant charge, or missile and reduced propellant charge) in separate loading trays positioned on top of each other; but firstly, in T-64, 28 of these were arranged vertically as a ring under the turret ring proper, and were rotated to put the correct tray into position under the hoist system in the turret rear. This had the disadvantage of cutting the turret off from the rest of the tank, most notably, the driver. Accessing the hull required partial removal of the trays. The T-72 uses a design that has lower width requirements and does not isolate the turret compartment: the trays are arranged in a circle at the very bottom of the fighting compartment; the trade-off is the reduction of the number of trays to 22. The second difference is that in the T-64 the trays were hinged together and were flipped open as they were brought into position, allowing both the shell/missile and propellant charge to be rammed into the breech in one motion; in the T-72 the tray is brought to the breech as-is, with the shell in the lower slot and the charge in the upper one, and the mechanical rammer sequentially loads each of them, resulting in a longer reloading cycle. The autoloader has a minimum cycle of 6.5 seconds (ATGM 8 seconds) and a maximum cycle of 15 seconds for reload, in later versions the sequence mode allows to reload in less than 5 seconds, allowing to reach 3 shots in 13 seconds. The autoloader system also includes an automated casing removal mechanism that ejects the propellant case through an opening port in the back of the turret during the following reload cycle. The autoloader disconnects the gun from the vertical stabilizer and cranks it up three degrees above the horizontal in order to depress the breech end of the gun and line it up with the loading tray and rammer. While loading, the gunner can still aim because he has a vertically independent sight. With a laser rangefinder and ballistic computer, final aiming takes at least another three to five seconds, but it is pipelined into the last steps of auto-loading and proceeds concurrently. In addition to the 22 auto-loaded rounds, the T-72 carries 17 rounds conventionally in the hull, which can be loaded into the emptied autoloader trays or directly into the gun. The T-72B3 modernization replaced the old autoloader with a new one to fit longer projectiles such as 3BM59 and 3BM60. Previous variants are limited and may only carry older APFSDS rounds that can not exceed a certain length, therefore allowing less performance from anti-tank rounds. The way that the unused rounds are stored in the autoloader system has been exposed as a flaw, as observers have noted that penetrating hits can easily set off a chain reaction that detonates all of the ammunition. The result is the turret is blown off resulting in a so-called "jack-in-the-box" explosion. This vulnerability was first observed during the Gulf War. Operators and service --------------------- The T-72 was never used in the Afghanistan War. The 40th Soviet Army that was deployed there had mainly T-55, and T-62 tanks. The Russian Federation had over 10,000 T-72 tanks in use, including around 2,000 in active service and 8,000 in reserve (mostly T-72Bs). The T-72 has been used by the Russian Army in the fighting during the First and Second Chechen Wars, the Russo-Georgian War, and the Russo-Ukrainian War. The T-72 has been used by over 40 countries worldwide. ### Syria In the 1982 Lebanon War, Syrian T-72s are believed to have engaged Israeli tanks (M60A1, Magach or probably Merkava tanks) in the south of Lebanon. It is assumed that Syrian T-72 never met the Merkava in battle. On 9 June 1982, the Syrian General HQ ordered a brigade of the 1st Armoured Division, recently equipped with T-72 tanks, to move straight ahead, cross the border, and hit the right flank of the Israeli units advancing along the eastern side of Beka'a valley. The ensuing battle staved off further Israeli advance and 10 IDF main battle tanks were destroyed. After the war, Syrian president Hafez Al-Assad called it "the best tank in the world". The T-72 has been in extensive use in the Syrian Civil War by the Syrian Arab Army since 2011. Quite a few captured units have been used by anti-government forces, including the rebel Free Syrian Army, and jihadist groups such as the Islamic Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. Initially, the insurgent forces used IEDs and RPG-7 ambush tactics against the government armoured forces. Later, the rebels obtained modern Russian RPGs and Yugoslav M79 Osas, which were used successfully against T-72s. Starting in 2012, the capture from Syrian stocks and later direct delivery by external sponsors of modern anti-tank guided missiles, including Chinese-made HJ-8, Soviet-made 9K111 Fagot, 9M113 Konkurs, and 9K115 Metis, and U.S.-made BGM-71 TOW missile enabled the opposition forces to engage and destroy any government armoured vehicle types, T-72 included, from safer distances. As of March 2020, at least 837 T-72 tanks operated by the Syrian Armed forces were destroyed according to visual recordings. ### Iraq Iraqi T-72Ms and T-72M1s had success in the battle for Basra and the last stages of the Iran-Iraq war. 105mm M68 tank guns and TOW missiles proved ineffective against the frontal armour of Iraqi T-72s. Sixty T-72 tanks were lost during the eight years of war. Ra'ad Al-Hamdani, an Iraqi general in the Iraqi Republican Guard, stating "The 16th Iranian Armoured Division, which was equipped with Chieftain tanks, lost a battle against the 10th Iraqi Armoured Brigade with T-72 tanks. It is hard for an armoured brigade to destroy a division in 12 hours but it happened; it was a disaster for the Iranians". Out of the 894 Chieftain tanks that had started the war only 200 were left by the war's end. According to Iranians and Iraqis, the T-72 was the most feared tank of the Iran–Iraq War. During the invasion of Kuwait Iraq used 690 tanks, mainly T-55s, T-62s and T-72s. Kuwait had 281 tanks, including 6 T-72s, 165 Chieftains, 70 Vickers and 40 Centurions. On the morning of 2 August, near the Mutla Pass, a tank battle took place between the Vickers tanks of the 6th Kuwaiti Mechanized Brigade and the T-72s of the Republican Guard's 17th Armoured Brigade, 1st Hammurabi Armoured Division. Kuwaiti tanks were able to knock out one T-72 during the ambush, but were defeated in response with the commander of the 6th brigade captured. Only 20 surviving Vickers tanks were able to retreat to Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi-assembled T-72 version Lion of Babylon engaged coalition forces in both Iraq wars. The Battle of 73 Easting took place during a sandstorm in the Iraqi desert. U.S. M1A1s and Bradley Fighting Vehicles came up against Iraqi Republican Guard T-72Ms and BMPs and inflicted 37 losses on the Iraqi armoured forces, while losing a single Bradley to enemy fire. The primary attack was conducted by 2ACR's three squadrons of about 400 soldiers, along with the 1st Infantry Division's two leading brigades, who attacked and destroyed the Iraqi 18th Mechanized Brigade and 37th Armoured Brigade of the Tawakalna Division, each consisting of between 2,500 and 3,000 personnel.The Iraqi T-72Ms used 3BM9 shells (removed from Soviet service in 1973), with a penetration of 245 mm at a distance of up to 2,500 meters (8,200 ft). M60A1s of the 1st Marine Division Task Force Ripper led the drive to the Kuwait International Airport on 27 February 1991. Task Force Ripper's M60A1 tanks destroyed about 100 Iraqi tanks and armoured personnel carriers, including T-72 tanks. The total number of T-72s lost during Operation Desert Storm was approximately 150. As of 1996, Iraq had 776 T-72 tanks in service from 1,038 originally received. ### Chechen wars During the First Chechen War (December 1994 to September 1996) fought between the Russian Federation and the self-proclaimed Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, led by Dzhokhar Dudayev, the Russian Federation deployed both T-72 and T-80 tanks. Russian AFV losses during the first three months fighting amounted to 62 tank (T-72/T-80) losses (44 T-72s of 141, 18 T-80s of 71 and 0 PT-76s of 9). Analysis of damage to non repairable vehicles showed that no T-72 were lost to frontal penetration of the hull from man portable anti tank weapons. Analysis of the causes of these losses indicated the majority were caused by Chechen four-man anti-armour hunter-killer teams consisting of a gunner armed with a Russian RPG-7 or RPG-18 shoulder-fired antitank rocket launcher, and a machine gunner and a sniper, with five or six such teams simultaneously attacking a single armoured vehicle. The majority of losses recorded occurred from three to six kill shot hits to the sides, top and rear of a vehicle. Highlighted were serious tactical deployment failures, once again demonstrating doctrine and tactics being a primary factor in determining a tank's worth. Following the serious losses to the Russian Federation during their first assault upon Grozny, armoured tactics were revised. Russian armoured vehicle losses dropped off with their change in tactics to have Russian infantry move in front, with armoured combat vehicles in support of the infantry. In particular use of AAA armoured vehicles, these vehicles can elevate their main armament to higher angles than the T-72 . The Russian army captured seven of Dudayev's T-72s and used them in combat. During the First Chechen War, at least two tank duels took place. In the first, Dudayev's T-72A knocked out one T-62M belonging to pro-Russian Chechens. In the second, one of Dudayev's T-72As was destroyed by a Russian T-72B. Three Russian T-72s are recorded as destroyed, at the hands of Chechen separatists, including one tank during the Second Chechen War, during the period 1997 to 2003. ### Russo-Georgian War During the war in South Ossetia in 2008 both sides deployed great numbers of T-72 tanks. At the time of the conflict, the Georgian military fielded 191 T-72 tanks of which 120 were modified to T-72Sim1s. The Georgian army deployed a total of 75 of its T-72 tanks into South Ossetia. The Georgian military lost 30 T-72's, ten in combat during the fighting around Tskhinvali, and another 20 destroyed by Russian paratroopers after their capture. ### Russo-Ukrainian War #### War in Donbas On 26 August 2014, the International Institute for Strategic Studies claimed that it had identified a mixed Russian column composed of at least 3 T-72Bs and a lone T-72B3 in the war in Donbas. The significance of this sighting was that Russia attempted to maintain plausible deniability over the issue of supplying tanks and other arms to the separatists. Russia continuously claimed that any tanks operated by the separatists must have been captured from Ukraine's own army. The T-72B3 is in service with the Russian Army in large numbers. This modernized T-72 is not known to have been exported to nor operated by any other country. In an interview with Dorzhi Batomunkuev in March 2015, it was revealed that he had operated a T-72B as part of a 32 tank Russian army unit when fighting for Debaltseve in Ukraine in February 2015. His tank was destroyed and he suffered severe burns. Before the conflict Ukraine had 600 T-72s in storage. However, encountering a deficiency of serviceable armoured vehicles, the Ukrainian Ministry of Defence began returning some of the T-72s to service. #### Russian invasion of Ukraine Examples of abandoned Russian T-72B3 mod. 2016 (top) and T-72B mod. 1989 (bottom) tanks with various different makeshift steel grilles variants attached to the turret, during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The T-72 has seen extensive service in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine with both sides. Russia's most numerous tank is the T-72B3 (mod. 2011 and 2016) and the older T-72B (mod. 1985 and 1989). In the buildup to the invasion, Russian forces applied improvised steel grilles to the top of the turret, known as "cope cages" by some commentators (including British Defence Secretary Ben Wallace). Military analysts have speculated that such grilles were added in an attempt to counter the usage of top-attack weapons, such as the US made FGM-148 Javelin and British-Swedish NLAW, by Ukrainian forces. These implementations add weight to the tank, increase its visual profile, and make it more difficult for the crew to escape from the tank. Analysts have also speculated that they may be potentially used as a countermeasure against RPG-7s fired from above during urban combat, loitering munitions, or against drone attacks, as a response to lessons learned from the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war. The lack of uniformity between the makeshift cage variants made from different meshes and iron fences suggest that they are largely improvised by the tank crews, and are not standard issue. In May 2022, some Russian tankers said they eventually removed the cages, as they obstructed the use of machine guns and radios, and prevented evacuation if the tank caught fire. As of 13 June, 2023 Russian forces have suffered 190 T-72B3, 112 T-72B3 Obr 2016, 10 T-72BA, two T-72B3 Obr 2014, one T-72B3 Obr 2022, 22 T-72A, five T-72AV, 182 T-72B, and 55 T-72B Obr 1989 visually confirmed destroyed in Ukraine. Before the invasion, Ukraine operated small numbers of T-72s which were left from the Soviet Union but were partly modernized. These mainly included T-72As and T-72AVs, as well as modernized T-72AMTs (mod. 2017). On 3 April, an image of a rare T-72 "Ural" (1973) equipped with Kontakt-1 ERA having been damaged appeared. As of April 2022, an unspecified number of Czech T-72M1s had been provided to Ukraine. Poland also donated over 200 T-72M1/M1R tanks to Ukraine. As of 13 June, 2023 Ukraine has had 31 T-72M, 29 T-72B, seven T-72AMT, and 13 T-72AV visually confirmed destroyed. ### Combat history * 1980–1988: Iran–Iraq War (Iraq) * 1982: Lebanon (Syria) * 1982: 1982 Ethiopian-Somali Border War (Ethiopia) * 1987–1990: Sri Lankan Civil War (India) * 1988–1994: First Nagorno-Karabakh War (Armenia and Azerbaijan) * 1988–1993: Georgian Civil War * 1992–1997: Civil war in Tajikistan (Russia, Tajikistan) * 1990–1991: First Persian Gulf War (Iraq, Kuwait) * 1990–2002: Sierra Leone Civil War (Executive Outcomes) * 1991–2001: Yugoslav Wars (Yugoslavia) + 1991: Ten-Day War (Yugoslavia) + 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence (Yugoslavia, Krajina Serbs, Croatia and Republika Srpska) + 1998: Kosovo (Yugoslavia) + 2001: 2001 Macedonia conflict (Macedonia) * 1991–2002: Algerian Civil War (Algeria) * 1994: Rwanda Civil War (Uganda) * 1994–1996: First Chechen War (Russia, Chechnya (limited)) First known case of using tank-launched missiles, which effectively destroy targets at 4 km range. * 1999–2009: Second Chechen War (Russia) * 2003: Invasion of Iraq (Iraq) * 2008: War in South Ossetia (Russia and Georgia) * 2011–Present: Syrian Civil War Government forces using T-72 tanks. Opposition forces using captured government's tanks * 2011: 2011 Libyan civil war (Gaddafi Government and Anti-Gaddafi forces) * 2013: South Sudanese conflict * 2014–Present: Russo-Ukrainian War (Ukraine, Russia, pro-Russian separatists) + 2014: 2014 Pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine (Ukraine, pro-Russian separatists) + 2014: Annexation of Crimea (Russia) + 2014–Present: War in Donbas + 2022–Present: 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine * 2014–2017: Iraqi Civil War (2014-2017) (Iraq) * 2015: Boko Haram insurgency (Nigerian Armed Forces) * 2016: 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes (Armenia, Azerbaijan) * 2020: Second Nagorno-Karabakh war (Armenia, Azerbaijan) * 2020–2021: 2020–2021 China–India skirmishes (India) * 2020–2022: Tigray War (Ethiopia, Tigray Defense Forces) * 2022: 2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashes (Tajikistan) * 2023: 2023 Sudan conflict (Sudanese government forces) See also -------- * 125 mm smoothbore ammunition * AT-8 Songster * Tank machine gun type 95/98 Sources ------- * Barabanov, M.S.; Lavrov, A.V.; Tseluiko, V.A. (2010), Pukhov, R.N. (ed.), "The Tanks of August" (PDF), *Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies*, Moscow, ISBN 978-5-9902320-1-3, archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-28, retrieved 2017-11-01 * Hunnicutt, R. P. (1984), *Patton: A History of the American Main Battle Tank*, Presidio Press, ISBN 0-89141-230-1 * Karpenko, A.V. (1996), *Obozrenie otechestvennoĭ bronetankovoĭ tekhniki, 1905–1995 gg.* (in Russian), Nevskij Bastion, OCLC 41871991 * Leizin, Uri (2004), *Two myths of one battle: Syrian T-72's in 1982 Lebanon war* (in Russian), archived from the original on 2008-09-15 * Sewell, Stephen "Cookie" (July–August 1998). "Why Three Tanks" (PDF). *Armor*. Vol. CVII, no. 4. Fort Knox, KY: U.S. Army Armor Center. pp. 21–29, 45. ISSN 0004-2420. Retrieved 2022-03-04. * Suvorov, Sergey (1993), *ТАНК Т-72 ВЧЕРА, СЕГОДНЯ, ЗАВТРА (Tank T-72 Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow)*, ТанкоМастер * Ustyantsev, Sergej Viktorovich; Kolmakov, Dmitrij Gennadevich (2004), *Boyeviye mashiny Uralvagonzavoda. Tank T-72 (Combat vehicles of Uralvagonzavod. T-72 tank)*, ISBN 5-98485-003-6 * Warford, James M. (July–August 1999). "Soviet-Russian Tank Turret Armor: The Cold War Shell-Game" (PDF). *ARMOR*. Vol. CIV, no. 4. Fort Knox, KY: US Army Armor Center. pp. 16–18. ISSN 0004-2420. Retrieved 2022-04-19. * Zaloga, Steven J (1993), *T-72 Main Battle Tank 1974–93*, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-85532-338-9 * Zaloga, Steven J (2009a), *M1 Abrams vs T-72 Ural: Operation Desert Storm 1991*, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1846034077 * Zaloga, Steven J (2009b), *T-80 Standard Tank*, Great Britain: Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84603-244-8 * Zaloga, Steven J (2015), *T-64 Battle Tank: The Cold War's Most Secret Tank*, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-47280-629-1

T-72

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-72

**Rajasthani** (Devanagari: राजस्थानी) refers to a group of Indo-Aryan languages and dialects spoken primarily in the state of Rajasthan and adjacent areas of Haryana, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh in India. There are also speakers in the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. The term *Rajasthani* is also used to refer to a literary language mostly based on Marwari, which is being promoted as a standard language for the state of Rajasthan. History ------- Rajasthani has a literary tradition going back approximately 1500 years. The Vasantgadh Inscription from modern day Sirohi that has been dated to the 7th century AD uses the term Rajasthaniaditya in reference to the official or maybe for a poet or a bhat who wrote in Rajasthani. The ancient astronomer and mathematician Brahmagupta of Bhinmal composed the *Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta*. In 779 AD, Udhyotan Suri wrote the *Kuvalaya Mala* partly in Prakrit and partly in Apabhraṃśa. Texts of this era display characteristic Gujarati features such as direct/oblique noun forms, post-positions, and auxiliary verbs. It had three genders as Gujarati does today. During the medieval period, the literary language split into Medieval Marwari and Gujarati. By around 1300 AD a fairly standardised form of this language emerged. While generally known as Old Gujarati, some scholars prefer the name of Old Western Rajasthani, based on the argument that Gujarati and Rajasthani were not distinct at the time. Also factoring into this preference was the belief that modern Rajasthani sporadically expressed a neuter gender, based on the incorrect conclusion that the [ũ] that came to be pronounced in some areas for masculine [o] after a nasal consonant was analogous to Gujarati's neuter [ũ]. A formal grammar of the precursor to this language was written by Jain monk and eminent scholar Hemachandra Suri in the reign of Solanki king Jayasimha Siddharaja. Maharana Kumbha wrote *Sangeet Raj*, a book on musicology and a treatise on Jai Deva’s Geet Govinda. Geographical distribution ------------------------- Most of the Rajasthani languages are chiefly spoken in the state of Rajasthan but are also spoken in Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. Rajasthani languages are also spoken in the Bahawalpur and Multan sectors of the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Tharparkar district of Sindh. It merges with Riasti and Saraiki in Bahawalpur and Multan areas, respectively. Many linguists (Shackle, 1976 and Gusain, 2000) agree that it shares many phonological (implosives), morphological (future tense marker and negation) and syntactic features with Riasti and Saraiki. A distribution of the geographical area can be found in 'Linguistic Survey of India' by George A. Grierson. Classification -------------- The Rajasthani languages belong to the Western Indo-Aryan language family. However, they are controversially conflated with the Hindi languages of the Central-Zone in the Indian national census, among other places. The main Rajasthani subgroups are: * Western Rajasthani group which includes- Marwari and its subdialects, Mewari, Wagdi, Bagri and Bhili * Eastern Rajasthani group or Dhundari which includes- Jaipuri, Hadoti, Malvi and Nimadi * Standard Rajasthani: the common lingua franca of Rajasthani people and is spoken by over 25 million people (2011) in different parts of Rajasthan. It has to be taken into consideration, however, that some speakers of Standard Rajasthani are conflated with Hindi speakers in the census. * Marwari: the most spoken Rajasthani language with approximately 8 million speakers situated in the historic Marwar region of western Rajasthan. * Malvi: approximately 5 million speakers in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. The dialects of Malvi are Ujjaini (Ujjain, Dhar, Indore, Dewas, Shajapur, Sehore districts), Rajawadi (Ratlam, Mandsaur, Neemuch districts), Umathwadi (Rajgarh district), and Sondhwadi (Jhalawar district). Ujjaini is the prestige dialect, and the language as a whole sometimes goes by that name.mixed dialect of malvi bhoyari speak in betul and chhindwada district. * Dhundhari: approximately 1.4 million speakers in the Dhundhar region of Rajasthan and the metropolitan nature of the district has led to Hindisation. * Harauti: approximately 3 million speakers in the Hadoti region of Rajasthan. * Mewari: approximately 5 million speakers in the Mewar region of Rajasthan * Lambadi,is one of the major dialect of Rajasthani language spoken by Banjaras of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh with the population about 4.5 Million people.Approximately about 2% in Karnataka,3.5% in Maharashtra and 8% in Andhra Pradesh speakers speaks Lambani as primary language.Lambani dialect speakers uses Devnagari script in Maharashtra, Kannada in Karnataka, Telugu in Telangana.Recently a new script was introduced by a government teacher from Raichur district of Karnataka which is also published in Public news. * Shekhawati: approximately 1 million speakers in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan. * Wagdi:approx 3.3million speakers, spoken mainly in southern region which include Dungarpur & Banswara districts also called Wagad region and it is counted under the Bhilodi non scheduled category * Bagri: approximately 1.4 million speakers in northern Rajasthan and North western and western Haryana. There are also few speakers situated in southern Punjab. * Nimadi: approximately 2.2 million speakers in the Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh. * Ahirani: approximately 1.9 million speakers in the Khandesh region of Maharashtra * Dhatki, is a major sub dialect of Marwari with approximately 2 million speakers in Barmer Jaisalmer and Umarkot Tharparkar region of Pakistan * Godwari, is a major sub dialect of Marwari with approximately 1.5-2 million speakers in Pali, Sirohidistricts of Rajasthan and Banaskantha district of Gujarat. * Bhili, is the language of the Bhil tribe living in southern Rajasthan, Gujrat and Madhya Pradesh. * Saharia, is the language of Saharia Adivasi's living in the Baran district of Rajasthan and surrounding areas. Official status --------------- India's National Academy of Letters, the Sahitya Akademi, and University Grants Commission recognize Rajasthani as a distinct language, and it is taught as such in both Jodhpur's Jai Narain Vyas University and Udaipur's Mohanlal Sukhadia University. The state Board of Secondary Education included Rajasthani in its course of studies, and it has been an optional subject since 1973. National recognition has lagged, however. In 2003, the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly passed a unanimous resolution to insert recognition of Rajasthani into the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. In May 2015, a senior member of the pressure group Rajasthani Bhasha Manyata Samiti said at a New Delhi press conference: "Twelve years have passed, but there has absolutely been no forward movement." All 25 Members of Parliament elected from Rajasthan state, as well as former Chief Minister, Vasundhara Raje Scindia, have also voiced support for official recognition of the language. Writing system -------------- In India, Rajasthani is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida which is written from left to right. Earlier, the Mahajani script, or Modiya, was used to write Rajasthani. The script is also called as Maru Gurjari in a few records. In Pakistan, where Rajasthani is considered a minor language, a variant of the Sindhi script is used to write Rajasthani dialects. Salient features ---------------- In common with most other Indo-Iranian languages, the basic sentence typology is subject–object–verb. On a lexical level, Rajasthani has perhaps a 50 to 65 percent overlap with Hindi, based on a comparison of a 210-word Swadesh list. Most pronouns and interrogative words differ from Hindi, but the language does have several regular correspondences with, and phonetic transformations from, Hindi. The /s/ in Hindi is often realized as /h/ in Rajasthani — for example, the word ‘gold’ is /sona/ (सोना) in Hindi and /hono/ (होनो) in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthani. Furthermore, there are a number of vowel substitutions, and the Hindi /l/ sound (ल) is often realized in Rajasthani as a retroflex lateral /ɭ/ (ळ). ### Phonology Rajasthani has 10 vowels and 31 consonants. The Rajasthani language Bagri has developed three lexical tones: low, mid and high. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Vowels| | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | i | | u | | ɪ | | ʊ | | Mid | e | ə | o | | ɛ | ɔ | | Open | | ɑ | | | Consonants| | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Retroflex | Post-alv./Palatal | Velar | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | m | n | ɳ | | | | | Plosive | ppʰ | bbʱ | t̪t̪ʰ | d̪d̪ʱ | ʈʈʰ | ɖɖʱ | | kkʰ | ɡɡʱ | | | Affricate | | | | tʃtʃʰ | dʒdʒʱ | | | | Fricative | | s | | ʃ | | ɦ | | Tap or Flap | | ɾ | ɽ | | | | | Approximant | ʋ | l | ɭ | j | | | | ### Morphology Rajasthani has two numbers and two genders with three cases. Postpositions are of two categories, inflexional and derivational. Derivational postpositions are mostly omitted in actual discourse. ### Syntax * Rajasthani belongs to the languages that mix three types of case marking systems: nominative – accusative: transitive (A) and intransitive (S) subjects have similar case marking, different from that of transitive object (O); absolutive-ergative (S and O have similar marking, different from A), tripartite (A, S and O have different case marking). There is a general tendency existing in the languages with split nominal systems: the split is usually conditioned by the referents of the core NPs, the probability of ergative marking increasing from left to right in the following nominal hierarchy: first person pronouns – second person pronouns – demonstratives and third person pronouns – proper nouns – common nouns (human – animate – inanimate). Rajasthani split case marking system partially follows this hierarchy:first and second person pronouns have similar A and S marking, the other pronouns and singular nouns are showing attrition of A/S opposition. * Agreement: 1. Rajasthani combines accusative/tripartite marking in nominal system with consistently ergative verbal concord: the verb agrees with both marked and unmarked O in number and gender (but not in person — contrast Braj). Another peculiar feature of Rajasthani is the split in verbal concord when the participial component of a predicate agrees with O-NP while the auxiliary verb might agree with A-NP. 2. Stative participle from transitive verbs may agree with the Agent. 3. Honorific agreement of feminine noun implies masculine plural form both in its modifiers and in the verb. * In Hindi and Punjabi only a few combinations of transitive verbs with their direct objects may form past participles modifying the Agent: one can say in Hindi:‘Hindī sīkhā ādmī’ – ‘a man who has learned Hindi’ or ‘sāṛī bādhī aurāt’ – ‘a woman in sari’, but \*‘kitāb paṛhā ādmī ‘a man who has read a book’ is impossible. Semantic features of verbs whose perfective participles may be used as modifiers are described in (Dashchenko 1987). Rajasthani seems to have less constrains on this usage, compare bad in Hindi but normal in Rajasthani. * Rajasthani has retained an important feature of ergative syntax lost by the other representatives of Modern Western New Indo-Aryan (NIA), namely, the free omission of Agent NP from the perfective transitive clause. * Rajasthani is the only Western NIA language where the reflexes of Old Indo-Aryan synthetic passive have penetrated into the perfective domain. * Rajasthani as well as the other NIA languages shows deviations from Baker’s 'mirror principle', that requires the strict pairing of morphological and syntactic operations (Baker 1988). The general rule is that the 'second causative' formation implies a mediator in the argument structure. However, some factors block addition of an extra agent into the causative construction. * In the typical Indo-Aryan relative-correlative construction the modifying clause is usually marked by a member of the "J" set of relative pronouns, adverbs and other words, while the correlative in the main clause is identical with the remote demonstrative (except in Sindhi and in Dakhini). Gujarati and Marathi frequently delete the preposed "J" element. In Rajasthani the relative pronoun or adverb may also be deleted from the subordinate clause but – as distinct from the neighbouring NIA – relative pronoun or adverb may be used instead of correlative. * Relative pronoun 'jakau' may be used not only in relative/correlative constructions, but also in complex sentences with "cause/effect" relations. Prominent linguists ------------------- Linguists and their work and year: [Note: Works concerned only with linguistics, not with literature] * Amitabh V. Dwivedi: Hadoti, 2015 * Anvita Abbi: Bagri, 1993 * Christopher Shackle: Bagri and Saraiki, 1976 * David Magier: Marwari, 1983 * George Abraham Grierson: Almost all the dialects of Rajasthani, 1920 * George Macalister: Dhundhari and Shekhawati, 1892 * Gopal Parihar: Bagri, 2004–present * Gulab Chand: Hadoti, 2018 * John D. Smith: Rajasthani, 1970–present * J. C. Sharma: Gade lohar, Bagri or Bhili, Gojri, 1970–present * Kali Charan Bahl: Rajasthani, 1971–1989 * Kan Singh Parihar: English, Sanskrit, Hindi, Marwari, Rajasthani, 1940 * K. C. Agrawal: Shekhawati, 1964 * L. P. Tessitori: Rajasthani and Marwari, 1914–16 * Lakhan Gusain: all the dialects of Rajasthani, 1990–present * Liudmila Khokhlova: Rajasthani and Marwari, 1990–present * Maxwell P Philips: Bhili, 2000–present. * Narottam Das Swami: Rajasthani and Marwari, 1960 * Peter E. Hook: Rajasthani and Marwari, 1986 * Ram Karan Asopa: Rajasthani and Marwari, 1890–1920 * Sita Ram Lalas: Rajasthani language, 1950–1970 * Saubhagya Singh Shekhawat Rajasthani, Rajasthani Shabd-Kosh part I Sanshodhan Parivardhan, 1945–present * Suniti Kumar Chatterjee: Rajasthani, 1948–49 * W.S. Allen: Harauti and Rajasthani, 1955–60 Works on Rajasthani grammar --------------------------- * Agrawal, K.C. 1964. Shekhawati boli ka varnatmak adhyayan. Lucknow: Lucknow University * Allen, W.S. 1957. Aspiration in the Harauti nominal. Oxford: Studies in Linguistics * Allen, W.S. 1957. Some phonological characteristics of Rajasthani. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 20:5–11 * Allen, W.S. 1960. Notes on the Rajasthani Verb. Indian Linguistics, 21:1–13 * Asopa, R.K. 1950. Marwari Vyakaran. Jaipur: Popular Prakashan * Bahl, K.C. 1972. On the present state of Modern Rajasthani Grammar. Jodhpur: Rajasthani Shodh Samsthan, Chaupasani (Rajasthani Prakirnak Prakashan Pushp, 5) * Bahl, K.C. 1980. aadhunik raajasthaani kaa sanracanaatamak vyaakaran . Jodhpur: Rajasthani Shodh Samsthan * Chand, Gulab. 2012. An Analysis of Sociolinguistic Variation & Style in Harauti. M.Phil Dissertation. Wardha: Mahatma Gandhi Antarashtriya Hindi University. * Chand, Gulab. and Kar, Somdev. 2017. Revival of Endangered Languages: A Case Study of Hadoti. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics (IJDL), Dravidian Linguistics Association, Vol. 46 No.2, 153-170, (ISSN No. 0378-2484). * Chand, Gulab. 2018. The Phonology of reduplication in Hadoti: An Optimality Theoretic Approach. PhD Thesis. Ropar: IIT Ropar * Chand, Gulab. and Kar, Somdev. 2020. REDUPLICATION INITIATED THROUGH DISCOURSE MARKERS: A CASE OF HADOTI." DIALECTOLOGIA, No. 25, 113-136, University of Barcelona, Spain. (ISSN: 2013-2247). * Chand, Gulab; Kar, Somdev (2017). "Sonority and Reduplication in Hadoti". *Journal of Universal Language*. Sejong University Language Research Institute. **18** (2): 1–37. doi:10.22425/jul.2017.18.2.1. ISSN 1598-6381. * Chatterji, S.K. 1948. Rajasthani Bhasha. Udaipur: Rajasthan Vidayapith * Grierson, George A. (1908). *Linguistic Survey of India*. Vol. IX Indo-Aryan family. Central group, Part 2, *Specimens of the Rājasthāni and Gujarāti*. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India. * Dwivedi, A.V. 2012. A Descriptive Grammar of Hadoti. München: Lincom Europa * Gusain, Lakhan. 1994. Reflexives in Bagri. M.Phil. dissertation. New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University * Gusain, Lakhan. 1999. A Descriptive Grammar of Bagri. Ph.D. dissertation. New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru University * Gusain, Lakhan. 2000a. Limitations of Literacy in Bagri. Nicholas Ostler & Blair Rudes (eds.). Endangered Languages and Literacy. Proceedings of the Fourth FEL Conference. University of North Carolina, Charlotte, 21–24 September 2000 * Gusain, Lakhan. 2000b. Bagri. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 384) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2001. Shekhawati. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 385) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2002. Endangered Language: A Case Study of Sansiboli. M.S. Thirumalai(ed.). Language in India, Vol. 2:9 * Gusain, Lakhan. 2003. Mewati. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 386) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2004. Marwari. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 427) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2005. Mewari. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 431) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2006. Dhundhari. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 435) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2007. Harauti. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 434) * Gusain, Lakhan. 2008. Wagri. München: Lincom Europa (Languages of the World/Materials, 437) * Hook, Peter and Man Singh Mohabbat Singh Chauhan. 1986. Grammatical Capture in Rajasthani. Scott DeLancey and Russell Tomlin, (eds.), Proceedings of the Second Annual Meeting of the Pacific Linguistics Conference. Eugene: Deptt. of Linguistics. 203-20 * Hook, Peter and Man Singh Mohabbat Singh Chauhan.1988. The Perfective Adverb in Bhitrauti. Word 39:177-86 * Hook, Peter and Man Singh Mohabbat Singh Chauhan. 1988. On the Functions and Origin of the Extended Verb in Southern Rajasthani. Gave.sa.naa 51:39–57 * Khokhlova, Liudmila Viktorovna. in press. "Infringement of Morphological and Syntactic Operations' Pairing in "Second Causative" Formation (Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, Gujarati, Rajasthani)." Indian Linguistics 64. * Khokhlova, Liudmila. 2001 Ergativity Attrition in the history of western New Indo-Aryan Languages (Panjabi, Gujarati, Rajasthani). In The Yearbook of South Asian Languages and Linguistics. Tokyo Symposium on South Asian Languages. Contact, Convergence and Typology. Edpp.158–184, ed. by P. Bhaskararao & K.V. Subbarao. New Delhi-London: Sage Publication * Lalas, S.R. 1962–78. Rajasthani Sabad Kol. 9 Volumes. Jodhpur: Rajasthani Shodh Samsthan * Macalister, George. 1898. A Dictionary of the Dialects Spoken in the State of Jeypore. 1st edition. Allahabad: Allahabad Mission Press * Magier, David S. 1983. Topics in the Grammar of Marwari. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California * Magier, David S. 1984. Transitivity and valence: Some lexical processes in Marwari. Berkeley Linguistic Society 10 * Magier, David S. 1985. Case and Transitivity in Marwari. Arlene R.K. Zide, David Magier & Eric Schiller (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference on Participant Roles: South Asia and Adjacent Areas. An Ancillary Meeting of the CLS Regional Meeting, 25 April 1984, University of Chicago. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Linguistics Club. 149-59 * Miltner, V. 1964. Old Gujarati, Middle Gujarati, and Middle Rajasthani sentence structure. Bharatiya Vidya 24:9–31 * Phillips, Maxwell P (2012) Dialect Continuum in the Bhil Tribal Belt: Grammatical Aspects. PhD Thesis, SOAS, University of London * Sakaria, B. & B. Sakaria. 1977. Rajasthani-Hindi Shabda-Kosh. Jaipur: Panchsheel Prakashan * Shackle, Christopher (1976). The Saraiki Language of Central Pakistan: A Reference Grammar. London: School of Oriental and African Studies. * Shackle, Christopher (1977). "Saraiki: A Language Movement in Pakistan". Modern Asian Studies 11 (3): 279–403. * Smith, J.D. 1975. An Introduction to the Language of the Historical Documents from Rajasthan. Modern Asian Studies 9.4:433-64 * Swami, N.D. 1960. Sankshipta Rajasthani Vyakaran. Bikaner: Rajasthani Research Institute * Swami, N.D. 1975. Rajasthani Vyakaran. Bikaner: Navyug * Tessitori, L.P. 1914-16. Notes on the Grammar of Old Western Rajasthani. Indian Antiquary:43-5 See also -------- * List of Rajasthani Poets * Rajasthani literature * Rajasthani people

Rajasthani languages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languages

**Mount Rainier** (/reɪˈnɪər/ *ray-NEER*), also known as **Tahoma**, is a large active stratovolcano in the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest in the United States. The mountain is located in Mount Rainier National Park about 59 miles (95 km) south-southeast of Seattle. With a summit elevation of 14,417 ft (4,394 m), it is the highest mountain in the U.S. state of Washington and the Cascade Range, the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States, and the tallest in the Cascade Volcanic Arc. Due to its high probability of an eruption in the near future, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, and it is on the Decade Volcano list. The large amount of glacial ice means that Mount Rainier could produce massive lahars that could threaten the entire Puyallup River valley. According to the United States Geological Survey, "about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones." Between 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier. Approximately 84 people died in mountaineering accidents on Mount Rainier from 1947 to 2018. Name ---- The diverse Indigenous peoples who have lived near Mount Rainier for millennia have many names for the mountain in their various languages. Lushootseed speakers have several names for Mount Rainier, including *xʷaq̓ʷ* and *təqʷubəʔ*. *xʷaq̓ʷ* means "sky wiper" or "one who touches the sky" in English. The word *təqʷubəʔ* means "snow-covered mountain". *təqʷubəʔ* has been anglicized in many ways, including 'Tacoma', 'Tahoma', and 'Tacobet'. Sahaptin speakers call the mountain *Taxúma*. Another anglicized name is Pooskaus. George Vancouver named Mount Rainier in honor of his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier. The map of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804–1806 refers to it as "Mt. Regniere." Although Rainier had been considered the official name of the mountain, Theodore Winthrop referred to the mountain as "Tacoma" in his posthumously published 1862 travel book *The Canoe and the Saddle*. For a time, both names were used interchangeably, although residents of the nearby city of Tacoma preferred Mount Tacoma. In 1890, the United States Board on Geographic Names declared that the mountain would be known as Rainier. Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to Tacoma and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924. After the 2015 restoration of the original name Denali from Mount McKinley in Alaska, debate over Mount Rainier's name intensified. Geographical setting -------------------- Mount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Tacoma and Seattle. Mount Rainier is ranked third of the 128 ultra-prominent mountain peaks of the United States. Mount Rainier has a topographic prominence of 13,210 ft (4,026 m), which is greater than that of K2, the world's second-tallest mountain, at 13,189 ft (4,020 m). On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as "the Mountain". On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away as Corvallis, Oregon (at Marys Peak), and Victoria, British Columbia. With 26 major glaciers and 36 sq mi (93 km2) of permanent snowfields and glaciers, Mount Rainier is the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by two volcanic craters, each more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater. Geothermal heat from the volcano keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanic glacier cave network within the ice-filled craters, with nearly 2 mi (3.2 km) of passages. A small crater lake about 130 by 30 ft (39.6 by 9.1 m) in size and 16 ft (5 m) deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14,203 ft (4,329 m), occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft (30 m) of ice and is accessible only via the caves. The Carbon, Puyallup, Mowich, Nisqually, and Cowlitz Rivers begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of the White River are Winthrop, Emmons, and Fryingpan Glaciers. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges into Commencement Bay at Tacoma; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of Lacey; and the Cowlitz joins the Columbia River between Kelso and Longview. A panorama of the south face of Mount Rainier ### Subsidiary peaks The broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest is called the Columbia Crest. The second highest summit is Point Success, 14,158 ft (4,315 m), at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has a topographic prominence of about 138 ft (42 m), so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three summits is Liberty Cap, 14,112 ft (4,301 m), at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramatic Willis Wall. Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft (150 m), and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of 400 ft (122 m) is commonly used in Washington state. High on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as Little Tahoma Peak, 11,138 ft (3,395 m), an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of 858 ft (262 m), and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mount Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington. Geology ------- Mount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc that consists of lava flows, debris flows, and pyroclastic ejecta and flows. Its early volcanic deposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of the Lily Formation (about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a "proto-Rainier" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone. The present cone is more than 500,000 years old. The volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly of andesite. Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16,000 ft (4,900 m) before a major debris avalanche and the resulting Osceola Mudflow approximately 5,000 years ago. In the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars (volcanic mudflows), due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way to Puget Sound, a distance of more than 30 mi (48 km). Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle. This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1,600 ft (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 ft (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, the Electron Mudflow occurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow. After the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava and tephra built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11 Holocene tephra layers have been found. Soils on Mount Rainier are mostly gravelly ashy sandy loams developed from colluvium or glacial till mixed with volcanic tephra. Under forest cover their profiles usually have the banded appearance of a classic podzol but the E horizon is darker than usual. Under meadows a thick dark A horizon usually forms the topsoil. ### Modern activity and threat The most recent recorded volcanic eruption was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882, and 1894 as well. Seismic monitors have been placed in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity. An eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and an eruption would also cause trouble from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to San Francisco, California because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere. Mount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire. This includes mountains and calderas like Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak in California, Crater Lake, Three Sisters, and Mount Hood in Oregon, Mount St. Helens, Mount Adams, Glacier Peak, and Mount Baker in Washington, and Mount Cayley, Mount Garibaldi, Silverthrone Caldera, and Mount Meager in British Columbia. Many of the above are dormant, but could return to activity, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier. Of these, only two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of sub-plinian eruptions or higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to collapse, and Mount Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, produced the largest eruption in the continental United States when it erupted in 1980. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in the Cascade Range at 2–3 per century. Mount Rainier is listed as a Decade Volcano, or one of the 16 volcanoes with the greatest likelihood of causing loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes. If Mount Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the volcano compared to Mount St. Helens, the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the fact that Mount Rainier is almost twice the size of St. Helens. Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property, as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier. Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the 5000-year-old Osceola Mudflow would destroy Enumclaw, Orting, Kent, Auburn, Puyallup, Sumner and all of Renton. Such a mudflow might also reach down the Duwamish estuary and destroy parts of downtown Seattle, and cause tsunamis in Puget Sound and Lake Washington. Rainier is also capable of producing pyroclastic flows and expelling lava. According to K. Scott, a scientist with the USGS: > A home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire... For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable flood insurance. > > > The volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in Pierce County. The more populous King County is also in the lahar area, but has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard. More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the Armero tragedy. ### Seismic background Typically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of 13,000 feet (4 km) below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids. Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier. Further swarms were observed in 2011 and 2021. ### Glaciers Glaciers are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation. Together with perennial snow patches, the 29 named glacial features cover about 30.41 square miles (78.8 km2) of the mountain's surface in 2015 and have an estimated volume of about 0.69 cubic miles (2.9 km3). Glaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by deformation, the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970, Nisqually Glacier was measured moving as fast as 29 inches (74 cm) per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base. The size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past. For example, during the last ice age, from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin. Between the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the Little Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft (200 to 240 m) downvalley from the site of the Glacier Bridge, Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers merged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus of Emmons Glacier reached within 1.2 mi (1.9 km) of the White River Campground. Retreat of the Little Ice Age glaciers was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. The Williwakas Glacier was noted as extinct during the 1930s. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The glaciers and snowfields of Mount Rainier also lost volume during this time, except for the Frying Pan and Emmons glaciers on the east flank and the small near-peak snowfields; the greatest volume loss was concentrated from ~1750 m (north) to ~2250 m (south) elevation. The largest single volume loss is from the Carbon Glacier, although it is to the north, due to its huge area at <2000 m elevation. The Carbon, Cowlitz, Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s. Since the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed. In a study using data from 2021, National Park Service scientisits removed Stevens Glacier from its inventory of Mount Rainier glaciers due to its dwindling size and lack of evidence that it was moving. Using satellite data in 2022, researchers at Nichols College determined that both Pyramid and Van Trump glaciers had also ceased to exist with only fragments of ice remaining. A siginificant decline had been noted between 2015 and 2022. The glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows through glacial outburst floods not associated with an eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August, 2015. Human history ------------- Artist rendering of Mount Tacoma from Commencement Bay, 1888.Viewed from the northwest (Tacoma), Liberty Cap is the apparent summit with Mowich Face below. At the time of European contact, the river valleys and other areas near the mountain were inhabited by Native Americans who hunted and gathered animals and plants in Mount Rainier's forests and high elevation meadows. Modern descendants of these peoples are represented by members of modern tribes that surround the mountain; including the Nisqually Indian Tribe, the Cowlitz Indian Tribe, the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, the Puyallup Tribe of Indians, and the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, among others in the area. The archaeological record of human use of the mountain dates to over 8,500 years before present (BP). Sites related to seasonal use of Mount Rainier and its landscapes are reflected in chipped stone tool remains and settings suggesting functionally varied uses including task-specific sites, rockshelters, travel stops, and long-term base camps. Their distribution on the mountain suggest primary use of subalpine meadows and low alpine habitats that provided relatively high resource abundance during the short summer season. Evidence suggests that there existed a tradition of Native Americans setting fire to areas of the region each year as a way to encourage meadow development. The first Europeans to reach the Pacific Northwest were the Spanish who arrived by sea in 1774 led by Juan Perez. The next year, under the direction of Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, a boat was sent ashore to Destruction island. Upon landing, the crew was attacked and killed by the local indigenous population. Although attempts were made in 1792 to create a permanent Spanish settlement at Neah Bay, the project was unsuccessful and by 1795, Spain had given up on the region. Although not documented anywhere, it is likely that Spanish sailors first observed Mount Rainier while sailing in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Upon reaching what would become California in 1579, Sir Francis Drake claimed the entire northwest coast of North America for England. This claim to the coast of the Pacific Northwest was not further explored until in 1778 Captain James Cook sailed the coastline of modern day Washington and British Columbia, stimulating a subsequent increase in English ships coming to the area as part of the fur trade. On July 22, 1793, Sir Alexander Mackenzie of the British Northwest Fur Company reached the Pacific Ocean via overland route that crossed the Rocky Mountains. The first American, John Ledyard, reached the region aboard Captain Cook's ship in 1778. By 1787, six Americans from Boston formed a company which began trading along the northwest coast. The Lewis and Clark overland expedition reached the northwest coast in 1805 and observed Mount Rainier for the first time in the Spring of 1806. The first documented sighting of Mt. Rainier by a European was by the crew of Captain George Vancouver on 7 May 1792 during the Vancouver Expedition (1790-1795). On the 8 May 1792, Vancouver gave the name of Mt. Rainier to the observed peak in homage to Vancouver's friend Rear Admiral Peter Rainier. At the outset of the 19th century, the region where Mt. Rainier was located was claimed by Spain, the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain, with most claims being based on instances of early naval exploration of the region's coast. Spain relinquished all remaining claims to the Pacific Northwest that had not already been handed over with the Louisiana Purchase in 1819 with the purchase and cession of Florida by the United States. In 1824, Russia ceded all land claims south of parallel 54°40′ north to the United States as part of the Russo-American Treaty. In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty, agreeing upon the joint settlement and occupation of the Oregon country which consisted of the territory north of 42°N latitude, south of 54°40′N latitude, and west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. The 1846 Oregon Treaty between the United States and United Kingdom set new borders between British and American territory along today's approximate borders. In 1853, the land between the Columbia river and the border with British Canada was organized into the Washington Territory, which was the administrative status of the region at the time of the first successful ascent of Mount Rainier. In 1833, Dr. William Fraser Tolmie explored the area looking for medicinal plants. Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump received a hero's welcome in the streets of Olympia after their successful summit climb in 1870. The first female ascent was made in 1890 by Fay Fuller, accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates. Descending from the summit in 1883, James Longmire discovered a mineral spring; this ultimately led to his establishment of a spa and hotel, drawing other visitors to the area to seek the benefits of the spring. Later, the headquarters of the national park would be established at Longmire, until flooding caused them to be relocated to Ashford. The area also became the site of features like a museum, a post office, and a gas station, with additions like a library and a gift shop soon following; many of these buildings were ultimately nominated to the national historic register of historic places. Longmire remains the second most popular place in the park. In 1924, a publication from the park described the area: > "A feature at Longmire Springs of great interest to everyone is the group of mineral springs in the little flat to the west of National Park Inn. There are some forty distinct springs, a half dozen of which are easily reached from the road. An analysis of the waters show that they all contain about the smae [sic] mineral salts but in slightly differing proportions. All the water is highly carbonated and would be classed as extremely "hard". Certain springs contain larger amounts of soda, iron and sulphur, giving them a distinct taste and color." > > John Muir climbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of the Pacific Forest Reserve in order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber and watersheds. Citing the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifth national park. Congress dedicated the new park "for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" and "... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition." On 24 June 1947, Kenneth Arnold reported seeing a formation of nine unidentified flying objects over Mount Rainier. His description led to the term "flying saucers". In 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System to assist in the emergency evacuation of the Puyallup River valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by the Pierce County Department of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only 37 mi (60 km) west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi (43 and 32 km) away, respectively. Mount Rainier appears on four distinct United States postage stamp issues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps, and was also shown on a souvenir sheet issued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted by Postmaster General James A. Farley as special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, "Farley's Follies" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is imperforate. Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available. The Washington state quarter, which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and a salmon. Climbing -------- Mountain climbing on Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of Alaska. Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year, about 90% via routes from Camp Muir on the southeast flank, and most of the rest ascend Emmons Glacier via Camp Schurman on the northeast. Climbing teams require experience in glacier travel, self-rescue, and wilderness travel. All climbers who plan to climb above the high camps, Camp Muir and Camp Schurman, are required to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb. Additionally, solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the Superintendent before attempting to climb. ### Climbing routes All climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary widely between climbing routes. Routes are graded in NCCS Alpine Climbing format. The normal route to the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route, YDS grade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently established Camp Muir, it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term "cleaver" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a "disappointment" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit. An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions. The Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Camp Schurman is equipped with a solar toilet and a ranger hut. The Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. It runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier. First climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935, it is listed as one of the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America by Steve Roper and Allen Steck. This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on the mountain, but approximately 25% of its deaths. ### Dangers and accidents About two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia. These incidents are often associated with exposure to very high altitude, fatigue, dehydration, and/or poor weather. 58 deaths on Mount Rainier have been reported from 1981 to 2010. Approximately 7 percent of mountaineering deaths and 6 percent of mountaineering accidents in the United States are attributed to Mount Rainier. The first known climbing death on Mount Rainier was Edgar McClure, a professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon, on July 27, 1897. During the descent in darkness, McClure stepped over the edge of the rock and slid to his death on a rocky outcrop. The spot is now known as McClure Rock. Willi Unsoeld, who reached the summit of Mount Everest in 1963, was killed, along with an Evergreen State College student, in an avalanche on Mount Rainier in 1979. He had climbed the mountain over 200 times. The worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when ten clients and a guide died in an avalanche/ice fall on the Ingraham Glacier. This was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier. In one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—were killed on May 31, 2014, after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers, and officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9,500 ft (2,900 m), possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown. The bodies of three of the client climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth client climber and two guides were never found. Outdoor recreation ------------------ In addition to climbing, hiking, backcountry skiing, photography, and camping are popular activities in the park. Hiking trails, including the Wonderland Trail—a 93-mile (150 km) circumnavigation of the peak, provide access to the backcountry. Popular for winter sports include snowshoeing and cross-country skiing. Climate ------- The summit of Mount Rainier has an ice cap climate (Köppen climate classification: **EF**) | Climate data for Mount Rainier Summit, 1991–2020 normals | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °F (°C) | 9.2(−12.7) | 8.4(−13.1) | 9.1(−12.7) | 12.9(−10.6) | 21.7(−5.7) | 28.3(−2.1) | 38.2(3.4) | 38.5(3.6) | 34.0(1.1) | 24.4(−4.2) | 12.7(−10.7) | 8.2(−13.2) | 20.5(−6.4) | | Daily mean °F (°C) | 3.1(−16.1) | 0.9(−17.3) | 0.7(−17.4) | 3.4(−15.9) | 11.2(−11.6) | 17.1(−8.3) | 25.7(−3.5) | 26.2(−3.2) | 22.4(−5.3) | 14.7(−9.6) | 6.1(−14.4) | 2.4(−16.4) | 11.2(−11.6) | | Average low °F (°C) | −3.0(−19.4) | −6.5(−21.4) | −7.8(−22.1) | −6.1(−21.2) | 0.7(−17.4) | 6.0(−14.4) | 13.2(−10.4) | 13.9(−10.1) | 10.8(−11.8) | 5.1(−14.9) | −0.4(−18.0) | −3.4(−19.7) | 1.9(−16.7) | | Average precipitation inches (mm) | 14.09(358) | 11.49(292) | 11.38(289) | 6.73(171) | 3.62(92) | 3.08(78) | 1.13(29) | 1.30(33) | 3.01(76) | 7.61(193) | 12.89(327) | 13.60(345) | 89.93(2,284) | | Average dew point °F (°C) | −4.8(−20.4) | −8.7(−22.6) | −9.0(−22.8) | −7.6(−22.0) | −2.0(−18.9) | 3.4(−15.9) | 8.1(−13.3) | 7.9(−13.4) | 5.3(−14.8) | 1.8(−16.8) | −4.0(−20.0) | −6.0(−21.1) | −1.3(−18.5) | | Source: PRISM Climate Group | | Climate data for Camp Muir, Washington (10,110 ft), (2014–2022 normals and extremes) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °F (°C) | 47.9(8.8) | 48.5(9.2) | 48.0(8.9) | 60.1(15.6) | 53.9(12.2) | 66.5(19.2) | 66.8(19.3) | 68.6(20.3) | 64.3(17.9) | 57.0(13.9) | 51.3(10.7) | 47.7(8.7) | 68.6(20.3) | | Average high °F (°C) | 23.2(−4.9) | 22.0(−5.6) | 22.8(−5.1) | 26.9(−2.8) | 35.1(1.7) | 40.5(4.7) | 48.0(8.9) | 50.0(10.0) | 42.1(5.6) | 34.8(1.6) | 26.2(−3.2) | 21.1(−6.1) | 32.7(0.4) | | Daily mean °F (°C) | 17.7(−7.9) | 15.3(−9.3) | 16.4(−8.7) | 20.0(−6.7) | 28.4(−2.0) | 34.8(1.6) | 42.8(6.0) | 44.4(6.9) | 36.7(2.6) | 29.2(−1.6) | 20.5(−6.4) | 15.1(−9.4) | 26.8(−2.9) | | Average low °F (°C) | 12.6(−10.8) | 9.0(−12.8) | 10.8(−11.8) | 14.3(−9.8) | 23.1(−4.9) | 29.6(−1.3) | 38.5(3.6) | 39.7(4.3) | 31.9(−0.1) | 23.8(−4.6) | 14.8(−9.6) | 9.5(−12.5) | 21.5(−5.8) | | Record low °F (°C) | −11.2(−24.0) | −11.6(−24.2) | −4.3(−20.2) | −6.2(−21.2) | 0.7(−17.4) | 4.0(−15.6) | 19.3(−7.1) | 23.8(−4.6) | 7.4(−13.7) | 0.5(−17.5) | −3.8(−19.9) | −14.4(−25.8) | −14.4(−25.8) | | Average relative humidity (%) | 72.2 | 69.7 | 69.3 | 63.5 | 63.2 | 54.4 | 42.5 | 43.0 | 54.2 | 62.3 | 71.5 | 72.5 | 61.5 | | Source: NWAC | Ecology ------- Mount Rainier's protected status as a national park protects its primeval Cascade ecosystem, providing a stable habitat for many species in the region, including endemic flora and fauna that are unique to the area, such as the Cascade red fox and Mount Rainier lousewort. The ecosystem on the mountain is very diverse, owing to the climate found at different elevations. Scientists track the distinct species found in the forest zone, the subalpine zone, and the alpine zone. They have discovered more than one thousand species of plants and fungi. The mountain is also home to 65 species of mammals, 5 reptile, 182 bird, 14 amphibians, and 14 of native fish, in addition to an innumerable amount of invertebrates. ### Flora Mount Rainier has regularly been described as one of the best places in the world to view wildflowers. In the subalpine region of the mountain, the snow often stays on the ground until summer begins, limiting plants to a much shorter growing season. This produces dramatic blooms in areas like Paradise. In 1924, the flowers were described by naturalist Floyd W. Schmoe: > "Mount Rainier National Park is perhaps better known the world over for these wonderful flowers than for any one feature. The mountains, the glaciers, the cascading streams and the forests may be equalled if one looks far away enough, but no park has been so favored in the way of wild flowers." > > Forests on the mountain span from as young as 100 years old to sections of old growth forest that are calculated to be 1000 years or more in age. The lower elevation consists mainly of western red-cedar, Douglas fir, and western hemlock. Pacific silver fir, western white pine, Alaska yellow cedar, and noble fir are found further up the mountain. In the alpine level, Alaskan yellow cedar, subalpine fir, and mountain hemlock grow. ### Fauna The mountain supports a wide variety of animal life, including several species that are protected on the state or federal level, like the Northern Spotted Owl. Efforts are also being made to reintroduce native species that had locally been hunted to extinction, like the Pacific fisher. There are sixty-five types of mammals living on the mountain, including cougars, mountain goats, marmots, and elk. Common reptiles and amphibians include garter snakes, frogs, and salamanders. There are many types of birds found throughout the different elevations on the mountain, but while some live there all year, many are migratory. Salmon and trout species use the rivers formed by the glaciers, and though the lakes stopped being stocked in 1972, thirty lakes still have reproducing populations. See also -------- * Mount Rainier National Park * Mount Rainier Wilderness * Mount Rainier Forest Reserve * Bibliography of Mount Rainier National Park ### University of Washington libraries and digital collections * Lawrence Denny Lindsley Photographs, Landscape and nature photography of Lawrence Denny Lindsley, including photographs of scenes around Mount Rainier. * The Mountaineers Collection, Photographic albums and text documenting the Mountaineers official annual outings undertaken by club members from 1907–1951, includes 3 Mt. Rainier albums (ca. 1912, 1919, 1924). * Henry M. Sarvant Photographs, photographs by Henry Mason Sarvant depicting his climbing expeditions to Mt. Rainier and scenes of the vicinity from 1892–1912. * Alvin H. Waite Photographs Photographs of Mt. Rainier by Alvin H. Waite, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Mount Rainier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Rainier

The **Alawites** (Arabic: علوية, romanized: *ʿAlawīyah*), or pejoratively **Nusayris** (نصيرية, *Nuṣayrīyah*), are an Arab ethnoreligious group that live primarily in the Levant and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that originated from Shia Islam. The Alawites venerate Ali ibn Abi Talib, revered as the first Imam in the Twelver school, as the physical manifestation of God. The group is believed to have been founded by Ibn Nusayr during the 9th century. Ibn Nusayr was a disciple of the tenth Twelver Imam, Ali al-Hadi and of the eleventh Twelver Imam, Hasan al-Askari. For this reason, Alawites are also called *Nusayris*. Surveys suggest Alawites represent an important portion of the Syrian population and are a significant minority in the Hatay Province of Turkey and northern Lebanon. There is also a population living in the village of Ghajar in the Golan Heights. Alawites form the dominant religious group on the Syrian coast and towns near the coast, which are also inhabited by Sunnis, Christians, and Ismailis. They are often confused with the Alevis, a distinct religious sect in Turkey. Alawites identify as a separate ethnoreligious group. The Quran is only one of their holy books and texts, and their interpretation thereof has very little in common with the Shia Muslim interpretation but is in accordance with the early Batiniyya and other *ghulat* sects. Alawite theology and rituals break from mainstream Shia Islam in several important ways. For instance, various Nusayrite rituals involve the drinking of wine and the sect doesnt prohibit the consumption of alcohol on its adherents. Finally, some of them believe in reincarnation, but it is not essential in their doctrine. Moreover, Alawite clergy and scholarship insist that their religion is also theologically distinct from Shi'ism. Alawites have historically kept their beliefs secret from outsiders and non-initiated Alawites, so rumours about them have arisen. Arabic accounts of their beliefs tend to be partisan (either positively or negatively). However, since the early 2000s, Western scholarship on the Alawite religion has made significant advances. At the core of Alawite creed is the belief in a divine Trinity, comprising three aspects of the one God. The aspects of the Trinity are *Mana* (meaning), *Ism* (Name) and *Bab* (Door). Alawi beliefs hold that these emanations underwent re-incarnation cyclically seven times in human form throughout history. According to Alawites, the seventh incarnation of the trinity consists of Ali, Muhammad and Salman al-Farisi. The establishment of the French Mandate of Syria in 1920 marked a turning point in Alawi history. Until then, the Alawite community had commonly self-identified as "Nusayris", to emphasize their connections to Ibn Nusayr. The French administration prescribed the label "Alawite" to categorise the sect alongside Shiism in official documents. It gave the French the power to recruit Syrian civilians into their armed forces for an indefinite period and created exclusive areas for minorities, including the Alawite State. The Alawite State was later dismantled, but the Alawites continued to be a significant part of the Syrian Armed Forces. Since Hafez al-Assad took power through the 1970 Corrective Movement, the government has been dominated by a political elite led by the Alawite al-Assad family. During the Islamist uprising in Syria in the 1970s and 1980s, the establishment came under pressure. Even greater pressure has resulted from the Syrian Civil War. Etymology --------- In older sources, Alawis are often called "Ansaris". According to Samuel Lyde, who lived among the Alawites during the mid-19th century, this was a term they used among themselves. Other sources indicate that "Ansari" is simply a Western error in the transliteration of "Nusayri". Alawites historically self-identified as Nusayrites, after their religious founder Ibn Nusayr al-Numayri. However, the term "Nusayri" had fallen out of currency by the 1920s, as a movement led by intellectuals within the community during the French Mandate sought to replace it with the modern term "Alawi". They characterised the older name (which implied "a separate ethnic and religious identity") as an "invention of the sect's enemies", ostensibly favouring an emphasis on "connection with mainstream Islam"—particularly the Shia branch. The French also popularised the new term by officially categorising them as "Alawites". As such, "Nusayri" is now generally regarded as antiquated, and has even come to have insulting and abusive connotations. The term is frequently employed as hate speech by Sunni fundamentalists fighting against Bashar al-Assad's government in the Syrian civil war, who use its emphasis on Ibn Nusayr in order to insinuate that Alawi beliefs are "man-made" and not divinely inspired. Nekati Alkan argued in an article that the "Alawi" appellation was used in an 11th century Nusayri book and was not a 20th century invention. The following quote from the same article illustrates his point: > "As to the change from "Nuṣayrī" to "ʿAlawī": most studies agree that the term "ʿAlawī" was not used until after WWI and probably coined and circulated by Muḥammad Amīn Ghālib al-Ṭawīl, an Ottoman official and writer of the famous *Taʾrīkh al-ʿAlawiyyīn* (1924). In actual fact, the name 'Alawī' appears as early as in an 11th century Nuṣayrī tract as one the names of the believer (…). Moreover, the term 'Alawī' was already used at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1903 the Belgian-born Jesuit and Orientalist Henri Lammens (d. 1937) visited a certain Ḥaydarī-Nuṣayrī sheikh Abdullah in a village near Antakya and mentions that the latter preferred the name 'Alawī' for his people. Lastly, it is interesting to note that in the above-mentioned petitions of 1892 and 1909 the Nuṣayrīs called themselves the 'Arab Alawī people' (ʿArab ʿAlevī ṭāʾifesi) 'our ʿAlawī Nuṣayrī people' (ṭāʾifatunā al-Nuṣayriyya al-ʿAlawiyya) or 'signed with Alawī people' (ʿAlevī ṭāʾifesi imżāsıyla). This early self-designation is, in my opinion, of triple importance. Firstly, it shows that the word 'Alawī' was always used by these people, as ʿAlawī authors emphasize; secondly, it hints at the reformation of the Nuṣayrīs, launched by some of their sheikhs in the 19th century and their attempt to be accepted as part of Islam; and thirdly, it challenges the claims that the change of the identity and name from 'Nuṣayrī' to 'ʿAlawī' took place around 1920, in the beginning of the French mandate in Syria (1919–1938)." > > The Alawites are distinct from the *Alevi* religious sect in Turkey, although the terms share a common etymology and pronunciation. Genealogical origin theories ---------------------------- The origin of the genetics of Alawites is disputed. Local folklore suggests that they are descendants of the followers of the eleventh Imam, Hasan al-Askari (d. 873) and his pupil, Ibn Nusayr (d. 868). During the 19th and 20th centuries, some Western scholars believed that Alawites were descended from ancient Middle Eastern peoples such as the Arameans, Canaanites, Hittites, and Mardaites. Many prominent Alawite tribes are also descended from 13th century settlers from Sinjar. In his Natural History, Book V, Pliny the Elder said: > We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Coele Syria has the town of Apamea, divided by the river Marsyas from the Tetrarchy of the Nazerini. > > — Pliny the Elder, The "Tetrarchy of the Nazerini" refers to the western region, between the Orontes and the sea, which consists of a small mountain range called An-Nusayriyah Mountains bordered with a valley running from south-east to north-west known as "Al-Ghab plain"; the region was populated by a portion of Syrians, who were called Nazerini. However, scholars are reluctant to link between Nazerini and Nazarenes. Yet, the term "Nazerini" can be possibly connected to words which include the Semitic triliteral root *n-ṣ-r* such as the subject *naṣer* in Eastern Aramaic which means "*keeper of wellness*". History ------- Ibn Nusayr and his followers are considered the founders of the religion. After the death of the Eleventh Imam, al-Askari, problems emerged in the Shia Community concerning his succession, and then Ibn Nusayr claimed to be the Bab and Ism of the deceased Imam and that he received his secret teachings. Ibn Nusayr and his followers development seems to be one of many other early ghulat mystical Islamic sects, and were apparently excommunicated by the Shia representatives of the 12th Hidden Imam. The Alawites were later organised during Hamdanid rule in northern Syria (947–1008) by a follower of Muhammad ibn Nusayr known as al-Khaṣībī, who died in Aleppo about 969, after a rivalry with the Ishaqiyya sect, which claimed also to have the doctrine of Ibn Nusayr. The embrace of Alawism by the majority of the population in the Syrian coastal mountains was likely a protracted process occurring over several centuries. Modern research indicates that after its initial establishment in Aleppo, Alawism spread to Sarmin, Salamiyah, Homs and Hama before becoming concentrated in low-lying villages west of Hama, including Baarin, Deir Shamil, and Deir Mama, the Wadi al-Uyun valley, and in the mountains around Tartus and Safita. In 1032, al-Khaṣībī's grandson and pupil, Abu Sa'id Maymun al-Tabarani (d. 1034), moved to Latakia (then controlled by the Byzantine Empire). Al-Tabarani succeeded his mentor al-Jilli of Aleppo as head missionary in Syria and became "the last definitive scholar of Alawism", founding its calendar and giving Alawite teachings their final form, according to the historian Stefan Winter. Al-Tabarani influenced the Alawite faith through his writings and by converting the rural population of the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range. Winter argues that while it is likely the Alawite presence in Latakia dates to Tabarani's lifetime, it is unclear if Alawite teachings spread to the city's mountainous hinterland, where the Muslim population generally leaned toward Shia Islam, in the eleventh century. In the early part of the century, the Jabal al-Rawadif (part of the Syrian Coastal Mountains around Latakia) were controlled by the local Arab chieftain Nasr ibn Mushraf al-Rudafi, who vacillated between alliance and conflict with Byzantium. There is nothing in the literary sources indicating al-Rudafi patronized the Alawites. To the south of Jabal al-Rawadif, in the Jabal Bahra, a 13th-century Alawite treatise mentions the sect was sponsored by the Banu'l-Ahmar, Banu'l-Arid, and Banu Muhriz, three local families who controlled fortresses in the region in the 11th and 12th centuries. From this southern part of the Syrian coastal mountain range, a significant Alawite presence developed in the mountains east of Latakia and Jableh during the Mamluk period (1260s—1516). According to Bar Hebraeus, many Alawites were killed when the Crusaders initially entered Syria in 1097; however, they tolerated them when they concluded they were not a truly Islamic sect. They even incorporated them within their ranks, along with the Maronites and Turcopoles. Two prominent Alawite leaders in the following centuries, credited with uplifting the group, were Shaykhs al-Makzun (d. 1240) and al-Tubani (d. 1300), both originally from Mount Sinjar in modern Iraq. In the 14th century, the Alawites were forced by Mamluk sultan Baibars to build mosques in their settlements, to which they responded with token gestures described by the Muslim traveller Ibn Battuta. ### Ottoman Empire During the reign of Sultan Selim I, of the Ottoman Empire, the Alawites would again experience significant persecution; especially in Aleppo when a massacre occurred in the Great Mosque of Aleppo on 24 April 1517. The massacre was known as the "Massacre of the Telal" (Arabic: مجزرة التلل) in which the corpses of thousands of victims accumulated as a tell located west of the castle.[*unreliable source*] The horrors of the massacre which caused the immigration of the survivors to the coastal region are documented at the National and University Library in Strasbourg, the manuscript is reserved as a letter sent by an Ottoman commander to Sultan Selim I:[*unreliable source*] > By executing the orders of his majesty, the decisions and recommendations were implemented, and all the Syrian villages, especially the villages of Nusayris, were destroyed until the jungle of the bridge (Jisr al-Shughur) and the gate of the Eagle (probably Bab Qinnasrin), to Shaizar and Wadi Khaled (in Akkar District), until the victory was written for us. And the religion of Islam, the "Ottoman" of course, settled in the Levant; and these Syrians were left homeless and would not live on the land of the great Sultan Selim; their remnants have been eaten by the monsters of the mountains and crocodiles of the jungle (Al-Ghab plain), long live our Sultan on soft lands, God bless the right .. God curse them in every book, and the light of God perpetuates on you. > > The Ottoman Empire took aggressive actions against Alawites, due to their alleged "treacherous activities" as "they had long history of betraying the Muslim governments due to their mistrust towards Sunnis." The Alawis rose up against the Ottomans on several occasions, and maintained their autonomy in their mountains. In his book, *Seven Pillars of Wisdom*, T. E. Lawrence wrote: > The sect, vital in itself, was clannish in feeling and politics. One Nosairi would not betray another, and would hardly not betray an unbeliever. Their villages lay in patches down the main hills to the Tripoli gap. They spoke Arabic, but had lived there since the beginning of Greek letters in Syria. Usually they stood aside from affairs, and left the Turkish Government alone in hope of reciprocity. > > During the 18th century, the Ottomans employed a number of Alawite leaders as tax collectors under the *iltizam* system. Between 1809 and 1813, Mustafa Agha Barbar, the governor of Tripoli, attacked the Kalbiyya Alawites with "marked savagery". Some Alawites supported Ottoman involvement in the Egyptian-Ottoman Wars of 1831–1833 and 1839–1841, and had careers in the Ottoman army or as Ottoman governors. Moreover, they even initiated the Alawite revolt (1834–35) against the Egyptian rule of the region, which was later suppressed by the Governor of Homs. By the mid-19th century, the Alawite people, customs and way of life were described by Samuel Lyde, an English missionary among them, as suffering from nothing except a gloomy plight. The 19th century historian Elias Saleh described the Alawites as living in a "state of ignorance" and having the negative traits of "laziness, lying, deceitfulness, inclination to robbery and bloodshed, and backstabbing". By the 1870s, Alawite bandits were impaled on spikes and left on crossroads as a warning, according to the historian Joshua Landis. Early in the 20th century, the mainly-Sunni Ottoman leaders were bankrupt and losing political power; the Alawites were poor peasants. Alawites have been falsely accused by Sunnis of participating in an incestuous orgy after blowing out the lights called Chiragh Kush. ### French Mandate period After the end of World War I and the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Syria and Lebanon were placed by the League of Nations under the French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon. On 15 December 1918, Alawite leader Saleh al-Ali called for a meeting of Alawite leaders in the town of Al-Shaykh Badr, urging them to revolt and expel the French from Syria. When French authorities heard about the meeting, they sent a force to arrest Saleh al-Ali. He and his men ambushed and defeated the French forces at Al-Shaykh Badr, inflicting more than 35 casualties. After this victory, al-Ali began organizing his Alawite rebels into a disciplined force, with its general command and military ranks. The Al-Shaykh Badr skirmish began the Syrian Revolt of 1919. Al-Ali responded to French attacks by laying siege to (and occupying) al-Qadmus, from which the French had conducted their military operations against him. In November, General Henri Gouraud mounted a campaign against Saleh al-Ali's forces in the An-Nusayriyah Mountains. His forces entered al-Ali's village of Al-Shaykh Badr, arresting many Alawi leaders; however, Al-Ali fled to the north. When a large French force overran his position, he went underground. Despite these instances of opposition, the Alawites mostly favored French rule and sought its continuation beyond the mandate period. #### Alawite State When the French began to occupy Syria in 1920, an Alawite State was created in the coastal and mountain country comprising most Alawite villages; the French justified this by citing differences between the "backward" mountain people and the mainstream Sunnis. The division also intended to protect the Alawite people from more-powerful majorities, such as the Sunnis. The French also created microstates, such as Greater Lebanon for the Maronite Christians and Jabal al-Druze for the Druze. Aleppo and Damascus were also separate states. Under the Mandate, many Alawite chieftains supported a separate Alawite nation, and tried to convert their autonomy into independence. The French Mandate Administration encouraged Alawites to join their military forces, in part to provide a counterweight to the Sunni majority (which was more hostile to their rule). According to a 1935 letter by the French minister of war, the French considered the Alawites and the Druze the only "warlike races" in the Mandate territories. Between 1926 and 1939, the Alawites and other minority groups provided the majority of the locally recruited component of the Army of the Levant - the designation given to the French military forces garrisoning Syria and the Lebanon. The region was home to a mostly-rural, heterogeneous population. The landowning families and 80 percent of the population of the port city of Latakia were Sunni Muslim; however, in rural areas 62 percent of the population were Alawite peasants. According to some researchers, there was considerable Alawite separatist sentiment in the region, their evidence is a 1936 letter signed by 80 Alawi leaders addressed to the French Prime Minister which said that the "Alawite people rejected attachment to Syria and wished to stay under French protection". Among the signatories was Sulayman Ali al-Assad, father of Hafez al-Assad. However, according to associate professor Stefan Winter, this letter is a forgery. Even during this time of increased Alawite rights, the situation was still so bad for the group that many women had to leave their homes to work for urban Sunnis. In May 1930, the Alawite State was renamed the Government of Latakia in one of the few concessions by the French to Arab nationalists before 1936. Nevertheless, on 3 December 1936 the Alawite State was re-incorporated into Syria as a concession by the French to the National Bloc (the party in power in the semi-autonomous Syrian government). The law went into effect in 1937. In 1939, the Sanjak of Alexandretta (now Hatay) contained a large number of Alawites. The Hatayan land was given to Turkey by the French after a League of Nations plebiscite in the province. This development greatly angered most Syrians; to add to Alawi contempt, in 1938, the Turkish military went into İskenderun and expelled most of the Arab and Armenian population. Before this, the Alawite Arabs and Armenians comprised most of the province's population. Zaki al-Arsuzi, a young Alawite leader from Iskandarun province in the Sanjak of Alexandretta who led the resistance to the province's annexation by the Turks, later became a co-founder of the Ba'ath Party with Eastern Orthodox Christian schoolteacher Michel Aflaq and Sunni politician Salah ad-Din al-Bitar. After World War II, Sulayman al-Murshid played a major role in uniting the Alawite province with Syria. He was executed by the Syrian government in Damascus on 12 December 1946, only three days after a political trial. ### After Syrian independence Syria became independent on 17 April 1946. In 1949, after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Syria experienced a number of military coups and the rise of the Ba'ath Party. In 1958, Syria and Egypt were united by a political agreement into the United Arab Republic. The UAR lasted for three years, breaking apart in 1961, when a group of army officers seized power and declared Syria independent. A succession of coups ensued until, in 1963, a secretive military committee (including Alawite officers Hafez al-Assad and Salah Jadid) helped the Ba'ath Party seize power. In 1966, Alawite-affiliated military officers successfully rebelled and expelled the Ba’ath Party old guard followers of Greek Orthodox Christian Michel Aflaq and Sunni Muslim Salah ad-Din al-Bitar, calling Zaki al-Arsuzi the "Socrates" of the reconstituted Ba'ath Party. In 1970, Air Force General Hafez al-Assad, an Alawite, took power and instigated a "Corrective Movement" in the Ba'ath Party. The coup of 1970 ended the political instability which had existed since independence. Robert D. Kaplan compared Hafez al-Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries". In 1971, al-Assad declared himself president of Syria, a position the constitution at the time permitted only for Sunni Muslims. In 1973, a new constitution was adopted, replacing Islam as the state religion with a mandate that the president's religion be Islam, and protests erupted. In 1974, to satisfy this constitutional requirement, Musa as-Sadr (a leader of the Twelvers of Lebanon and founder of the Amal Movement, who had unsuccessfully sought to unite Lebanese Alawites and Shiites under the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council) issued a fatwa that Alawites were a community of Twelver Shiite Muslims. When the Muslim Brotherhood led anti-Ba'athist Islamic revolts during 1970s 1982, Hafez Assad crushed the uprisings through a brutal military crackdown, which culminated in the Hama massacre. #### Syrian Civil War During the Syrian Civil War, many pro-opposition pundits believe the Alawites have suffered as a result of their support for the Assad government against the mainly Sunni opposition, with one journalist claiming up to a third of young Alawite men killed in the increasingly sectarian conflict. Some have claimed many Alawites fear a negative outcome for the government in the conflict would result in an existential threat to their community. In May 2013, pro opposition SOHR stated that out of 94,000 Syrian regime soldiers killed during the war, at least 41,000 were Alawites. In April 2017, a pro-opposition source claimed 150,000 young Alawites had died. Many Alawites feared significant danger during the Syrian Civil War; particularly from Islamic groups who were a part of the opposition, though denied by secular opposition factions. Alawites have also been wary of the increased Iranian influence in Syria since its intervention in the Syrian civil war, viewing it as a threat to their long-term survival due to Khomeinist conversion campaigns focused in Alawite coastal regions. Many Alawites, including Assad loyalists, criticize such activities as a plot to absorb their ethno-religious identity into Iran's Twelver Shia umbrella and spread religious extremism in the country. Beliefs ------- Alawites and their beliefs have been described as "secretive" (Yaron Friedman, for example, in his scholarly work on the sect, has written that the Alawi religious material quoted in his book came only from "public libraries and printed books" since the "sacred writings" of the Alawi "are kept secret"); some tenets of the faith are kept secret from most Alawi and known only to a select few, they have therefore been described as a mystical sect. Alawite doctrines originated from the teachings of Iraqi priest Muhammad ibn Nusayr who claimed Prophethood and declared himself as the "*Bāb* (door) of the Imams" and attributed Divinity to Hasan al-Askari. Al-Askari denounced Ibn Nusayr and Islamic authorities expelled his disciples, most of whom emigrated to the Coastal Mountains of Syria wherein they established a distinct community. Alawite beliefs have never been confirmed by their modern religious authorities. Alawites tend to conceal their beliefs (*taqiya*) due to historical persecution. ### Theology and practices Alawite doctrine incorporates elements of Phoenician mythology, Gnosticism, neo-Platonism, Christian Trinitarianism (for example, they celebrate Mass including the consecration of bread and wine); blending them with Muslim symbolism and has, therefore, been described as syncretic. Alawite Trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, *Ma'na* (meaning), *Ism* (Name) and *Bab* (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible Trinity". *Ma'na* symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, *Ma'na* generated the *Ism*, which in turn built the *Bab*. These beliefs are closely tied to the Nusayri doctrine of re-incarnations of the Trinity. *The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World* classifies Alawites as part of extremist Shia sects referred to as the *ghulat* which are unrelated to Sunni Islam; owing to the secretive nature of the Alawite religious system and hierarchy. Due to their esoteric doctrines of strict secrecy, conversions into the community were also forbidden. #### Reincarnation Alawites hold that they were originally stars or divine lights that were cast out of heaven through disobedience and must undergo repeated reincarnation (or metempsychosis) before returning to heaven. Alawite theologians divided history into seven eras, associating each era with one of the seven re-incarnations of the Nusayrite Trinity (*Ma'na*, *Ism*, *Bab*). The seven re-incarnations of the Trinity in the Alawite faith consists of: * Abel, Adam, Gabriel * Seth, Noah, Yail ibn Fatin * Joseph, Jacob, Ham ibn Kush * Joshua, Moses, Dan ibn Usbaut * Asaf, Solomon, Abd Allah ibn Siman * Simon Peter, Jesus, Rawzaba ibn al-Marzuban * Ali, Muhammad, Salman al-Farisi The last triad of re-incarnations in the Nusayri Trinity consists of Ali (*Ma'na*), Muhammad (*Ism*) and Salman al-Farsi (*Bab*). Alawites depict them as the sky, the sun and the moon respectively. They deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attributing him with divine superiority and believe that Ali created Muhammad, bestowing upon him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth. The Israeli institution of Begin–Sadat Center for Strategic Studies describes the Alawite faith as Judeophilic and "anti-Sunni" since they believe that God's incarnations consist of Israelite Prophet Joshua who conquered Canaan, in addition to the fourth Caliph, Ali. It also denies the Arab ethnicity of Alawites even though Alawites themselves self-identify ethnically as Arabs and claims that Alawites claim to be Arabs because of a supposed "political expediency". #### Other beliefs Other beliefs and practices include: the consecration of wine in a secret form of Mass performed only by males; frequently being given Christian names; entombing the dead in sarcophagi above ground; observing Epiphany, Christmas and the feast days of John Chrysostom and Mary Magdalene; the only religious structures they have are the shrines of tombs; the book *Kitab al-Majmu*, which is allegedly a central source of Alawite doctrine, where they have their own trinity, comprising Mohammed, Ali, and Salman the Persian. In addition, they celebrate different holidays such as Old New Year, Akitu, Eid al-Ghadir, Mid-Sha'ban and Eid il-Burbara. They also believe in intercession of certain legendary saints such as Khidr (Saint George) and Simeon Stylites. #### Evolution Yaron Friedman and many researchers of Alawi doctrine write that the founder of the religion, Ibn Nusayr, did not necessarily believe he was representative of a splinter, rebel group of the Shias, but rather believed he held the true doctrine of the Shias, and most of the aspects that are similar to Christianity are considered more a coincidence and not a direct influence from it, as well as other external doctrines that were actually popular among Shia esoteric groups in Basra in the 8th century. According to Friedman and other scholars, the Alawi movement started as many other mystical ghulat sects with an explicit concentration on an allegorical and esoteric meaning of the Quran and other mystical practices, and not as a pure syncretic sect, though later, they embraced some other practices as they believed all religions had the same *Batin* core. Journalist Robert F. Worth argues that the idea that the Alawi religion as a branch of Islam is a rewriting of history made necessary by the French colonialists' abandonment of the Alawi and departure from Syria. Worth describes the "first ... authentic source for outsiders about the religion" (written by Soleyman of Adana – a 19th-century Alawi convert to Christianity who broke his oath of secrecy on the religion) explaining that the Alawi (according to Soleyman) deified Ali, venerated Christ, Muhammad, Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle, and held themselves apart from Muslims and Christians, whom they considered heretics. According to a disputed letter, in 1936, six Alawi notables petitioned the French colonialists not to merge their Alawi enclave with the rest of Syria, insisting that "the spirit of hatred and fanaticism embedded in the hearts of the Arab Muslims against everything that is non-Muslim has been perpetually nurtured by the Islamic religion". However, according to associate professor Stefan Winter, this letter is a forgery. According to Worth, later *fatwas* declaring Alawi to be part of the Shia community were by Shia clerics "eager for Syrian patronage" from Syria's Alawi president Hafez al-Assad, who was eager for Islamic legitimacy in the face of the hostility of Syria's Muslim majority. Yaron Friedman does not suggest that Alawi did not consider themselves Muslims, but does state that: > The modern period has witnessed tremendous changes in the definition of the ʿAlawīs and the attitude towards them in the Muslim world. ... In order to end their long isolation, the name of the sect was changed in the 1920s from Nusạyriyya to ʿAlawiyya'. By taking this step, leaders of the sect expressed not only their link to Shīʿism, but to Islam in general. > > According to Peter Theo Curtis, the Alawi religion underwent a process of "Sunnification" during the years under Hafez Al Assad's rule, so that Alawites became not Shia, but effectively Sunni. Public manifestation or "even mentioning of any Alawite religious activities" was banned, as were any Alawite religious organizations or "any formation of a unified religious council" or a higher Alawite religious authority. "Sunni-style" mosques were built in every Alawite village, and Alawi were encouraged to perform Hajj. Opinions on position within Islam --------------------------------- The Sunni Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, issued a *fatwa* recognizing them as part of the Muslim community in the interest of Arab nationalism. However, other Sunni scholars such as the Syrian historian Ibn Kathir have categorized Alawites, like all other Shia muslims and sects as non-Muslim and mushrikeen (polytheists), in their writings; with Ibn Taymiyya arguably being the most virulent anti-Alawite in his fatwas, accusing them of aiding the Crusader and Mongol enemies of the Muslims. Other Sunni scholars, such as Al-Ghazali, also considered them like all other shia muslims and sects as non-Muslims. Benjamin Disraeli, in his novel *Tancred*, also expressed the view that Alawites are not Shia Muslims. Historically, Twelver Shia scholars (such as Shaykh Tusi) did not consider Alawites as Shia Muslims while condemning their heretical beliefs. In 2016, according to several international media reports, an unspecified number of Alawite community leaders released a "Declaration of an Alawite Identity Reform" (of the Alawite community). The manifesto presents Alawism a current "within Islam" and rejects attempts to incorporate the Alawite community into Twelver Shiism. The document was interpreted as an attempt by representatives of the Alawite community to overcome the sectarian polarisation and to distance themselves from the growing Sunni-Shia divide in the Middle East. According to Matti Moosa, > The Christian elements in the Nusayri religion are unmistakable. They include the concept of trinity; the celebration of Christmas, the consecration of the Qurbana, that is, the sacrament of the flesh and blood which Christ offered to his disciples, and, most important, the celebration of the Quddas (a lengthy prayer proclaiming the divine attributes of Ali and the personification of all the biblical patriarchs from Adam to Simon Peter, founder of the Church, who is seen, paradoxically, as the embodiment of true Islam). > > Barry Rubin has suggested that Syrian leader Hafez al-Assad and his son and successor Bashar al-Assad pressed their fellow Alawites "to behave like 'regular Muslims', shedding (or at least concealing) their distinctive aspects". During the early 1970s, a booklet, *al-'Alawiyyun Shi'atu Ahl al-Bait* ("The Alawites are Followers of the Household of the Prophet") was published, which was "signed by numerous 'Alawi' men of religion", described the doctrines of the Imami Shia as Alawite. The relationship between Alawite-ruled Ba'athist Syria and Khomeinist Iran have been described as a "marriage of convenience"; due to the former being ruled by the ultra-secularist Arab Socialist Ba'ath party and latter by anti-secular Twelver Shi'ite clergy. The alliance was established during the Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s, when Hafez al-Assad backed Iran against his Iraqi Ba'athist rivals, departing from the consensus of rest of the Arab world. Iranian-backed militant groups like Hezbollah, Fatemeyoun, etc. have been acting as proxy forces for Assad regime in various conflicts in the region; such as Lebanese civil war, 2006 Lebanon war and Syrian civil war. Some sources have discussed the "Sunnification" of Alawites under the al-Assad regime. Joshua Landis, director of the Center for Middle East Studies, writes that Hafiz al-Assad "tried to turn Alawites into 'good' (read Sunnified) Muslims in exchange for preserving a modicum of secularism and tolerance in society". On the other hand, Al-Assad "declared the Alawites to be nothing but Twelver Shiites". In a paper, "Islamic Education in Syria", Landis wrote that "no mention" is made in Syrian textbooks (controlled by the Al-Assad regime) of Alawites, Druze, Ismailis or Shia Islam; Islam was presented as a monolithic religion. Ali Sulayman al-Ahmad, chief judge of the Baathist Syrian state, has said: > We are Alawi Muslims. Our book is the Qur'an. Our prophet is Muhammad. The Ka`ba is our qibla, and our Dīn *(religion)* is Islam. > > Population ---------- ### Syria Alawites have traditionally lived in the Coastal Mountain Range, along the Mediterranean coast of Syria. Latakia and Tartus are the region's principal cities. They are also concentrated in the plains around Hama and Homs. Alawites also live in Syria's major cities, and are estimated at 11 percent of the country's population There are four Alawite confederations — Kalbiyya, Khaiyatin, Haddadin, and Matawirah – each divided into tribes based on their geographical origins or their main religious leader, such as Ḥaidarīya of Alī Ḥaidar, and Kalāziyya of Sheikh Muḥammad ibn Yūnus from the village Kalāzū near Antakya. Those Alawites are concentrated in the Latakia region of Syria, extending north to Antioch (Antakya), Turkey, and in and around Homs and Hama. Before 1953, Alawites held specifically reserved seats in the Syrian Parliament, in common with all other religious communities. After that (including the 1960 census), there were only general Muslim and Christian categories, without mention of subgroups, to reduce sectarianism (*taifiyya*). #### Golan Heights There are also about 3,900 Alawites living in the village of Ghajar, which is located on the border between Lebanon and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. In 1932, the residents of Ghajar were given the option of choosing their nationality, and overwhelmingly chose to be a part of Syria, which has a sizable Alawite minority. Before the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, the residents of Ghajar were counted in the 1960 Syrian census. According to Joshua Project, after Israel captured the Golan Heights from Syria, and after implementing Israeli civil law in 1981, the Alawite community chose to become Israeli citizens. However, according to Al-Marsad, Alawites were forced to undergo a process of naturalisation. Before the 1967 war, Alawites in the Golan Heights lived mainly in three northern villages, 'Ayn Fit, Za'ura and Ghajar. ### Turkey To avoid confusion with the ethnic-Turkish and Kurdish Alevis, the Alawites call themselves *Arap Alevileri* ("Arab Alevis") in Turkish. The term *Nusayrī*, previously used in theological texts, has been revived in recent studies. In Çukurova, Alawites are known as *Fellah* and *Arabuşağı* (although the latter is considered offensive) by the Sunni population. A quasi-official name used during the 1930s by Turkish authorities was *Eti Türkleri* ("Hittite Turks"), to conceal their Arabic origins. Although this term is obsolete, it is still used by some older people as a euphemism. In 1939, the Alawites accounted for some 40 percent of the population of the province of Iskenderun. According to French geographer Fabrice Balanche, relations between the Alawites of Turkey and the Alawites of Syria are limited. Community ties were broken by the Turkification policy and the decades-long closure of the Syria-Turkey border. The exact number of Alawites in Turkey is unknown; there were 185,000 in 1970. As Muslims, they are not recorded separately from Sunnis. In the 1965 census (the last Turkish census where informants were asked their mother tongue), 185,000 people in the three provinces declared their mother tongue as Arabic; however, Arabic-speaking Sunnis and Christians were also included in this figure. Turkish Alawites traditionally speak the same dialect of Levantine Arabic as Syrian Alawites. Arabic is preserved in rural communities and in Samandağ. Younger people in the cities of Çukurova and İskenderun tend to speak Turkish. The Turkish spoken by Alawites is distinguished by its accents and vocabulary. Knowledge of the Arabic alphabet is confined to religious leaders and men who have worked or studied in Arab countries. Alawites demonstrate considerable social mobility. Until the 1960s, they were bound to Sunni *aghas* (landholders) around Antakya and were poor. Alawites are prominent in the sectors of transportation and commerce and a large, professional middle class has emerged. Male exogamy has increased, particularly by those who attend universities or live in other parts of Turkey. These marriages are tolerated; however, female exogamy (as in other patrilineal groups) is discouraged. Alawites, like Alevis, have strong leftist political beliefs. However, some people in rural areas (usually members of notable Alawite families) may support secular, conservative parties such as the Democrat Party. Most Alawites feel oppressed by the policies of the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey (*Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı*). ### Lebanon There are an estimated 40,000 Alawites in Lebanon, where they have lived since at least the 16th century. They are one of the 18 official Lebanese sects; due to the efforts of their leader, Ali Eid, the Taif Agreement of 1989 gave them two reserved seats in Parliament. Lebanese Alawites live primarily in the Jabal Mohsen neighbourhood of Tripoli and in 10 villages in the Akkar District, and are represented by the Arab Democratic Party. Their Mufti is Sheikh Assad Assi. The Bab al-Tabbaneh–Jabal Mohsen conflict between pro-Syrian Alawites and anti-Syrian Sunnis has affected Tripoli for decades. Language -------- Alawites in Syria speak a special dialect (part of Levantine Arabic) famous for the usage of letter (qāf), but this feature is also shared with neighboring non-Alawites villages such as Idlib. Due to foreign occupation of Syria, the same dialect is characterized by multiple borrowings, mainly from Turkish and then French, especially terms used for imported inventions such as television, radio, elevator (ascenseur), etc. See also -------- * List of Alawites Further reading --------------- * Bar-Asher, Meir M. (2003). "NOṢAYRIS". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. * Kazimi, Nibras. *Syria Through Jihadist Eyes: A Perfect Enemy*, Hoover Institution Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8179-1075-4. * Friedman, Yaron (2010). *The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs : An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria* (PDF). Leiden, Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-178922. Retrieved 31 July 2016. * Halm, Heinz (1995). "Nuṣayriyya". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Lecomte, G. (eds.). *The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume VIII: Ned–Sam*. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 145–148. ISBN 978-90-04-09834-3. * Procházka-Eisl, Gisela; Procházka, Stephan (11 August 2010). *The Plain of Saints and Prophets: The Nusayri-Alawi Community of Cilicia ...* Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06178-0. RFWRfO2016 * Worth, Robert F. (2016). *A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS*. Pan Macmillan. p. 82. ISBN 9780374710712. * Winter, Stefan (2016). *A History of the 'Alawis: From Medieval Aleppo to the Turkish Republic*. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691173894. * Al Marouf, Emil Abbas (2016). *History of Alawites in the Levant* (in Arabic). Dar Al Amal & Al Salam. External links --------------

Alawites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawites

A **union territory** is a type of administrative division in the Republic of India. Unlike the states of India, which have their own governments, union territories are federal territories governed, in part or in whole, by the Union Government of India. There are currently eight union territories in India, namely Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. History ------- Comparison of the administrative divisions of India in 1951 and 1956 Districts of Jammu and Kashmir and List of districts of Ladakh as of November 2019. When the Constitution of India was adopted in 1949, the Indian federal structure included: * Part C states, which were chief commissioners' provinces and some princely states, each governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India. The ten Part C states were Ajmer, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Cutch, Manipur, Tripura and Vindhya Pradesh. * One Part D state (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government. After the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, Part C and Part D states were combined into a single category of "Union territory". Due to various other reorganisations, only 6 union territories remained: * Andaman and Nicobar Islands * Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands (later renamed Lakshadweep) * Delhi * Manipur * Tripura * Himachal Pradesh By the early 1970s, Manipur, Tripura, and Himachal Pradesh had become full-fledged states, and Chandigarh became a union territory. Another three (Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu and Puducherry) were formed from acquired territories that formerly belonged to non-British colonial powers (Portuguese India and French India, respectively). In August 2019, the Parliament of India passed Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019. The act contains provisions to reconstitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories, one to be eponymously called Jammu and Kashmir, and the other Ladakh on 31 October 2019. In November 2019, the Government of India introduced legislation to merge the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu into a single union territory to be known as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. Administration -------------- The Parliament of India can pass a law to amend the constitution and provide a Legislature with elected Members and a Chief Minister for a union territory, as it has done for Delhi and Puducherry. Generally, the President of India appoints an administrator or lieutenant governor for each UT. Delhi, Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir operate differently from the other five. They were given partial statehood and Delhi was redefined as the [National Capital Territory] (NCT) and incorporated into a larger area known as the National Capital Region (NCR). Delhi, Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir have an elected legislative assembly and an executive council of ministers with a partially state-like function. Due to the existence of union territories, many critics have resolved India into a semi-federal nation, as the central and state governments each have their domains and territories of legislation. Union territories of India have special rights and status due to their constitutional formation and development. The status of "union territory" may be assigned to an Indian sub-jurisdiction for reasons such as safeguarding the rights of indigenous cultures, averting political turmoil related to matters of governance, and so on. These union territories could be changed to states in the future for more efficient administrative control. The Constitution does not stipulate how tax revenue is to be devolved to the union territories, unlike for the states. The fund's devolution to union territories by the union government has no criteria where all the revenue goes to the union government. Some union territories are provided more funds, while others are given less, arbitrarily by the union government. As union territories are directly ruled by the union government, some union territories get more funds from the union government than entitled on per capita and backwardness basis when compared to states. After the introduction of GST, UT-GST is applicable in union territories that do not have a legislative assembly. UT- GST is levied at par with the applicable state GST in the rest of the country which would eliminate the previous lower taxation in the union territories. Constitutional status --------------------- Article 1 (1) of the Indian constitution says that India shall be a "Union of States", which is elaborated under Parts V (The Union) and VI (The States) of the constitution. Article 1 (3) says the territory of India comprises the territories of the states, the union territories and other territories that may be acquired. The concept of union territories was not in the original version of the constitution, but was added by the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956. Article 366(30) also defines Union territory as any union territory specified in the First Schedule and includes any other territory comprised within the territory of India but not specified in that Schedule. In the constitution wherever it refers to Territories of India, it is applicable to the whole country including union territories. Where it refers to only India, it applies to all states only but not to union territories. Thus, citizenship (part II), fundamental rights (part III), Directive Principles of State Policy (part IV), Judiciary role, the Union Territories (part VIII), Article 245, etc. apply to union territories as it refers specifically to Territories of India. The executive power of the Union (i.e. union of states only) rests with President of India. The President of India is also the chief administrator of union territories as per Article 239. The union public service commission's role does not apply to all territories of India as it refers to India only in Part XIV. The constitutional status of a union territory is similar to a state under the perennial president's rule per Article 356 subject to specific exemptions to a few union territories with legislative assembly. As Per Article 240 (1), supreme power is accorded to the president in regulating the affairs of all the union territories except Chandigarh, NCT and Puducherry, including powers to override the laws made by Parliament and the constitution of India. Article 240 (2) allows implementing tax haven laws in these union territories to attract foreign capital and investments into India instead of depending on foreign tax haven countries. The difference between states as listed in the First Schedule of the constitution and union territories with legislative assembly is that states were given autonomous powers as provided in the constitution without any possible interference by the parliament whereas UTs with legislative assembly (Part VIII) has similar powers but parliament is empowered to modify or repeal or suspend the laws made by a union territory (ultimate authority by the parliament unlike the independent nature of the states). Three of the union territories have representation in the upper house of the Indian Parliament, the Rajya Sabha: Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, and Puducherry. Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir and NCT of Delhi are the only 3 Union Territories that are exceptional among union territories in that each has its own locally elected legislative assembly and have a Chief Minister. Current union territories ------------------------- | Union territory | ISO 3166-2:IN | Vehiclecode | Zone | Capital | Largest city | UT established | Population | Area(km2) | Officiallanguages | Additional officiallanguages | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Andaman and Nicobar Islands | IN-AN | AN | Southern | Port Blair | 1 November 1956 | 380,581 | 8,249 | Hindi, English | — | | Chandigarh | IN-CH | CH | Northern | Chandigarh | 1 November 1966 | 1,055,450 | 114 | English | — | | Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu | IN-DH | DD | Western | Daman | Silvassa | 26 January 2020 | 587,106 | 603 | Hindi, English | Gujarati | | Delhi | IN-DL | DL | Northern | New Delhi | Delhi | 1 November 1956 | 16,787,941 | 1,484 | Hindi, English | Punjabi, Urdu | | Jammu and Kashmir | IN-JK | JK | Northern | Srinagar (Summer)Jammu (Winter) | Srinagar | 31 October 2019 | 12,258,433 | 42,241 | Dogri, English, Hindi, Kashmiri, Urdu | — | | Ladakh | IN-LA | LA | Northern | Leh (Summer)Kargil (Winter) | Leh | 31 October 2019 | 290,492 | 59,146 | Hindi, English | — | | Lakshadweep | IN-LD | LD | Southern | Kavaratti | Andrott | 1 November 1956 | 64,473 | 32 | Hindi, English | — | | Puducherry | IN-PY | PY | Southern | Pondicherry | 16 August 1962 | 1,247,953 | 479 | Tamil, English, French | Telugu, Malayalam | Former union territories ------------------------ | Map | Name | Zone | Capital | Area | UT established | UT disestablished | Now part of | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Arunachal Pradesh | North-Eastern | Itanagar | 83,743 km2 (32,333 sq mi) | 21 January 1972 | 20 February 1987 | As an Indian state | | | Dadra and Nagar Haveli | Western | Silvassa | 491 km2 (190 sq mi) | 11 August 1961 | 26 January 2020 | Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu union territory | | | Daman and Diu | Western | Daman | 112 km2 (43 sq mi) | 30 May 1987 | 26 January 2020 | Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu union territory | | | Goa, Daman and Diu | Western | Panaji | 3,814 km2 (1,473 sq mi) | 19 December 1961 | 30 May 1987 | Goa state and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu union territory | | | Himachal Pradesh | Northern | Shimla | 55,673 km2 (21,495 sq mi) | 1 November 1956 | 25 January 1971 | As an Indian state | | | Manipur | North-Eastern | Imphal | 22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi) | 1 November 1956 | 21 January 1972 | As an Indian state | | | Mizoram | North-Eastern | Aizawl | 21,081 km2 (8,139 sq mi) | 21 January 1972 | 20 February 1987 | As an Indian state | | | Nagaland | North-Eastern | Kohima | 16,579 km2 (6,401 sq mi) | 29 November 1957 | 1 December 1963 | As an Indian state | | | Tripura | North-Eastern | Agartala | 10,491 km2 (4,051 sq mi) | 1 November 1956 | 21 January 1972 | As an Indian state | Proposed union territories -------------------------- There have been a number of movements and proposals to carve out additional states and union territories. See also -------- * Staff Selection Commission * Federalism in India * Lawmaking procedure in India * List of amendments of the Constitution of India * List of Acts of the Parliament of India

Union territory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_territory

**China** (Chinese: 中国; pinyin: *Zhōngguó*), officially the **People's Republic of China** (**PRC**), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's second-most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and borders fourteen countries by land, tied with Russia as having the most of any country in the world. With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometres (3,700,000 sq mi), it is the world's third largest country by total land area. The country consists of 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The national capital is Beijing, and the most populous city and largest financial center is Shanghai. Modern China traces its origins to a cradle of civilization in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. The mythical Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors marks the beginning of a shared identity. The semi-legendary Xia dynasty in the 21st century BCE and the Shang and Zhou dynasties developed a political system to serve hereditary monarchies. Written script was developed and inscription of Bronze and engraving of Oracle bone became common. Classic literature, and the Hundred Schools of Thought emerged during this period and influenced the region and beyond for centuries to come. In the third century BCE, the Qin dynasty ended the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period when Qin Shi Huangdi assumed the self-invented title of Huangdi (Emperor of China). Fractured by the uprising peasants, the Qin was replaced by Liu Bang's Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). Together they laid the foundation for a political tradition of nearly two millennia in which the Chinese empire was one of the world's foremost economic powers. The empire expanded, fractured, and reunified; absorbed foreign religions and ideas; and made world-leading scientific advances, such as the Four Great Inventions: gunpowder, paper, the compass, and printing. After centuries of disunity following the fall of the Han, the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties reunified the empire. The Tang welcomed foreign trade and culture over the Silk Road and adapted Buddhism to their needs. The early modern Song dynasty (960–1279) became urban and commercial while the civilian scholar-officials or literati adopted the examination system and the doctrines of Neo-Confucianism to replace the military aristocrats of earlier dynasties. The Mongol established the Yuan dynasty in 1279 before the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) re-established Han Chinese control. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty affirmed its control further and established the basis for the modern Chinese nation, although subsequently suffered significant losses to European imperialism in the 19th century. The Chinese monarchy collapsed in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution, when the ruler of Qing abdicated and handed over power to the Republic of China (ROC). In its early years, the new republic saw warlords fighting against each other before centralizing in 1928 under the Nationalist government. A civil war between the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) broke out in 1927, though the war was halted when Japan invaded China in 1937. After Japan's surrender in 1945, China's civil war renewed. A division was caused in 1949 when the CCP established the People's Republic of China on the mainland while the KMT-led government of the ROC retreated to Taiwan island. Both claiming to be the sole legitimate government, the United Nations has recognized the PRC of that status since 1971. From 1959 to 1961, the Great Leap Forward resulted in a sharp economic decline and massive famine. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution led to greater political instability, economic and educational decline. With a change in the leadership, a series of political and economic reforms begun in 1978 has improved the economy and standards of living. China is a unitary one-party socialist republic led by the CCP. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council and a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and the RCEP. It is also a member of the BRICS, the G8+5, the G20, the APEC, and the East Asia Summit. China ranks poorly in measures of democracy, transparency, and human rights, including for press freedom, religious freedom, and ethnic equality. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, China is the world's largest economy by GDP at purchasing power parity, the second-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the second-wealthiest country. The country is one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is a nuclear-weapon state with the world's largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget. Etymology --------- The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not a word used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word *Cīna*, used in ancient India. "China" appears in Richard Eden's 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian *Chīn* (چین), which was in turn derived from Sanskrit *Cīna* (चीन). *Cīna* was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the *Mahābhārata* (5th century BCE) and the *Laws of Manu* (2nd century BCE). In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Although usage in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources. The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate, according to the *Oxford English Dictionary*. Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state. The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国; traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: *Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó*). The shorter form is "China" *Zhōngguó* (中国; 中國) from **zhōng** ("central") and **guó** ("state"), a term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne. It was then applied to the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing. It was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia people from perceived "barbarians". The name *Zhongguo* is also translated as "Middle Kingdom" in English. China (PRC) is sometimes referred to as the Mainland when distinguishing the ROC from the PRC. History ------- ### Prehistory China is regarded as one of the world's oldest civilisations. Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited the country 2.25 million years ago. The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a *Homo erectus* who used fire, were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian near Beijing; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. The fossilized teeth of *Homo sapiens* (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County, Hunan. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE, at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system. ### Early dynastic rule According to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE. The Xia dynasty marked the beginning of China's political system based on hereditary monarchies, or dynasties, which lasted for a millennium. The Xia dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959. It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records. The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE. Their oracle bone script (from c. 1500 BCE) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters. The Shang was conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou, no longer fully obeyed the Zhou king, and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were only seven powerful states left. ### Imperial China The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths (i.e., the cart axles' length), and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Vietnam. The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion. Following a widespread civil war during which the imperial library at Xianyang was burned, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the Han Chinese. The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, South Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world. Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors. After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, whose central figures were later immortalized in one of the Four Classics of Chinese literature. At its end, Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then invaded and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects, largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age. The Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road, which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa, and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan Rebellion in the 8th century. In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and Khitan Liao. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang, and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity. However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song Wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China. The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with the gradual conquest of Western Xia by Genghis Khan, who also invaded Jin territories. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang led a rebellion that overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa. In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations. The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury. In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives and the economy of China shrank drastically. After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. The centralized autocracy was strengthened to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, the *Haijin* ("sea ban"), and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing social and technological stagnation. ### Fall of the Qing dynasty In the mid-19th century, the Qing dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the Opium Wars with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of the Unequal Treaties. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Puyi, the last Emperor of China, abdicated in 1912. ### Establishment of the Republic and World War II On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president. On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu sealed the imperial abdication decree on behalf of 4 year old Puyi, the last emperor of China, ending 5,000 years of monarchy in China. In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek, the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition. The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the communist-led People's Liberation Army (PLA), against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan. The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. During the war, China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful" and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations. Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was handed over to Chinese control. However, the validity of this handover is controversial, in that whether Taiwan's sovereignty was legally transferred and whether China is a legitimate recipient, due to complex issues that arose from the handling of Japan's surrender. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China. ### Civil War and the People's Republic Before the existence of the People's Republic, the CCP had declared several areas of the country as the Chinese Soviet Republic (Jiangxi Soviet), a predecessor state to the PRC, in November 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet was wiped out by the KMT armies in 1934 and was relocated to Yan'an in Shaanxi where the Long March concluded in 1935.[*failed verification*] It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore to Taiwan, reducing its territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China at the new nation's founding ceremony and inaugural military parade in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. In 1950, the People's Liberation Army captured Hainan from the ROC and annexed Tibet. However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s. The government consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement, which included the execution of between 1 and 2 million landlords. China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons. The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974. However, the Great Leap Forward, an idealistic massive reform project, resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation. In 1964, China's first atomic bomb exploded successfully. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. This UN action also created the problem of the political status of Taiwan and the Two Chinas issue. ### Reforms and contemporary history After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was quickly arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale political and economic reforms, together with the "Eight Elders", CCP members who held huge influence during this time. The CCP loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the communes were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. The Cultural Revolution was also rebuked, with millions of its victims being rehabilitated. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of special economic zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open-market environment. China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the country saw large pro-democracy protests, eventually leading to the Tiananmen Square massacre by the leadership, bringing condemnations and sanctions against the Chinese government from various foreign countries, though the effect on external relations was short-lived. Jiang Zemin, Party secretary of Shanghai at the time, was selected to replace Zhao Ziyang as the CCP general secretary; Zhao was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests. Jiang later additionally took the presidency and Central Military Commission chairmanship posts, effectively becoming China's top leader. Li Peng, who was instrumental in the crackdown, remained premier until 1998, after which Zhu Rongji became the premier. Under their administration, China continued economic reforms, further closing many SOEs and massively trimming down "iron rice bowl"; occupations with guaranteed job security. During Jiang's rule, China's economy grew sevenfold, and its performance pulled an estimated[*by whom?*] 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%. British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau returned to China in 1997 and 1999, respectively, as the Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions under the principle of one country, two systems. The country joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. Between 2001 and 2002, Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao succeeded Jiang and Zhu as paramount leader and premier respectively; Jiang attempted to remain CMC chairman for longer before giving up the post entirely between 2004 and 2005. Under Hu and Wen, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy. However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment, and caused major social displacement. Hu and Wen also took a relatively more conservative approach towards economic reform, expanding support for SOEs.Additionally under Hu, China hosted the Beijing Olympics in 2008. Xi Jinping and Li Keqiang succeeded Hu and Wen as paramount leader and premier respectively between 2012 and 2013; Li Keqiang was later succeeded by Li Qiang in 2023. Shortly after his ascension to power Xi launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown , that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022. Leading many new Central Leading Groups to bypass traditional bureaucracy, Xi consolidated power further than his predecessors. Xi has also pursued changes to China's economy, supporting SOEs and making eradicating extreme poverty through "targeted poverty alleviation" a key goal. In 2013, Xi launched the Belt and Road Initiative, a global infrastructure investment project. Xi has also taken a more assertive stance on foreign and security issues. Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with an estimated one million people, mostly Uyghurs but including other ethnic and religious minorities, in internment camps. The National People's Congress in 2018 amended the constitution to remove the two-term limit on holding the Presidency, allowing for a third and further terms. In 2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) passed a national security law that authorize the Hong Kong government wide-ranging tools to crack down on dissent. From December 2019 to December 2022, the COVID-19 pandemic led the government to enforce strict public health measures intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned. Geography --------- China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe Route – the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s). The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at 35°50′40.9″N 103°27′7.5″E / 35.844694°N 103.452083°E / 35.844694; 103.452083 (Geographical center of China). China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in the Turpan Depression. ### Climate China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. China's environmental watchdog, SEPA, stated in 2007 that China is losing 4,000 km2 (1,500 sq mi) per year to desertification. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people. According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to 3 degree temperature rise. Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels. Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops. ### Biodiversity China is one of 17 megadiverse countries, lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia. The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993. It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010. China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world), 1,221 species of birds (eighth), 424 species of reptiles (seventh) and 333 species of amphibians (seventh). Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine. Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005[update], the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area. Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west. The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006. China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi, and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi. ### Environment In the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to its rapid pace of industrialization. Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development. China is the country with the second highest death toll because of air pollution, after India, with approximately 1 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution. Although China ranks as the highest CO2 emitting country in the world, it only emits 8 tons of CO2 per capita, significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6). Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest. In recent years, China has clamped down on pollution. In March 2014, CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping "declared war" on pollution during the opening of the National People's Congress. After extensive debate lasting nearly two years, the parliament approved a new environmental law in April. The new law empowers environmental enforcement agencies with great punitive power and large fines for offenders, defines areas which require extra protection, and gives independent environmental groups more ability to operate in the country. In 2020, Xi announced that China aims to peak emissions before 2030 and go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the Paris Agreement, which, according to Climate Action Tracker, if accomplished it would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2 – 0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker". In September 2021 Xi Jinping announced that China will not build "coal-fired power projects abroad". The decision can be "pivotal" in reducing emissions. The Belt and Road Initiative did not include financing such projects already in the first half of 2021. The country also had significant water pollution problems; only 84.8% of China's national surface water was graded between Grade I-III by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2021, which indicates that they're suitable for human consumption. China had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.14/10, ranking it 53rd globally out of 172 countries. In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. China is also the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $546 billion invested in 2022; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. In 2022, 61.2% of China's electricity came from coal (largest producer in the world), 14.9% from hydroelectric power (largest), 9.3% from wind (largest), 4.7% from solar energy (largest), 4.7% from nuclear energy (second-largest), 3.1% from natural gas (fifth-largest), and 1.9% from bioenergy (largest); in total, 30.8% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources. Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian crude oil in 2022. ### Political geography The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area after Russia. China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi). Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the *Encyclopædia Britannica*, to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the *UN Demographic Yearbook*, and the *CIA World Factbook*. China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River (Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin. China borders 14 nations and covers the bulk of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan in South Asia; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. It is narrowly separated from Bangladesh and Thailand to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Politics -------- The Great Hall of the People where the National People's Congress convenesThe Zhongnanhai, headquarters of the Chinese government and Chinese Communist Party The People's Republic of China is a one-party Marxist–Leninist state governed solely by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), making it one of the world's last countries governed by a communist party. The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of democratic centralism." The main body of the constitution also declares that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)." The PRC officially terms itself as a democracy, using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy", and "whole-process people's democracy". However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a dictatorship, with amongst the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, reproductive rights, free formation of social organizations, freedom of religion and free access to the Internet. China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index, ranking at 156th out of 167 countries in 2022. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption. Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 Harvard University survey. A 2020 survey from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research also had most Chinese expressing satisfaction with the government on information dissemination and delivery of daily necessities during the COVID-19 pandemic. A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever before in the survey's history. ### Chinese Communist Party According to the CCP constitution, its highest body of the CCP is the National Congress held every five years. The National Congress elects the Central Committee, who then elects the party's Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and the general secretary (party leader), the top leadership of the country. The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the informal paramount leader. The current general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012. At the local level, the secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor. The CCP is officially guided by "socialism with Chinese characteristics", which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances. Since both the CCP and the People's Liberation Army (PLA) promote according to seniority, it is possible to discern distinct generations of Chinese leadership. In official discourse, each group of leadership is identified with a distinct extension of the ideology of the party. Historians have studied various periods in the development of the government of the People's Republic of China by reference to these "generations". Generations of Chinese leadership| Generation | Paramount leader | Start | End | Ideology | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | First | Mao Zedong*Hua Guofeng* | 1949 | 1978 | Mao Zedong Thought | | Second | Deng Xiaoping | 1978 | 1989 | Deng Xiaoping Theory | | Third | Jiang Zemin | 1989 | 2002 | Three Represents | | Fourth | Hu Jintao | 2002 | 2012 | Scientific Outlook on Development | | Fifth | Xi Jinping | 2012 | | Xi Jinping Thought | ### Government Xi Jinping CCP General Secretary and PresidentLi Qiang PremierZhao Leji Congress ChairmanWang Huning CPPCC Chairman The nearly 3,000 member National People's Congress (NPC) is constitutionally the "highest state organ of power", though it has been also described as a "rubber stamp" body. The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee, around 150 member body elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months. In what China calls the "people's congress system", local people's congresses at the lowest level are officially directly elected, with all the higher-level people's congresses up to the NPC being elected by the level one below. However, the elections are not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP. The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another eight minor parties having nominal representation in the condition of upholding CCP leadership. The president is the ceremonial head of state, elected by the NPC. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader. The premier is the head of government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent premier. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the State Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "united front" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by Wang Huning, one of China's top leaders. ### Administrative divisions The People's Republic of China is constitutionally a unitary state officially divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions (each with a designated minority group), and four directly-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau. The PRC considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although it is governed by the Republic of China (ROC), which claims to be the legitimate representative of China and its territory, though it has downplayed this claim since its democratization. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: North China, Northeast China, East China, South Central China, Southwest China, and Northwest China. List of administrative divisions in the PRC| Provinces (省) | * Anhui (安徽省) * Fujian (福建省) * Gansu (甘肃省) * Guangdong (广东省) * Guizhou (贵州省) * Hainan (海南省) * Hebei (河北省) * Heilongjiang (黑龙江省) * Henan (河南省) * Hubei (湖北省) * Hunan (湖南省) * Jiangsu (江苏省) * Jiangxi (江西省) * Jilin (吉林省) * Liaoning (辽宁省) * Qinghai (青海省) * Shaanxi (陕西省) * Shandong (山东省) * Shanxi (山西省) * Sichuan (四川省) * Yunnan (云南省) * Zhejiang (浙江省) | | *Claimed Province* | *Taiwan* (台湾省), *governed by the Republic of China* | | Autonomous regions (自治区) | * Guangxi (广西壮族自治区) * Inner Mongolia / *Nei Menggu* (内蒙古自治区) * Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区) * Tibet / *Xizang* (西藏自治区) * Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区) | | Municipalities (直辖市) | * Beijing (北京市) * Chongqing (重庆市) * Shanghai (上海市) * Tianjin (天津市) | | Special administrative regions (特别行政区) | * Hong Kong / *Xianggang* (香港特别行政区) * Macau / *Aomen* (澳门特别行政区) | ### Foreign relations The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintains embassies in 174. Since 2019, China has the largest diplomatic network in the world. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries. Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011. Many other countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the United Nations in 1971. The PRC officially maintains the one-China principle, which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China. The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the US and Japan, only *acknowledge* the claim. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, especially in the matter of armament sales. Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Myanmar, North Korea and Iran. China has a close political, economic and military relationship with Russia, and the two states often vote in unison in the United Nations Security Council. #### Trade relations China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 as measured by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer. comprising roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market. By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 other countries. China is the largest trading partner for the ASEAN nations, with a total trade value of $669.2 billion in 2021 accounting for 20% of ASEAN's total trade. ASEAN is also China's largest trading partner. In 2020, China became the largest trading partner of the European Union for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion. China, along with ASEAN, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, is a member of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, the world's largest free-trade area covering 30% of the world's population and economic output. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues. The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China has had a long and complex trade relationship with the United States. In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries. China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, one of its most important export markets. Economists have argued that the renminbi is undervalued, due to currency intervention from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage. The US and other foreign governments have also alleged that China does not respect intellectual property (IP) rights and steals IP through espionage operations, with the US Department of Justice saying that 80% of all the prosecutions related to economic espionage it brings were about conduct to benefit the Chinese state. Since the turn of the century, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation; in 2022, Sino-African trade totalled $282 billion, having grown more than 20 times over two decades. According to Madison Condon "China finances more infrastructure projects in Africa than the World Bank and provides billions of dollars in low-interest loans to the continent's emerging economies." China maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods, with the total value of goods trade reaching nearly $700 billion. China has furthermore strengthened its trade ties with major South American economies, and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others. In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year. BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history. It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020[update], includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus here is particularly on building efficient transport routes. The focus is particularly on the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe and there are Chinese investments or related declarations of intent at numerous ports such as Gwadar, Kuantan, Hambantota, Piraeus and Trieste. However many of these loans made under the Belt and Road program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations. #### Territorial disputes Ever since its establishment, the PRC has claimed the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province. These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross-Strait relations, with the PRC treating the one-China principle as one of its most important diplomatic principles in dealing with other countries. China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them. China currently has a disputed land border with India and Bhutan. China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as Socotra Rock, the Senkaku Islands and the entirety of South China Sea Islands, along with the EEZ disputes over East China Sea. ### Sociopolitical issues and human rights The situation of human rights in China has attracted significant criticism from a number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty. Since its inception, Freedom House has ranked China as "not free" in its *Freedom in the World* survey, while Amnesty International has documented significant human rights abuses. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action. China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked. The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country. China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, where significant amounts of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression. In Xinjiang, repression has significantly escalated since 2016, after which at least one million Uyghurs and other ethnic and religion minorities have been detained in internment camps, officially termed "Vocational Education and Training Centers", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. According to witnesses, actions including political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities. According to a 2020 report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide, while a separate UN Human Rights Office report said they could potentially meet the definitions for crimes against humanity. Global studies from Pew Research Center in 2014 and 2017 ranked the Chinese government's restrictions on religion as among the highest in the world, despite low to moderate rankings for religious-related social hostilities in the country. The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people were living in "conditions of modern slavery", or 0.25% of the population, including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed re-education through labor (*laojiao*) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to which extent its various practices have stopped. The Chinese penal system also includes the much larger reform through labor (*laogai*) system, which includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the Laogai Research Foundation has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate. Military -------- The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades. It consists of the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF), the Rocket Force (PLARF) and the Strategic Support Force (PLASSF). Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world's third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons, and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage. China's official military budget for 2022 totalled US$230 billion (1.45 trillion Yuan), the second-largest in the world, though SIPRI estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$292 billion. According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP. The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA, with the officeholder also generally being the CCP general secretary, making them the paramount leader of China. Economy ------- China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, and the world's largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). As of 2022[update], China accounts for around 18% of global economy by nominal GDP. China is one of the world's fastest-growing major economies, with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978. According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.73 trillion by 2021. Of the world's 500 largest companies, 145 are headquartered in China. China was one of the world's most most foremost economic powers throughout the arc of East Asian and global history. The country had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past two millennia, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world—Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020[update]. China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index. By 2035, China's four cities (Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou and Shenzhen) are projected to be among the global top ten largest cities by nominal GDP according to a report by Oxford Economics. Modern-day China is often described as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism. In 1992, Jiang Zemin termed the country a socialist market economy. Others have described it as a form of Marxism–Leninism adapted to co-exist with global capitalism. The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008. According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP. China has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 2010, after overtaking the US, which had been the largest for the previous hundred years. China has also been the second largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation. China is the second largest retail market in the world, next to the United States. China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021. China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022[update]. China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries. Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022. ### Wealth China accounted for 17.9% of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the US. It ranks at 64th at GDP (nominal) per capita, making it an upper-middle income country. China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million. China reduced the extreme poverty rate—per international standard, it refers to an income of less than $1.90/day—from 88% in 1981 to 1.85% by 2013. The portion of people in China living below the international poverty line of $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) fell to 0.3% in 2018 from 66.3% in 1990. Using the lower-middle income poverty line of $3.20 per day, the portion fell to 2.9% in 2018 from 90.0% in 1990. Using the upper-middle income poverty line of $5.50 per day, the portion fell to 17.0% from 98.3% in 1990. From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six. Wages in China have grown a lot in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007. Per capita incomes have risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself. China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions. It has a high level of economic inequality, which has increased in the past few decades, though has decreased significantly in the 2010s. In 2019 China's Gini coefficient was 0.382, according to the World Bank. As of April 2023[update], China was second in the world, after the US, in total number of billionaires and total number of millionaires, with 495 Chinese billionaires and 6.2 million millionaires. In 2019, China overtook the US as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by Credit Suisse. According to the Hurun Global Rich List 2020, China is home to five of the world's top ten cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou in the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 10th spots, respectively) by the highest number of billionaires, which is more than any other country. China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021[update], two-thirds of the global total, and minted 24 new female billionaires in 2020. China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015, and the middle-class grew to a size of 400 million by 2018. ### China in the global economy | | | --- | | | | Largest economies by nominal GDP in 2023 | China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$6.3 trillion in 2022. China is the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.128 trillion as of December 2022[update], making its reserves by far the world's largest. In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong. In 2014, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world. China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012, and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies. China is a major owner of US public debt, holding trillions of dollars worth of U.S. Treasury bonds. China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies, and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods. In 2020, Harvard University's Economic Complexity Index ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010. Following the 2007–08 financial crisis, Chinese authorities sought to actively wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system. To achieve those ends, China took a series of actions to further the internationalization of the Renminbi. In 2008, China established the dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity. This was followed with bilateral agreements to settle trades directly in renminbi with Russia, Japan, Australia, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and Canada. As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world by 2018, an emerging international reserve currency, and a component of the IMF's special drawing rights; however, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, Dollar and Japanese Yen in international trade volumes. As of 2022[update], Yuan is the world's fifth-most traded currency. Science and technology ---------------------- ### Historical China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, the Western hemisphere surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement. The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars. After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the Four Modernizations, and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed. ### Modern era Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research and is quickly catching up with the US in R&D spending. China officially spent around 2.4% of its GDP on R&D in 2020, totaling to around $377.8 billion. According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the US did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021. It was ranked 11th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013. Chinese supercomputers have been ranked the fastest in the world on a few occasions; however, these supercomputers rely on critical components—namely processors—imported from outside of China. China has also struggled with developing several technologies domestically, such as the most advanced semiconductors and reliable jet engines. China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). It became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016. Chinese-born academicians have won prestigious prizes in the sciences and in mathematics, although most of them had conducted their winning research in Western nations.[*improper synthesis?*] #### Space program The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently. In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, Tiangong-1. In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover Yutu successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the Chang'e 3 mission. In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the Moon. In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently after the United States and the Soviet Union. In 2021, China became the second nation in history to independently land a rover (Zhurong) on Mars, after the United States. China completed its own modular space station, the *Tiangong*, in low Earth orbit on 3 November 2022. On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the *Tiangong*. Infrastructure -------------- After a decades-long infrastructural boom, China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: China has the world's largest bullet train network, the most supertall skyscrapers in the world, the world's largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam), and a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites in the world. ### Telecommunications China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1.69 billion subscribers, as of February 2023[update]. It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.05 billion Internet users since 2021[update]—equivalent to around 73.7% of its population—and almost all of them being mobile as well. By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total. China is making rapid advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials. As of March 2022[update], China had over 500 million 5G users and 1.45 million base stations installed. China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018[update]. Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China. Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military. China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012 as well as global services by the end of 2018. Upon the completion of the 35th Beidou satellite, which was launched into orbit on 23 June 2020, Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation satellite in the world. ### Transport The Duge Bridge is the highest bridge in the world.The Port of Shanghai's deep water harbor on Yangshan Island in the Hangzhou Bay is the world's busiest container port since 2010.The Beijing Daxing International Airport features the world's largest single-building airport terminal. Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2018, China's highways had reached a total length of 161,000 km (100,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world. China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country has also become a large exporter of automobiles, being the world's second-largest exporter of cars in 2022 after Japan. In early 2023, China has overtaken Japan, becoming the world's largest exporter of cars. A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents, though the number of fatalities in traffic accidents fell by 20% from 2007 to 2017. In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012[update], there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China. China's railways, which are operated by the state-owned China State Railway Group Company, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006. As of 2021[update], the country had 150,000 km (93,206 mi) of railways, the second longest network in the world. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place. China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2022, high speed rail in China had reached 42,000 kilometers (26,098 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world. Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing Lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.29 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest. The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world. The Shanghai maglev train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world. Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated. As of January 2021[update], 44 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation and 39 more have metro systems approved. As of 2020[update], China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest. There were approximately 241 airports in 2021. China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2021, the Ports of Shanghai, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Qingdao, Tianjin and Hong Kong ranked in the top 10 in the world in container traffic and cargo tonnage. ### Water supply and sanitation Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution. According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation. The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north. Demographics ------------ The national census of 2020 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,411,778,724. According to the 2020 census, about 17.95% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old. Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%. China used to make up much of the world's poor; now it makes up much of the world's middle-class. Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions—800 million, to be more precise—of its people out of poverty since 1978. By 2013, less than 2% of the Chinese population lived below the international poverty line of US$1.9 per day, down from 88% in 1981. From 2009 to 2018, the unemployment rate in China has averaged about 4%. Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child. In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy. A three-child policy was announced on 31 May 2021, due to population aging, and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed. According to data from the 2020 census, China's total fertility rate is 1.3, but some experts believe that after adjusting for the transient effects of the relaxation of restrictions, the country's actual total fertility rate is as low as 1.1. In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961. According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction. The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth. According to the 2020 census, the sex ratio at birth was 105.07 boys for every 100 girls, which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls. The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.24 percent of the total population. However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population. ### Ethnic groups China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who altogether comprise the *Zhonghua minzu*. The largest of these nationalities are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population. The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except Tibet and Xinjiang. Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census. Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%. The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China. ### Languages There are as many as 292 living languages in China. The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 70% of the population), and other varieties of Chinese language: Yue (including Cantonese and Taishanese), Wu (including Shanghainese and Suzhounese), Min (including Fuzhounese, Hokkien and Teochew), Xiang, Gan and Hakka. Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwestern China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese indigenous peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages. Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds. Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang and various other languages are also regionally recognized throughout the country. ### Urbanization China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 64% in 2021. It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population. China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, including the 17 megacities as of 2021[update] (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi'an, Suzhou, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Linyi, Shijiazhuang, Dongguan, Qingdao and Changsha. Among them, the total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million. Shanghai is China's most populous urban area while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only city in China with the largest permanent population of over 30 million. By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants. The figures in the table below are from the 2017 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; the figures below include only long-term residents. |   Largest cities or municipalities in the People's Republic of China*China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2020* Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | | | ShanghaiShanghaiBeijingBeijing | 1 | Shanghai | SH | 24,281,400 | 11 | Hong Kong | HK | 7,448,900 | GuangzhouGuangzhouShenzhenShenzhen | | 2 | Beijing | BJ | 19,164,000 | 12 | Zhengzhou | HA | 7,179,400 | | 3 | Guangzhou | GD | 13,858,700 | 13 | Nanjing | JS | 6,823,500 | | 4 | Shenzhen | GD | 13,438,800 | 14 | Xi'an | SN | 6,642,100 | | 5 | Tianjin | TJ | 11,744,400 | 15 | Jinan | SD | 6,409,600 | | 6 | Chongqing | CQ | 11,488,000 | 16 | Shenyang | LN | 5,900,000 | | 7 | Dongguan | GD | 9,752,500 | 17 | Qingdao | SD | 5,501,400 | | 8 | Chengdu | SC | 8,875,600 | 18 | Harbin | HL | 5,054,500 | | 9 | Wuhan | HB | 8,652,900 | 19 | Hefei | AH | 4,750,100 | | 10 | Hangzhou | ZJ | 8,109,000 | 20 | Changchun | JL | 4,730,900 | 1. ↑ Population of Hong Kong as of 2018 estimate. 2. ↑ The data of Chongqing in the list is the data of "Metropolitan Developed Economic Area", which contains two parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan Area". The "City proper" are consist of 9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan'an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area" are consist of 12 districts: Fuling, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700. Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600. ### Education Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years. In 2021, about 91.4 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school. The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. As of 2020[update], 58.42 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level. More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges nationwide every year. China has the largest education system in the world, with about 282 million students and 17.32 million full-time teachers in over 530,000 schools. Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020. However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces in China, only totalled ¥3,204. Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2021, the graduation enrollment ratio at compulsory education level reached 95.4 percent, and around 91.4% of Chinese have received secondary education. China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979. to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020. In the same year, Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang, amongst the most affluent regions in China, were ranked the highest in the world in the Programme for International Student Assessment ranking for all three categories of Mathematics, Science and Reading. As of 2021[update], China has over 3,000 universities, with over 44.3 million students enrolled in mainland China and 240 million Chinese citizens have received high education, making China the largest higher education system in the world. As of 2021[update], China had the world's second-highest number of top universities (the highest in Asia & Oceania region). Currently, China trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 200 universities according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU). China is home to the two of the highest ranking universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in Asia and emerging economies according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings. As of 2022[update], two universities in mainland China rank in the world's top 15, with Peking University (12th) and Tsinghua University (14th) and three other universities ranking in the world's top 50, namely Fudan, Zhejiang, and Shanghai Jiao Tong according to the QS World University Rankings. These universities are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education. ### Health The National Health and Family Planning Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population. An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion. By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage. By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals, with the country alone producing around 40 percent of active pharmaceutical ingredients in 2017. As of 2020[update], the life expectancy at birth in China is 78 years, and the infant mortality rate is 5 per thousand (in 2021). Both have improved significantly since the 1950s. Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010. Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution, hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers, and an increase in obesity among urban youths. China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS, although this has since been largely contained. In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China. The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019. Further studies are being carried out around the world on a possible origin for the virus. Beijing says it has been sharing Covid data in "a timely, open and transparent manner in accordance with the law". According to U.S. officials, the Chinese government has been concealing the extent of the outbreak before it became an international pandemic. ### Religion The government of the People's Republic of China and the Chinese Communist Party both officially espouse state atheism, and have conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the CCP's United Front Work Department. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution. Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three teachings", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture, enriching a theological and spiritual framework which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions, consists in allegiance to the *shen* (神), a character that signifies the "energies of generation", who can be deities of the environment or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history. Among the most popular cults are those of Mazu (goddess of the seas), Huangdi (one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race), Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, including the tallest of all, the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan. Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of "religion" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between three teachings religions and local folk religious practice. A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist", though Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as non-theistic and humanistic religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being. According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practice Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including Taoists and folk salvationism. In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions. The various folk religions today comprise 2–3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other peoples in Northwest China. The 2010 population census reported the total number of Muslims in the country as 23.14 million. A 2021 poll from Ipsos and the Policy Institute at King's College London found that 35% of Chinese people said there was tension between different religious groups, which was the second lowest percentage of the 28 countries surveyed. Culture and society ------------------- The Temple of Heaven, a center of heaven worship and an UNESCO World Heritage site, symbolizes the Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind. Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the CCP's rule under Mao Zedong damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of feudalism". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like Peking opera, were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival, and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide. ### Tourism China received 65.7 million inbound international visitors in 2019, and in 2018 was the fourth-most-visited country in the world. It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019. China hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (56) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world (first in the Asia-Pacific). ### Literature Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar, military, astrology, herbology, geography and many others. Some of the most important early texts include the *I Ching* and the *Shujing* within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the *Classic of Poetry*, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began with the *Shiji*, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore. Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include *Water Margin*, *Romance of the Three Kingdoms*, *Journey to the West* and *Dream of the Red Chamber*. Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Chinese sphere of influence. In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature. Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism, emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. ### Cuisine Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines. Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients, as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine. Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. The bean products, such as tofu and soy milk, remain as a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption. While pork dominates the meat market, there is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food, have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora. ### Architecture Many architectural masters and masterpieces emerged in ancient China, creating many palaces, tombs, temples, gardens, houses, etc.The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization. The first communities that can be identified culturally as Chinese were settled chiefly in the basin of the Yellow River. Chinese architecture is the embodiment of an architectural style that has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture. Since its emergence during the early ancient era, the structural principles of its architecture have remained largely unchanged. The main changes involved diverse decorative details. Starting with the Tang dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the architectural styles of neighboring East Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines. Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies), a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from *pagodas* to palaces. Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages,such as the Stilt houses in the south, the Yaodong buildings in the northwest, the yurt buildings of nomadic people, and the Siheyuan buildings in the north. ### Music Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as *bayin* (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing opera and Cantonese opera. Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese rap, Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular in contemporary times. ### Cinema Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, *Dingjun Mountain,* was released in 1905. China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016, China became the largest cinema market in the world in 2020. The top 3 highest-grossing films in China in 2023 were *The Battle at Lake Changjin* (2021), *Wolf Warrior 2* (2017), and *Hi, Mom* (2021). ### Fashion Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress. The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing. ### Sports China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world. There is evidence that archery (*shèjiàn*) was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (*jiànshù*) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football date back to China's early dynasties as well. Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and t'ai chi ch'uan widely practiced, and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country. Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China. The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association also have a huge following, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian being held in high esteem among the Chinese populace. China's professional football league, now known as Chinese Super League, was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in East Asia. Other popular sports in the country include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. Board games such as go (known as *wéiqí* in Chinese), xiangqi, mahjong, and more recently chess, are also played at a professional level. In addition, China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012[update]. Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular. China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year. China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals. In 2011, Shenzhen in Guangdong, China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing; the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou of Hebei province collaboratively hosted the 2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual olympic city in the world by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics. See also -------- * Outline of China Further reading --------------- * Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". *Legal Issues of Economic Integration*. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp. 263–304. Abstract. * Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). *China Bibliography – Online Archived 5 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine.* China-Profile.com. * Jacques, Martin (2009).*When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order*. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1 * Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", *Foreign Affairs*, vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018), pp. 83–93. * Johnson, Ian, "What Holds China Together?", *The New York Review of Books*, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 14, 16, 18. "The Manchus ... had [in 1644] conquered the last ethnic Chinese empire, the Ming [and established Imperial China's last dynasty, the Qing] ... The Manchus expanded the empire's borders northward to include all of Mongolia, and westward to Tibet and Xinjiang." [p. 16.] "China's rulers have no faith that anything but force can keep this sprawling country intact." [p. 18.] * Lagerwey, John (2010). *China: A Religious State*. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-988-8028-04-7. * Meng, Fanhua (2011). *Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century*. Singapore: Silkroad Press. ISBN 978-981-4332-35-4. * Sang Ye (2006). *China Candid: The People on the People's Republic*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24514-3. * Selden, Mark (1979). *The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change*. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-532-5. * Shambaugh, David L. (2008). *China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation*. Washington, DC; Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25492-3. External links -------------- ### Government * The Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (in English) ### General information * China at a Glance from *People's Daily* * China at the *Encyclopædia Britannica* * Country profile – China at BBC News * China. *The World Factbook*. Central Intelligence Agency. * China, People's Republic of from *UCB Libraries GovPubs* * China at Curlie ### Maps * Google Maps—China * Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China * Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap 35°N 103°E / 35°N 103°E / 35; 103

China

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China

**Rugby union**, commonly known simply as **rugby**, is a close-contact team sport that originated at Rugby School in the first half of the 19th century. Rugby is simply based on running with the ball in hand. In its most common form, a game is played between two teams of 15 players each, using an oval-shaped ball on a rectangular field called a pitch. The field has H-shaped goalposts at both ends. Rugby union is a popular sport around the world, played by people of all genders, ages and sizes. In 2014, there were more than 6 million people playing worldwide, of whom 2.36 million were registered players. World Rugby, previously called the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) and the International Rugby Board (IRB), has been the governing body for rugby union since 1886, and currently has 101 countries as full members and 18 associate members. In 1845, the first laws were written by students attending Rugby School; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the decision by Blackheath F.C. to leave The Football Association in 1863 and, in 1895, the split between rugby union and rugby league. Historically rugby union was an amateur sport, but in 1995 formal restrictions on payments to players were removed, making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time. Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland, with other early exponents of the sport including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France. The sport is followed primarily in the British Isles, France, Georgia, Oceania, Southern Africa, Argentina, and to a lesser extent Italy, Uruguay, the United States, Canada, and Japan, its growth occurring during the expansion of the British Empire and through French proponents (Rugby Europe) in Europe. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their *de facto* national sport include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, and Wales. International matches have taken place since 1871 when the first game was played between Scotland and England at Raeburn Place in Edinburgh. The Rugby World Cup, first held in 1987, is held every four years. The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere are other important international competitions that are held annually. National club and provincial competitions include the Premiership in England, the Top 14 in France, the Bunnings NPC in New Zealand, the League One in Japan and the Currie Cup in South Africa. Other transnational club competitions include the United Rugby Championship of club teams from Ireland, Italy, Scotland, South Africa and Wales, European Rugby Champions Cup in Europe, and Super Rugby Pacific in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. History ------- Rugby football stems from the form of the game played at Rugby School, which former pupils then introduced to their universities. Former Rugby School student Albert Pell is credited with having formed the first "football" team while a student at Cambridge University. Major private schools each used different rules during this early period, with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities. A significant event in the early development of rugby football was the production of a written set of rules at Rugby School in 1845, followed by the Cambridge Rules that were drawn up in 1848. Formed in 1863, the national governing body The Football Association (FA) began codifying a set of universal football rules. These new rules specifically banned players from running with the ball in hand and also disallowed hacking (kicking players in the shins), both of which were legal and common tactics under the Rugby School's rules of the sport. In protest at the imposition of the new rules, the Blackheath Club left the FA followed by several other clubs that also favoured the "Rugby Rules". Although these clubs decided to ban hacking soon afterwards, the split was permanent, and the FA's codified rules became known as "association football" whilst the clubs that had favoured the Rugby Rules formed the Rugby Football Union in 1871, and their code became known as "rugby football". In 1895, there was a major schism within rugby football in England in which numerous clubs from Northern England resigned from the RFU over the issue of reimbursing players for time lost from their workplaces. The split highlighted the social and class divisions in the sport in England. Although the rules of the game were not a factor in the split, the breakaway teams subsequently adopted some rule changes and this became the separate code of "rugby league". The RFU's code thereafter took on the name "rugby union" to differentiate it from rugby league, but both versions of the sport are known simply as "rugby" throughout most of the world. ### First internationals The first rugby football international was played on 27 March 1871 between Scotland and England in Edinburgh. Scotland won the game 1–0. By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams and in 1883 the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 is also the year of the first rugby sevens tournament, the Melrose Sevens, which is still held annually. Two important overseas tours took place in 1888: a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand—although a private venture, it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours; and the 1888–89 New Zealand Native football team brought the first overseas team to British spectators. During the early history of rugby union, a time before commercial air travel, teams from different continents rarely met. The first two notable tours both took place in 1888—the British Isles team touring New Zealand and Australia, followed by the New Zealand team touring Europe. Traditionally the most prestigious tours were the Southern Hemisphere countries of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa making a tour of a Northern Hemisphere, and the return tours made by a joint British and Irish team. Tours would last for months, due to long traveling times and the number of games undertaken; the 1888 New Zealand team began their tour in Hawkes Bay in June and did not complete their schedule until August 1889, having played 107 rugby matches. Touring international sides would play Test matches against international opponents, including national, club and county sides in the case of Northern Hemisphere rugby, or provincial/state sides in the case of Southern Hemisphere rugby. Between 1905 and 1908, all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere: New Zealand in 1905, followed by South Africa in 1906 and Australia in 1908. All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics, and were far more successful than critics had expected. The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match, leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem, *Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau*, as a response. After Morgan began singing, the crowd joined in: the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event. In 1905 France played England in its first international match. Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 20th century. No international rugby games and union-sponsored club matches were played during the First World War, but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team. During the Second World War no international matches were played by most countries, though Italy, Germany and Romania played a limited number of games, and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match. The first officially sanctioned international rugby sevens tournament took place in 1973 at Murrayfield, one of Scotland's biggest stadiums, as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations. ### World Cup and professionalism In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in Australia and New Zealand, and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993. Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and was added to the Olympic Games of 2016. Both men and women's Sevens took place at the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo. Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game "open" in August 1995 (shortly after the completion of the 1995 World Cup), removing restrictions on payments to players. However, the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of "shamateurism", including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee in early 1995. Following the introduction of professionalism trans-national club competitions were started, with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere. The Tri Nations, an annual international tournament involving Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, kicked off in 1996. In 2012, this competition was extended to include Argentina, a country whose impressive performances in international games (especially finishing in third place in the 2007 Rugby World Cup) was deemed to merit inclusion in the competition. As a result of the expansion to four teams, the tournament was renamed The Rugby Championship. Teams and positions ------------------- Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven or eight substitutes. Players in a team are divided into eight forwards (two more than in rugby league) and seven backs. ### Forwards The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball. Forwards play a vital role in tackling and rucking opposing players. Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and line-out. The forwards are often collectively referred to as the 'pack', especially when in the scrum formation. #### Front row The front row consists of three players: two props (the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop) and the hooker. The role of the two props is to support the hooker during scrums, to provide support for the jumpers during line-outs and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls. The third position in the front row is the hooker. The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum. Hookers normally throw the ball in at line-outs. #### Second row The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards. Locks are usually the tallest players in the team, and specialise as line-out jumpers. The main role of the lock in line-outs is to make a standing jump, often supported by the other forwards, to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side. Locks also have an important role in the scrum, binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive. #### Back row The back row, not to be confused with 'Backs', is the third and final row of the forward positions, who are often referred to as the loose forwards. The three positions in the back row are the two flankers and the number 8. The two flanker positions called the blindside flanker and openside flanker, are the final row in the scrum. They are usually the most mobile forwards in the game. Their main role is to win possession through 'turn overs'. The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum. The role of the number 8 in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack, and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases. ### Backs The role of the backs is to create and convert point-scoring opportunities. They are generally smaller, faster and more agile than the forwards. Another distinction between the backs and the forwards is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking and ball-handling skills, especially the fly-half, scrum-half, and full-back. #### Half-backs The half-backs consist of two positions, the scrum-half and the fly-half, also known in the Southern Hemisphere as half-back and first five-eighth respectively. The fly-half is crucial to a team's game plan, orchestrating the team's performance. They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown, lineout, or scrum, and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs. Many fly-halves are also their team's goal kickers. The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs. They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum, usually passing it to the fly-half. They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward. #### Three-quarters There are four three quarter positions: two centres (inside and outside) and two wings (left and right), the inside centre is commonly referred to as the second five-eighth in the Southern Hemisphere. The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players; whilst in attack, they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences. The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries. Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are elusive runners who use their speed to avoid tackles. #### Full-back The full-back is normally positioned several metres behind the back line. They often field opposition kicks and are usually the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line. Two of the most important attributes of a good full-back are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game. Laws and gameplay ----------------- ### Scoring Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game. Points can be scored in several ways: a try, scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area (between the goal line and the dead-ball line), is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points. The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years. ### Playing field According to World Rugby's Laws of the Game, a typical rugby ground, formally known as the "playing enclosure", is formed by two major zones: * The "playing area", which includes the "field of play" and the two "in-goals", and * The "perimeter area", a clear space, free of obstructions such as fences and other objects which could pose a danger to players and officials (but not including marker flags, which are typically of soft construction). The referee (and their assistants) generally have full authority and responsibility for all players and other officials inside the playing enclosure. Fences or ropes (particularly at amateur clubs) are generally used to mark the extent of this area, although in modern stadia this may include the entire arena floor or other designated space. The Laws, above all, require that the playing enclosure's surface be safe, whilst also permitting grass, sand, clay, snow or conforming artificial turf to be used; the surface would generally be uniform across both the playing area and perimeter area, although depending on how large the perimeter is, other surfaces such as dirt, artificial turf, etc. may be used outside of a "sliding" perimeter from the bounds of the playing area. #### Playing area For the most part, the "playing area" is where the majority of play occurs. The ball is generally considered live whilst in this area, so long as players do not infringe, with special rules applied to specific zones of the playing area. The playing area consists of: * The 'field of play", bounded by (but not including) the sidelines and goal-lines, and * One "in-goal" area at each end of the field, each bounded by, but not including, the extensions two parallel sidelines (known in this context as the "touch in-goal" lines) and the dead-ball line, and its other bound being the goal line (or "try line") which is included as part of the "in-goal" area. ##### Field of play A typical "field of play" is generally 100 metres long by 68–70 metres wide for senior rugby, depending on the specific requirements of each ground. The Laws require the field of play to be between 94 and 100 metres (103 and 109 yards) long, with a width of between 68 and 70 metres (74 and 77 yards). As other football codes, such as association football and rugby league, have specified a preferred or standard 68 metre width, this is often used unless a ground has been specifically designed to accommodate a 70-metre rugby field. 100 metres is the typical length, with a line (see below) often marked at halfway with "50" on it, representing 50 metres from each goal line. The variations have been allowed in the Laws, possibly to accommodate older grounds (perhaps even pre-metrification when yards and feet were specified) and developing nations. ##### Other lines and markings The field of play is divided by a solid "halfway" line, drawn perpendicular to the sidelines at their midpoint. A 0.5m line is marked perpendicular to the halfway lines at its midpoint, designating the spot where the kickoffs shall be taken. The areas between each goal line and the halfway line are known as "halves" as in other football codes. A pair of solid lines are also drawn perpendicular to the sidelines, 22 metres (formerly 25 yards) from each end of the field of play and called the 22-metre lines, or "22"s. An area at each end, also known as the "22", is bounded by, but does not include, the sidelines, goal line and 22-metre line. In this area, a defensive player who cleanly catches a ball kicked by the other team, without the ball having already touched the ground after the kick, is entitled to claim a free kick, or "mark". Additional broken or dashed lines (of 5 metre dash lengths, according to the Laws) are drawn in each half or on each side of, the field, each with specific purposes under the Laws: * "10-metre" lines: Dashed lines 10 metres either side of, and parallel to, the halfway line, designating the minimum distance a receiving team must retreat when receiving a kick-off, and the minimum distance a kick-off must travel to be legal. Equivalent to the 40-metre lines in rugby league but generally marked differently. * "5-metre" lines: Dashed lines 5 metres into the field of play, parallel to each goal line. Scrums can be packed no nearer to each goal line than this line, and referees will often penalise scrum and ruck infringements in this area more harshly as defending sides will often try to stifle the attacking side's breakdown play. * "Tram tracks/tramlines": Unnamed in the Laws and sometimes also referred to, confusingly, as the "5-metre" and "15-metre" lines, these two pairs of dashed lines are drawn parallel to each sideline, 5 metres and 15 metres, respectively, into the field of play from the nearer sideline, terminating at each of their respective ends' 5-metre line (parallel and adjacent to the goal line). The area between these lines are where players must stand when contesting a lineout throw. * Additionally, the area between the two perpendicular sets of "5-metre" lines (i.e. 5 metres from each sideline and 5 metres from each goal line) is designated the "scrum zone". Where an offence occurs outside this area and the non-infringing side wishes to pack a scrum, the mark of the scrum will be moved into the zone by the referee. Generally, points where the dashed lines intersect other lines will be marked with a "T" or cross shape, although the extensions of dashed lines are generally not drawn within 5 metres of the goal lines or sidelines, to allow a clear demarcation of the field of play's boundaries. The Laws require the playing area to be rectangular in shape, however variations may be permitted with the approval of relevant unions. A notable example is Chatswood Oval in Sydney, Australia, an elliptically shaped cricket ground which is the home of Gordon rugby club, that has curved dead-ball lines to maximise the available in-goal space. Where multiple sports share a field (e.g. a rugby league and a rugby union club sharing one field), lines may be overlaid on top of each other, sometimes in different colours. However, particularly for television, rugby union line markings are generally painted white. Some exceptions include the Wallabies (Australia's national team) who often have yellow markings. Local clubs may use black, yellow, or other colours on grass, with other surfaces possibly requiring different marking techniques. Unlike association football, where on-field advertising is strictly forbidden in the laws, World Rugby allows sponsors logos to be painted on the playing surface. This is another way in which clubs can make money in the professional era and is also often used by host nations, professional leagues and tournaments as additional revenue streams, particularly when games are broadcast. In recent years, augmented reality technology has been used to replace painting to protect the surface or save costs on painting fields, producing a similar effect for broadcast albeit sometimes with poorer results. #### In-goal areas The in-goal areas sit behind the goal lines, equivalent to American football's "end zones". The in-goal areas must be between 6 and 22 metres (6.6 and 24.1 yards) deep and cover the full width of the field. A ball grounded in this area by an attacking player will generally result in a try being awarded, unless there has been a previous infringement or the player has gone out-of-bounds whilst in possession of the ball. #### Perimeter area The perimeter area is considered "out-of-bounds" for the ball and the players, normally resulting in the non-infringing team receiving possession of the ball at a restart. The perimeter area can be divided into two areas: * "Touch": The perimeter area beyond the sidelines of the playing area, but between the goal lines. * "Touch-in-goal": The perimeter areas behind each goal line outside of the playing area. Some may refer to a ball which crosses the dead-ball lines as "dead", rather than touch-in-goal. For the purposes of determining if a ball is "out-of-bounds" (i.e. has left the playing area), the perimeter area extends indefinitely away from the playing area. When a ball or player goes into touch, a lineout throw is generally awarded to the opposition at the spot on the sideline where they left the field. Exceptions include a kick out "on the full" (i.e. the ball did not land in the field-of-play before going into touch) in which case the lineout would still take place on the sideline but back in line with where the ball was kicked, or when a team takes a free kick from a penalty where they would retain the right to throw-in. The perimeter area should be clear and free of obstructions and heavy, solid objects which could pose a danger to players for at least 5 metres from the playing area, according to the Laws. Players often leave the playing area whether accidentally or due to being forced off of the field, sometimes sliding or needing to slow down from a sprint. Many venues at elite levels leave larger spaces around the field to accommodate fitter and faster (or heavier) players. Fixed cameras on tripods and advertising hoardings are often the main culprits for injuring players in the perimeter area. ##### Flag posts Also required in the perimeter area are a set of 14 flag posts, each with a minimum height of 1.2 metres, marking the intersections of certain lines or other nominated distances. These are generally a plastic pole on a spring loaded or otherwise soft base, sometimes with a flag on top, covered in foam padding. Others may be moulded plastic or disposable cardboard. At lower levels, these flags may not be used, but are still specified in the Laws. Flags are placed as follows: * One flag post at each intersection of the touch-in-goal lines and the goal-lines (4 flags total) * One flag post at each intersection of the touch-in-goal lines and the dead-ball lines (4 flags total) * One flag post positioned 2 metres outside of both of the sidelines, in line with both of the 22-metre lines (4 flags total) * One flag post positioned 2 metres outside of both of the sidelines, in line with the halfway line (2 flags total) #### Goalposts Rugby goalposts are H-shaped and are situated in the middle of the goal lines at each end of the field. They consist of two vertical poles (known as "uprights"), generally made of steel or other metal but sometimes wood or a plastic, 5.6 metres (6.1 yd) apart, connected by a horizontal "crossbar" 3 metres (3.3 yd) above the ground. The minimum height for posts' uprights is 3.4 metres (3.7 yd), with taller posts generally seen. The bottom parts of each upright are generally wrapped in purpose-made padding to protect players from injury when coming into contact with the posts and creating another opportunity for sponsors. Until a Law change by World Rugby in 2020, it was possible for an attacking player to score a try by grounding the ball against the base of the upright as the padding was considered an extension of the goal line. ### Match structure At the beginning of the game, the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first. Play then starts with a dropkick, with the players chasing the ball into the opposition's territory, and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it. The dropkick must make contact with the ground before kicked. If the ball does not reach the opponent's 10-metre (11-yard) line 10 meters away, the opposing team has two choices: to have the ball kicked off again, or to have a scrum at the centre of the half-way line. If the player with the ball is tackled, frequently a ruck will result. Games are divided into 40-minute halves, with an intermission of not more than 15 minutes in the middle. The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break. Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time, so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes. The referee is responsible for keeping time, even when—as in many professional tournaments—he is assisted by an official time-keeper. If time expires while the ball is in play, the game continues until the ball is "dead", and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick, the game continues. In the knockout stages of rugby competitions, most notably the Rugby World Cup, two extra time periods of 10 minutes periods are played (with an interval of 5 minutes in between) if the game is tied after full-time. If scores are level after 100 minutes then the rules call for 20 minutes of sudden-death extra time to be played. If the sudden-death extra time period results in no scoring a kicking competition is used to determine the winner. However, no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has ever gone past 100 minutes into a sudden-death extra time period. ### Passing and kicking A player about to pass the ballKicking conversion after a try Forward passing (throwing the ball ahead to another player) is not allowed; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards. The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways—by kicking, by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul. Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked. A "knock-on" is committed when a player knocks the ball forward, and play is restarted with a scrum. Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory. When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play, the throw-in is taken where the ball went into touch. If the player kicks directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing in-field first) from within one's own 22-metre (24-yard) line, the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch, but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22-metre (24-yard) line, the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken. ### Breakdowns The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, by tackling them, and either bringing them to ground (which is frequently followed by a ruck) or contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). A ruck or maul is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law. **Tackling** A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds), and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap). Tacklers may not tackle an opponent who has jumped to catch a ball until the player has landed. **Rucking and Mauling** Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set. A ruck is similar to the maul, but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball. ### Set pieces #### Lineout When the ball leaves the side of the field, a line-out is awarded against the team which last touched the ball. Forward players from each team line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 and 15 m (5.5 and 16.4 yd) from the touchline. The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch. The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in. Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates. A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick. #### Scrum A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement. It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, if a player takes the ball over their own try line and puts the ball down, when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty. A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team crouching down and binding together in three rows, before interlocking with the opposing team. For each team, the front row consists of two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker. The two props are typically amongst the strongest players on the team. The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation. Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the *feed* rolls the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the *tunnel*. The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession. The side that wins possession can either keep the ball under their feet while driving the opposition back, in order to gain ground, or transfer the ball to the back of the scrum where it can be picked up by the number 8 or by the scrum-half. ### Officials and offences There are three match officials: a referee, and two assistant referees. The referees are commonly addressed as "Sir". The latter, formerly known as touch judges, had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone into "touch"; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas, such as watching for foul play and checking offside lines. In addition, for matches in high level competitions, there is often a television match official (TMO; popularly called the "video referee"), to assist with certain decisions, linked up to the referee by radio. The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decision. Common offences include tackling above the shoulders, collapsing a scrum, ruck or maul, not releasing the ball when on the ground, or being offside. The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty: a "tap" kick, when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand, allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it; a punt, when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand, for field position; a place-kick, when the kicker will attempt to score a goal; or a scrum. Players may be sent off (signalled by a red card) or temporarily suspended ("sin-binned") for ten minutes (yellow card) for foul play or repeated infringements, and may not be replaced. Occasionally, infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be "cited" by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments (usually suspension for a number of weeks) imposed on the infringing player. ### Replacements and substitutions During the match, players may be replaced (for injury) or substituted (for tactical reasons). A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily, to replace a player who has a blood injury or has suffered a concussion, or permanently, if he is replacing a front-row forward. In international matches, eight replacements are allowed; in domestic or cross-border tournaments, at the discretion of the responsible national union(s), the number of replacements may be nominated to a maximum of eight, of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions. Prior to 2016, all substitutions, no matter the cause, counted against the limit during a match. In 2016, World Rugby changed the law so that substitutions made to replace a player deemed unable to continue due to foul play by the opposition would no longer count against the match limit. This change was introduced in January of that year in the Southern Hemisphere and June in the Northern Hemisphere. Equipment --------- The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself, a rugby shirt (also known as a "jersey"), rugby shorts, socks, and boots. The rugby ball is oval in shape (technically a prolate spheroid), and is made up of four panels. The ball was historically made of leather, but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material. World Rugby lays out specific dimensions for the ball, 280–300 mm (11–12 in) in length, 740–770 mm (29–30 in) in circumference of length and 580–620 mm (23–24 in) in circumference of width. Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch. The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges. Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouthguards, which are worn by almost all players, and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations. Other protective items that are permitted include headgear; thin (not more than 10 mm thick), non-rigid shoulder pads and shin guards; which are worn underneath socks. Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks. Female players may also wear chest pads. Although not worn for protection, some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip. It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game. Governing bodies ---------------- The international governing body of rugby union (and associated games such as sevens) is World Rugby (WR). The WR headquarters are in Dublin, Ireland. WR, founded in 1886, governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game's laws and rankings. As of February 2014, WR (then known as the IRB, for International Rugby Board) recorded 119 unions in its membership, 101 full members and 18 associate member countries. According to WR, rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries. WR controls the Rugby World Cup, the Women's Rugby World Cup, Rugby World Cup Sevens, HSBC Sevens Series, HSBC Women's Sevens Series, World Under 20 Championship, World Under 20 Trophy, Nations Cup and the Pacific Nations Cup. WR holds votes to decide where each of these events are to be held, except in the case of the Sevens World Series for men and women, for which WR contracts with several national unions to hold individual events. Six regional associations, which are members of WR, form the next level of administration; these are: * Rugby Africa, formerly Confederation of African Rugby (CAR) * Asia Rugby, formerly Asian Rugby Football Union (ARFU) * Rugby Americas North, formerly North America Caribbean Rugby Association (NACRA) * Rugby Europe, previously Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby (FIRA-AER) * Oceania Rugby, formerly Federation of Oceania Rugby Unions (FORU) * Sudamérica Rugby, formerly Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby (*South American Rugby Confederation*, or CONSUR) SANZAAR (South Africa, New Zealand, Australia and Argentina Rugby) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union, New Zealand Rugby, Rugby Australia and the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship (formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina). Although UAR initially had no representation on the former SANZAR board, it was granted input into the organisation's issues, especially with regard to The Rugby Championship, and became a full SANZAAR member in 2016 (when the country entered Super Rugby). National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to WR. Since 2016, the WR Council has 40 seats. A total of 11 unions—the eight foundation unions of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France, plus Argentina, Canada and Italy—have two seats each. In addition, the six regional associations have two seats each. Four more unions—Georgia, Japan, Romania and the USA—have one seat each. Finally, the chairman and Vice Chairman, who usually come from one of the eight foundation unions (although the current Vice Chairman, Agustín Pichot, is with the non-foundation Argentine union) have one vote each. Global reach ------------ The earliest countries to adopt rugby union were England, the country of inception, and the other three Home Nations, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. The spread of rugby union as a global sport has its roots in the exporting of the game by British expatriates, military personnel, and overseas university students. The first rugby club in France was formed by British residents in Le Havre in 1872, while the next year Argentina recorded its first game: 'Banks' v 'City' in Buenos Aires. Eight countries have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport; they are Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, Wales and South Africa. ### Oceania A rugby club was formed in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia in 1864; while the sport was said to have been introduced to New Zealand by Charles Monro in 1870, who played rugby while a student at Christ's College, Finchley. Several island nations have embraced the sport of rugby. Rugby was first played in Fiji circa 1884 by European and Fijian soldiers of the Native Constabulary at Ba on Viti Levu island. Fiji then sent their first overseas team to Samoa in 1924, who in turn set up their own union in 1924. Along with Tonga, other countries to have national rugby teams in Oceania include the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands. ### North America and Caribbean In North America a club formed in Montreal in 1868, Canada's first club. The city of Montreal also played its part in the introduction of the sport in the United States, when students of McGill University played against a team from Harvard University in 1874. The two variants of gridiron football — Canadian football and, to a lesser extent, American football — were once considered forms of rugby football but are seldom now referred to as such. In fact, the governing body of Canadian football, Football Canada, was known as the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU) as late as 1967, more than fifty years after the sport parted ways with the established rules of rugby union. The Grey Cup, the trophy awarded to the victorious team playing in the namesake championship of the professional Canadian Football League (CFL), was originally awarded to the champion of the CRU. The two strongest leagues in the CRU, the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union in Eastern Canada and the Western Interprovincial Football Union in Western Canada, evolved into the present day CFL. Although the exact date of arrival of rugby union in Trinidad and Tobago is unknown, their first club Northern RFC was formed in 1923, a national team was playing by 1927 and due to a cancelled tour to British Guiana in 1933, switched their venue to Barbados; introducing rugby to the island. Other Atlantic countries to play rugby union include Jamaica and Bermuda. Rugby union is the fastest growing college sport and sport in general in the US. Major League Rugby is the top professional rugby union competition in the US and Canada. ### Europe The growth of rugby union in Europe outside the 6 Nations countries in terms of playing numbers, attendances, and viewership has been sporadic. Historically, British and Irish home teams played the Southern Hemisphere teams of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, as well as France. The rest of Europe were left to play amongst themselves. During a period when it had been isolated by the British and Irish Unions, France, lacking international competition, became the only European team from the top tier to regularly play the other European countries; mainly Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Romania, Poland, Italy and Czechoslovakia. In 1934, instigated by the French Rugby Federation, FIRA (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) was formed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the IRFB. The founding members were Italy, Romania, Netherlands, Portugal, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden. Other European rugby playing nations of note include Russia, whose first officially recorded match is marked by an encounter between Dynamo Moscow and the Moscow Institute of Physical Education in 1933. Rugby union in Portugal also took hold between the First and Second World Wars, with a Portuguese National XV set up in 1922 and an official championship started in 1927. In 1999, FIRA agreed to place itself under the auspices of the IRB, transforming itself into a strictly European organising body. Accordingly, it changed its name to FIRA–AER (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby). It adopted its current name of Rugby Europe in 2014. ### South America Although Argentina is the best-known rugby playing nation in South America, founding the Argentine Rugby Union in 1899, several other countries on the continent have a long history. Rugby had been played in Brazil since the end of the 19th century, but the game was played regularly only from 1926, when São Paulo beat Santos in an inter-city match. It took Uruguay several aborted attempts to adapt to rugby, led mainly by the efforts of the Montevideo Cricket Club; these efforts succeeded in 1951 with the formation of a national league and four clubs. Other South American countries that formed a rugby union include Chile (1948), and Paraguay (1968). Súper Liga Americana de Rugby is the professional Rugby union competition in South America. ### Asia Many Asian countries have a tradition of playing rugby dating from the British Empire. India began playing rugby in the early 1870s, the Calcutta Football Club forming in 1873. However, with the departure of a local British army regiment, interest in rugby diminished in the area. In 1878, The Calcutta Football Club was disbanded, and rugby in India faltered. Sri Lanka claims to have founded their union in 1878, and although little official information from the period is available, the team won the All-India cup in Madras in 1920. The first recorded match in Malaysia was in 1892, but the first confirmation of rugby is the existence of the *HMS Malaya Cup* which was first presented in 1922 and is still awarded to the winners of the Malay sevens. Rugby union was introduced to Japan in 1899 by two Cambridge students: Ginnosuke Tanaka and Edward Bramwell Clarke. The Japan RFU was founded in 1926 and its place in rugby history was cemented when Japan hosted the 2019 World Cup. It was the first country outside the Commonwealth, Ireland and France to host the event, and was viewed by the IRB as an opportunity for rugby union to extend its reach, particularly in Asia. Other Asian playing countries of note include Singapore, South Korea, China and The Philippines, while the former British colony of Hong Kong is notable within rugby for its development of the rugby sevens game, especially the Hong Kong Sevens tournament which was founded in 1976. Rugby in the Middle East and the Gulf States has its history in the 1950s, with clubs formed by British and French Services stationed in the region after the Second World War. When these servicemen left, the clubs and teams were kept alive by young professionals, mostly Europeans, working in these countries. The official union of Oman was formed in 1971. Bahrain founded its union a year later, while in 1975 the Dubai Sevens, the Gulf's leading rugby tournament, was created. Rugby remains a minority sport in the region with Israel and the United Arab Emirates, as of 2019, being the only member union from the Middle East to be included in the IRB World Rankings. ### Africa In 1875, rugby was introduced to South Africa by British soldiers garrisoned in Cape Town. The game spread quickly across the country, displacing Winchester College football as the sport of choice in South Africa and spreading to nearby Zimbabwe. South African settlers also brought the game with them to Namibia and competed against British administrators in British East Africa. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the sport in Africa was spread by settlers and colonials who often adopted a "whites-only" policy to playing the game. This resulted in rugby being viewed as a bourgeois sport by the indigenous people with limited appeal. Despite this enclaves of black participation developed notably in the Eastern Cape and in Harare. The earliest countries to see the playing of competitive rugby include South Africa, and neighbouring Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe), which formed the Rhodesia Rugby Football Union in 1895 and became a regular stop for touring British and New Zealand sides. In more recent times the sport has been embraced by several African nations. In the early 21st century Madagascar has experienced crowds of 40,000 at national matches, while Namibia, whose history of rugby can be dated from 1915, have qualified for the final stages of the World Cup four times since 1999. Other African nations to be represented in the World Rugby Rankings as Member Unions include Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia. South Africa and Kenya are among the 15 "core teams" that participate in every event of the men's World Rugby Sevens Series. Women's rugby union ------------------- Records of women's rugby football date from the late 19th century, with the first documented source being Emily Valentine's writings, in which she states that she set up a rugby team in Portora Royal School in Enniskillen, Ireland in 1887. Although there are reports of early women's matches in New Zealand and France, one of the first notable games to prove primary evidence was the 1917 war-time encounter between Cardiff Ladies and Newport Ladies; a photo of which shows the Cardiff team before the match at the Cardiff Arms Park. Since the 1980s, the game has grown in popularity among female athletes, and by 2010, according to World Rugby, women's rugby was being played in over 100 countries. The English-based Women's Rugby Football Union (WRFU), responsible for women's rugby in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, was founded in 1983, and is the oldest formally organised national governing body for women's rugby. This was replaced in 1994 by the Rugby Football Union for Women (RFUW) in England with each of the other Home Nations governing their own countries. The premier international competition in rugby union for women is the Women's Rugby World Cup, first held in 1991; from 1994 through 2014, it was held every four years. After the 2014 event, the tournament was brought forward a year to 2017 to avoid clashing with other sporting cycles, in particular the Rugby World Cup Sevens competition. The Women's Rugby World Cup returned to a four-year cycle after 2017, with future competitions to be held in the middle year of the men's World Cup cycle. Major international competitions -------------------------------- ### Rugby World Cup The most important competition in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup, a men's tournament that has taken place every four years since the inaugural event in 1987. South Africa are the reigning champions, having defeated England in the final of the 2019 Rugby World Cup in Yokohama. New Zealand and South Africa have each won the title three times (New Zealand: 1987, 2011, 2015; South Africa: 1995, 2007, 2019), Australia have won twice (1991 and 1999), and England once (2003). England is the only team from the Northern Hemisphere to have won the Rugby World Cup. The Rugby World Cup has continued to grow since its inception in 1987. The first tournament, in which 16 teams competed for the title, was broadcast to 17 countries with an accumulated total of 230 million television viewers. Ticket sales during the pool stages and finals of the same tournament was less than a million. The 2007 World Cup was contested by 94 countries with ticket sales of 3,850,000 over the pool and final stage. The accumulated television audience for the event, then broadcast to 200 countries, was a claimed 4.2 billion. The 2019 Rugby World Cup took place in Japan between 20 September and 2 November. It was the ninth edition and the first time the tournament has been held in Asia. ### Regional tournaments Major international competitions are the Six Nations Championship and The Rugby Championship, held in Europe and the Southern Hemisphere respectively. The Six Nations is an annual competition involving the European teams England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales. Each country plays the other five once. Following the first internationals between England and Scotland, Ireland and Wales began competing in the 1880s, forming the *Home International Championships*. France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term *Five Nations* first appeared. However, the Home Nations (England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results, allegations of professionalism and concerns over on-field violence. France then rejoined in 1939–1940, though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years. France has played in all the tournaments since WWII, the first of which was played in 1947. In 2000, Italy became the sixth nation in the contest and Rome's Stadio Olimpico has replaced Stadio Flaminio as the venue for their home games since 2013. The Rugby Championship is the Southern Hemisphere's annual international series for that region's top national teams. From its inception in 1996 through 2011, it was known as the Tri Nations, as it featured the hemisphere's traditional powers of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. These teams have dominated world rankings in recent years, and many considered the Tri Nations to be the toughest competition in international rugby. The Tri Nations was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice. In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times, though in 2007 and 2011 the teams played each other only twice, as both were World Cup years. Since Argentina's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup, after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament, SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australian Rugby) invited the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012. The competition has been officially rechristened as The Rugby Championship beginning with the 2012 edition. The competition reverted to the Tri Nations' original home-and-away format, but now involving four teams. In World Cup years, an abbreviated tournament is held in which each team plays the others only once. In 2020, the "Tri Nations" format was temporarily revived due to the withdrawal of South Africa owing to the COVID-19 pandemic. ### Rugby within multi-sport events Rugby union was played at the Olympic Games in 1900, 1908, 1920 and 1924. As per Olympic rules, the nations of Scotland, Wales and England were not allowed to play separately as they are not sovereign states. In 1900, France won the gold, beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17. In 1908, Australia defeated Great Britain, claiming the gold medal, the score being 32 points to three. In 1920, the United States, fielding a team with many players new to the sport of rugby, upset France in a shock win, eight points to zero. In 1924, the United States again defeated France 17 to 3, becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport. In 2009 the International Olympic Committee voted with a majority of 81 to 8 that rugby union be reinstated as an Olympic sport in at least the 2016 and 2020 games, but in the sevens, 4-day tournament format. This is something the rugby world has aspired to for a long time and Bernard Lapasset, president of the International Rugby Board, said the Olympic gold medal would be considered to be "the pinnacle of our sport" (Rugby Sevens). Rugby sevens has been played at the Commonwealth Games since the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur. The most gold medal holders are New Zealand who have won the competition on four successive occasions until South Africa beat them in 2014. Rugby union has also been an Asian Games event since the 1998 games in Bangkok, Thailand. In the 1998 and 2002 editions of the games, both the usual fifteen-a-side variety and rugby sevens were played, but from 2006 onwards, only rugby sevens was retained. In 2010, the women's rugby sevens event was introduced. The event is likely to remain a permanent fixture of the Asian Games due to elevation of rugby sevens as an Olympic sport from the 2016 Olympics onwards. The present gold medal holders in the sevens tournament, held in 2014, are Japan in the men's event and China in the women's. ### Women's international rugby Women's international rugby union began in 1982, with a match between France and the Netherlands played in Utrecht. As of 2009 over six hundred women's internationals have been played by over forty different nations. The first Women's Rugby World Cup was held in Wales in 1991, and was won by the United States. The second tournament took place in 1994, and from that time through 2014 was held every four years. The New Zealand Women's team then won four straight World Cups (1998, 2002, 2006, 2010) before England won in 2014. Following the 2014 event, World Rugby moved the next edition of the event to 2017, with a new four-year cycle from that point forward. New Zealand are the current World Cup holders. As well as the Women's Rugby World Cup there are also other regular tournaments, including a Six Nations, run in parallel to the men's competition. The Women's Six Nations, first played in 1996 has been dominated by England, who have won the tournament on 14 occasions, including a run of seven consecutive wins from 2006 to 2012. However, since then, England have won only in 2017; reigning champion France have won in each even-numbered year (2014, 2016, 2018) whilst Ireland won in 2013 and 2015. Professional rugby union ------------------------ Rugby union has been professionalised since 1995. The following table shows professional and semi-professional rugby union competitions. Professional rugby competitions| Competition | Teams | Countries | Average Attendance | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Super Rugby | 12 | New Zealand (5), Australia (5), Fiji (1), Pacific Islands (1) | 20,384 | | Premiership | 10 | England | 15,065 | | Japan Rugby League One | 12 | Japan | 14,952 (2020) | | Top 14 | 14 | France | 14,055 (2019–2020) | | Currie Cup | 8 | South Africa | 11,125 | | United Rugby Championship | 16 | Ireland (4), Wales (4), Scotland (2), Italy (2), South Africa (4) | 8,586 | | Bunnings NPC | 14 | New Zealand | 7,203 | | Rugby Pro D2 | 16 | France | 4,222 | | RFU Championship | 12 | England | 2,738 | | Major League Rugby | 12 | Canada (1), United States (11) | 2,300 | | Didi 10 | 10 | Georgia | Unknown | | Rugby Premier League | 10 | Russia | Unknown | | CEC Bank SuperLiga | 14 | Romania | Unknown | | Super Rugby Americas | 7 | Argentina (2), Uruguay (1), Brazil (1), Chile (1), Paraguay (1), United States (1) | Unknown | | 1. ↑ Super Rugby peaked at 18 teams in 2016 and 2017, but reverted to 15 in 2018 with the loss of two teams from South Africa and one from Australia. 2. ↑ The two South African teams that were dropped from Super Rugby after its 2017 season joined the renamed Pro14 for the 2017–18 season. 3. ↑ (in 2018) Variants -------- Rugby union has spawned several variants of the full-contact, 15-a-side game. The two most common differences in adapted versions are fewer players and reduced player contact. The oldest variant is rugby sevens (sometimes 7s or VIIs), a fast-paced game which originated in Melrose, Scotland in 1883. In rugby sevens, there are only seven players per side, and each half is normally seven minutes. Major tournaments include the Hong Kong Sevens and Dubai Sevens, both held in areas not normally associated with the highest levels of the 15-a-side game. A more recent variant of the sport is rugby tens (10s or Xs), a Malaysian invention with ten players per side. Touch rugby, in which "tackles" are made by simply touching the ball carrier with two hands, is popular both as a training game and more formally as a mixed sex version of the sport played by both children and adults. Several variants have been created to introduce the sport to children with a less physical contact. Mini rugby is a version aimed at fostering the sport in children. It is played with only eight players and on a smaller pitch. Tag Rugby is a version in which the players wear a belt with two tags attached by velcro, the removal of either counting as a 'tackle'. Tag Rugby also varies in that kicking the ball is not allowed. Similar to Tag Rugby, American Flag Rugby, (AFR), is a mixed gender, non-contact imitation of rugby union designed for American children entering grades K-9. Both American Flag Rugby and Mini Rugby differ from Tag Rugby in that they introduce more advanced elements of rugby union as the participants age. **Ten man rugby** is an extreme style of play in rugby union in which the team uses the power of its forwards to dominate possession, scrums and line-outs, and the kicking ability of its fly-half to attain position. The four three-quarter backs and the full back are not usually used in attack; if they are, this is usually restricted to the inside centre on the crash ball, and chasing kicks, especially garryowens. Ten man rugby is a very conservative style of play, and not particularly entertaining for the spectator, but can be effective if a team has a strong pack and a good 10, and perhaps less effective backs. The term "ten man rugby" is somewhat derogatory, though most teams will employ these tactics to a degree, especially in foul weather, but usually not exclusively. Other less formal variants include beach rugby and snow rugby. Influence on other sports ------------------------- Rugby league was formed after the Northern Union broke from the Rugby Football Union in a disagreement over payment to players. It went on to change its laws and became a football code in its own right. The two sports continue to influence each other to this day. American football and Canadian football are derived from early forms of rugby football. Australian rules football was influenced by rugby football and other games originating in English public schools. James Naismith took aspects of many sports including rugby to invent basketball. The most obvious contribution is the jump ball's similarity to the line-out as well as the underhand shooting style that dominated the early years of the sport. Naismith played rugby at McGill University. Swedish football was a code whose rules were a mix of Association and Rugby football rules. Rugby lends its name to wheelchair rugby, a full-contact sport which contains elements of rugby such as crossing a try line with the ball to score. Statistics and records ---------------------- According to a 2011 report by the Centre for the International Business of Sport, over four and a half million people play rugby union or one of its variants organised by the IRB. This is an increase of 19 percent since the previous report in 2007. The report also claimed that since 2007 participation has grown by 33 percent in Africa, 22 percent in South America and 18 percent in Asia and North America. In 2014 the IRB published a breakdown of the total number of players worldwide by national unions. It recorded a total of 6.6 million players globally, of those, 2.36 million were registered members playing for a club affiliated to their country's union. The 2016 World Rugby Year in Review reported 8.5 million players, of which 3.2 million were registered union players and 1.9 million were registered club players; 22% of all players were female. The most capped international player from the tier 1 nations is Welsh captain Alun Wyn Jones who has played over 150 internationals. While the top scoring tier 1 international player is New Zealand's Dan Carter, who has amassed 1442 points during his career. In April 2010 Lithuania which is a second tier rugby nation, broke the record of consecutive international wins for second tier rugby nations. In 2016, the All Blacks of New Zealand set the new record 18 consecutive test wins among tier 1 rugby nations, bettering their previous consecutive run of 17. This record was equalled by England on 11 March 2017 with a win over Scotland at Twickenham. The highest scoring international match between two recognised unions was Hong Kong's 164–13 victory over Singapore on 27 October 1994. While the largest winning margin of 152 points is held by two countries, Japan (a 155–3 win over Chinese Taipei) and Argentina (152–0 over Paraguay) both in 2002. The record attendance for a rugby union game was set on 15 July 2000 in which New Zealand defeated Australia 39–35 in a Bledisloe Cup game at Stadium Australia in Sydney before 109,874 fans. The record attendance for a match in Europe of 104,000 (at the time a world record) was set on 1 March 1975 when Scotland defeated Wales 12–10 at Murrayfield in Edinburgh during the 1975 Five Nations Championship. This crowd however is an estimate and contemporaneous newspaper accounts list a crowd of 80,000 only. The record attendance for a domestic club match is 99,124, set when Racing 92 defeated Toulon in the 2016 Top 14 final on 24 June at Camp Nou in Barcelona. The match had been moved from its normal site of Stade de France near Paris due to scheduling conflicts with France's hosting of UEFA Euro 2016. In culture ---------- Thomas Hughes 1857 novel *Tom Brown's Schooldays*, set at Rugby School, includes a rugby football match, also portrayed in the 1940s film of the same name. James Joyce mentions Irish team Bective Rangers in several of his works, including *Ulysses* (1922) and *Finnegans Wake* (1939), while his 1916 semi-autobiographical work *A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man* has an account of Ireland international James Magee. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, in his 1924 Sherlock Holmes tale *The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire*, mentions that Dr Watson played rugby for Blackheath. Henri Rousseau's 1908 work *Joueurs de football* shows two pairs of rugby players competing. Other French artists to have represented the sport in their works include Albert Gleizes' *Les Joueurs de football* (1912), Robert Delaunay's *Football. L'Équipe de Cardiff* (1916) and André Lhote's *Partie de Rugby* (1917). The 1928 Gold Medal for Art at the Amsterdam Olympics was won by Luxembourg's Jean Jacoby for his work *Rugby*. In film, Ealing Studios' 1949 comedy *A Run for Your Money* and the 1979 BBC Wales television film *Grand Slam* both centre on fans attending a match. Films that explore the sport in more detail include independent production *Old Scores* (1991) and *Forever Strong* (2008). *Invictus* (2009), based on John Carlin's book *Playing the Enemy*, explores the events of the 1995 Rugby World Cup and Nelson Mandela's attempt to use the sport to connect South Africa's people post-apartheid. In public art and sculpture there are many works dedicated to the sport. There is a 27 feet (8.2 m) bronze statue of a rugby line-out by pop artist Gerald Laing at Twickenham and one of rugby administrator Sir Tasker Watkins at the Millennium Stadium. Rugby players to have been honoured with statues include Gareth Edwards in Cardiff and Danie Craven in Stellenbosch. See also -------- * Experimental law variations * International Rugby Hall of Fame, now merged with the former IRB Hall of Fame * International rugby union eligibility rules * International rugby union player records * International rugby union team records * List of international rugby union teams * List of oldest rugby union competitions * List of rugby union terms * World Rugby Hall of Fame, a merger of the IRB and International Rugby Halls of Fame * Concussions in rugby union * List of rugby union stadiums by capacity References ---------- **Printed sources** * *Encyclopedia Canadiana vol. 8*. Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal: Grolier of Canada. 1972. ISBN 0-7172-1601-2. * Bath, Richard, ed. (1997). *Complete Book of Rugby*. Seven Oaks Ltd. ISBN 1-86200-013-1. * Biscombe, Tony; Drewett, Peter (2009). *Rugby: Steps to Success*. Human Kinetics. * Bompa, Tudor; Claro, Frederick (2008). *Periodization in Rugby*. Meyer and Meyer Sport. * Brown, Mathew; Guthrie, Patrick; Growden, Greg (2010). *Rugby For Dummies*. John Wiley and Sons. * Godwin, Terry; Rhys, Chris (1981). *The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats*. Enfield: Guinness Superlatives Ltd. ISBN 0-85112-214-0. * Griffiths, John (1987). *The Phoenix Book of International Rugby Records*. London: Phoenix House. ISBN 0-460-07003-7. * Jones, John R; Golesworthy, Maurice (1976). *Encyclopedia of Rugby Union Football*. London: Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7091-5394-5. * Marshall, Howard; Jordon, J.P. (1951). *Oxford v Cambridge, The Story of the University Rugby Match*. London: Clerke & Cockeran. * Midgley, Ruth (1979). *The Official World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games*. London: Diagram Group. ISBN 0-7092-0153-2. * Richards, Huw (2007). *A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union*. Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84596-255-5. * Stubbs, Ray (2009). *The Sports Book*. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-4053-3697-0. * Thomas, J.B.G.; Rowe, Harding (1954). *On Tour*. Essex: Anchor Press Ltd. **Electronic sources**

Rugby union

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union

An **unidentified flying object** (**UFO**), or **unexplained anomalous phenomenon** (**UAP**), is any perceived aerial phenomenon that cannot be immediately identified or explained. Upon investigation, most UFOs are identified as known objects or atmospheric phenomena, while a small number remain unexplained. The U.S. government currently has two entities dedicated to UAP (or UFO) data collection and analysis: NASA's UAP independent study team and the All-domain Anomaly Resolution Office. Scientists and skeptic organizations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry have provided prosaic explanations for a large number of claimed UFOs being caused by natural phenomena, human technology, delusions, or hoaxes. Small but vocal groups of ufologists favour unconventional or pseudoscientific hypotheses, often claiming that UFOs are evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence, technologically advanced cryptids or interdimensional contact. Beliefs surrounding UFOs have inspired parts of new religions. While unusual sightings have been reported in the sky throughout history, UFOs became culturally prominent after World War II, escalating during the Space Age. The 20th century saw studies and investigations into UFO reports conducted by governments (such as Project Blue Book in the United States and Project Condign in the United Kingdom), as well as by organisations and individuals. History ------- ### Early history before the 20th century People have observed the sky throughout history, and have sometimes seen unusual sights, such as comets, bright meteors, one or more of the five planets that can be readily seen with the naked eye, planetary conjunctions, and atmospheric optical phenomena such as parhelia and lenticular clouds. One particularly famous example is Halley's Comet: this was recorded first by Chinese astronomers in 240 BC and possibly as early as 467 BC. As it reaches the inner solar system every 76 years, it was often identified as a unique isolated event in ancient historical documents whose authors were unaware that it was a repeating phenomenon. Such accounts in history often were treated as supernatural portents, angels, or other religious omens. While UFO enthusiasts have sometimes commented on the narrative similarities between certain religious symbols in medieval paintings and UFO reports, the canonical and symbolic character of such images is documented by art historians placing more conventional religious interpretations on such images. Some examples of pre-modern observations of unusual aerial phenomena: * Julius Obsequens was a Roman writer who is believed to have lived in the middle of the fourth century AD. The only work associated with his name is the *Liber de prodigiis* (Book of Prodigies), completely extracted from an epitome, or abridgment, written by Livy; *De prodigiis* was constructed as an account of the wonders and portents that occurred in Rome between 249 and 12 BCE. An aspect of Obsequens' work that has inspired excitement in some UFO enthusiasts is that he makes reference to things moving through the sky. It is possible that it is a description of meteors, and, since Obsequens is writing some 400 years after the events he describes, the text is not an eyewitness account. * A woodcut by Hans Glaser that appeared in a broadsheet in 1561 has been featured in popular culture as the "celestial phenomenon over Nuremberg" and connected to various ancient astronaut claims. According to writer Jason Colavito, the image represents "a secondhand depiction of a particularly gaudy sundog", a known atmospheric optical phenomenon. A similar report comes from 1566 over Basel and, indeed, in the 15th and 16th centuries, many leaflets wrote of "miracles" and "sky spectacles". * On January 25, 1878, the *Denison Daily News* printed an article in which John Martin, a local farmer, had reported seeing a large, dark, circular object resembling a balloon flying "at wonderful speed". Martin, according to the newspaper account, said it appeared to be about the size of a saucer from his perspective, one of the first uses of the word "saucer" in association with a UFO. * From November 1896 to April 1897, United States newspapers carried numerous reports of "mystery airships" that are reminiscent of modern UFO waves. Scores of people even reported talking to the pilots. Some people feared that Thomas Edison had created an artificial star that could fly around the country. On April 16, 1897, a letter was found that purported to be an enciphered communication between an airship operator and Edison. When asked his opinion of such reports, Edison said, "You can take it from me that it is a pure fake." The coverage of Edison's denial marked the end of major newspaper coverage of the airships in this period. ### 20th century and after In the Pacific and European theatres during World War II, round, glowing fireballs known as "foo fighters" were reported by Allied and Axis pilots. Some proposed Allied explanations at the time included St. Elmo's fire, the planet Venus, hallucinations from oxygen deprivation, or German secret weapons. In 1946, more than 2,000 reports were collected, primarily by the Swedish military, of unidentified aerial objects over the Scandinavian nations, along with isolated reports from France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Greece. The objects were referred to as "Russian hail" (and later as "ghost rockets") because it was thought the mysterious objects were possibly Russian tests of captured German V1 or V2 rockets. Most were identified as natural phenomena as meteors. The popular UFO craze by many accounts began with a media frenzy surrounding the reports on June 24, 1947, that a civilian pilot named Kenneth Arnold reported seeing nine objects flying in formation near Mount Rainier in the United States. At the time, he claimed he described the objects flying in a saucer-like fashion, leading to newspaper accounts of "flying saucers" and "flying discs". Soon, reports of flying saucer sightings became a daily occurrence with one particularly famous example being the Roswell incident where remnants of a downed observation balloon were recovered by a farmer and confiscated by military personnel. The story received scant attention at the time, but interest in it revived in the 1990s with the publicity surrounding the television broadcast of an *Alien autopsy* video marketed as "real footage" but later admitted to be a staged "re-enactment". Various UFO claimants said that they had interacted with the aliens driving the spacecraft and a few said they had visited the crafts themselves. In 1961, the first alien abduction account was sensationalized when Barney and Betty Hill went under hypnosis after seeing a UFO and reported recovered memories of their experience that became ever more elaborate as the years went by. As media accounts and speculation were running rampant in the US, by 1953 intelligence officials (Robertson Panel) worried that "genuine incursions" by enemy aircraft "over U.S. territory could be lost in a maelstrom of kooky hallucination" of UFO reports. Media were enlisted to help debunk and discourage UFO reports, culminating in a 1966 TV special, “UFO: Friend, Foe or Fantasy?”, in which Walter Cronkite "patiently" explained to viewers that UFOs were fantasy. Cronkite enlisted Carl Sagan and J. Allen Hynek, who told Cronkite, “To this time, there is no valid scientific proof that we have been visited by spaceships". Fellow NICAP official Donald E. Keyhoe wrote that Vice Admiral Roscoe Hillenkoetter, the first director of the CIA, "wanted public disclosure of UFO evidence". A 1969 National Academy of Sciences panel reviewed the Condon Report and concurred with its finding, observing that, “While further study of particular aspects of the topic (e.g., atmospheric phenomena) may be useful, a study of UFOs in general is not a promising way to expand scientific understanding of the phenomena.” Referencing the panel's conclusions, the Pentagon announced that it would no longer investigate UFO reports. According to Keith Kloor, the "allure of flying saucers" remained popular with the public into the 1970s, spurring production of such sci-fi films, as *Close Encounters of the Third Kind* and *Alien*, which "continued to stoke public fascination". Kloor writes that by the late 1990s, "other big UFO subthemes had been prominently introduced into pop culture, such as the abduction phenomenon and government conspiracy narrative, via best-selling books and, of course, *The X-Files*". #### Notable cases and incidents ##### Britain * The Rendlesham Forest incident was a series of reported sightings of unexplained lights near Rendlesham Forest in Suffolk, England in late December 1980 which became linked with claims of UFO landings. ##### France The most notable cases of UFO sightings in France include: * the Valensole UFO incident in 1965. * the Trans-en-Provence Case in 1981. ##### United States * In the Kecksburg UFO incident, Pennsylvania (1965), residents reported seeing an object crash in the area. * In 1975, Travis Walton claimed to be abducted by aliens. The movie *Fire in the Sky* (1993) was based on this event, but greatly embellished the original account. * The "Phoenix Lights" on March 13, 1997 #### Astronomer reports The USAF's Project Blue Book files indicate that approximately 1% of all unknown reports came from amateur and professional astronomers or other telescope users (such as missile trackers or surveyors). In 1952, astronomer J. Allen Hynek, then a consultant to Blue Book, conducted a small survey of 45 fellow professional astronomers. Five reported UFO sightings (about 11%). In the 1970s, astrophysicist Peter A. Sturrock conducted two large surveys of the AIAA and American Astronomical Society (AAS). About 5% of the members polled indicated that they had had UFO sightings. Astronomer Clyde Tombaugh, who saw six UFOs, including three green fireballs, supported the extraterrestrial hypothesis for UFOs and said scientists who dismissed it without study were "unscientific". Another astronomer, Lincoln LaPaz, headed the United States Air Force's investigation into green fireballs and other UFO phenomena in New Mexico. LaPaz reported two personal sightings, of a green fireball and a disc. (Both Tombaugh and LaPaz were part of Hynek's 1952 survey.) Hynek took two photos through the window of a commercial airliner of a disc that seemed to keep pace with his aircraft. Astronomer Andrew Fraknoi rejected the hypothesis that UFOs are extraterrestrial spacecraft and responded to the "onslaught of credulous coverage" in books, films and entertainment by teaching his students to apply critical thinking to such claims, advising them that "being a good scientist is not unlike being a good detective". According to Fraknoi, UFO reports "might at first seem mysterious", but "the more you investigate, the more likely you are to find that there is LESS to these stories than meets the eye". In a 1980 survey of 1800 members of amateur astronomer associations by Gert Helb and Hynek for CUFOS, 24% responded "yes" to the question "Have you ever observed an object which resisted your most exhaustive efforts at identification?" #### Famous hoaxes * The Maury Island incident * George Adamski, over the space of two decades, made various claims about his meetings with telepathic aliens from nearby planets. He claimed photographs of the far side of the Moon taken by the Soviet lunar probe Luna 3 in 1959 were fake, and that there were cities, trees and snow-capped mountains on the far side of the Moon. Among copycats was a shadowy British figure named Cedric Allingham. * Ed Walters, a building contractor, in 1987 allegedly perpetrated a hoax in Gulf Breeze, Florida. Walters claimed at first having seen a small UFO flying near his home and took some photographs of the craft. Walters reported and documented a series of UFO sightings over a period of three weeks and took several photographs. These sightings became famous, and are collectively referred to as the Gulf Breeze UFO incident. Three years later, in 1990, after the Walters family had moved, the new residents discovered a model of a UFO poorly hidden in the attic that bore an undeniable resemblance to the craft in Walters' photographs. Most investigators, like the forensic photo expert William G. Hyzer, now consider the sightings to be a hoax. Terminology ----------- According to Merriam-Webster, "the term UAP first appeared in the late 1960s, while UFO has been around since 1947". The Oxford English Dictionary defines a UFO as "An unidentified flying object; a 'flying saucer'". The first published book to use the word was authored by Donald E. Keyhoe. The term "UFO" (or "UFOB") was adopted as a standard in 1953 by the United States Air Force (USAF) to serve as a catch-all for all such reports. In its initial definition, the USAF stated that a "UFOB" was "any airborne object which by performance, aerodynamic characteristics, or unusual features, does not conform to any presently known aircraft or missile type, or which cannot be positively identified as a familiar object". Accordingly, the term was initially restricted to that fraction of cases which remained unidentified after investigation, as the USAF was interested in potential national security reasons and "technical aspects" (see Air Force Regulation 200-2). During the late 1940s and through the 1950s, UFOs were often referred to popularly as "flying saucers" or "flying discs" due to the term being introduced in the context of the Kenneth Arnold incident. The Avro Canada VZ-9AV Avrocar was a concept vehicle produced during the 1950s, which was a functional aircraft with a saucer shape. UFOs were commonly referred to colloquially, as a "Bogey" by Western military personnel and pilots during the cold war. The term "bogey" was originally used to report anomalies in radar blips, to indicate possible hostile forces that might be roaming in the area. The term UFO became more widespread during the 1950s, at first in technical literature, but later in popular use. UFOs garnered considerable interest during the Cold War, an era associated with a heightened concerns about national security, and, more recently, in the 2010s, for unexplained reasons. Nevertheless, various studies have concluded that the phenomenon does not represent a threat, and nor does it contain anything worthy of scientific pursuit (e.g., 1951 Flying Saucer Working Party, 1953 CIA Robertson Panel, USAF Project Blue Book, Condon Committee). As an acronym, "UFO" was coined by Captain Edward J. Ruppelt, who headed Project Blue Book, then the USAF's official investigation of UFOs. He wrote, "Obviously the term 'flying saucer' is misleading when applied to objects of every conceivable shape and performance. For this reason the military prefers the more general, if less colorful, name: unidentified flying objects. UFO (pronounced yoo-foe) for short." Other phrases that were used officially and that predate the UFO acronym include "flying flapjack", "flying disc", "unexplained flying discs", and "unidentifiable object". In popular usage, the term UFO came to be used to refer to claims of alien spacecraft, and because of the public and media ridicule associated with the topic, some ufologists and investigators prefer to use terms such as "unidentified aerial phenomenon" (UAP) or "anomalous phenomena", as in the title of the National Aviation Reporting Center on Anomalous Phenomena (NARCAP). "Anomalous aerial vehicle" (AAV) or "unidentified aerial system" (UAS) are also sometimes used in a military aviation context to describe unidentified targets. More recently, U.S. officials have adopted the term "unidentified anomalous phenomenon" (UAP). As summarized in *ETC: A Review of General Semantics*, "aside from UAP's more encompassing description, this term avoids the heavy cultural baggage attached to UFO, whose initial association with extraterrestrial origins ...sets up a narrow and inflexible framework for honest scientific research." The term UFO now has decades of association with aliens across many areas of culture, popular entertainment, conspiracy theories, and religious movements as considered in *American Cosmic* by Diana Walsh Pasulka (published by Oxford in 2019). "Unidentified aerial phenomena (UAP), formerly referred to as UFOs, in theory, could include alien spacecraft, but the two aren't synonymous." At the start of 2023, NASA updated the name of its independent study team from "unidentified aerial phenomena" to "unidentified anomalous phenomena" to be "consistent with the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023, signed into law on December 23, 2022". ### Extraterrestrial hypothesis While technically a *UFO* refers to any unidentified flying object, in modern popular culture the term UFO has generally become synonymous with alien spacecraft; however, the term ETV (*extra-terrestrial vehicle*) is sometimes used to separate this explanation of UFOs from totally earthbound explanations, including the Cryptoterrestrial hypothesis, or from other interpretations of the phenomenon such as the Interdimensional hypothesis or the Psychosocial hypothesis. Investigations of reports ------------------------- UFOs have been subject to investigations over the years that varied widely in scope and scientific rigor. Governments or independent academics in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Japan, Peru, France, Belgium, Sweden, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Mexico, Spain, and the Soviet Union are known to have investigated UFO reports at various times. No official government investigation has ever publicly concluded that UFOs are indisputably real, physical objects, extraterrestrial in origin, or of concern to national defense. Among the best known government studies are the ghost rockets investigation by the Swedish military (1946–1947), Project Blue Book, previously Project Sign and Project Grudge, conducted by the USAF from 1947 until 1969, the secret U.S. Army/Air Force Project Twinkle investigation into green fireballs (1948–1951), the secret USAF Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14 by the Battelle Memorial Institute, and the Brazilian Air Force's 1977 *Operação Prato* (Operation Saucer). France has had an ongoing investigation (GEPAN/SEPRA/GEIPAN) within its space agency Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) since 1977; the government of Uruguay has had a similar investigation since 1989. ### Prosaic explanations Studies show that after careful investigation, the majority of UFOs can be identified as ordinary objects or phenomena. The most commonly found identified sources of UFO reports are: * astronomical objects (bright stars, bolides, bright planets, and the Moon) * aircraft (including military, civilian, and experimental aircraft as well as such peculiarities as aerial advertising, missile and other rocket launches, artificial satellites, re-entering spacecraft including space debris, kites, and various unmanned aerial vehicles often popularly termed "drones") * balloons (surveillance balloons, toy balloons, weather balloons, large research balloons) * other atmospheric objects and phenomena (birds, unusual clouds, flares) * light phenomena (mirages, Fata Morgana, ball lightning, moon dogs, satellite flares, searchlights and other ground lights, etc.) * psychological effects (pareidolia, suggestibility and false memories, mass psychogenic disorders, optical illusions, and hallucinations) * hoaxes A 1952–1955 study by the Battelle Memorial Institute for the USAF included these categories. An individual 1979 study by CUFOS researcher Allan Hendry found, as did other investigations, that fewer than one percent of cases he investigated were hoaxes and most sightings were actually honest misidentifications of prosaic phenomena. Hendry attributed most of these to inexperience or misperception. ### Americas #### Brazil (1952–2016) On October 31, 2008, the National Archives of Brazil began receiving from the Aeronautical Documentation and History Center part of the documentation of the Brazilian Air Force regarding the investigation of the appearance of UFOs in Brazil. Currently, this collection gathers cases between 1952 and 2016. #### Chile (c. 1968) In 1968, the SEFAA (previously CEFAA) began receiving case reports of the general public, civil aviators and the Chilean Air Force regarding the sightings or the appearance of UFOs in Chile, the initial work was an initiative of Sergio Bravo Flores who led the Chilean Committee for the Study of Unidentified Space Phenomena, supported even by the Chilean Scientific Society. Currently, the organization changed its denomination to SEFAA and its a department of the DGAC(Chile) which in turn depends on the Chilean Air Force. #### Canada (c. 1950) In Canada, the Department of National Defence has dealt with reports, sightings and investigations of UFOs across Canada. In addition to conducting investigations into crop circles in Duhamel, Alberta, it still considers "unsolved" the Falcon Lake incident in Manitoba and the Shag Harbour UFO incident in Nova Scotia. Early Canadian studies included Project Magnet (1950–1954) and Project Second Storey (1952–1954), supported by the Defence Research Board. #### United States #### Synopsis U.S. investigations into UFOs include: * Project Sign, by the Air Materiel Command (AMC) USAF, precursor to Project Grudge, 1948. * Ghost rockets investigations by the Finnish, Swedish and British militaries, later the US and Greece, 1946–1947. * Project Grudge, USAF from February 1949, succeeded by Project Blue Book, from March 1952. * Project Twinkle investigation into green fireballs, by the U.S. Army/Air Force, briefly, from December 1949. * The Central Intelligence Agency Directorate of Science & Technology (DS&T), study 1952–53. * The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects, by USAF Cpt (rtd.), later director of Project Blue Book, 1956. * The Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14 by the Battelle Memorial Institute for USAF, 1951–1954 * The Aerial Phenomena Research Organization (APRO), a private research group, 1952–1988. * The Robertson Panel was a scientific committee which met in January 1953 to review the Project Blue Book report January 1953 * The Brookings Report, *Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs*, in conjunction with NASA's Committee on Long-Range Studies, reported to Congress 1960 * The Condon Committee, an informal University of Colorado UFO Project funded by the USAF, 1966 to 1968. * The RAND Corporation study, a private and internal study, 1968. * The Mutual UFO Network (MUFON), is a US-based, civilian, non-profit, volunteer organization studying reported UFO sightings, May 1969 and continuing. * The National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena (NICAP) is a UFO research group most active in the United States from the 1950s to the 1980 and remains as an informational depository on UFO phenomena. * The Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS), a privately funded UFO research group, 1973 and continuing. * The Sturrock panel, private investigation arising from the Society for Scientific Exploration, 1982. * The Advanced Aerospace Threat Identification Program which was funded from 2007 to 2012. * The Unidentified Aerial Phenomena Task Force, a continuing program within the United States Office of Naval Intelligence which was acknowledged in 2017. * The *Airborne Object Identification and Management Synchronization Group*, the Pentagon, to investigate unidentified objects that may compromise the airspace of the United States, from November 24, 2021 ongoing. In addition to these, thousands of documents released under FOIA also indicate that many U.S. intelligence agencies collected (and still collect) information on UFOs. These agencies include the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), FBI, CIA, National Security Agency (NSA), as well as military intelligence agencies of the Army and U.S. Navy, in addition to the Air Force. ##### USAAF and FBI response to the 1947 sightings Following the large U.S. surge in sightings in June and early July 1947, on July 9, 1947, United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) intelligence, in cooperation with the FBI, began a formal investigation into selected sightings with characteristics that could not be immediately rationalized, such as Kenneth Arnold's. The USAAF used "all of its top scientists" to determine whether "such a phenomenon could, in fact, occur". The research was "being conducted with the thought that the flying objects might be a celestial phenomenon," or that "they might be a foreign body mechanically devised and controlled." Three weeks later in a preliminary defense estimate, the air force investigation decided that, "This 'flying saucer' situation is not all imaginary or seeing too much in some natural phenomenon. Something is really flying around." A further review by the intelligence and technical divisions of the Air Materiel Command at Wright Field reached the same conclusion. It reported that "the phenomenon is something real and not visionary or fictitious," and there were disc-shaped objects, metallic in appearance, as big as man-made aircraft. They were characterized by "extreme rates of climb [and] maneuverability", general lack of noise, absence of a trail, occasional formation flying, and "evasive" behavior "when sighted or contacted by friendly aircraft and radar", suggesting a controlled craft. It was therefore recommended in late September 1947 that an official Air Force investigation be set up. It was also recommended that other government agencies should assist in the investigation. ##### USAF ###### Projects Sign (1947–1949), Grudge (1948–1951), and Blue Book (1951–1970) Project Sign's final report, published in early 1949, stated that while some UFOs appeared to represent actual aircraft, there was not enough data to determine their origin. The Air Force's Project Sign was created at the end of 1947, and was one of the earliest government studies to come to a secret extraterrestrial conclusion. In August 1948, Sign investigators wrote a top-secret intelligence estimate to that effect, but the Air Force Chief of Staff Hoyt Vandenberg ordered it destroyed. The existence of this suppressed report was revealed by several insiders who had read it, such as astronomer and USAF consultant J. Allen Hynek and Capt. Edward J. Ruppelt, the first head of the USAF's Project Blue Book. Another highly classified U.S. study was conducted by the CIA's Office of Scientific Investigation (OS/I) in the latter half of 1952 in response to orders from the National Security Council (NSC). This study concluded UFOs were real physical objects of potential threat to national security. One OS/I memo to the CIA Director (DCI) in December read that "the reports of incidents convince us that there is something going on that must have immediate attention ... Sightings of unexplained objects at great altitudes and traveling at high speeds in the vicinity of major U.S. defense installations are of such a nature that they are not attributable to natural phenomena or any known types of aerial vehicles." The matter was considered so urgent that OS/I drafted a memorandum from the DCI to the NSC proposing that the NSC establish an investigation of UFOs as a priority project throughout the intelligence and the defense research and development community. It also urged the DCI to establish an external research project of top-level scientists, now known as the Robertson Panel to analyze the problem of UFOs. The OS/I investigation was called off after the Robertson Panel's negative conclusions in January 1953. Project Sign was dismantled and became Project Grudge at the end of 1948. Angered by the low quality of investigations by Grudge, the Air Force Director of Intelligence reorganized it as Project Blue Book in late 1951, placing Ruppelt in charge. J. Allen Hynek, a trained astronomer who served as a scientific advisor for Project Blue Book, was initially skeptical of UFO reports, but eventually came to the conclusion that many of them could not be satisfactorily explained and was highly critical of what he described as "the cavalier disregard by Project Blue Book of the principles of scientific investigation". Leaving government work, he founded the privately funded CUFOS, to whose work he devoted the rest of his life. Other private groups studying the phenomenon include the MUFON, a grassroots organization whose investigator's handbooks go into great detail on the documentation of alleged UFO sightings. ###### USAF Regulation 200-2 (1953–1954) Air Force Regulation 200-2, issued in 1953 and 1954, defined an Unidentified Flying Object ("UFOB") as "any airborne object which by performance, aerodynamic characteristics, or unusual features, does not conform to any presently known aircraft or missile type, or which cannot be positively identified as a familiar object." The regulation also said UFOBs were to be investigated as a "possible threat to the security of the United States" and "to determine technical aspects involved." The regulation went on to say that "it is permissible to inform news media representatives on UFOB's when the object is positively identified as a familiar object" but added: "For those objects which are not explainable, only the fact that ATIC [Air Technical Intelligence Center] will analyze the data is worthy of release, due to many unknowns involved." ##### Blue Book and the Condon Committee (1968–1970) A public research effort conducted by the Condon Committee for the USAF and published as the Condon Report arrived at a negative conclusion in 1968. Blue Book closed down in 1970, using the Condon Committee's negative conclusion as a rationale, thus ending official Air Force UFO investigations. However, a 1969 USAF document, known as the Bolender memo, along with later government documents, revealed that non-public U.S. government UFO investigations continued after 1970. The Bolender memo first stated that "reports of unidentified flying objects that could affect national security ... are not part of the Blue Book system," indicating that more serious UFO incidents already were handled outside the public Blue Book investigation. The memo then added, "reports of UFOs which could affect national security would continue to be handled through the standard Air Force procedures designed for this purpose." In the late 1960s, a chapter on UFOs in the Space Sciences course at the U.S. Air Force Academy gave serious consideration to possible extraterrestrial origins. When word of the curriculum became public, in 1970, the Air Force issued a statement to the effect that the book was outdated and cadets instead were being informed of the Condon Report's negative conclusion. Controversy surrounded the report, both before and after its release. It has been observed that the report was "harshly criticized by numerous scientists, particularly at the powerful AIAA ... [which] recommended moderate, but continuous scientific work on UFOs." In an address to the AAAS, James E. McDonald said he believed science had failed to mount adequate studies of the problem and criticized the Condon Report and earlier studies by the USAF as scientifically deficient. He also questioned the basis for Condon's conclusions and argued that the reports of UFOs have been "laughed out of scientific court". J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer who worked as a USAF consultant from 1948, sharply criticized the Condon Committee Report and later wrote two nontechnical books that set forth the case for continuing to investigate UFO reports. Ruppelt recounted his experiences with Project Blue Book, a USAF investigation that preceded Condon's. #### FOIA release of documents in 1978 According to a 1979 New York Times report, "records from the C.I.A., the F.B.I. and other Federal agencies" ("about 900 documents — nearly 900 pages of memos, reports and correspondence") obtained in 1978 through the Freedom of Information Act request, indicate that "despite official pronouncements for decades that U.F.O.'s were nothing more than misidentified aerial objects and as such were no cause for alarm ... the phenomenon has aroused much serious behind‐the‐scenes concern" in the US government. In particular, officials were concerned over the "approximately 10%" of UFO sightings which remained unexplained, and whether they might be Soviet aircraft and a threat to national security. Officials were concerned about the "risk of false alerts", of "falsely identifying the real as phantom”, and of mass hysteria caused by sightings. In 1947, Brigadier General George F. Schulgen of Army Air Corps Intelligence, warned “the first reported sightings might have been by individuals of Communist sympathies with the view to causing hysteria and fear of a secret Russian weapon.” ##### White House statement of November 2011 In November 2011, the White House released an official response to two petitions asking the U.S. government to acknowledge formally that aliens have visited this planet and to disclose any intentional withholding of government interactions with extraterrestrial beings. According to the response: > The U.S. government has no evidence that any life exists outside our planet, or that an extraterrestrial presence has contacted or engaged any member of the human race...no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye.... > > — Statement by the White House The response further noted that efforts, like SETI and NASA's *Kepler* space telescope and Mars Science Laboratory, continue looking for signs of life. The response noted "odds are pretty high" that there may be life on other planets but "the odds of us making contact with any of them—especially any intelligent ones—are extremely small, given the distances involved." ##### ODNI report 2021 On June 25, 2021, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence released a report on UAPs. The report found that the UAPTF was unable to identify 143 objects spotted between 2004 and 2021. The report said that 18 of these featured unusual movement patterns or flight characteristics, adding that more analysis was needed to determine if those sightings represented "breakthrough" technology. The report said that "some of these steps are resource-intensive and would require additional investment." The report did not link the sightings to extraterrestrial life. #### Uruguay (c. 1989) The Uruguayan Air Force has conducted UFO investigations since 1989 and reportedly analyzed 2,100 cases of which they regard approximately 2% as lacking explanation. ### Europe #### France (1977–2008) In March 2007, the French space agency CNES published an archive of UFO sightings and other phenomena online. French studies include GEPAN/SEPRA/GEIPAN within CNES (French space agency), the longest ongoing government-sponsored investigation. About 22% of the 6,000 cases studied remain unexplained. The official opinion of GEPAN/SEPRA/GEIPAN has been neutral, stating on their FAQ page that their mission is fact-finding for the scientific community, not rendering an opinion. They add they can neither prove nor disprove the Extraterrestrial Hypothesis (ETH), but their Steering Committee's clear position is that they cannot discard the possibility that some fraction of the very strange 22% of unexplained cases might be due to distant and advanced civilizations. Possibly their bias may be indicated by their use of the terms "PAN" (French) or "UAP" (English equivalent) for "Unidentified *Aerospace* Phenomenon" (whereas "UAP" is normally used by English organizations stands for "Unidentified *Aerial* Phenomenon", a more neutral term). In addition, the three heads of the studies have gone on record in stating that UFOs were real physical flying machines beyond our knowledge or that the best explanation for the most inexplicable cases was an extraterrestrial one. In 2007, the CNES's own report stated that, at that time, 28% of sightings remained unidentifed. In 2008, Michel Scheller, president of the Association Aéronautique et Astronautique de France (3AF), created the Sigma Commission. Its purpose was to investigate UFO phenomena worldwide. A progress report published in May 2010 stated that the central hypothesis proposed by the COMETA report is perfectly credible. In December 2012, the final report of the Sigma Commission was submitted to Scheller. Following the submission of the final report, the Sigma2 Commission is to be formed with a mandate to continue the scientific investigation of UFO phenomena. #### Italy (1933–2005) Alleged UFO sightings gradually increased since the war, peaking in 1978 and 2005. The total number of sightings since 1947 are 18,500, of which 90% are identifiable. #### United Kingdom (1951–2009) The UK's Flying Saucer Working Party published its final report in June 1951, which remained secret for over fifty years. The Working Party concluded that all UFO sightings could be explained as misidentifications of ordinary objects or phenomena, optical illusions, psychological misperceptions/aberrations, or hoaxes. The report stated: "We accordingly recommend very strongly that no further investigation of reported mysterious aerial phenomena be undertaken, unless and until some material evidence becomes available." Eight file collections on UFO sightings, dating from 1978 to 1987, were first released on May 14, 2008, to The National Archives by the Ministry of Defence (MoD). Although kept secret from the public for many years, most of the files have low levels of classification and none are classified Top Secret. 200 files are set to be made public by 2012. The files are correspondence from the public sent to the British government and officials, such as the MoD and Margaret Thatcher. The MoD released the files under the Freedom of Information Act due to requests from researchers. These files include, but are not limited to, UFOs over Liverpool and Waterloo Bridge in London. On October 20, 2008, more UFO files were released. One case released detailed that in 1991 an Alitalia passenger aircraft was approaching London Heathrow Airport when the pilots saw what they described as a "cruise missile" fly extremely close to the cockpit. The pilots believed a collision was imminent. UFO expert David Clarke says this is one of the most convincing cases for a UFO he has come across. A secret study of UFOs was undertaken for the Ministry of Defence between 1996 and 2000 and was code-named Project Condign. The resulting report, titled "Unidentified Aerial Phenomena in the UK Defence Region", was publicly released in 2006, but the identity and credentials of whoever constituted Project Condign remains classified. The report confirmed earlier findings that the main causes of UFO sightings are misidentification of man-made and natural objects. The report noted: "No artefacts of unknown or unexplained origin have been reported or handed to the UK authorities, despite thousands of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena reports. There are no SIGINT, ELINT or radiation measurements and little useful video or still IMINT." It concluded: "There is no evidence that any UAP, seen in the UKADR [UK Air Defence Region], are incursions by air-objects of any intelligent (extraterrestrial or foreign) origin, or that they represent any hostile intent." A little-discussed conclusion of the report was that novel meteorological plasma phenomenon akin to ball lightning are responsible for "the majority, if not all" of otherwise inexplicable sightings, especially reports of black triangle UFOs. On December 1, 2009, the Ministry of Defence quietly closed down its UFO investigations unit. The unit's hotline and email address were suspended by the MoD on that date. The MoD said there was no value in continuing to receive and investigate sightings in a release, stating that "in over fifty years, no UFO report has revealed any evidence of a potential threat to the United Kingdom. The MoD has no specific capability for identifying the nature of such sightings. There is no Defence benefit in such investigation and it would be an inappropriate use of defence resources. Furthermore, responding to reported UFO sightings diverts MoD resources from tasks that are relevant to Defence." *The Guardian* reported that the MoD claimed the closure would save the Ministry around £50,000 a year. The MoD said it would continue to release UFO files to the public through The National Archives. UFO reports, Parliamentary questions, and letters from members of the public were released on August 5, 2010, to the UK National Archives. "In one letter included in the files, a man alleges Churchill ordered a coverup of a WW II-era UFO encounter involving the Royal Air Force". Studies ------- Critics argue that all UFO evidence is anecdotal and can be explained as prosaic natural phenomena. Defenders of UFO research counter that knowledge of observational data, other than what is reported in the popular media, is limited in the scientific community and further study is needed. Studies have established that the majority of UFO observations are misidentified conventional objects or natural phenomena—most commonly aircraft, balloons including sky lanterns, satellites, and astronomical objects such as meteors, bright stars and planets. A small percentage are hoaxes. Fewer than 10% of reported sightings remain unexplained after proper investigation and therefore can be classified as unidentified in the strictest sense. According to Steven Novella, proponents of the extraterrestrial hypothesis (ETH) suggest these unexplained reports are of alien spacecraft, however the null hypothesis cannot be excluded; that these reports are simply other more prosaic phenomena that cannot be identified due to lack of complete information or due to the necessary subjectivity of the reports. Novella says that instead of accepting the null hypothesis, UFO enthusiasts tend to engage in special pleading by offering outlandish, untested explanations for the validity of the ETH, which violate Occam's razor. ### Scientific Historically, ufology has not been considered credible in mainstream science. The scientific community has generally deemed that UFO sightings are not worthy of serious investigation except as a cultural artifact. Studies of UFOs rarely appear in mainstream scientific literature. When asked, some scientists and scientific organizations have pointed to the end of official governmental studies in the U.S. in December 1969, following the statement by the government scientist Edward Condon that further study of UFOs could not be justified on grounds of scientific advancement. #### Status as a pseudoscience Despite investigations sponsored by governments and private entities, ufology is not embraced by academia as a scientific field of study, and is instead generally considered a pseudoscience by skeptics and science educators, being often included on lists of topics characterized as pseudoscience as either a partial or total pseudoscience. *Pseudoscience* is a term that classifies arguments that are claimed to exemplify the methods and principles of science, but do not in fact adhere to an appropriate scientific method, lack supporting evidence, plausibility, falsifiability, or otherwise lack scientific status. Some writers have identified social factors that contribute to the status of ufology as a pseudoscience, with one study suggesting that "any science doubt surrounding unidentified flying objects and aliens was not primarily due to the ignorance of ufologists about science, but rather a product of the respective research practices of and relations between ufology, the sciences, and government investigative bodies". One study suggests that "the rudimentary standard of science communication attending to the extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) hypothesis for UFOs inhibits public understanding of science, dissuades academic inquiry within the physical and social sciences, and undermines progressive space policy initiatives". Jacques Vallée, a scientist and ufologist, claimed there were deficiencies in most UFO research, including government studies. He criticized the mythology and cultism often associated with UFO sightings, but despite the challenges, Vallée contended that several hundred professional scientists — a group both he and Hynek termed "the invisible college" — continued to study UFOs quietly on their own time. #### Studies UFOs have become a prevalent theme in modern culture, and the social phenomena have been the subject of academic research in sociology and psychology. In 2021, astronomer Avi Loeb launched The Galileo Project which intends to collect and report scientific evidence of extraterrestrials or extraterrestrial technology on or near Earth via telescopic observations. In Germany, the University of Würzburg is developing intelligent sensors that can help detect and analyze aerial objects in hopes of applying such technology to UAP. A 2021 Gallup poll found that belief among Americans in some UFOs being extraterrestrial spacecraft grew between 2019 and 2021 from 33% to 41%. Gallup cited increased coverage in mainstream news and scrutiny from government authorities as a factor in changing attitudes towards UFOs. In 2022, NASA announced a nine-month study starting in fall to help establish a road map for investigating UAP – or for reconnaissance of the publicly available data it might use for such research. #### Sturrock panel categorization Besides anecdotal visual sightings, reports sometimes include claims of other kinds of evidence, including cases studied by the military and various government agencies of different countries (such as Project Blue Book, the Condon Committee, the French GEPAN/SEPRA, and Uruguay's current Air Force study). A comprehensive scientific review of cases where physical evidence was available was carried out by the 1998 Sturrock panel, with specific examples of many of the categories listed below. * Radar contact and tracking, sometimes from multiple sites. These have included military personnel and control tower operators, simultaneous visual sightings, and aircraft intercepts. One such example was the mass sightings of large, silent, low-flying black triangles in 1989 and 1990 over Belgium, tracked by NATO radar and jet interceptors, and investigated by Belgium's military (included photographic evidence). Another famous case from 1986 was the Japan Air Lines flight 1628 incident over Alaska investigated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). * Photographic evidence, including still photos, movie film, and video. * Claims of physical trace of landing UFOs, including ground impressions, burned or desiccated soil, burned and broken foliage, magnetic anomalies[*specify*], increased radiation levels, and metallic traces. (See, e. g. Height 611 UFO incident or the 1964 Lonnie Zamora's Socorro, New Mexico encounter of the USAF Project Blue Book cases.) A well-known example from December 1980 was the USAF Rendlesham Forest incident in England. Another occurred in January 1981 in Trans-en-Provence and was investigated by GEPAN, then France's official government UFO-investigation agency. Project Blue Book head Edward J. Ruppelt described a classic 1952 CE2 case involving a patch of charred grass roots. * Physiological effects on people and animals including temporary paralysis, skin burns and rashes, corneal burns, and symptoms superficially resembling radiation poisoning, such as the Cash-Landrum incident in 1980. * Animal/cattle mutilation cases, which some feel are also part of the UFO phenomenon. * Biological effects on plants such as increased or decreased growth, germination effects on seeds, and blown-out stem nodes (usually associated with physical trace cases or crop circles) * Electromagnetic interference (EM) effects. A famous 1976 military case over Tehran, recorded in CIA and DIA classified documents, was associated with communication losses in multiple aircraft and weapons system failure in an F-4 Phantom II jet interceptor as it was about to fire a missile on one of the UFOs. * Apparent remote radiation detection, some noted in FBI and CIA documents occurring over government nuclear installations at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1950, also reported by Project Blue Book director Edward J. Ruppelt in his book. * Claimed artifacts of UFOs themselves, such as 1957, Ubatuba, Brazil, magnesium fragments analyzed by the Brazilian government and in the Condon Report and by others. The 1964 Lonnie Zamora incident also left metal traces, analyzed by NASA. A more recent example involves a teardrop-shaped object recovered by Bob White and was featured in a television episode of *UFO Hunters* but was later found to be accumulated waste metal residue from a grinding machine. * Angel hair and angel grass, possibly explained in some cases as nests from ballooning spiders or chaff. #### Scientific skepticism A scientifically skeptical group that has for many years offered critical analyses of UFO claims is the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). One example is the response to local beliefs that "extraterrestrial beings" in UFOs were responsible for crop circles appearing in Indonesia, which the government and the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) described as "man-made". Thomas Djamaluddin, research professor of astronomy and astrophysics at LAPAN stated: "We have come to agree that this 'thing' cannot be scientifically proven. Scientists have put UFOs in the category of pseudoscience." ### Governmental UFOs have been the subject of investigations by various governments who have provided extensive records related to the subject. Many of the most involved government-sponsored investigations ended after agencies concluded that there was no benefit to continued investigation. These same negative conclusions also have been found in studies that were highly classified for many years, such as the UK's Flying Saucer Working Party, Project Condign, the U.S. CIA-sponsored Robertson Panel, the U.S. military investigation into the green fireballs from 1948 to 1951, and the Battelle Memorial Institute study for the USAF from 1952 to 1955 (Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14). Some public government reports have acknowledged the possibility of the physical reality of UFOs, but have stopped short of proposing extraterrestrial origins, though not dismissing the possibility entirely. Examples are the Belgian military investigation into large triangles over their airspace in 1989–1991 and the 2009 Uruguayan Air Force study conclusion (see below). #### Claims by military, government, and aviation personnel In 2007, former Arizona governor Fife Symington claimed he had seen "a massive, delta-shaped craft silently navigate over Squaw Peak, a mountain range in Phoenix, Arizona" in 1997. Apollo 14 astronaut Dr. Edgar Mitchell claimed he knew of senior government employees who had been involved in "close encounters", and because of this, he has no doubt that aliens have visited Earth. In May 2019, *The New York Times* reported that American Navy fighter jets had several instances of unidentified instrumentation and tracking data while conducting exercises off the eastern seaboard of the United States from the summer of 2014 to March 2015. The *Times* published a cockpit instrument video which appeared to show an object moving at high speed near the ocean surface as it appeared to rotate, and objects that appeared capable of high acceleration, deceleration and maneuverability. In two separate incidents, a pilot reported his cockpit instruments locked onto and tracked objects but he was unable to see them through his helmet camera. In another encounter, flight instruments recorded an image described as a sphere encasing a cube between two jets as they flew about 100 feet apart. The Pentagon officially released these videos on April 27, 2020. The United States Navy has said there have been "a number of reports of unauthorized and/or unidentified aircraft entering various military-controlled ranges and designated air space in recent years". In March 2021, news media announced a comprehensive report is to be compiled of UFO events accumulated by the United States over the years. On April 12, 2021, the Pentagon confirmed the authenticity of pictures and videos gathered by the Unidentified Aerial Phenomena Task Force (UAPTF), purportedly showing "pyramid shaped objects" hovering above the USS Russell in 2019, off the coast of California, with spokeswoman Susan Gough saying "I can confirm that the referenced photos and videos were taken by Navy personnel. The UAPTF has included these incidents in their ongoing examinations." In May 2021, military pilots recalled their related encounters, along with camera and radar support, including one pilot's account noting that such incidents occurred "every day for at least a couple of years", according to an interview broadcast on the news program, *60 Minutes* (May 16, 2021). Science writer and skeptic Mick West suggested the image was the result of an optical effect called a bokeh which can make out of focus light sources appear triangular or pyramidal due to the shape of the aperture of some lenses. On June 25, 2021, U.S. Defense and intelligence officials released the Pentagon UFO Report on what they know about a series of unidentified flying objects that have been seen by American military pilots. NASA Administrator Bill Nelson said that the UFO sightings by pilots "may not be extraterrestrial." In December 2021, further official governmental investigations into UAPs and related, along with annual unclassified reports presented to Congress, have been authorized and funded. Some have raised concerns about the new investigations. #### Conspiracy theories UFOs are sometimes an element of conspiracy theories in which governments are allegedly intentionally "covering up" the existence of aliens by removing physical evidence of their presence or even collaborating with extraterrestrial beings. There are many versions of this story; some are exclusive, while others overlap with various other conspiracy theories. In the U.S., an opinion poll conducted in 1997 suggested that 80% of Americans believed the U.S. government was withholding such information. Various notables have also expressed such views. Some examples are astronauts Gordon Cooper and Edgar Mitchell, Senator Barry Goldwater, Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter (the first CIA director), Lord Hill-Norton (former British Chief of Defense Staff and NATO head), the 1999 French COMETA study by various French generals and aerospace experts, and Yves Sillard (former director of CNES, new director of French UFO research organization GEIPAN). In June 2023, United States Air Force officer and former intelligence official David Grusch claimed publicaly that the U.S. federal government has maintained a highly secretive UFO retrieval program since the 1940s and that the government possesses multiple spacecraft of "non-human" origin. It has also been suggested, by a few paranormal authors, that all or most human technology and culture is based on extraterrestrial contact (see also ancient astronauts). ##### "Disclosure" advocates In May 2001, a press conference was held at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., by an organization called the Disclosure Project, featuring twenty persons including retired Air Force and FAA personnel, intelligence officers and an air traffic controller. They all gave a brief account of their claims that evidence of UFOs was being suppressed and said they would be willing to testify under oath to a Congressional committee. According to a 2002 report in the Oregon Daily Emerald, Disclosure Project founder Steven M. Greer is an "alien theorist" who claims "proof of government coverup" consisting of 120 hours of testimony from various government officials on the topic of UFOs, including astronaut Gordon Cooper. On September 27, 2010, a group of six former USAF officers and one former enlisted Air Force man held a press conference at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on the theme "U.S. Nuclear Weapons Have Been Compromised by Unidentified Aerial Objects" in which they claimed they had witnessed UFOs hovering near missile sites and even disarming the missiles. From April 29 to May 3, 2013, the Paradigm Research Group held the "Citizen Hearing on Disclosure" at the National Press Club. The group paid former U.S. Senator Mike Gravel and former Representatives Carolyn Cheeks Kilpatrick, Roscoe Bartlett, Merrill Cook, Darlene Hooley, and Lynn Woolsey $20,000 each to hear testimony from a panel of researchers which included witnesses from military, agency, and political backgrounds. ### Fringe The void left by the lack of institutional or scientific study has given rise to independent researchers and fringe groups, including the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP) in the mid-20th century and, more recently, the Mutual UFO Network (MUFON) and the Center for UFO Studies (CUFOS). The term "Ufology" is used to describe the collective efforts of those who study reports and associated evidence of unidentified flying objects. ### Private Some private studies have been neutral in their conclusions but argued that the inexplicable core cases call for continued scientific study. Examples are the Sturrock panel study of 1998 and the 1970 AIAA review of the Condon Report. ### Ufology *Ufology* is a neologism describing the collective efforts of those who study UFO reports and associated evidence. #### Researchers #### Sightings #### Organizations In popular culture ------------------ UFOs have constituted a widespread international cultural phenomenon since the 1950s. Gallup Polls rank UFOs near the top of lists for subjects of widespread recognition. In 1973, a survey found that 95 percent of the public reported having heard of UFOs, whereas only 92 percent had heard of U.S. President Gerald Ford in a 1977 poll taken just nine months after he left the White House. A 1996 Gallup Poll reported that 71 percent of the United States population believed the U.S. government was covering up information regarding UFOs. A 2002 Roper Poll for the Sci-Fi Channel found similar results, but with more people believing UFOs are extraterrestrial craft. In that latest poll, 56 percent thought UFOs were real craft and 48 percent that aliens had visited the Earth. Again, about 70 percent felt the government was not sharing everything it knew about UFOs or extraterrestrial life. Another effect of the flying saucer type of UFO sightings has been Earth-made flying saucer craft in space fiction, for example the United Planets Cruiser C57D in *Forbidden Planet* (1956), the *Jupiter 2* in *Lost in Space*, and the saucer section of the USS *Enterprise* in *Star Trek*. UFOs and extraterrestrials have been featured in many movies. The intense secrecy surrounding the secret Nevada base, known as Area 51, has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component of UFO folklore. In July 2019, more than 2 million people responded to a joke proposal to storm Area 51 which appeared in an anonymous Facebook post. Two music festivals in rural Nevada, "AlienStock" and "Storm Area 51 Basecamp", were subsequently organized to capitalize on the popularity of the original Facebook event. Bibliography ------------ ### General * Bullard, Thomas; (2012). *The Myth and Mystery of UFOs*. Lawrence: University of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1729-6. * Clark, Jerome (1998). *The UFO Book: Encyclopedia of the Extraterrestrial*. Detroit, MI: Visible Ink Press. ISBN 1-57859-029-9. LCCN 97035767. OCLC 37370629. Many classic cases and UFO history provided in great detail; highly documented. * Curran, Douglas (2001) [1st edition originally published 1985; New York: Abbeville Press]. *In Advance of the Landing: Folk Concepts of Outer Space*. Foreword by Tom Wolfe (Revised ed.). New York: Abbeville Press. ISBN 0-7892-0708-7. LCCN 00052589. OCLC 45270419. Non-sensational but fair treatment of contemporary UFO legend and lore in N. America, including the so-called "contactee cults". The author traveled the United States with his camera and tape recorder and directly interviewed many individuals. * Deardorff, J.; Haisch, B.; Maccabee, B.; Puthoff, H. E. (2005). "Inflation-Theory Implications for Extraterrestrial Visitation". *Journal of the British Interplanetary Society*. London: British Interplanetary Society. **58**: 43–50. Bibcode:2005JBIS...58...43D. ISSN 0007-084X. Retrieved September 21, 2018. * Friedman, Stanton T. (2008). *Flying Saucers and Science: A Scientist Investigates the Mysteries of UFOs*. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. ISBN 978-1-60163-011-7. LCCN 2008006291. OCLC 179812690. * Greer, Steven M.; (2001). *Disclosure*. Crozer: Crossing Point. ISBN 0-9673238-1-9. * Hall, Richard H., ed. (1997) [Originally published 1964; Washington, D.C.: National Investigations Committee On Aerial Phenomena (NICAP)]. *The UFO Evidence* (Reissue ed.). New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-0627-1. LCCN 64006912. OCLC 39544334. 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Secret Projects. Hinckley, England: Midland Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85780-233-7. OCLC 99774524. * Sagan, Carl; Page, Thornton, eds. (1996) [Originally published 1972]. *UFO's: A Scientific Debate* (Reprint ed.). New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-0196-6. LCCN 72004572. OCLC 35840064. * Scully, Frank (1950). *Behind the Flying Saucers*. New York: Henry Holt and Company. OCLC 1467735. * Sheaffer, Robert (1981). *The UFO Verdict: Examining the Evidence*. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-146-0. LCCN 80084406. OCLC 7364885. * Sheaffer, Robert (1998). *UFO Sightings: The Evidence*. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-213-7. LCCN 98006410. OCLC 38738821. Revised edition of *The UFO Verdict*. * Stanford, Ray (1976). *Socorro 'Saucer' in a Pentagon Pantry* (1st ed.). Austin, TX: Blueapple Books. ISBN 0-917092-00-7. LCCN 76013768. OCLC 2524239. * Sturrock, Peter A.; Holzer, T. E.; Jahn, R.; et al. (1998). "Physical Evidence Related to UFO Reports: The Proceedings of a Workshop Held at the Pocantico Conference Center, Tarrytown, New York, September 29 - October 4, 1997" (PDF). *Journal of Scientific Exploration*. Stanford, CA: Society for Scientific Exploration. **12** (2): 179–229. ISSN 0892-3310. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 7, 2010. Retrieved September 8, 2013.[*unreliable source?*] Sturrock panel report on physical evidence. * Sturrock, Peter A. (1999). *The UFO Enigma: A New Review of the Physical Evidence*. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-52565-0. LCCN 99066643. OCLC 42645835. * Vallée, Jacques (2008) [Originally published 1991; New York: Ballantine Books]. *Revelations: Alien Contact and Human Deception*. San Antonio, TX: Anomalist Books. ISBN 978-1-933665-30-6. LCCN 91091858. OCLC 225866107. * Viberti, Pier Giorgio (2010) [Originally published 1997]. *Incontri ravvicinati: Avvistamenti e contatti da mondi lontani*. Atlanti del sapere (in Italian). Florence: Giunti Editore. ISBN 978-88-09-75032-6. OCLC 800130536. ### History * Clarke, David (2009). *The UFO Files: The Inside Story of Real-Life Sightings*. Kew: The National Archives. ISBN 978-1-905615-50-6. OCLC 316039535. Reports from the UK government files. * Cohen, Daniel (1981). *The Great Airship Mystery: A UFO of the 1890s*. Dodd, Mead & Co. ISBN 0396079903. * Dolan, Richard M. (2000). *UFOs and the National Security State: An Unclassified History, Volume One: 1941–1973* (1st ed.). Rochester, NY: Keyhole Publishing Company. ISBN 0-9677995-0-3. LCCN 00691087. OCLC 45546629. Dolan is a professional historian. * Downes, Jonathan; Wright, Nigel (2005). *The Rising of the Moon* (Revised ed.). Bangor, Northern Ireland: Xiphos Books. ISBN 978-0-9544936-5-3. OCLC 70335856. * Fawcett, Lawrence; Greenwood, Barry J. (1992) [Originally published 1984 as *Clear Intent*; Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall]. *The UFO Cover-up: What the Government Won't Say*. Foreword by J. Allen Hynek (First Fireside ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-76555-8. LCCN 84009818. OCLC 28384401. Many UFO documents. * Good, Timothy (1988). *Above Top Secret: The Worldwide UFO Cover-Up*. Foreword by Lord Hill-Norton (1st Quill ed.). New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-09202-0. LCCN 88208434. OCLC 707516815. Many UFO documents. * Good, Timothy (1997) [Originally published 1996]. *Beyond Top Secret: The Worldwide UFO Security Threat*. Foreword by Lord Hill-Norton (Fully revised and updated ed.). London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-34928-7. OCLC 38490850. * Good, Timothy (2007). *Need to Know: UFOs, the Military, and Intelligence*. New York: Pegasus Books. ISBN 978-1-933648-38-5. OCLC 180767460. Update of *Above Top Secret* with new cases and documents * Hall, Michael D.; Connors, Wendy A. (1998). *Alfred Loedding & the Great Flying Saucer Wave of 1947* (PDF). Albuquerque, NM: White Rose Press. OCLC 41104299. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 25, 2018. Retrieved September 7, 2013. * Keel, John (1996) [Originally published 1970 as *UFOs: Operation Trojan Horse*; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons]. *Operation Trojan Horse* (PDF). Lilburn, GA: IllumiNet Press. ISBN 978-0-9626534-6-9. LCCN 96014564. OCLC 34474485. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 20, 2013. * Kocher, George (November 1968). *UFOs: What to Do* (PDF). RAND Corporation. DRU-1571. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 19, 2013. Retrieved September 7, 2013. UFO historical review, case studies, review of hypotheses, recommendations. * Maccabee, Bruce (2000). *UFO FBI Connection: The Secret History of the Government's Cover-Up* (1st ed.). St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 1-56718-493-6. LCCN 00028277. OCLC 43634902. * Randle, Kevin D. (1997). *Project Blue Book Exposed* (1st ed.). New York: Marlowe & Company. ISBN 1-56924-746-3. LCCN 97072378. OCLC 37047544. * Ruppelt, Edward J. (1956). *The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects* (1st ed.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc. LCCN 56005444. OCLC 1941793. Archived from the original on May 16, 2011. Retrieved August 28, 2004. A UFO classic by insider Ruppelt, the first head of the USAF Project Blue Book. * Swords, Michael; Powell, Robert; et al. (2012). *UFOs and Government: A Historical Inquiry*. San Antonio, TX: Anomalist Books. ISBN 978-1-933665-58-0. OCLC 809977863. * Weinstein, Dominique F. (February 2001). *Unidentified Aerial Phenomena: Eighty Years of Pilot Sightings* (PDF). Boulder Creek, CA: National Aviation Reporting Center on Anomalous Phenomena (NARCAP). NARCAP TR-04. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 12, 2013. Retrieved September 6, 2013. ### Psychology * Haines, Richard F., ed. (1979). *UFO Phenomena and the Behavioral Scientist*. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-1228-2. LCCN 79014878. OCLC 5008381. * Jung, C G (1978) [Originally published 1958 as *Ein moderner Mythus: von Dingen, die am Himmel gesehen werden*]. *Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies*. Translation by R.F.C. Hull. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01822-7. LCCN 78004325. OCLC 4762238. * Simón, Armando (February 1976). "UFOs: Testing for the existence of Air Force censorship". *Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior*. **13** (1): 3–5. ISSN 0033-3077. * Simón, Armando (1981). "A Nonreactive, Quantitative Study of Mass Behavior with Emphasis on the Cinema as Behavior Catalyst". *Psychological Reports*. Ammons Scientific. **48** (3): 775–785. doi:10.2466/pr0.1981.48.3.775. ISSN 0033-2941. S2CID 143670471. * Simón, Armando (1984). "Psychology and UFOs". *Skeptical Inquirer*. Amherst, NY: Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. **8**: 355–367. ### Technology * Ford, L. H.; Roman, Thomas A. (1996). "Quantum field theory constrains traversable wormhole geometries". *Physical Review D*. **53** (10): 5496–5507. arXiv:gr-qc/9510071. Bibcode:1996PhRvD..53.5496F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.53.5496. PMID 10019835. S2CID 18106362. * Hill, Paul R. (1995). *Unconventional Flying Objects: A Scientific Analysis*. Charlottesville, VA: Hampton Roads Publishing Company. ISBN 1-57174-027-9. LCCN 97109204. OCLC 34075199. Analysis of UFO technology by pioneering NACA/NASA aerospace engineer. * Krasnikov, S. (2003). "The quantum inequalities do not forbid spacetime shortcuts". *Physical Review D*. **67** (10): 104013. arXiv:gr-qc/0207057. Bibcode:2003PhRvD..67j4013K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.67.104013. S2CID 17498199. * Rullán, Antonio F. (July 2, 2000). "Odors from UFOs: Deducing Odorant Chemistry and Causation from Available Data" (PDF) (Preliminary paper). Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2014. Retrieved September 13, 2013. * Sarfatti, Jack (2006). *Super Cosmos: Through Struggles to the Stars*. Indianapolis, IN: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4184-7662-5. LCCN 2004095148. OCLC 70962499. ### Skepticism * Plait, Philip C. (2002). "Misidentified Flying Objects: UFOs and Illusions of the Mind and Eye". *Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax"*. Illustrations by Tina Cash Walsh. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-40976-6. LCCN 2002277382. OCLC 48885221. * Ridpath, Ian. "Astronomical Causes of UFOs". Ian Ridpath. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved July 13, 2013. * Seeds, Michael (1995) [Originally published 1981]. *Horizons: Exploring the Universe* (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-24889-6. LCCN 94013521. OCLC 30156735.(Appendix A) * Sheaffer, Robert (2012) [Originally published 2011]. *Psychic Vibrations: Skeptical Giggles from the Skeptical Inquirer* (2nd ed.). Charleston, SC: CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1-4636-0157-7. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved July 13, 2013.

Unidentified flying object

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unidentified_flying_object

In radio engineering, an **antenna** (American English) or **aerial** (British English) is the interface between radio waves propagating through space and electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with a transmitter or receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to produce an electric current at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Antennas are essential components of all radio equipment. An antenna is an array of conductors (elements), electrically connected to the receiver or transmitter. Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive radio waves in all horizontal directions equally (omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a particular direction (directional, or high-gain, or "beam" antennas). An antenna may include components not connected to the transmitter, parabolic reflectors, horns, or parasitic elements, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern. Strong directivity and good efficiency when transmitting are hard to achieve with antennas with dimensions that are much smaller than a half wavelength. The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the *existence* of waves predicted by the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell. Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. Starting in 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began development of antennas practical for long-distance, wireless telegraphy, for which he received a Nobel Prize. Half-wave dipole antenna receiving a radio wave: The electric field (E) of the incoming wave pushes the electrons in the rods back and forth, and oscillating currents (black arrows) flow through the receiverAntenna radiating radio waves: The transmitter applies an alternating current (red arrows) to the rods, which charges them alternately positive and negative, emitting loops of electric field. Note that the arrows of the loops get reversed each time the current changes polarity. Terminology ----------- The words *antenna* and *aerial* are used interchangeably. Occasionally the equivalent term "aerial" is used to specifically mean an elevated horizontal wire antenna. The origin of the word *antenna* relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi. In the summer of 1895, Marconi began testing his wireless system outdoors on his father's estate near Bologna and soon began to experiment with long wire "aerials" suspended from a pole. In Italian a tent pole is known as *l'antenna centrale*, and the pole with the wire was simply called *l'antenna*. Until then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving elements were known simply as "terminals". Because of his prominence, Marconi's use of the word *antenna* spread among wireless researchers and enthusiasts, and later to the general public. *Antenna* may refer broadly to an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure (if any), etc., in addition to the actual RF current-carrying components. A receiving antenna may include not only the passive metal receiving elements, but also an integrated preamplifier or mixer, especially at and above microwave frequencies. Overview -------- Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves which carry signals through the air (or through space) at the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Antennas can be classified as omnidirectional, radiating energy approximately equally in all horizontal directions, or directional, where radio waves are concentrated in some direction(s). A so-called beam antenna is unidirectional, designed for maximum response in the direction of the other station, whereas many other antennas are intended to accommodate stations in various directions but are not truly omnidirectional. Since antennas obey reciprocity the same radiation pattern applies to transmission as well as reception of radio waves. A hypothetical antenna that radiates equally in all *vertical* as well as all horizontal angles is called an isotropic radiator however these cannot exist in practice nor would they be particularly desired. For most terrestrial communications, rather, there is an advantage in *reducing* radiation toward the sky or ground in favor of horizontal direction(s). A dipole antenna oriented horizontally sends no energy in the direction of the conductor – this is called the antenna null – but is usable in most other directions. A number of such dipole elements can be combined into an antenna array such as the Yagi-Uda in order to favor a single horizontal direction, thus termed a beam antenna. The dipole antenna, which is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced component, with equal but opposite voltages and currents applied at its two terminals. The vertical antenna is a *monopole* antenna, not balanced with respect to ground. The ground (or any large conductive surface) plays the role of the second conductor of a monopole. Since monopole antennas rely on a conductive surface, they may be mounted with a *ground plane* to approximate the effect of being mounted on the Earth's surface. More complex antennas increase the directivity of the antenna. Additional elements in the antenna structure, which need not be directly connected to the receiver or transmitter, increase its directionality. Antenna "gain" describes the concentration of radiated power into a particular solid angle of space. "Gain" is perhaps an unfortunately chosen term, by comparison with amplifier "gain" which implies a net increase in power. In contrast, for antenna "gain", the power increased in the desired direction is at the expense of power reduced in undesired directions. Unlike amplifiers, antennas are electrically "passive" devices which conserve total power, and there is no increase in total power above that delivered from the power source (the transmitter), only improved distribution of that fixed total. A phased array consists of two or more simple antennas which are connected together through an electrical network. This often involves a number of parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending on the relative phase introduced by the network, the same combination of dipole antennas can operate as a "broadside array" (directional normal to a line connecting the elements) or as an "end-fire array" (directional along the line connecting the elements). Antenna arrays may employ any basic (omnidirectional or weakly directional) antenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. These elements are often identical. Log-periodic and frequency-independent antennas employ self-similarity in order to be operational over a wide range of bandwidths. The most familiar example is the log-periodic dipole array which can be seen as a number (typically 10 to 20) of connected dipole elements with progressive lengths in an endfire array making it rather directional; it finds use especially as a rooftop antenna for television reception. On the other hand, a Yagi–Uda antenna (or simply "Yagi"), with a somewhat similar appearance, has only one dipole element with an electrical connection; the other parasitic elements interact with the electromagnetic field in order to realize a highly directional antenna but with a narrow bandwidth. Even greater directionality can be obtained using *aperture antennas* such as the parabolic reflector or horn antenna. Since high directivity in an antenna depends on it being large compared to the wavelength, highly directional antennas (thus with high antenna gain) become more practical at higher frequencies (UHF and above). At low frequencies (such as AM broadcast), arrays of vertical towers are used to achieve directionality and they will occupy large areas of land. For reception, a long Beverage antenna can have significant directivity. For non directional portable use, a short vertical antenna or small loop antenna works well, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical antenna a *loading coil* at the base of the antenna may be employed to cancel the reactive component of impedance; small loop antennas are tuned with parallel capacitors for this purpose. An antenna lead-in is the transmission line, or feed line, which connects the antenna to a transmitter or receiver. The "antenna feed" may refer to all components connecting the antenna to the transmitter or receiver, such as an impedance matching network in addition to the transmission line. In a so-called "aperture antenna", such as a horn or parabolic dish, the "feed" may also refer to a basic radiating antenna embedded in the entire system of reflecting elements (normally at the focus of the parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn) which could be considered the one active element in that antenna system. A microwave antenna may also be fed directly from a waveguide in place of a (conductive) transmission line. An antenna counterpoise, or ground plane, is a structure of conductive material which improves or substitutes for the ground. It may be connected to or insulated from the natural ground. In a monopole antenna, this aids in the function of the natural ground, particularly where variations (or limitations) of the characteristics of the natural ground interfere with its proper function. Such a structure is normally connected to the return connection of an unbalanced transmission line such as the shield of a coaxial cable. An electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture antennas is a component which due to its shape and position functions to selectively delay or advance portions of the electromagnetic wavefront passing through it. The refractor alters the spatial characteristics of the wave on one side relative to the other side. It can, for instance, bring the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways, generally in order to maximize the directivity of the antenna system. This is the radio equivalent of an optical lens. An antenna coupling network is a passive network (generally a combination of inductive and capacitive circuit elements) used for impedance matching in between the antenna and the transmitter or receiver. This may be used to minimize losses on the feed line, by reducing transmission line's standing wave ratio, and to present the transmitter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance needed for its optimum operation. The feed point location(s) is selected, and antenna elements electrically similar to tuner components may be incorporated in the antenna structure itself, to improve the match. Reciprocity ----------- It is a fundamental property of antennas that most of the electrical characteristics of an antenna, such as those described in the next section (e.g. gain, radiation pattern, impedance, bandwidth, resonant frequency and polarization), are the same whether the antenna is transmitting or receiving. For example, the *"receiving pattern"* (sensitivity to incomming signals as a function of direction) of an antenna when used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of the antenna when it is *driven* and functions as a radiator, even though the current and voltage distributions on the antenna itself are different for receiving and sending. This is a consequence of the reciprocity theorem of electromagnetics. Therefore, in discussions of antenna properties no distinction is usually made between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is more convenient. A necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity property is that the materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. *Reciprocal* (or *bilateral*) means that the material has the same response to an electric current or magnetic field in one direction, as it has to the field or current in the opposite direction. Most materials used in antennas meet these conditions, but some microwave antennas use high-tech components such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal materials such as ferrite. These can be used to give the antenna a different behavior on receiving than it has on transmitting, which can be useful in applications like radar. Resonant antennas ----------------- The majority of antenna designs are based on the *resonance* principle. This relies on the behaviour of moving electrons, which reflect off surfaces where the dielectric constant changes, in a fashion similar to the way light reflects when optical properties change. In these designs, the reflective surface is created by the end of a conductor, normally a thin metal wire or rod, which in the simplest case has a *feed point* at one end where it is connected to a transmission line. The conductor, or *element*, is aligned with the electrical field of the desired signal, normally meaning it is perpendicular to the line from the antenna to the source (or receiver in the case of a broadcast antenna). The radio signal's electrical component induces a voltage in the conductor. This causes an electrical current to begin flowing in the direction of the signal's instantaneous field. When the resulting current reaches the end of the conductor, it reflects, which is equivalent to a 180 degree change in phase. If the conductor is  1 /4 of a wavelength long, current from the feed point will undergo 90 degree phase change by the time it reaches the end of the conductor, reflect through 180 degrees, and then another 90 degrees as it travels back. That means it has undergone a total 360 degree phase change, returning it to the original signal. The current in the element thus adds to the current being created from the source at that instant. This process creates a standing wave in the conductor, with the maximum current at the feed. The ordinary half-wave dipole is probably the most widely used antenna design. This consists of two  1 /4 wavelength elements arranged end-to-end, and lying along essentially the same axis (or *collinear*), each feeding one side of a two-conductor transmission wire. The physical arrangement of the two elements places them 180 degrees out of phase, which means that at any given instant one of the elements is driving current into the transmission line while the other is pulling it out. The monopole antenna is essentially one half of the half-wave dipole, a single  1 /4 wavelength element with the other side connected to ground or an equivalent ground plane (or *counterpoise*). Monopoles, which are one-half the size of a dipole, are common for long-wavelength radio signals where a dipole would be impractically large. Another common design is the folded dipole which consists of two (or more) half-wave dipoles placed side by side and connected at their ends but only one of which is driven. The standing wave forms with this desired pattern at the design operating frequency, fo, and antennas are normally designed to be this size. However, feeding that element with 3 fo (whose wavelength is  1 /3 that of fo) will also lead to a standing wave pattern. Thus, an antenna element is *also* resonant when its length is  3 /4 of a wavelength. This is true for all odd multiples of  1 /4 wavelength. This allows some flexibility of design in terms of antenna lengths and feed points. Antennas used in such a fashion are known to be *harmonically operated*. Resonant antennas usually use a linear conductor (or *element*), or pair of such elements, each of which is about a quarter of the wavelength in length (an odd multiple of quarter wavelengths will also be resonant). Antennas that are required to be small compared to the wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very directional. Since wavelengths are so small at higher frequencies (UHF, microwaves) trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical size is usually not required. ### Current and voltage distribution The quarter-wave elements imitate a series-resonant electrical element due to the standing wave present along the conductor. At the resonant frequency, the standing wave has a current peak and voltage node (minimum) at the feed. In electrical terms, this means that at that position, the element has minimum impedance magnitude, generating the maximum current for minimum voltage. This is the ideal situation, because it produces the maximum output for the minimum input, producing the highest possible efficiency. Contrary to an ideal (lossless) series-resonant circuit, a finite resistance remains (corresponding to the relatively small voltage at the feed-point) due to the antenna's resistance to radiating, as well as any conventional electrical losses from producing heat. Recall that a current will reflect when there are changes in the electrical properties of the material. In order to efficiently transfer the received signal into the transmission line, it is important that the transmission line has the same impedance as its connection point on the antenna, otherwise some of the signal will be reflected backwards into the body of the antenna; likewise part of the transmitter's signal power will be reflected back to transmitter, if there is a change in electrical impedance where the feedline joins the antenna. This leads to the concept of impedance matching, the design of the overall system of antenna and transmission line so the impedance is as close as possible, thereby reducing these losses. Impedance matching is accomplished by a circuit called an antenna tuner or impedance matching network between the transmitter and antenna. The impedance match between the feedline and antenna is measured by a parameter called the standing wave ratio (SWR) on the feedline. Consider a half-wave dipole designed to work with signals with wavelength 1 m, meaning the antenna would be approximately 50 cm from tip to tip. If the element has a length-to-diameter ratio of 1000, it will have an inherent impedance of about 63 ohms resistive. Using the appropriate transmission wire or balun, we match that resistance to ensure minimum signal reflection. Feeding that antenna with a current of 1 Ampere will require 63 Volts, and the antenna will radiate 63 Watts (ignoring losses) of radio frequency power. Now consider the case when the antenna is fed a signal with a wavelength of 1.25 m; in this case the current induced by the signal would arrive at the antenna's feedpoint out-of-phase with the signal, causing the net current to drop while the voltage remains the same. Electrically this appears to be a very high impedance. The antenna and transmission line no longer have the same impedance, and the signal will be reflected back into the antenna, reducing output. This could be addressed by changing the matching system between the antenna and transmission line, but that solution only works well at the new design frequency. The result is that the resonant antenna will efficiently feed a signal into the transmission line only when the source signal's frequency is close to that of the design frequency of the antenna, or one of the resonant multiples. This makes resonant antenna designs inherently narrow-band: Only useful for a small range of frequencies centered around the resonance(s). ### Electrically short antennas It is possible to use simple impedance matching techniques to allow the use of monopole or dipole antennas substantially shorter than the  1 /4 or  1 /2 wave, respectively, at which they are resonant. As these antennas are made shorter (for a given frequency) their impedance becomes dominated by a series capacitive (negative) reactance; by adding an appropriate size "*loading coil*" – a series inductance with equal and opposite (positive) reactance – the antenna's capacitive reactance may be cancelled leaving only a pure resistance. Sometimes the resulting (lower) electrical resonant frequency of such a system (antenna plus matching network) is described using the concept of *electrical length*, so an antenna used at a lower frequency than its resonant frequency is called an *electrically short antenna* For example, at 30 MHz (10 m wavelength) a true resonant  1 /4 wave monopole would be almost 2.5 meters long, and using an antenna only 1.5 meters tall would require the addition of a loading coil. Then it may be said that the coil has lengthened the antenna to achieve an electrical length of 2.5 meters. However, the resulting resistive impedance achieved will be quite a bit lower than that of a true  1 /4 wave (resonant) monopole, often requiring further impedance matching (a transformer) to the desired transmission line. For ever shorter antennas (requiring greater "electrical lengthening") the radiation resistance plummets (approximately according to the square of the antenna length), so that the mismatch due to a net reactance away from the electrical resonance worsens. Or one could as well say that the equivalent resonant circuit of the antenna system has a higher Q factor and thus a reduced bandwidth, which can even become inadequate for the transmitted signal's spectrum. Resistive losses due to the loading coil, relative to the decreased radiation resistance, entail a reduced electrical efficiency, which can be of great concern for a transmitting antenna, but bandwidth is the major factor[*dubious – discuss*][*dubious – discuss*] that sets the size of antennas at 1 MHz and lower frequencies. ### Arrays and reflectors The radiant flux as a function of the distance from the transmitting antenna varies according to the inverse-square law, since that describes the geometrical divergence of the transmitted wave. For a given incoming flux, the power acquired by a receiving antenna is proportional to its *effective area*. This parameter compares the amount of power captured by a receiving antenna in comparison to the flux of an incoming wave (measured in terms of the signal's power density in watts per square metre). A half-wave dipole has an effective area of about 0.13 λ2 seen from the broadside direction. If higher gain is needed one cannot simply make the antenna larger. Due to the constraint on the effective area of a receiving antenna detailed below, one sees that for an already-efficient antenna design, the only way to increase gain (effective area) is by *reducing* the antenna's gain in another direction. If a half-wave dipole is not connected to an external circuit but rather shorted out at the feedpoint, then it becomes a resonant half-wave element which efficiently produces a standing wave in response to an impinging radio wave. Because there is no load to absorb that power, it retransmits all of that power, possibly with a phase shift which is critically dependent on the element's exact length. Thus such a conductor can be arranged in order to transmit a second copy of a transmitter's signal in order to affect the radiation pattern (and feedpoint impedance) of the element electrically connected to the transmitter. Antenna elements used in this way are known as passive radiators. A Yagi–Uda array uses passive elements to greatly increase gain in one direction (at the expense of other directions). A number of parallel approximately half-wave elements (of very specific lengths) are situated parallel to each other, at specific positions, along a boom; the boom is only for support and not involved electrically. Only one of the elements is electrically connected to the transmitter or receiver, while the remaining elements are passive. The Yagi produces a fairly large gain (depending on the number of passive elements) and is widely used as a directional antenna with an antenna rotor to control the direction of its beam. It suffers from having a rather limited bandwidth, restricting its use to certain applications. Rather than using one driven antenna element along with passive radiators, one can build an array antenna in which multiple elements are *all* driven by the transmitter through a system of power splitters and transmission lines in relative phases so as to concentrate the RF power in a single direction. What's more, a phased array can be made "steerable", that is, by changing the phases applied to each element the radiation pattern can be shifted *without* physically moving the antenna elements. Another common array antenna is the log-periodic dipole array which has an appearance similar to the Yagi (with a number of parallel elements along a boom) but is totally dissimilar in operation as all elements are connected electrically to the adjacent element with a phase reversal; using the log-periodic principle it obtains the unique property of maintaining its performance characteristics (gain and impedance) over a very large bandwidth. When a radio wave hits a large conducting sheet it is reflected (with the phase of the electric field reversed) just as a mirror reflects light. Placing such a reflector behind an otherwise non-directional antenna will insure that the power that would have gone in its direction is redirected toward the desired direction, increasing the antenna's gain by a factor of at least 2. Likewise, a corner reflector can insure that all of the antenna's power is concentrated in only one quadrant of space (or less) with a consequent increase in gain. Practically speaking, the reflector need not be a solid metal sheet, but can consist of a curtain of rods aligned with the antenna's polarization; this greatly reduces the reflector's weight and wind load. Specular reflection of radio waves is also employed in a parabolic reflector antenna, in which a *curved* reflecting surface effects focussing of an incoming wave toward a so-called feed antenna; this results in an antenna system with an effective area comparable to the size of the reflector itself. Other concepts from geometrical optics are also employed in antenna technology, such as with the lens antenna. Characteristics --------------- The antenna's power gain (or simply "gain") also takes into account the antenna's efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit. Antennas are characterized by a number of performance measures which a user would be concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular application. A plot of the directional characteristics in the space surrounding the antenna is its *radiation pattern*. ### Bandwidth The frequency range or *bandwidth* over which an antenna functions well can be very wide (as in a log-periodic antenna) or narrow (as in a small loop antenna); outside this range the antenna impedance becomes a poor match to the transmission line and transmitter (or receiver). Use of the antenna well away from its design frequency affects its radiation pattern, reducing its directive gain. Generally an antenna will not have a feed-point impedance that matches that of a transmission line; a matching network between antenna terminals and the transmission line will improve power transfer to the antenna. A non-adjustable matching network will most likely place further limits the usable bandwidth of the antenna system. It may be desirable to use tubular elements, instead of thin wires, to make an antenna; these will allow a greater bandwidth. Or, several thin wires can be grouped in a *cage* to simulate a thicker element. This widens the bandwidth of the resonance. Amateur radio antennas that operate at several frequency bands which are widely separated from each other may connect elements resonant at those different frequencies in parallel. Most of the transmitter's power will flow into the resonant element while the others present a high impedance. Another solution uses *traps*, parallel resonant circuits which are strategically placed in breaks created in long antenna elements. When used at the trap's particular resonant frequency the trap presents a very high impedance (parallel resonance) effectively truncating the element at the location of the trap; if positioned correctly, the truncated element makes a proper resonant antenna at the trap frequency. At substantially higher or lower frequencies the trap allows the full length of the broken element to be employed, but with a resonant frequency shifted by the net reactance added by the trap. The bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characterized according to its *Q* where the resistance involved is the radiation resistance, which represents the emission of energy from the resonant antenna to free space. The *Q* of a narrow band antenna can be as high as 15. On the other hand, the reactance at the same off-resonant frequency of one using thick elements is much less, consequently resulting in a *Q* as low as 5. These two antennas may perform equivalently at the resonant frequency, but the second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 3 times as wide as the antenna consisting of a thin conductor. Antennas for use over much broader frequency ranges are achieved using further techniques. Adjustment of a matching network can, in principle, allow for any antenna to be matched at any frequency. Thus the small loop antenna built into most AM broadcast (medium wave) receivers has a very narrow bandwidth, but is tuned using a parallel capacitance which is adjusted according to the receiver tuning. On the other hand, log-periodic antennas are *not* resonant at any single frequency but can (in principle) be built to attain similar characteristics (including feedpoint impedance) over any frequency range. These are therefore commonly used (in the form of directional log-periodic dipole arrays) as television antennas. ### Gain Gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna's radiation pattern. A high-gain antenna will radiate most of its power in a particular direction, while a low-gain antenna will radiate over a wide angle. The *antenna gain*, or *power gain* of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface area) I {\displaystyle I} I radiated by the antenna in the direction of its maximum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity I iso {\displaystyle I\_{\text{iso}}} {\displaystyle I_{\text{iso}}} radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna which radiates equal power in all directions. This dimensionless ratio is usually expressed logarithmically in decibels, these units are called *decibels-isotropic* (dBi) G dBi = 10 log ⁡ I I iso {\displaystyle G\_{\text{dBi}}=10\log {I \over I\_{\text{iso}}}\,} G_{{\text{dBi}}}=10\log {I \over I_{{\text{iso}}}}\, A second unit used to measure gain is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the power radiated by a half-wave dipole antenna I dipole {\displaystyle I\_{\text{dipole}}} {\displaystyle I_{\text{dipole}}}; these units are called *decibels-dipole* (dBd) G dBd = 10 log ⁡ I I dipole {\displaystyle G\_{\text{dBd}}=10\log {I \over I\_{\text{dipole}}}\,} G_{{\text{dBd}}}=10\log {I \over I_{{\text{dipole}}}}\, Since the gain of a half-wave dipole is 2.15 dBi and the logarithm of a product is additive, the gain in dBi is just 2.15 decibels greater than the gain in dBd G dBi ≈ G dBd + 2.15 {\displaystyle G\_{\text{dBi}}\approx G\_{\text{dBd}}+2.15\,} {\displaystyle G_{\text{dBi}}\approx G_{\text{dBd}}+2.15\,} High-gain antennas have the advantage of longer range and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully at the other antenna. An example of a high-gain antenna is a parabolic dish such as a satellite television antenna. Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation of the antenna is relatively unimportant. An example of a low-gain antenna is the whip antenna found on portable radios and cordless phones. Antenna gain should not be confused with amplifier gain, a separate parameter measuring the increase in signal power due to an amplifying device placed at the front-end of the system, such as a low-noise amplifier. ### Effective area or aperture The *effective area* or effective aperture of a receiving antenna expresses the portion of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which the antenna delivers to its terminals, expressed in terms of an equivalent area. For instance, if a radio wave passing a given location has a flux of 1 pW / m2 (10−12 Watts per square meter) and an antenna has an effective area of 12 m2, then the antenna would deliver 12 pW of RF power to the receiver (30 microvolts RMS at 75 ohms). Since the receiving antenna is not equally sensitive to signals received from all directions, the effective area is a function of the direction to the source. Due to reciprocity (discussed above) the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its effective area when used for receiving. Consider an antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical efficiency is 100%. It can be shown that its effective area averaged over all directions must be equal to λ2/4π, the wavelength squared divided by 4π. Gain is defined such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 100% electrical efficiency is equal to 1. Therefore, the effective area *A*eff in terms of the gain G in a given direction is given by: A e f f = λ 2 4 π G {\displaystyle A\_{\mathrm {eff} }={\lambda ^{2} \over 4\pi }\,G} A_{\mathrm{eff}} = {\lambda^2 \over 4 \pi} \, G For an antenna with an efficiency of less than 100%, both the effective area and gain are reduced by that same amount. Therefore, the above relationship between gain and effective area still holds. These are thus two different ways of expressing the same quantity. *A*eff is especially convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a specified gain, as illustrated by the above example. ### Radiation pattern The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna at different angles in the far-field. It is typically represented by a three-dimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross sections. The pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all directions, would look like a sphere. Many nondirectional antennas, such as monopoles and dipoles, emit equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power dropping off at higher and lower angles; this is called an omnidirectional pattern and when plotted looks like a torus or donut. The radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of maxima or "*lobes*" at various angles, separated by "*nulls*", angles where the radiation falls to zero. This is because the radio waves emitted by different parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing maxima at angles where the radio waves arrive at distant points in phase, and zero radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase. In a directional antenna designed to project radio waves in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the "*main lobe*". The other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are called "*sidelobes*". The axis through the main lobe is called the "*principal axis*" or "*boresight axis*". The polar diagrams (and therefore the efficiency and gain) of Yagi antennas are tighter if the antenna is tuned for a narrower frequency range, e.g. the grouped antenna compared to the wideband. Similarly, the polar plots of horizontally polarized yagis are tighter than for those vertically polarized. ### Field regions The space surrounding an antenna can be divided into three concentric regions: The reactive near-field (also called the inductive near-field), the radiating near-field (Fresnel region) and the far-field (Fraunhofer) regions. These regions are useful to identify the field structure in each, although the transitions between them are gradual; there are no clear boundaries. The far-field region is far enough from the antenna to ignore its size and shape: It can be assumed that the electromagnetic wave is purely a radiating plane wave (electric and magnetic fields are in phase and perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation). This simplifies the mathematical analysis of the radiated field. ### Efficiency *Efficiency* of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated (in all directions) to the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. The power supplied to the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into heat. This is usually through loss resistance in the antenna's conductors, or loss between the reflector and feed horn of a parabolic antenna. Antenna efficiency is separate from impedance matching, which may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. If an SWR meter reads 150 W of incident power and 50 W of reflected power, that means 100 W have actually been absorbed by the antenna (ignoring transmission line losses). How much of that power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical measurements at (or before) the antenna terminals, but would require (for instance) careful measurement of field strength. The loss resistance and efficiency of an antenna can be calculated once the field strength is known, by comparing it to the power supplied to the antenna. The loss resistance will generally affect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive component. That resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance *R*rad and the loss resistance *R*loss. If a current *I* is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power of *I*2*R*rad will be radiated and a power of *I*2*R*loss will be lost as heat. Therefore, the efficiency of an antenna is equal to *R*rad/(*R*rad + *R*loss). Only the total resistance *R*rad + *R*loss can be directly measured. According to reciprocity, the efficiency of an antenna used as a receiving antenna is identical to its efficiency as a transmitting antenna, described above. The power that an antenna will deliver to a receiver (with a proper impedance match) is reduced by the same amount. In some receiving applications, the very inefficient antennas may have little impact on performance. At low frequencies, for example, atmospheric or man-made noise can mask antenna inefficiency. For example, CCIR Rep. 258-3 indicates man-made noise in a residential setting at 40 MHz is about 28 dB above the thermal noise floor. Consequently, an antenna with a 20 dB loss (due to inefficiency) would have little impact on system noise performance. The loss within the antenna will affect the intended signal and the noise/interference identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio (SNR). Antennas which are not a significant fraction of a wavelength in size are inevitably inefficient due to their small radiation resistance. AM broadcast radios include a small loop antenna for reception which has an extremely poor efficiency. This has little effect on the receiver's performance, but simply requires greater amplification by the receiver's electronics. Contrast this tiny component to the massive and very tall towers used at AM broadcast stations for transmitting at the very same frequency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna efficiency entails a substantial cost. The definition of antenna gain or *power gain* already includes the effect of the antenna's efficiency. Therefore, if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare the gain of various antennas rather than considering the efficiency as well. This is likewise true for a receiving antenna at very high (especially microwave) frequencies, where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receiver's noise temperature. However, in the case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals with the intention of *rejecting* interference from different directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna efficiency, as discussed above. In this case, rather than quoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned with the *directive gain*, or simply *directivity* which does *not* include the effect of antenna (in)efficiency. The directive gain of an antenna can be computed from the published gain divided by the antenna's efficiency. In equation form, gain = directivity × efficiency. ### Polarization The orientation and physical structure of an antenna determine the *polarization* of the electric field of the radio wave transmitted by it. For instance, an antenna composed of a linear conductor (such as a dipole or whip antenna) oriented vertically will result in vertical polarization; if turned on its side the same antenna's polarization will be horizontal. Reflections generally affect polarization. Radio waves reflected off the ionosphere can change the wave's polarization. For line-of-sight communications or ground wave propagation, horizontally or vertically polarized transmissions generally remain in about the same polarization state at the receiving location. Using a vertically polarized antenna to receive a horizontally polarized wave (or visa-versa) results in relatively poor reception. An antenna's polarization can sometimes be inferred directly from its geometry. When the antenna's conductors *viewed from a reference location* appear along one line, then the antenna's polarization will be linear in that very direction. In the more general case, the antenna's polarization must be determined through analysis. For instance, a turnstile antenna mounted horizontally (as is usual), from a distant location on earth, appears as a horizontal line segment, so its radiation received there is horizontally polarized. But viewed at a downward angle from an airplane, the same antenna does *not* meet this requirement; in fact its radiation is elliptically polarized when viewed from that direction. In some antennas the state of polarization will change with the frequency of transmission. The polarization of a commercial antenna is an essential specification. In the most general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that over each cycle the electric field vector traces out an ellipse. Two special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) as discussed above, and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal). In linear polarization the electric field of the radio wave oscillates along one direction. In circular polarization, the electric field of the radio wave rotates around the axis of propagation. Circular or elliptically polarized radio waves are designated as right-handed or left-handed using the "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Note that for circular polarization, optical researchers use the opposite right hand rule from the one used by radio engineers. It is best for the receiving antenna to match the polarization of the transmitted wave for optimum reception. Otherwise there will be a loss of signal strength: when a linearly polarized antenna receives linearly polarized radiation at a relative angle of θ, then there will be a power loss of cos2θ . A circularly polarized antenna can be used to equally well match vertical or horizontal linear polarizations, suffering a 3 dB signal reduction. However it will be blind to a circularly polarized signal of the opposite orientation. ### Impedance matching Maximum power transfer requires matching the impedance of an antenna system (as seen looking into the transmission line) to the complex conjugate of the impedance of the receiver or transmitter. In the case of a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance might not exactly correspond to the dynamic output impedance of the transmitter as analyzed as a source impedance but rather the design value (typically 50 Ohms) required for efficient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry. The intended impedance is normally resistive, but a transmitter (and some receivers) may have limited additional adjustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance, in order to "tweak" the match. When a transmission line is used in between the antenna and the transmitter (or receiver) one generally would like an antenna system whose impedance is resistive and nearly the same as the characteristic impedance of that transmission line, in addition to matching the impedance that the transmitter (or receiver) expects. The match is sought to minimize the amplitude of standing waves (measured via the standing wave ratio; SWR) that a mismatch raises on the line, and the increase in transmission line losses it entails. #### Antenna tuning at the antenna Antenna tuning, in the strict sense of modifying the antenna itself, generally refers only to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be exactly the desired impedance (that of the available transmission line). Although an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance (such as a dipole 97% of a half wavelength long) this might not be exactly true at the frequency that it is eventually used at. In most cases, in principle the physical length of the antenna can be "trimmed" to obtain a pure resistance, although this is rarely convenient. On the other hand, the addition of a contrary inductance or capacitance can be used to cancel a residual capacitive or inductive reactance, respectively, and may be more convenient than lowering and trimming or extending the antenna, then hoisting it back. Antenna reactance may be removed using lumped elements, such as capacitors or inductors in the main path of current traversing the antenna, often near the feedpoint, or by incorporating capacitive or inductive structures into the conducting body of the antenna to cancel the feedpoint reactance – such as open-ended "spoke" radial wires, or looped parallel wires – hence genuinely tune the antenna to resonance. In addition to those reactance-neutralizing add-ons, antennas of any kind may include a balun at their feedpoint to transform the resistive part of the impedance to more nearly match the feedline's characteristic impedance. #### Line matching at the radio Antenna tuning in the loose sense, performed by an impedance matching device (somewhat inappropriately named an "*antenna tuner*", or the older, more appropriate term *transmatch*) goes beyond merely removing reactance and includes transforming the remaining resistance to match the feedline and radio. An additional problem is matching the remaining resistive impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line: A general impedance matching network (an "antenna tuner" or ATU) will have at least two adjustable elements to correct both components of impedance. Any matching network will have both power losses and power restrictions when used for transmitting. Commercial antennas are generally designed to approximately match standard 50 Ohm coaxial cables, at standard frequencies; the design expectation is that a matching network will be merely used to 'tweak' any residual mismatch. #### Extreme examples of loaded small antennas In some cases matching is done in a more extreme manner, not simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance, but to resonate an antenna whose resonance frequency is quite different from the intended frequency of operation. Short vertical "whip"For instance, for practical reasons a "whip antenna" can be made significantly shorter than a quarter-wavelength and then resonated, using a so-called loading coil. The physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that the short vertical antenna has at the desired operating frequency. The result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coil; although, without further measures, the resistance will be somewhat lower than would be desired to match commercial coax. Small "magnetic" loopAnother extreme case of impedance matching occurs when using a small loop antenna (usually, but not always, for receiving) at a relatively low frequency, where it appears almost as a pure inductor. When such an inductor is resonated via a capacitor attached in parallel across its feedpoint, the capacitor not only cancels the reactance but also greatly magnifies the very small radiation resistance of a small loop to produce a better-matched feedpoint resistance. This is the type of antenna used in most portable AM broadcast receivers (other than car radios): The standard AM antenna is a loop of wire wound around a ferrite rod (a "*loopstick antenna*"). The loop is resonated by a coupled tuning capacitor, which is configured to match the receiver's tuning, in order to keep the antenna resonant at the chosen receive frequency over the AM broadcast band. Effect of ground ---------------- Ground reflections is one of the common types of multipath. The radiation pattern and even the driving point impedance of an antenna can be influenced by the dielectric constant and especially conductivity of nearby objects. For a terrestrial antenna, the ground is usually one such object of importance. The antenna's height above the ground, as well as the electrical properties (permittivity and conductivity) of the ground, can then be important. Also, in the particular case of a monopole antenna, the ground (or an artificial ground plane) serves as the return connection for the antenna current thus having an additional effect, particularly on the impedance seen by the feed line. When an electromagnetic wave strikes a plane surface such as the ground, part of the wave is transmitted into the ground and part of it is reflected, according to the Fresnel coefficients. If the ground is a very good conductor then almost all of the wave is reflected (180° out of phase), whereas a ground modeled as a (lossy) dielectric can absorb a large amount of the wave's power. The power remaining in the reflected wave, and the phase shift upon reflection, strongly depend on the wave's angle of incidence and polarization. The dielectric constant and conductivity (or simply the complex dielectric constant) is dependent on the soil type and is a function of frequency. For very low frequencies to high frequencies (< 30 MHz), the ground behaves as a lossy dielectric, thus the ground is characterized both by a conductivity and permittivity (dielectric constant) which can be measured for a given soil (but is influenced by fluctuating moisture levels) or can be estimated from certain maps. At lower mediumwave frequencies the ground acts mainly as a good conductor, which AM broadcast (0.5–1.7 MHz) antennas depend on. At frequencies between 3–30 MHz, a large portion of the energy from a horizontally polarized antenna reflects off the ground, with almost total reflection at the grazing angles important for ground wave propagation. That reflected wave, with its phase reversed, can either cancel or reinforce the direct wave, depending on the antenna height in wavelengths and elevation angle (for a sky wave). On the other hand, vertically polarized radiation is not well reflected by the ground except at grazing incidence or over very highly conducting surfaces such as sea water. However the grazing angle reflection important for ground wave propagation, using vertical polarization, is *in phase* with the direct wave, providing a boost of up to 6 dB, as is detailed below. The wave reflected by earth can be considered as emitted by the image antenna. At VHF and above (> 30 MHz) the ground becomes a poorer reflector. However, for shortwave frequencies, especially below ~15 MHz, it remains a good reflector especially for horizontal polarization and grazing angles of incidence. That is important as these higher frequencies usually depend on horizontal line-of-sight propagation (except for satellite communications), the ground then behaving almost as a mirror. The net quality of a ground reflection depends on the topography of the surface. When the irregularities of the surface are much smaller than the wavelength, the dominant regime is that of specular reflection, and the receiver sees both the real antenna and an image of the antenna under the ground due to reflection. But if the ground has irregularities not small compared to the wavelength, reflections will not be coherent but shifted by random phases. With shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies), this is generally the case. Whenever both the receiving or transmitting antenna are placed at significant heights above the ground (relative to the wavelength), waves reflected specularly by the ground will travel a longer distance than direct waves, inducing a phase shift which can sometimes be significant. When a sky wave is launched by such an antenna, that phase shift is always significant unless the antenna is very close to the ground (compared to the wavelength). The phase of reflection of electromagnetic waves depends on the polarization of the incident wave. Given the larger refractive index of the ground (typically n ≈ 2) compared to air (n = 1), the phase of horizontally polarized radiation is reversed upon reflection (a phase shift of π radians, or 180°). On the other hand, the vertical component of the wave's electric field is reflected at grazing angles of incidence approximately *in phase*. These phase shifts apply as well to a ground modeled as a good electrical conductor. The currents in an antenna appear as an image in *opposite* phase when reflected at grazing angles. This causes a phase reversal for waves emitted by a horizontally polarized antenna (center) but not for a vertically polarized antenna (left). This means that a receiving antenna "sees" an image of the emitting antenna but with 'reversed' currents (opposite in direction and phase) if the emitting antenna is horizontally oriented (and thus horizontally polarized). However, the received current will be in the same absolute direction and phase if the emitting antenna is vertically polarized. The actual antenna which is *transmitting* the original wave then also may *receive* a strong signal from its own image from the ground. This will induce an additional current in the antenna element, changing the current at the feedpoint for a given feedpoint voltage. Thus the antenna's impedance, given by the ratio of feedpoint voltage to current, is altered due to the antenna's proximity to the ground. This can be quite a significant effect when the antenna is within a wavelength or two of the ground. But as the antenna height is increased, the reduced power of the reflected wave (due to the inverse square law) allows the antenna to approach its asymptotic feedpoint impedance given by theory. At lower heights, the effect on the antenna's impedance is *very* sensitive to the exact distance from the ground, as this affects the phase of the reflected wave relative to the currents in the antenna. Changing the antenna's height by a quarter wavelength, then changes the phase of the reflection by 180°, with a completely different effect on the antenna's impedance. The ground reflection has an important effect on the net far field radiation pattern in the vertical plane, that is, as a function of elevation angle, which is thus different between a vertically and horizontally polarized antenna. Consider an antenna at a height h above the ground, transmitting a wave considered at the elevation angle θ. For a vertically polarized transmission the magnitude of the electric field of the electromagnetic wave produced by the direct ray plus the reflected ray is: | E V | = 2 | E 0 | | cos ⁡ ( 2 π h λ sin ⁡ θ ) | {\displaystyle \textstyle {\left|E\_{V}\right|=2\left|E\_{0}\right|\,\left|\cos \left({2\pi h \over \lambda }\sin \theta \right)\right|}} \textstyle {\left|E_{V}\right|=2\left|E_{0}\right|\,\left|\cos \left({2\pi h \over \lambda }\sin \theta \right)\right|} Thus the *power* received can be as high as 4 times that due to the direct wave alone (such as when θ = 0), following the *square* of the cosine. The sign inversion for the reflection of horizontally polarized emission instead results in: | E H | = 2 | E 0 | | sin ⁡ ( 2 π h λ sin ⁡ θ ) | {\displaystyle \textstyle {\left|E\_{H}\right|=2\left|E\_{0}\right|\,\left|\sin \left({2\pi h \over \lambda }\sin \theta \right)\right|}} \textstyle {\left|E_{H}\right|=2\left|E_{0}\right|\,\left|\sin \left({2\pi h \over \lambda }\sin \theta \right)\right|} where: * E 0 {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {E\_{0}}} \scriptstyle {E_{0}} is the electrical field that would be received by the direct wave if there were no ground. * θ is the elevation angle of the wave being considered. * λ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\lambda }} \scriptstyle {\lambda } is the wavelength. * h {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {h}} \scriptstyle {h} is the height of the antenna (half the distance between the antenna and its image). Radiation patterns of antennas and their images reflected by the ground. At left the polarization is vertical and there is always a maximum for θ = 0 . If the polarization is horizontal as at right, there is always a zero for θ = 0 . For horizontal propagation between transmitting and receiving antennas situated near the ground reasonably far from each other, the distances traveled by the direct and reflected rays are nearly the same. There is almost no relative phase shift. If the emission is polarized vertically, the two fields (direct and reflected) add and there is maximum of received signal. If the signal is polarized horizontally, the two signals subtract and the received signal is largely cancelled. The vertical plane radiation patterns are shown in the image at right. With vertical polarization there is always a maximum for θ = 0, horizontal propagation (left pattern). For horizontal polarization, there is cancellation at that angle. Note that the above formulae and these plots assume the ground as a perfect conductor. These plots of the radiation pattern correspond to a distance between the antenna and its image of 2.5 λ . As the antenna height is increased, the number of lobes increases as well. The difference in the above factors for the case of θ = 0 is the reason that most broadcasting (transmissions intended for the public) uses vertical polarization. For receivers near the ground, horizontally polarized transmissions suffer cancellation. For best reception the receiving antennas for these signals are likewise vertically polarized. In some applications where the receiving antenna must work in any position, as in mobile phones, the base station antennas use mixed polarization, such as linear polarization at an angle (with both vertical and horizontal components) or circular polarization. On the other hand, analog television transmissions are usually horizontally polarized, because in urban areas buildings can reflect the electromagnetic waves and create ghost images due to multipath propagation. Using horizontal polarization, ghosting is reduced because the amount of reflection in the horizontal polarization off the side of a building is generally less than in the vertical direction. Vertically polarized analog television have been used in some rural areas. In digital terrestrial television such reflections are less problematic, due to robustness of binary transmissions and error correction. Modeling antennas with line equations ------------------------------------- In the first approximation, the current in a thin antenna is distributed exactly as in a transmission line. — Schelkunoff & Friis (1952) The flow of current in wire antennas is identical to the solution of counter-propagating waves in a single conductor transmission line, which can be solved using the telegrapher's equations. Solutions of currents along antenna elements are more conveniently and accurately obtained by numerical methods, so transmission-line techniques have largely been abandoned for precision modelling, but they continue to be a widely used source of useful, simple approximations that describe well the impedance profiles of antennas. Unlike transmission lines, currents in antennas contribute power to the radiated part electromagnetic field, which can be modeled using radiation resistance. The end of an antenna element corresponds to an unterminated (open) end of a single-conductor transmission line, resulting in a reflected wave identical to the incident wave, with its voltage *in* phase with the incident wave and its current in the *opposite* phase (thus net zero current, where there is, after all, no further conductor). The combination of the incident and reflected wave, just as in a transmission line, forms a standing wave with a current node at the conductor's end, and a voltage node one-quarter wavelength from the end (if the element is at least that long). In a *resonant antenna*, the feedpoint of the antenna is at one of those voltage nodes. Due to discrepancies from the simplified version of the transmission line model, the voltage one quarter wavelength from the current node is not exactly zero, but it is near a minimum, and small compared to the much large voltage at the conductor's end. Hence, a feed point matching the antenna at that spot requires a relatively small voltage but large current (the currents from the two waves add in-phase there), thus a relatively low feedpoint impedance. Feeding the antenna at other points involves a large voltage, thus a large impedance, and usually one that is primarily reactive (low power factor), which is a terrible impedance match to available transmission lines. Therefore it is usually desired for an antenna to operate as a resonant element with each conductor having a length of one quarter wavelength (or any other odd multiples of a quarter wavelength). For instance, a half-wave dipole has two such elements (one connected to each conductor of a balanced transmission line) about one quarter wavelength long. Depending on the conductors' diameters, a small deviation from this length is adopted in order to reach the point where the antenna current and the (small) feedpoint voltage are exactly in phase. Then the antenna presents a purely resistive impedance, and ideally one close to the characteristic impedance of an available transmission line. Despite these useful properties, resonant antennas have the disadvantage that they achieve resonance (purely resistive feedpoint impedance) only at a fundamental frequency, and perhaps some of its harmonics, and the feedpoint resistance is larger at higher-order resonances. Therefore resonant antennas can only achieve their good performance within a limited bandwidth, depending on the Q at the resonance. Mutual impedance and interaction between antennas ------------------------------------------------- The electric and magnetic fields emanating from a driven antenna element will generally affect the voltages and currents in nearby antennas, antenna elements, or other conductors. This is particularly true when the affected conductor is a resonant element (multiple of half-wavelengths in length) at about the same frequency, as is the case where the conductors are all part of the same active or passive antenna array. Because the affected conductors are in the near-field, one can *not* just treat two antennas as transmitting and receiving a signal according to the Friis transmission formula for instance, but must calculate the *mutual impedance* matrix which takes into account both voltages and currents (interactions through both the electric and magnetic fields). Thus using the mutual impedances calculated for a specific geometry, one can solve for the radiation pattern of a Yagi–Uda antenna or the currents and voltages for each element of a phased array. Such an analysis can also describe in detail reflection of radio waves by a ground plane or by a corner reflector and their effect on the impedance (and radiation pattern) of an antenna in its vicinity. Often such near-field interactions are undesired and pernicious. Currents in random metal objects near a transmitting antenna will often be in poor conductors, causing loss of RF power in addition to unpredictably altering the characteristics of the antenna. By careful design, it is possible to reduce the electrical interaction between nearby conductors. For instance, the 90 degree angle in between the two dipoles composing the turnstile antenna insures no interaction between these, allowing these to be driven independently (but actually with the same signal in quadrature phases in the turnstile antenna design). Antenna types ------------- Antennas can be classified by operating principles or by their application. Different authorities placed antennas in narrower or broader categories. Generally these include * Dipole and monopole antennas * Array antennas * Loop antennas * Aperture antennas * Traveling wave antennas These antenna types and others are summarized in greater detail in the overview article, Antenna types, as well as in each of the linked articles in the list above, and in even more detail in articles which those link to. See also -------- * antenna feed * Category:Radio frequency antenna types * Category:Radio frequency propagation * cellular repeater * counterpoise * DXing * electromagnetism * feedline matching unit * mobile broadband modem * Numerical Electromagnetics Code * radial (radio) * radio masts and towers * RF connector * smart antenna * TETRA * shortwave broadband antenna * personal RF safety monitor The dictionary definition of *antenna* at Wiktionary

Antenna (radio)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)

A **legend** is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude. Legend, for its active and passive participants, may include miracles. Legends may be transformed over time to keep them fresh and vital. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty, never being entirely believed by the participants, but also never being resolutely doubted. Legends are sometimes distinguished from myths in that they concern human beings as the main characters rather than gods, and sometimes in that they have some sort of historical basis whereas myths generally do not. The Brothers Grimm defined *legend* as "folktale historically grounded". A by-product of the "concern with human beings" is the long list of legendary creatures, leaving no "resolute doubt" that legends are "historically grounded." A modern folklorist's professional definition of *legend* was proposed by Timothy R. Tangherlini in 1990: > Legend, typically, is a short (mono-) episodic, traditional, highly ecotypified historicized narrative performed in a conversational mode, reflecting on a psychological level a symbolic representation of folk belief and collective experiences and serving as a reaffirmation of commonly held values of the group to whose tradition it belongs. > > Etymology and origin -------------------- *Legend* is a loanword from Old French that entered English usage circa 1340. The Old French noun *legende* derives from the Medieval Latin *legenda*. In its early English-language usage, the word indicated a narrative of an event. The word *legendary* was originally a noun (introduced in the 1510s) meaning a collection or corpus of legends. This word changed to *legendry*, and *legendary* became the adjectival form. By 1613, English-speaking Protestants began to use the word when they wished to imply that an event (especially the story of any saint not acknowledged in John Foxe's *Actes and Monuments*) was fictitious. Thus, *legend* gained its modern connotations of "undocumented" and "spurious", which distinguish it from the meaning of *chronicle*. In 1866, Jacob Grimm described the fairy tale as "poetic, legend historic." Early scholars such as Karl Wehrhan [de] Friedrich Ranke and Will Erich Peuckert followed Grimm's example in focussing solely on the literary narrative, an approach that was enriched particularly after the 1960s, by addressing questions of performance and the anthropological and psychological insights provided in considering legends' social context. Questions of categorising legends, in hopes of compiling a content-based series of categories on the line of the Aarne–Thompson folktale index, provoked a search for a broader new synthesis. In an early attempt at defining some basic questions operative in examining folk tales, Friedrich Ranke [de] in 1925 characterised the folk legend as "a popular narrative with an objectively untrue imaginary content", a dismissive position that was subsequently largely abandoned. Compared to the highly structured folktale, legend is comparatively amorphous, Helmut de Boor noted in 1928. The narrative content of legend is in realistic mode, rather than the wry irony of folktale; Wilhelm Heiske remarked on the similarity of motifs in legend and folktale and concluded that, in spite of its realistic mode, legend is not more historical than folktale. In *Einleitung in der Geschichtswissenschaft* (1928), Ernst Bernheim asserted that a legend is simply a longstanding rumour. Gordon Allport credited the staying-power of some rumours to the persistent cultural state-of-mind that they embody and capsulise; thus "Urban legends" are a feature of rumour. When Willian Hugh Jansen suggested that legends that disappear quickly were "short-term legends" and the persistent ones be termed "long-term legends", the distinction between legend and rumour was effectively obliterated, Tangherlini concluded. Christian *legenda* ------------------- In a narrow Christian sense, *legenda* ("things to be read [on a certain day, in church]") were hagiographical accounts, often collected in a legendary. Because saints' lives are often included in many miracle stories, *legend*, in a wider sense, came to refer to any story that is set in a historical context, but that contains supernatural, divine or fantastic elements. Related concepts ---------------- Hippolyte Delehaye distinguished legend from myth: "The *legend*, on the other hand, has, of necessity, some historical or topographical connection. It refers imaginary events to some real personage, or it localizes romantic stories in some definite spot." From the moment a legend is retold as fiction, its authentic legendary qualities begin to fade and recede: in *The Legend of Sleepy Hollow*, Washington Irving transformed a local Hudson River Valley legend into a literary anecdote with "Gothic" overtones, which actually tended to diminish its character as genuine legend. Stories that exceed the boundaries of "realism" are called "fables". For example, the talking animal formula of Aesop identifies his brief stories as fables, not legends. The parable of the Prodigal Son would be a legend if it were told as having actually happened to a specific son of a historical father. If it included a donkey that gave sage advice to the Prodigal Son it would be a fable. Legend may be transmitted orally, passed on person-to-person, or, in the original sense, through written text. Jacobus de Voragine's *Legenda Aurea* or "The Golden Legend" comprises a series of *vitae* or instructive biographical narratives, tied to the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. They are presented as lives of the saints, but the profusion of miraculous happenings and above all their uncritical context are characteristics of hagiography. The *Legenda* was intended to inspire extemporized homilies and sermons appropriate to the saint of the day. Urban legend ------------ Urban legends are a modern genre of folklore that is rooted in local popular culture, usually comprising fictional stories that are often presented as true, with macabre or humorous elements. These legends can be used for entertainment purposes, as well as semi-serious explanations for seemingly-mysterious events, such as disappearances and strange objects. The term "urban legend," as used by folklorists, has appeared in print since at least 1968. Jan Harold Brunvand, professor of English at the University of Utah, introduced the term to the general public in a series of popular books published beginning in 1981. Brunvand used his collection of legends, *The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends & Their Meanings* (1981) to make two points: first, that legends and folklore do not occur exclusively in so-called primitive or traditional societies, and second, that one could learn much about urban and modern culture by studying such tales. See also -------- * The Matter of Britain, Arthurian legend * Legendary saga * Legendary creature * Lists of legendary creatures

Legend

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend

**Stockings** (also known as **hose**, especially in a historical context) are close-fitting, variously elastic garments covering the leg from the foot up to the knee or possibly part or all of the thigh. Stockings vary in color, design, and transparency. Today, stockings are primarily worn for fashion and aesthetics, usually in association with mid-length or short skirts. History ------- Historically, even though the word *sock* is at least as ancient in origin, what men normally wore were often referred to as stockings, probably especially when referring to longer hose.[*verification needed*] The word *stock* used to refer to the bottom "stump" part of the body, and by analogy the word was used to refer to the one-piece covering of the lower trunk and limbs of the 15th century—essentially tights consisting of the *upper-stocks* (later to be worn separately as knee breeches) and *nether-stocks* (later to be worn separately as *stockings*). (See Hose.) Before the 1590s, stockings were made of woven cloth. The first knitting machines were for making stockings. The stockings themselves were made of cotton, linen, wool or silk. A polished cotton called lisle was common, as were those made in the town of Balbriggan. Before the 1920s, stockings, if worn, were worn for warmth. In the 1920s, as hemlines of dresses rose and central heating was not widespread, women began to wear flesh-colored stockings to cover their exposed legs. Those stockings were sheer, first made of silk or rayon (then known as "artificial silk") and after 1940 of nylon. The introduction of nylon in 1939 by chemical company DuPont began a high demand for stockings in the United States with up to 4 million pairs being purchased in one day. Nylon stockings were cheap, durable, and sheer compared to their cotton and silk counterparts. When America entered World War II, DuPont ceased production of nylon stockings and retooled their factories to produce parachutes, airplane cords, and rope. This led to a shortage and the creation of a black market for stockings. At the end of the war DuPont announced that the company would return to producing stockings, but could not meet demand. This led to a series of disturbances in American stores known as the nylon riots until DuPont was able to increase production. A precursor of pantyhose made an appearance in the 1940s and 1950s, when film and theater productions had stockings sewn to the briefs of actresses and dancers, according to actress-singer-dancer Ann Miller and seen in popular films such as *Daddy Long Legs*. Today, stockings are commonly made using knitted wool, silk, cotton or nylon (see hosiery). The introduction of commercial pantyhose in 1959 gave an alternative to stockings, and the use of stockings declined dramatically. A main reason for this was the trend towards higher hemlines on dresses (see minidress). In 1970, U.S. sales of pantyhose exceeded stockings for the first time, and has remained this way ever since. Beginning in 1987, sales of pantyhose started a slight decline due to the newly invented hold-ups, but still remain the most sold kind of hosiery. Benefits and drawbacks ---------------------- Stockings are still sometimes preferred to pantyhose in North American English, for a number of reasons. These may include the perception that stockings, and the associated use of garters, lace, high fashion, appliqué and the exposure of the thigh, are more aesthetically pleasing, or sexually attractive and alluring than pantyhose. Both nylon stockings and pantyhose in being sheer share the advantage of being quick-drying compared to trousers. Spare pairs are also easy to carry if they are ruined. If laddered they can be replaced 'one at a time' which provides a cost advantage over tights. However, stockings have a drawback in colder weather, because more skin is exposed to the cold compared to pantyhose. Also, pantyhose do not require garters or garter belts. Support ------- Stockings can be held up in one of three ways: 1. A garter belt (AmE), or suspender belt or suspenders (BrE), is the second most common way of holding up stockings. It is a piece of underwear worn around the waist like a belt but under clothing which has "suspenders" or "stays" that clip to the tops of the stockings. 2. Hold-ups are the most common means of support. The inside of the top of the stockings has a band (typically silicone) of elastic or highly tractive material that resists slipping down the thigh. 3. A garter is the least common means of support. It is slipped over the top of the stocking to hold the stocking by essentially clamping it to the leg. These are the garters typically worn by a bride at her wedding. They have similar advantages and disadvantages to "stay-ups". Terminology ----------- In modern usage, *stocking* specifically refers to the form of hosiery configured as two pieces, one for each leg (except for American and Australian English, where the term can also be a synonym for pantyhose). The terms *hold-ups* and *thigh highs* refer to stockings that stay up through the use of built-in elastic, while the word *stockings* is the general term or refers to the kind of stockings that need a suspender belt (garter belt, in American English), and are quite distinct from tights or pantyhose (American English). Other terms used with stockings include: * Cuban heel: A stocking with a heel made with folded over and sewn reinforcement. * Demi-toe: Stockings which have a reinforced toe with half the coverage on top as on the bottom. This results in a reinforcement that covers only the tip of the toes as opposed to the whole toe. These can be with or without a reinforced heel. * Denier: The lower the denier number the sheerer the garment. Stockings knitted with a higher denier tend to be less sheer but more durable. * Fishnet: Knitted stockings with a very wide open knit resembling a fish net. * Fencenet: Similar to fishnet, but with a much wider pattern. These are sometimes worn over another pair of stockings or pantyhose, such as matte or opaque, with a contrasting colour. Sometimes referred to as whalenets. * Football stockings: typically made out of heavy cotton or a thick, durable synthetic fabric that reaches the knee. * Full Fashioned: Fully fashioned stockings are knitted flat, the material is then cut and the two sides are then united by a seam up the back. Fully fashioned stockings were the most popular style until the 1960s. * Hold-ups (British English) or Stay-ups: Stockings that are held up by sewn-in elasticated bands (quite often a wide lace top band). In the US they are referred to as thigh-highs. * Knee highs: Stockings that terminate at or just barely below the knee. Also known as half-stockings, trouser socks, or socks. * Matte: Stockings which have a dull or non-lustre finish. * Mock seam: A false seam sewn into the back of a seamless stocking. * Nude heel: Stockings without reinforcement in the heel area. * Opaque: Stockings made of yarn which give them a heavier appearance (usually 40 denier or greater). * Point heel: in a Fully Fashioned stocking it is a heel in which the reinforced part ends in a triangle shape. * RHT: Abbreviation of reinforced heel and toe. * Open-toed: Stockings that stop at the base of the toe with a piece that goes between the first and second toes to hold them down. They can be worn with some open-toed shoes, especially to show off pedicured toes. * Sandalfoot: Stockings with a nude toe, meaning no heavier yarn in the toe than is in the leg. They are intended to be worn with sandal or open-toe shoes. * Seamed: Stockings manufactured in the old Full-Fashioned manner with a seam running up the back of the leg. In the past they were manufactured by cutting the fabric and then sewing it together. * Seamless: Stockings knit in one operation on circular machines (one continuous operation) so that no seaming is required up the back. * Sheers: Stockings generally of a 15 to 20 denier. * Stocking Feet: Shoeless feet covered by stockings or socks. * Suspender belt (British English) or Garter belt (American English): a belt with straps to keep stockings (not hold-ups) on place: usually they have 4 straps, but may have also 6 or 8. * Ultra sheer: A fine denier fiber which gives the ultimate in sheerness. Usually 10 denier. * Welt: A fabric knitted separately and machine-sewn to the top of a stocking. Knit in a heavier denier yarn and folded double to give strength for supporter fastening. See also -------- * Bodystocking * Fully fashioned stockings * Hold-ups * Leggings * Nylon riots * Pantyhose * Sock * Stocking fetishism * Tabi * Tights * Zettai ryōiki * Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stocking". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 937. Further reading --------------- * Cox, Caroline (2000). *Lingerie: a lexicon of style*. Scriptum Editions. ISBN 1-902686-08-X.

Stocking

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stocking

In Hinduism, ***Brahman*** (Sanskrit: ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the immaterial, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. *Brahman* as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe. *Brahman* is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world". *Brahman* is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. The Vedas conceptualize *Brahman* as the Cosmic Principle. In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as *Sat-cit-ānanda* (truth-consciousness-bliss) and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality. *Brahman* is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman (Sanskrit: आत्मन्), (Self), personal, impersonal or *Para Brahman*, or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being. In non-dual schools such as the Advaita Vedanta, the substance of *Brahman* is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence. Etymology and related terms --------------------------- Sanskrit (ब्रह्मन्) *Brahman* (an *n*-stem, nominative **bráhma**, from a root **bṛh*-* "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge") is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine **brahmán**—denoting a person associated with *Brahman*, and from Brahmā, the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. *Brahman* is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. *Brahman* is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world", while Sinar states *Brahman* is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined". In Vedic Sanskrit: * *Brahma* (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), *brahman* (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter gender) from root *bṛh-*, means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote". * *Brahmana* (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems *brha* (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit *-man-* which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle". In later Sanskrit usage: * *Brahma* (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), *brahman (*ब्रह्मन्*)* (stem) (neuter gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. * *Brahmā* (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singular), *Brahman* (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. These are distinct from: * A *brāhmaṇa* (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced [ˈbɽaːɦmɐɳɐ]), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. * A *brāhmaṇa* (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, *Brahmāṇi*. See Vedic priest. * *Ishvara*, (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless *Brahman*. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and the source of the impersonal *Brahman*. * *Devas*, the expansions of *Brahman*/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas, which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations of the One and the Supreme *Brahman* (See *Para Brahman*). The Sanskrit word for "ten million" also means group, and 330 million devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations. History and literature ---------------------- ### Vedic *Brahman* is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas, the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example, > > The *Ṛcs* are limited (*parimita*), > > The *Samans* are limited, > > And the *Yajuses* are limited, > > But of the Word *Brahman*, there is no end. > > > — Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4, Translated by Barbara Holdrege The concept *Brahman* is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature. The word *Brahma* is found in Rig veda hymns such as 2.2.10, 6.21.8, 10.72.2 and in Atharva veda hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131. The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example: Aitareya Brahmana 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya Aranyaka 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the vedāṅga (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5. Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of *Brahman* in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning". There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word *Brahman* in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda. In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of *Brahman* is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India. Barbara Holdrege states that the concept *Brahman* is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (*Sabdabrahman*), as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions. Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize *Brahman* as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists. Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of *Brahman* evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference". ### Upanishads The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person. The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism. Paul Deussen states that the concept of *Brahman* in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe", the "principle of the world", the "absolute", the "general, universal", the "cosmic principle", the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods", the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself", the "knowledge", the "Self, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful", the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom", the "universe within each living being and the universe outside", the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere". Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of *Brahman* in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "Self within each person, each being", the "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" (*ananda*). According to Radhakrishnan, the sages of the Upanishads teach *Brahman* as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge (*atma jnana*). The Upanishads contain several *mahā-vākyas* or "Great Sayings" on the concept of *Brahman*: | Text | Upanishad | Translation | Reference | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि***aham brahmāsmi* | Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 | "I am Brahman" | | | **अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म***ayam ātmā brahma* | Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5 | "The Self is Brahman" | | | **सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म***sarvam khalvidam brahma* | Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 | "All this is Brahman" | | | **एकमेवाद्वितीयम्***ekam evadvitiyam* | Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 | "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" | | | **तत्त्वमसि***tat tvam asi* | Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. | "Thou art that" ("You are Brahman") | | | **प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म***prajnānam brahma* | Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7 | "Wisdom is Brahman" | | The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of *Brahman* in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on *Brahman* is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the *Satapatha Brahmana* in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (the inner essence, Self inside man) exists, the *Brahman* is identical with *Atman*, that the *Brahman* is inside man—thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies. > > This whole universe is *Brahman*. In tranquility, let one worship It, as *Tajjalan* (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes). > > > — Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 > > Man is a creature of his *Kratumaya* (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart. > > > — Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 – 3.14.3 > > This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine is that Brahman. > > > — Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.3 – 3.14.4 Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on *Brahman*, re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE Neoplatonic Roman philosopher Plotinus in Enneades 5.1.2. #### Criticism to this concept of Mahā-vākya Following are the words of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, from a selected part of the purport of Ādi 7.128 > The Māyāvādī philosophers consider many Vedic *mantras* to be the *mahā-vākya,* or principal Vedic *mantra,* such as *tat tvam asi* (*Chāndogya Upaniṣad* 6.8.7), *idaṁ sarvaṁ yad ayam ātmā* and *brahmedaṁ sarvam* (*Bṛhad-āraṇyaka Upaniṣad* 2.5.1), *ātmaivedaṁ sarvam* (*Chāndogya Upaniṣad* 7.25.2) and *neha nānāsti kiñcana* (*Kaṭha Upaniṣad* 2.1.11). That is a great mistake. Only *oṁkāra* is the *mahā-vākya.* All these other *mantras* that the Māyāvādīs accept as the *mahā-vākya* are only incidental. They cannot be taken as the *mahā-vākya,* or *mahā-mantra.* The *mantra tat tvam asi* indicates only a partial understanding of the *Vedas,* unlike *oṁkāra,* which represents the full understanding of the *Vedas.* Therefore the transcendental sound that includes all Vedic knowledge is *oṁkāra* (*praṇava*). > > Aside from *oṁkāra,* none of the words uttered by the followers of Śaṅkarācārya can be considered the *mahā-vākya.* They are merely passing remarks. > > Discussion ---------- The concept *Brahman* has a lot of undertones of meaning and is difficult to understand. It has relevance in metaphysics, ontology, axiology (ethics & aesthetics), teleology and soteriology. ### Brahman as a metaphysical concept *Brahman* is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real? *Brahman* is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" *Maya* in various orthodox Hindu schools. Maya pre-exists and co-exists with *Brahman*—the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles. #### Atma: the ultimate reality In addition to the concept of *Brahman*, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman—or Self, which is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from *Brahman*, or same as *Brahman*. Those that consider *Brahman* and *Atman* as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise. Those that consider *Brahman* and *Atman* as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later Samkhya and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise. In schools that equate *Brahman* with *Atman*, *Brahman* is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of Self within each human being, with the Self of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality *Brahman*. #### Maya: the perceived reality In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, *Maya* is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality—the *Brahman*. *Maya* is unconscious, *Brahman-Atman* is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, *Brahman* is the figurative *Upādāna*—the principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-*Brahman* is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree. #### Nirguna and Saguna Brahman Brahman, the ultimate reality, is both with and without attributes. In this context, Para Brahman is formless and omniscient Ishvara - the god or Paramatman and Om, where as Saguna Brahman is manifestation or avatara of god in personified form. While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of *Brahman* and *Atman*, they also expound on *Brahman* as *saguna Brahman*—the *Brahman* with attributes, and *nirguna Brahman*—the *Brahman* without attributes. The *nirguna Brahman* is the *Brahman* as it really is, however, the *saguna Brahman* is posited as a means to realizing *nirguna Brahman*, but the Hinduism schools declare *saguna Brahman* to be a part of the ultimate *nirguna Brahman* The concept of the *saguna Brahman*, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened. ### Brahman as an ontological concept *Brahman*, along with Self (Atman) are part of the ontological premises of Indian philosophy. Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a Self" (individual *Atman* or *Brahman* in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a Self". *Brahman* as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga. Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of *Brahman* (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of *Atman-Brahman* is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (*sat*), consciousness (*cit*) and full of bliss (*ananda*), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded. In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of *Brahman* is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's Self is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the *Brahman* (therein viewed as the Godhead). Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to *Brahman*, reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology. The Carvaka school denied *Brahman* and *Atman*, and held a materialist ontology. ### Brahman as an axiological concept *Brahman* and *Atman* are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. *Ananda* (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of *Brahman*, as the universal inner harmony. Some scholars equate *Brahman* with the highest value, in an axiological sense. The axiological concepts of *Brahman* and *Atman* is central to Hindu theory of values. A statement such as 'I am Brahman', states Shaw, means 'I am related to everything', and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa. Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where *Brahman* and *Atman* are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasizes individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self. The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of *Brahman* and '*Atman*, states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's Self with the *Brahman*, the Self of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human Self and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good. Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature. The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual Self is the universal Self, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the *Brahman*. ### Brahman as a teleological concept *Brahman* and *Atman* are very important teleological concepts. Teleology deals with the apparent purpose, principle or goal of something. In the first chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, these questions are dealt with. It says : > > "People who make inquiries about brahman say: > > What is the cause of Brahman? Why were we born? By what do we live? On what are we established? Governed by whom, O you who know Brahman, do we live in pleasure and in pain, each in our respective situation? > > > — Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Hymns 1.1 According to the Upanishads, the main purpose/meaning of anything or everything can be explained or achieved/understood only through the realization of the Brahman. The apparent purpose of everything can be grasped by obtaining the *Brahman*, as the *Brahman* is referred to that when known, all things become known. > > "What is that my lord, by which being known, all of this becomes known?" > > Angiras told him, "Two types of knowledge a man should learn, those who know Brahman tell us — the higher and the lower. The lower of the two consists of the Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda (...), whereas, the higher is that by which one grasps the imperishable (Brahman)." > > > — Mundaka Upanishad, Hymns 1.1 Elsewhere in the Upanishads, the relationship between Brahman & all knowledge is established, such that any questions of apparent purpose/teleology are resolved when the Brahman is ultimately known. This is found in the Aitareya Upanishad 3.3 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.17. > > Knowledge is the eye of all that, and on knowledge it is founded. Knowledge is the eye of the world, and knowledge, the foundation. Brahman is knowing. > > > — Aitereya Upanishad, Hymns 3.3 One of the main reasons why Brahman should be realized is because it removes suffering from a person's life. Following on Advaita Vedanta tradition, this is because the person has the ability and knowledge to discriminate between the unchanging (Purusha; Atman-Brahman) and the ever-changing (Prakriti; maya) and so the person is not attached to the transient, fleeting & impermanent. Hence, the person is only content with their true self and not the body or anything else. Further elaborations of Brahman as the central teleological issue are found in Shankara's commentaries of the Brahma Sutras & his Vivekachudamani. In Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.9.26 it mentions that the atman 'neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury' and the Isha Upanishad 6-7 too talks about suffering as non-existent when one becomes the Brahman as they see the self in all beings and all beings in the self. The famous Advaita Vedanta commentator Shankara noted that Sabda Pramana (scriptural epistemology) & anubhava (personal experience) is the ultimate & only source of knowing/learning the Brahman, and that its purpose or existence cannot be verified independently because it is not an object of perception/inference (unless one is spiritually advanced, thereby it's truth becomes self-evident/intuitive) & is beyond conceptualizations. But he does note the Upanishads themselves are ultimately derived from use of the various pramanas to derive at ultimate truths (as seen in Yalnavalkya's philosophical inquires). All Vedanta schools agree on this. These teleological discussions inspired some refutations from competing philosophies about the origin/purpose of Brahman & avidya (ignorance) and the relationship between the two, leading to variant schools like Kashmiri Shaivism & others. ### Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to a sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss), because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone. The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual Self and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions. The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's Self with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shiva or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every Self journeys towards in its own way for moksha. Hindu schools of thought ------------------------ ### Vedanta The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. #### Advaita Vedanta Advaita Vedanta espouses nondualism. *Brahman* is the sole unchanging reality, there is no duality, no limited individual Self nor a separate unlimited cosmic Self, rather all Self, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the Self inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the Self outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. *Brahman* is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of intellectual knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings. The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (*Atman*) gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman. The Brahman is not an outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. *Brahman* is all that is eternal, unchanging and that which truly exists. This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "*Ekam sat*" ("Truth is one"), and all is *Brahman*. The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it *is* Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained by any other means besides self inquiry. In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality. Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools. Example verses from Bhagavad-Gita include: > > The offering is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman; > > offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman. > > Brahman will be attained by him, > > who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24 > > > > He who finds his happiness within, > > His delight within, > > And his light within, > > This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24 > > > — Bhagavad Gita #### Dvaita Vedanta Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual Self is dependent on God, but distinct. Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows: 1. Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the Self and the Supreme God 2. Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and the Supreme God 3. Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two Selves 4. Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the Self 5. Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients #### Vishishtadvaita In Vishishtadvaita, Ramanuja asserts that Brahman is God, and that this God is Narayana. In his commentary on the Brahma Sutras 1.1.1, Ramanuja defines Brahman as the "'highest person,' one who by his own nature is free from all imperfections and in possession of host of innumerable auspicious qualities of unsurpassable excellence." Using this definition, Ramanuja argues that Brahman must be God because Brahman's qualities are unsurpassably superior to all, and thus "only the Lord of all can thus be denoted, and 'Brahman' primarily denotes him alone". Ramanuja asserts that the relationship between God and the individual selves must be one of devotion, and moksha or liberation is said by him to be caused by the selves' worship of Brahman: "The cessation of bondage...is to be obtained only through the grace of the highest Person who is pleased by worshipper's meditation, which is devotion". #### Achintya Bheda Abheda The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to Dvaitadvaita (differential monism). In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal. That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of yoga–meditation on Superself, Vishnu-God in heart)—Vishnu (Narayana, also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnulokas (Vaikunthalokas), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by bhakti) as Bhagavan, Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both). ### Vaishnavism All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and perceive the Advaita concept of identification of Atman with the impersonal Brahman as an intermediate step of self-realization, but not Mukti, or final liberation of complete God-realization through Bhakti Yoga. Gaudiya Vaishnavism, a form of Achintya Bheda Abheda philosophy, also concludes that Brahman is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. According to them, Brahman is Lord Vishnu; the universe and all other manifestations of the Supreme are extensions of Him. ### Bhakti movement The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—*Nirguna* and *Saguna*. *Nirguna* Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality. *Saguna* Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality. The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita. It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from *Nirguni* knowledge-focus and other from *Saguni* love-focus, united as Krishna (an 8th incarnation of Lord Vishnu) in the Gita. *Nirguna* bhakta's poetry were *Jnana-shrayi*, or had roots in knowledge. *Saguna* bhakta's poetry were *Prema-shrayi*, or with roots in love. In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee. Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta. Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were *Sandilya Bhakti Sutra*—a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and *Narada Bhakti Sutra*—a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti. *Nirguna* and *Saguna* Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the *Nirguni* tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality". Yet given the "mountains of *Nirguni* bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for *Nirguna Brahman* has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for *Saguna Brahman*. These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement. Buddhist understanding of Brahman --------------------------------- Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (permanent Self, essence). According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal Self (*atman*) or its cosmic counterpart (*brahman*)". The metaphysics of Buddhism rejects Brahman (ultimate being), Brahman-like essence, Self and anything metaphysically equivalent through its Anatta doctrine. According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman. As an example, Fowler cites the early Sarvastivada school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism". According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism, "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe [...] was in fact the World Self, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form". According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist *nirvana*, conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles." Fowler asserts that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman. ### Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist texts The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman. In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mentions of deity Brahma along with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth *Prapathaka* (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism. The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby polemically attacked the Vedic and Upanishadic concept of gender neutral, abstract metaphysical Brahman. This critique of Brahma in early Buddhist texts aim at ridiculing the Vedas, but the same texts simultaneously call *metta* (loving-kindness, compassion) as the state of union with Brahma. The early Buddhist approach to Brahma was to reject any creator aspect, while retaining the value system in the Vedic Brahmavihara concepts, in the Buddhist value system. According to Martin Wiltshire, the term "Brahma loka" in the Buddhist canon, instead of "Svarga loka", is likely a Buddhist attempt to choose and emphasize the "truth power" and knowledge focus of the Brahman concept in the Upanishads. Simultaneously, by reformulating Brahman as Brahma and relegating it within its Devas and Samsara theories, early Buddhism rejected the Atman-Brahman premise of the Vedas to present its own *Dhamma* doctrines (anicca, dukkha and anatta). Brahman in Chinese thought -------------------------- L. S. Vasil’ev, writing for the University of Pennsylvania, argued that syncretic Taoists used Brahman in their worship as a substitute for Tao. Victor H. Mair thought that Taoists in the early history of the faith had positive "cultural relations" with Hindu groups and that the *Tao Te Ching* was written in reaction to Indian philosophy and that the author(s) viewed Brahman as being the same as Tao. Brahman in Sikhism ------------------ Ik Onkar (left) is part of the Mul Mantar in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one". The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Om—also called *Omkāra*—in Hinduism. The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the Highest Reality, Brahman. The metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as *nirguni Brahman*—attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality—is at the foundation of Sikhism. This belief is observed through *nirguni Bhakti* by the Sikhs. In Gauri, which is part of the Guru Granth Sahib, Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman". Nesbitt states that the first two words, *Ik Onkar*, in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is". Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2. The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the *Saguna* and *Nirguna* concepts of Brahman in Hinduism. The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as *Nam*, *Sat-naam* or *Naam*, and *Ik Oankar* like Hindu Om symbolizes this Reality. Brahman in Jainism ------------------ Scholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but *Jiva* or "Atman (Self) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and Kevala Jnana. Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahman—the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism. Goswami, in contrast, states that the literature of Jainism has an undercurrent of monist theme, where the self who gains the knowledge of Brahman (Highest Reality, Supreme Knowledge) is identical to Brahman itself. Jaini states that Jainism neither accepts nor rejects the premise of Ultimate Reality (Brahman), instead Jain ontology adopts a many sided doctrine called *Anekantavada*. This doctrine holds that "reality is irreducibly complex" and no human view or description can represent the Absolute Truth. Those who have understood and realized the Absolute Truth are the liberated ones and the Supreme Self (Paramatman), with Kevala Jnana. Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas ---------------------------------------------------- Brahma is distinct from Brahman. Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature, who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings. Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality, that is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence. It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends. It is a gender neutral abstract concept. The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads; while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads. In the Puranic and the Epics literature, the deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that the god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism), others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism), yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism), and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf. A similarity between Brahma and Brahman is that Brahman is said to be an anchor for the world and the relations between all things, including opposites, in it, whereas Brahma is a creator god who aids the world in many Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the *saguna* Brahman is Vishnu, is Shiva, or is Devi respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (Self) within every living being is the same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman. Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations. The Brahmanas are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy. They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hindu *śruti* literature. See also -------- * *Atman (Hinduism)* * *Arche* * *Paramatman* * Parabrahman * Prakṛti * *Purusha* * *Shentong* * *Tao* Sources ------- * Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002). *Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism*. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-93-6. * Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2010). "Chapter 12". *A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition*. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8011-3. * Michaels, Axel (2004). *Hinduism. Past and present*. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. * Olivelle, Patrick (1998). *The Early Upanisads*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195124354. * Potter, Karl H. (2008), *The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils*, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited * Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), *Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy*, New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd. * Raju, P. T. (1992), *The Philosophical Traditions of India*, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited * Sinari, Ramakant (2000), *Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy. In: Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), "History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta"*, Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations

Brahman

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman

The **Chinese Wikipedia** (traditional Chinese: 中文維基百科; simplified Chinese: 中文维基百科; pinyin: *Zhōngwén Wéijī Bǎikē*) is the written vernacular Chinese (a form of Mandarin Chinese) edition of Wikipedia. It is run by the Wikimedia Foundation. Started on 11 May 2001, the Chinese Wikipedia currently has 1,361,296 articles and 3,358,065 registered users, of whom 66 have administrative privileges. The Chinese Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. Despite the block, it is still one of the ten most active language versions of Wikipedia (and it has the eighth-highest number of active users as of August 2021) due to contributions from users from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore, Malaysia, and the large Chinese diaspora. Taiwan and Hong Kong contribute most of the page views of the Chinese Wikipedia. History ------- The Chinese Wikipedia was established along with 12 other Wikipedias in May 2001. At the beginning, however, the Chinese Wikipedia did not support Chinese characters, and had no encyclopedic content. In October 2002, the first Chinese-language page was written, the Main Page. A software update on 27 October 2002 allowed Chinese language input. The domain was set to be zh.wikipedia.org, with *zh* based on the ISO code for the Chinese language. On 17 November 2002, the user Mountain translated the Computer science article into zh:计算机科学, thus creating its first real encyclopedic article. In order to accommodate the orthographic differences between simplified Chinese characters and traditional Chinese characters (or Orthodox Chinese), from 2002 to 2003, the Chinese Wikipedia community gradually decided to combine the two originally separate versions of the Chinese Wikipedia. The first running automatic conversion between the two orthographic representations started on 23 December 2004, with the MediaWiki 1.4 release. The needs from Hong Kong and Singapore were taken into account in the MediaWiki 1.4.2 release, which made the conversion table for zh-sg default to zh-cn, and zh-hk default to zh-tw. In its early days, most articles on the Chinese Wikipedia were translated from the English version. The first five sysops, or administrators, were promoted on 14 June 2003. Wikipedia was first introduced by the mainland Chinese media in the newspaper *China Computer Education* on 20 October 2003, in the article, "I join to write an encyclopedia" (我也来写百科全书). On 16 May 2004, Wikipedia was first reported by Taiwanese media in the newspaper *China Times*. Since then, many newspapers have published articles about the Chinese Wikipedia, and several sysops have been interviewed by journalists. Ivan Zhai of the *South China Morning Post* wrote that the blocks from the mainland authorities in the 2000s stifled the growth of the Chinese Wikipedia, and that by 2013 there was a new generation of users originating from the Mainland who were taking efforts to make the Chinese Wikipedia grow. In 2013, there were 1.4 million registered users on the Chinese Wikipedia, and in July 2013 7,500 of these users were active, with most of them originating from Hong Kong and Taiwan. There are 715,000 entries for the Chinese Wikipedia, making it the 12th largest Wikipedia. Naming ------ The Chinese name of Wikipedia was decided on 21 October 2003, following a vote. The name (Chinese: 維基百科; pinyin: *Wéijī Bǎikē*) means "Wiki Encyclopedia". The Chinese transcription of "Wiki" is composed of two characters: 維, whose ancient sense refers to 'ropes or webs connecting objects', and alludes to the 'Internet'; and 基, meaning the 'foundations of a building', or 'fundamental aspects of things in general'. The name can be interpreted as 'the encyclopedia that connects the fundamental knowledge of humanity'. The most common Chinese translation for wiki technology is 維基; however, it can be 維客 (literally "dimension visitor" or similar) or 圍紀 (literally "circle/enclose period/record" or similar), which are also transcriptions of the word "wiki". As a result, the term 維基 has become associated exclusively with Wikimedia projects. The Chinese Wikipedia also has a sub header: 海納百川，有容乃大, which means, "The sea encompasses hundreds of rivers/all rivers will eventually flow into the sea; it has capacity i.e. is willing to accept all and is thus great." The sub header originated from the first half of a couplet composed by the Qing Dynasty official Lin Zexu. Community --------- According to Wikimedia Statistics, in January 2021, the majority of viewers and editors on the Chinese Wikipedia were from Taiwan and Hong Kong. Numerous viewers and users are from Macau, Singapore, Malaysia, United States and other countries with a high Chinese diaspora; but there are some viewers from China as well. In April 2016, the project had 2,127 active editors who made at least five edits in that month. The most discussed and debated topics on the Chinese Wikipedia are political issues in Chinese modern history. For example, the six most edited articles as of August 2007 were Taiwan, Chinese culture, China, Mao Zedong, Chiang Kai-shek, and Hong Kong, in that order. In contrast, issues such as the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are much less contentious. Due to the audience base, Wikipedians from China, Taiwan, and other regions had engaged in editing conflicts over political topics related to Cross-Straits relations. Due to the censorship in mainland China, Chinese Wikipedia's audience comes primarily from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Singapore and the diasporas in Malaysia, the United States, Canada, Australia, South Korea (including Koreans from China), totaling approximately 60 million people. Chinese Wikipedia has more than 9,100 active users as of July 2021, and this number is increasing. Approximately half of Chinese Wikipedia's 610 million pageviews monthly come from Taiwan, with approximately one 20% coming from Hong Kong, one 8% from United States, one 4% from Malaysia and the rest from Singapore, Macau, Mainland China and the Chinese diaspora. In 2021, the monthly pageviews of Chinese Wikipedia underwent a spike in growth from around 380 million to 620 million pageviews in six months. ### Administrators As of June 2019, there are 78 administrators, or sysops. They are all elected by Chinese Wikipedians. Most of them come from Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. There are also a few who come from the United States, Singapore, and Japan. ### Meetings The first Chinese Wikipedian meeting was held in Beijing on 25 July 2004. Since then, Chinese Wikipedians from different regions have held many gatherings in Beijing, Shanghai, Dalian, Shenyang, Guangdong, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Currently, a regular meetup is held once every two weeks in Shanghai, Taipei and Hong Kong, and once every month in Tainan City, Taiwan. In July 2006, Taiwanese Wikipedians also held a "travelling meetup", travelling by train through four Taiwanese cities over a period of two days. In August 2006, Hong Kong hosted the first annual Chinese Wikimedia Conference. Chinese Wikipedians advertise Wikipedia in different ways. Many of them use Weibo, a Chinese socializing website similar to Twitter. Several Chinese Wikipedians created the Wikipedia monthly magazine, or journal, called "**The Wikipedians**" in December 2012, which is currently[*as of?*] published once a month. ### State persecution of volunteers Chinese Wikipedia volunteers who edit on topics considered controversial by the state authorities, such as about Hong Kong protests, can face harassment and persecution. Automatic conversion between traditional and simplified Chinese characters -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Original situation Originally, there were virtually two Chinese Wikipedias under the names of "zh" (or "zh-cn") and "zh-tw". Generally, users from regions that used Traditional Chinese characters (such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau) wrote and edited articles using Traditional Chinese characters whereas those from regions that used Simplified Chinese characters (such as mainland China, Singapore, and Malaysia) wrote using Simplified Chinese characters. Many articles had two uncoordinated versions; for example, there was both a Traditional (法國) and Simplified (法国) article on France. Further exacerbating the problem were differences in vocabulary (particularly nouns) and writing systems, between mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. For example, a pineapple is called 菠萝 in mainland China and 菠蘿 in Hong Kong and Macau, but 黄梨 in Singapore and Malaysia and 鳳梨 in Taiwan. ### Solution To avoid this near-forking of the project, starting around January 2005, the Chinese Wikipedia began providing a server-side mechanism to automatically convert different characters and vocabulary items into the user's local ones, according to the user's preference settings, which may be set to one of two settings that convert the script only, or one of six settings that also take into account regional vocabulary differences: | Variant's name | Chinese name | ISO | | --- | --- | --- | | Simplified | 简体 | zh-Hans | | Traditional | 繁體 | zh-Hant | | Simplified and using Mainland Chinese terms | 大陆简体 | zh-CN | | Traditional and using Taiwanese terms | 臺灣正體 | zh-TW | | Simplified and using Singaporean (and until mid 2018, Malaysian) terms | 新加坡简体 (马新简体 until mid 2018) | zh-SG | | Simplified and using Malaysian terms (added in mid 2018) | 大马简体 | zh-MY | | Traditional and using Hong Kong (and until mid 2013, Macau) terms | 香港繁體 (港澳繁體 until mid 2013) | zh-HK | | Traditional and using Macau terms (added in mid 2013) | 澳門繁體 | zh-MO | | NB: the user can also choose to read each article in whichever script it is stored in, without conversion | | For more information, see:meta:automatic conversion between simplified and traditional Chinese. | Conversion is done through a set of character conversion tables[*where?*] that may be edited by administrators. To provide an alternative means to harmonize the characters when the server-side converters fail to work properly, a special template was created to manually convert characters and article titles in one specific page. Furthermore, page title conversion is used for automatic page redirection. Those articles previously named in different characters or different translations have been merged, and can be reached by means of both Traditional and Simplified Chinese titles. Differences with other versions of Wikipedia -------------------------------------------- According to a survey conducted between April 2010 and March 2011, edits to the Chinese Wikipedia were 37.8 per cent from Taiwan, 26.2 per cent from Hong Kong, 17.7 per cent from mainland China, 6.1 per cent from United States, and 2.3 per cent from Canada. Many editing controversies arise from current and historical political events in Chinese-speaking regions, such as the political status of Taiwan, independent movement and autonomy movement of Hong Kong, Anti-Extradition Law Amendment Bill Movement, 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, issues of the Chinese Communist Party and Kuomintang. As for anime, articles about anime in Chinese Wikipedia has listed the voice cast for Japanese (Original) and Chinese (Taiwan, Hong Kong, mainland China) mostly. However, some articles about anime such as Spirited Away lists the voice cast for English. Wikipedia in other varieties of Chinese --------------------------------------- The Chinese Wikipedia is based on written vernacular Chinese, the official Chinese written language in all Chinese-speaking regions, including mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and Singapore. This register is largely associated with the grammar and vocabulary of Standard Chinese, the official spoken language of mainland China, Taiwan, and Singapore (but not exclusively of Hong Kong and Macau, which largely use Cantonese). The varieties of Chinese are a diverse group encompassing many regional topolects, most of which are mutually unintelligible and often divided up into several larger dialect groups, such as Wu (including Shanghainese and Suzhounese), Min Nan (of which Taiwanese is a notable dialect), and Cantonese. In regions that speak non-Mandarin languages or regional Mandarin dialects, the Vernacular Chinese standard largely corresponding to Standard Chinese is nevertheless used exclusively as the Chinese written standard; this written standard differs sharply from the local dialects in vocabulary and grammar, and is often read in local pronunciation but preserving the vocabulary and grammar of Standard Chinese. After the founding of Wikipedia, many users of non-Mandarin Chinese varieties began to ask for the right to have Wikipedia editions in non-Mandarin varieties as well. However, they also met with significant opposition, based on the fact that Mandarin-based Vernacular Chinese is the only form used in scholarly or academic contexts. Some also proposed the implementation of an automatic conversion program similar to that between Simplified and Traditional Chinese; however, others pointed out that although conversion between Simplified and Traditional Chinese consists mainly of glyph and sometimes vocabulary substitutions, different regional varieties of Chinese differ so sharply in grammar, syntax, and semantics that it was unrealistic to implement an automatic conversion program. Objections notwithstanding, it was determined that these Chinese varieties were sufficiently different from Standard Chinese and had a sufficiently large number of followers to justify the creation of six Wikipedias for different varieties. | Edition name | WP code | Variety | Writing system | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Cantonese Wikipedia | zh-yue: | Yue, using Cantonese (i.e. the Guangzhou/Hong Kong/Macau dialect) as its standard. | Traditional and Simplified | | Minnan Wikipedia | zh-min-nan: | Southern Min, using Taiwanese as its standard. | Latin (Pe̍h-ōe-jī) and Traditional | | Mindong Wikipedia | cdo: | Eastern Min, using Fuzhounese as its standard. | Latin (Bàng-uâ-cê) and Traditional | | Wu Wikipedia | wuu: | Wu, using the Shanghainese, Suzhounese and classical literary Wu as its standards. | Simplified | | Hakka Wikipedia | hak: | Hakka, using the Siyen dialect as its standard. | Latin (Pha̍k-fa-sṳ) and Traditional | | Gan Wikipedia | gan: | Gan, using the Nanchang dialect as its standard. | Traditional and Simplified | Finally, requests were also made, and granted, to create a Classical Chinese Wikipedia (zh-classical:), based on Classical Chinese, an archaic register of Chinese with grammar and vocabulary drawn from classical works and used in all official contexts until the early 20th century, when it was displaced by the Vernacular Chinese standard. All of the above Wikipedias have sidestepped the Traditional/Simplified Chinese issue. The Wu Wikipedia uses Simplified Chinese exclusively, and the Classical Chinese Wikipedia uses Traditional Chinese exclusively (The Gan and Cantonese Wikipedias default to Traditional, but have a conversion function similar to the Chinese Wikipedia). The Min Nan Wikipedia uses Pe̍h-ōe-jī. The Mindong Wikipedia and Hakka Wikipedias currently use Bàng-uâ-cê and Pha̍k-fa-sṳ respectively, which can be converted to Traditional Chinese characters, thus avoiding the issue completely. Blocking of Wikipedia --------------------- The People's Republic of China and internet service providers in mainland China have adopted a practice of blocking contentious Internet sites in mainland China, and Wikimedia sites have been blocked at least three times in its history. On 19 May 2015, Chinese Wikipedia was blocked again within mainland China. Because all Wikipedias rely on HTTPS links, Chinese censors cannot see what page an individual is viewing; this also makes it more difficult to block a specific set of pages. ### First block The first block lasted from 2 – 21 June 2004. It began when access to the Chinese Wikipedia from Beijing was blocked on the 15th anniversary of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Possibly related to this, on 31 May an article from the IDG News Service was published, discussing the Chinese Wikipedia's treatment of the protests. The Chinese Wikipedia also has articles related to Taiwan independence, written by contributors from Taiwan and elsewhere. A few days after the initial block of the Chinese Wikipedia, all Wikimedia Foundation sites were blocked in mainland China. In response to the blocks, two moderators prepared an appeal to lift the block and asked their regional internet service provider to submit it. All Wikimedia sites were unblocked between 17 and 21 June 2004. One month later, the first Chinese Wikipedian moderators' meeting was held in Beijing on 25 July 2004. The first block had an effect on the vitality of the Chinese Wikipedia, which suffered sharp dips in various indicators, such as the number of new users, the number of new articles, and the number of edits. In some cases, it took anywhere from 6 to 12 months in order to regain the stats from May 2004. On the other hand, on today's site, some of the articles are put under protection which may last for a month or more without any actions. ### Second block The second and less serious outage lasted between 23 and 27 September 2004. During this four-day period, access to Wikipedia was erratic or unavailable to some users in mainland China – this block was not comprehensive and some users in mainland China were never affected. The exact reason for the block is a mystery. Chinese Wikipedians once again prepared a written appeal to regional ISPs, but the block was lifted before the appeal was actually sent, for an unknown reason. ### Third block and temporary unblocks The third block began on 19 October 2005, and there was no indication as to whether this block was temporary or permanent, or what the reasons or causes for this block were. According to the status page currently maintained on the Chinese Wikipedia, the Florida and Korea servers were blocked, whereas the Paris and Amsterdam servers were not. Dozens of editors from across mainland China reported that they could only access Wikipedia using proxy servers, although there were isolated reports that some users could access Wikipedia without using a proxy. Most Chinese people were not able to connect to the site at all. During October and November 2006, it first appeared that the site was unblocked again. Many conflicting reports came from news outlets, bloggers, and Wikipedians, reporting a possible partial or full unblocking of Wikipedia. Some reports indicated a complete unblock; others suggested that some sensitive topics remained blocked, and yet others suggested that the Chinese Wikipedia was blocked whereas other-language versions were not. From 17 November onwards, the complete block was once again in place. On 15 June 2007, China lifted the block for several articles, only to then block an increasing number of articles. On 30 August 2007, all blocks were lifted, but then a block was placed on Wikipedia for all languages on 31 August 2007. As of 26 January 2008, all languages of Wikipedia were blocked, and as of 2 April 2008, the block was lifted. By 5 April 2008, the Chinese Wikipedia became difficult to access from the Sun Yat-Sen University in Guangzhou. Connections to the Chinese Wikipedia were completely blocked as of 6 April 2008. Any attempt to access the Chinese Wikipedia resulted in a 60-second ban on all Wikimedia websites. However, users were able to log on to the Chinese Wikipedia using https. All other languages were accessible, but politically sensitive searches such as Tibet were still blocked. On 3 July 2008, the government lifted the ban on accessing the Chinese Wikipedia. However, some parts were still inaccessible. On 31 July 2008, BBC reported that the Chinese Wikipedia had been unblocked that day in China; it had still been blocked the previous day. This came within the context of foreign journalists arriving in Beijing to report on the upcoming Olympic Games, and websites like the Chinese edition of the BBC were being unblocked following talks between the International Olympic Committee and the Games' Chinese organizers. ### Fourth block On 19 May 2015, both the encrypted and unencrypted Chinese-language versions of Wikipedia were blocked. ### Fifth block On 23 April 2019, all versions of Wikipedia were blocked in China. Controversy and criticism ------------------------- ### 2006 allegations of self-censorship In December 2006, the *International Herald Tribune* Asia-Pacific published an article saying that sensitive topics received subdued treatment on the Chinese Wikipedia. > But on sensitive questions of China's modern history or on hot-button issues, the Chinese version diverges so dramatically from its English counterpart that it sometimes reads as if it were approved by the censors themselves. > > > For some, the Chinese version of Wikipedia was intended as just such a resource, but its tame approach to sensitive topics has sparked a fierce debate in the world of online mavens over its objectivity and thoroughness. > > > > On the evidence of entries like this, for the moment, the fight over editorial direction of Wikipedia in Chinese is being won by enthusiasts who practice self-censorship. > > On 1 December 2006, *The New York Times* published another report by Howard W. French, titled "Wikipedia lays bare two versions of China's past." > Some say the object should be to spread reliable information as widely as possible, and that, in any case, self-censorship is pointless because the government still frequently blocks access to Wikipedia for most Chinese Internet users. 'There is a lot of confusion about whether they should obey the neutral point of view or offer some compromises to the government,' said Isaac Mao, a well-known Chinese blogger and user of the encyclopedia. 'To the local Wikipedians, the first objective is to make it well known among Chinese, to get people to understand the principles of Wikipedia step by step, and not to get the thing blocked by the government. > > The report was subsequently repeated by CBS and by Chinese-language media outlets such as the *Apple Daily* in Taiwan. Some Chinese Wikipedians then tried to clarify the situation. One Chinese Wikipedian sent a comment that was subsequently published in the *Apple Daily* in Taiwan. The comment stated: > ... control over our content does not stem from any political motive, and we try to the extent of our abilities (even if we cannot do it perfectly) to prevent the influence of ideology; the motive, goal, and standards of control are very clear: to create an encyclopedia with rich content, good quality, and open copyright. All of our editing and deletion policies stem from this. There is no doubt about this point, and this will not change under any political pressure or personal beliefs. > > Regarding the description of Mao Zedong on the Chinese Wikipedia, one can simply go online and see for oneself; in order to understand the operation of Wikipedia or to edit it oneself, just a few more mouse clicks would suffice. As Wikipedia continues to attract awareness, the number of users is increasing, and the media has increased interest in Wikipedia as well. Unfortunately, even a reputable international media source such as the *New York Times* was unable to find out the actual situation before passing biased judgment on Wikipedia. We can also see here that in quoting media overseas, even a notable one, one must still be cautious and check once again for oneself. (*Translated*) > > In another email addressed to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing list, a Chinese Wikipedian stated: > 1) Chinese Wikipedia has and conforms to a high standard of neutral point of view, and Chinese Wikipedians take this policy seriously. > > > 2) There is no such thing called "self-censorship" at Chinese Wikipedia; indeed any intention for such practice at Chinese Wikipedia will be denounced by most Chinese Wikipedians. > > > > 3) Chinese Wikipedia is written by people from various places of the world, including Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Asia, America, Europe, etc. Indeed, editors from Mainland China are disproportionally scarce because of the current block obviously imposed by the PRC government (though it never admitted that). > > Previous proposals to self-censor the Chinese Wikipedia in light of the P. R. Chinese government's censorship policies have been made before, but were overwhelmingly rejected by the community. ### 2010 Administrator Controversy In April 2010, Hong Kong newspaper *Ming Pao* reported the large-scale censorship of contents about 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre and Hong Kong related contents in which an administrator named "Shizhao" ("百無一用是書生" a.k.a. "時昭") was involved. The report also mentioned the failed recall of the administrator. In a follow-up, *Ming Pao* interviewed Shizhao and stated that he was not a member of the 50 Cent Party. He added that for controversial topics such as the 1989 protests, he should be a little more cautious. In the interview, he denied that he had attempted to delete an article about the Concert For Democracy in China (民主歌聲獻中華), and stated that he merely questioned the notability of the concert by adding a template to the article. However, he had started a vote to delete an article about a song criticizing the Hong Kong government (Chinese: 福佳始終有你; pinyin: *Fú jiā shǐzhōng yǒu nǐ*) in 2007, enraging many Hong Kong netizens. Shizhao added that, at the time, he had already edited more than 50,000 times, deleting several articles including *Manual for Librarians*. He joked about the incident, saying, "some may consider that is a kind of hate to libraries and hence is not suitable for monitoring Wikipedia." ### Allegations of bias against the Chinese Government Some Chinese officials and scholars have accused Chinese Wikipedia of having serious anti-Chinese government bias. Chinese academics Li-hao Gan and Bin-Ting Weng published a paper titled "Opportunities And Challenges Of China's Foreign Communication in the Wikipedia", in which they argue that "due to the influence by foreign media, Wikipedia entries have a large number of prejudiced words against the Chinese government". Jie Ding, an official from the China International Publishing Group, also published an article stated that " there is a lack of systematic ordering and maintenance of contents about China's major political discourse on Wikipedia". He also urged Wikipedia to reflect the voices and views of the Chinese government in an objective way. Lokman Tsui, an assistant professor at the School of Journalism and Communication at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, said in an interview with the BBC that " there a lot of misunderstandings about China abroad " In October 2021, WMF's application to become an observer at the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) was blocked by the government of China over the existence of a Wikimedia Foundation affiliate in Taiwan and accusation of "Anti-China false information". ### VPN exemptions Despite being censored in mainland China, and as VPNs are normally not allowed to edit Wikipedia, Wikipedia administrators from China have permitted IP block exemption for a select number of mainland users. According to the Slate, "one former Chinese Wikipedia editor told me that over the past few years there has been a “defection” of volunteer editors leaving Baidu Baike to join Chinese Wikipedia because the contributors wanted the privilege of working on a higher-quality internet encyclopedia—one that also carries a great deal of international power." ### Wikimedia Foundation banned members from affiliated group The WMC has threatened to report Wikipedia editors to Hong Kong’s national security police hotline over the disputed article "2019–2020 Hong Kong protests" characterized by edit warring. A Hong Kong-based editor, who remains anonymous because of fears of intimidation, noted that users may remove content that is sympathetic to protests. Competitors ----------- On 20 April 2006, the online Chinese search engine company Baidu created Baidu Baike, an online encyclopedia that registered users can edit, pending administrator reviews. The content of the encyclopedia is self-censored in accordance with the regulations of the People's Republic of China government. Within weeks, the number of articles in Baidu Baike had surpassed that of the Chinese Wikipedia. However, Baidu Baike has long been accused of copying and reproducing articles from Chinese Wikipedia. As of October 2009, Hudong Wiki surpassed Baidu Baike as China's largest online encyclopedia in terms of number of articles it owns. Hudong has since been renamed to Baike, not to be confused with Baidu Baike. Baidu Baike and Hudong are both commercial products. Whereas the Chinese Wikipedia is released under the GNU Free Documentation License, Baidu Baike and Hudong are fully copyrighted by their ownership; contributors forfeit all rights upon submission. However, Baidu Baike has been accused of "widespread copyright infringement" by mass-copying Wikipedia pages and incorporating them into Baidu Baike pages since 2007. See also -------- * Censorship of Wikipedia § China * Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China * Politics of the People's Republic of China * Golden Shield Project * Chinese encyclopedias * List of Wikipedias * *The Signpost*, 26 September 2021 * Zhemao hoaxes

Chinese Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Wikipedia

**Spain** (Spanish: *España*, [esˈpaɲa] ()), or the **Kingdom of Spain** (*Reino de España*), is a country primarily located in Southwestern Europe, with parts of its territory in the Atlantic Ocean and across the Mediterranean Sea. The largest part of Spain is situated on the Iberian Peninsula; its territory also includes the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla in Africa. The country's mainland is bordered to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. It is the largest country in Southern Europe and the second-largest and fourth-most populous in the European Union. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid; other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Zaragoza, Seville, Málaga, Murcia, Palma de Mallorca, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and Bilbao. Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Iberian Peninsula around 42,000 years ago. The ancient Iberian and Celtic tribes, along with other local pre-Roman peoples, inhabited the territory, maintaining contacts with foreign Mediterranean cultures. The Roman conquest and colonization of the peninsula (Hispania) ensued, bringing about the Romanization of the population. Receding of Western Roman imperial authority ushered in the invasion into Iberia of tribes from Central and Northern Europe, with the Visigoths as the dominant power in the peninsula by the fifth century. In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centered in Córdoba. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them León, Castile, Aragon, Portugal, and Navarre; made an intermittent southward military expansion, known as the *Reconquista*, repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Emirate of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479, often considered the formation of Spain as a country, was followed by the annexation of Navarre and the incorporation of Portugal during the Iberian Union. The Crown of Spain, through the Spanish Inquisition, forced the Jewish and Muslim minorities to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion, and eventually most of the converts were expelled from Iberia through different royal decrees. A major country of the Age of Discovery, Spain began the conquest of the New World in 1492, giving rise to the Spanish Empire. Controlling vast portions of the Americas, parts of Africa, various territories in Asia and Oceania, as well as territory in other parts of Europe, the Spanish Empire became, in conjunction with the Portuguese, the first empire to achieve a global scale and one of the largest empires in history. The empire's need for financing and the transatlantic trade underpinned the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals. Centralisation and further state-building in mainland Spain ensued in the 18th century with the Bourbon reforms. In the 19th century, the Crown saw the independence of most of its American colonies as a result of cumulative crises and political divisions after the Peninsular War. Political instability reached its peak in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy under the Constitution of Spain and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI as head of state. It is a major capitalist advanced economy, with the world's sixteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP (fourth of the European Union) and the sixteenth-largest by PPP. Spain has a very high Human Development Index (HDI) and quality of life standard, with one of the highest life expectancies in the world. Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Eurozone, the Council of Europe (CoE), *de facto* member of the G20, the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and many other international organisations. Since the so-called *Siglo de Oro*, a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain coinciding with the political rise of the Spanish Empire under the Catholic Monarchs and the Spanish Habsburgs, Spanish art, architecture, music, literature, and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. As such, Spain is considered a regional and cultural superpower. As a reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites and is the world's second-most visited country. Its cultural influence extends to over 570 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language. Etymology --------- The name of Spain (*España*) comes from *Hispania*, the name used by the Romans for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces during the Roman Empire. The etymological origin of the term Hispania is uncertain, although the Phoenicians referred to the region as *Spania* (meaning "Land of rabbits"), therefore the most accepted theory is the Phoenician one. There have been a number of accounts and hypotheses of its origin: *Hispania* may also derive from the poetic use of the term *Hesperia*, reflecting the Greek perception of Italy as a "western land" or "land of the setting sun" (*Hesperia*, Ἑσπερία in Greek) and Spain, being still further west, as *Hesperia ultima*. Jesús Luis Cunchillos [es] argued that the root of the term *span* is the Phoenician word *spy*, meaning "to forge metals". Therefore, *i-spn-ya* would mean "the land where metals are forged". It may be a derivation of the Phoenician *I-Shpania*, meaning "island of rabbits", "land of rabbits" or "edge", a reference to Spain's location at the end of the Mediterranean; Roman coins struck in the region from the reign of Hadrian show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet, and Strabo called it the "land of the rabbits". The word in question actually means "Hyrax", possibly due to Phoenicians confusing the two animals. There is also the claim that "Hispania" derives from the Basque word *Ezpanna* meaning "edge" or "border", another reference to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula constitutes the southwest corner of the European continent. History ------- ### Prehistory and pre-Roman peoples Archaeological research at Atapuerca indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by hominids 1.2 million years ago. In Atapuerca fossils have been found of the earliest known hominins in Europe, *Homo antecessor*. Modern humans first arrived in Iberia, from the north on foot, about 35,000 years ago.[*failed verification*] The best known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the Altamira cave of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 BCE by Cro-Magnon. Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the last ice age. The largest groups inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest were the Iberians and the Celts. The Iberians inhabited the Mediterranean side of the peninsula. The Celts inhabited much of the interior and Atlantic side of the peninsula. Basques occupied the western area of the Pyrenees mountain range and adjacent areas, the Phoenician-influenced Tartessians culture flourished in the southwest and the Lusitanians and Vettones occupied areas in the central west. Several cities were founded along the coast by Phoenicians, and trading outposts and colonies were established by Greeks in the East. Eventually, Phoenician-Carthaginians expanded inland towards the meseta; however, due to the bellicose inland tribes, the Carthaginians settled in the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula. ### Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom During the Second Punic War, roughly between 210 and 205 BCE the expanding Roman Republic captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. Although it took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, they retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the Roman road. The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually Romanised (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. Hispania served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, wool, olive oil, and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors Hadrian, Trajan, Theodosius I, and the philosopher Seneca were born in Hispania. Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century CE and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century. Most of Spain's present languages and religion, and the basis of its laws, originate from this period. Starting in 170 CE incursions of North-African Mauri in the province of Baetica took place. The Germanic Suebi and Vandals, together with the Sarmatian Alans entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia whereas the Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420 before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified: the successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation to the evolving Roman culture. The Byzantines established an occidental province, Spania, in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually, however, Hispania was reunited under Visigothic rule. ### Muslim era and *Reconquista* From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate, which had conquered North Africa from the Byzantine Empire, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslim armies from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The Kingdom of Asturias-León consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms such as Navarre and Aragon in the mountainous north eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian *Marca Hispanica*. For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the Muslim and Christian controlled areas of the peninsula was along the Ebro and Douro valleys. Conversion to Islam proceeded at an increasing pace. The *muladíes* (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century. A series of Viking incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries. The first recorded Viking raid on Iberia took place in 844; it ended in failure with many Vikings killed by the Galicians' ballistas; and seventy of the Vikings' longships captured on the beach and burned by the troops of King Ramiro I of Asturias. In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms (*Taifas*), often subject to the payment of a form of protection money (*Parias*) to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of the strategic city of Toledo in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms. The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the Almoravids and the Almohads achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains. The Kingdom of León was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188 the first modern parliamentary session[*clarification needed*] in Europe was held in León (Cortes of León). The Kingdom of Castile, formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from feudalism. Muslim strongholds in the Guadalquivir Valley such as Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon entered in a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229 Majorca was conquered, so was Valencia in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African Marinids established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the Granada War, the Nasrid Sultanate of Granada (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the Catholic Monarchs, and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile. ### Spanish Empire In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. 1478 commenced the completion of the conquest of the Canary Islands. In 1492, Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or facing expulsion. As a result, as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Castile and Aragon. The year 1492 also marked the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World, during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas. The Treaty of Granada guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims, for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian *Moriscos*. About four decades after the War of the Alpujarras (1568–1571), over 300,000 *moriscos* were expelled, settling primarily in North Africa. The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language. Habsburg Spain was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading maritime power. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—Charles V/I (1516–1556) and Philip II (1556–1598). This period saw the Italian Wars, the Schmalkaldic War, the Dutch Revolt, the War of the Portuguese Succession, clashes with the Ottomans, intervention in the French Wars of Religion and the Anglo-Spanish War. Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the Spanish Empire expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent (including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté). The so-called Age of Discovery featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new trade routes across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European colonialism. Precious metals, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe. The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the Spanish Golden Age. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of humanism, the Counter-Reformation and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the School of Salamanca, which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as international law and human rights. Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 and over Portugal at the Battle of Ponta Delgada in 1582, and then after the setback of the Spanish Armada in 1588, in a series of victories against England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. However, during the middle decades of the 17th century Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the Dutch Republic (Battle of the Downs) and then England in the Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660; by the 1660s it was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers. The Protestant Reformation increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean. By the middle decades of a war- and plague-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed the country in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained it of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces, but it was finally forced to recognise the separation of Portugal and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide Thirty Years' War. In the latter half of the 17th century, Spain went into a gradual decline, during which it surrendered several small territories to France and England; however, it maintained and enlarged its vast overseas empire, which remained intact until the beginning of the 19th century. #### 18th century The decline culminated in a controversy over succession to the throne which consumed the first years of the 18th century. The War of the Spanish Succession was a wide-ranging international conflict combined with a civil war, and was to cost the kingdom its European possessions and its position as a leading European power. During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the Bourbons, was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's Holy Office. A number of reform policies (the so-called Bourbon Reforms) were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralized authority and administrative uniformity. They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws, as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms. The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the empire. The predominant economic policy was an interventionist one, and the State also pursued policies aiming towards infrastructure development as well as the abolition of internal customs and the reduction of export tariffs. Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of mainland Spain. Enlightenment ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy. ### Liberalism and nation state In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary new French Republic as a member of the first Coalition. The subsequent War of the Pyrenees polarised the country in a reaction against the gallicised elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the Peace of Basel in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. In 1807, a secret treaty between Napoleon and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with Joseph Bonaparte as king. The 2 May 1808 revolt was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation. These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating war of independence against the Napoleonic regime. Further military action by Spanish armies, guerrilla warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with Napoleon's failure on the Russian front, led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of King Ferdinand VII. During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the Cortes of Cádiz, was assembled to co-ordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution. It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. In 1812, a constitution for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an absolute monarch. The French occupation of Mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas *criollo* elites who resented the privilege towards Peninsular elites and demanded retroversion of the sovereignty to the people. Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the Spanish American wars of independence that put an end to the metropole's grip over the Spanish Main. Attempts to re-assert control proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were Cuba and Puerto Rico. The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, Carlism (a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch), fought against the government forces supportive of Queen Isabella II's dynastic rights in the Carlist Wars. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between *progressives* and *moderates* ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 Glorious Revolution was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive *Sexenio Democrático* (including the short-lived First Spanish Republic), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the Restoration (1875–1931). In the late 19th century nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896 the Cuban War of Independence and the Philippine Revolution broke out and eventually the United States became involved. The Spanish–American War was fought in the spring of 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. *El Desastre* (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the Generation of '98. Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the scramble for Africa. It remained neutral during World War I. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against Riffians forces brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy. Industrialisation, the development of railways and incipient capitalism developed in several areas of the country, particularly in Barcelona, as well as Labour movement and socialist and anarchist ideas. The 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition and the 1870 Barcelona Labour Congress are good examples of this. In 1879, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party was founded. A trade union linked to this party, Unión General de Trabajadores, was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-sindicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, Confederación Nacional del Trabajo was founded in 1910 and Federación Anarquista Ibérica in 1927. Catalanism and Vasquism, alongside other nationalisms and regionalisms in Spain, arose in that period: the Basque Nationalist Party formed in 1895 and Regionalist League of Catalonia in 1901. Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system. The July 1909 Tragic Week events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time. The La Canadiense strike in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours. After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the 12 April 1931 municipal elections. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left the country and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government. A constitution for the country was passed in October 1931 following the June 1931 Constituent general election, and a series of cabinets presided by Manuel Azaña supported by republican parties and the PSOE followed. In the election held in 1933 the right triumphed and in 1936, the left. During the Second Republic there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalization of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the 1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo, the Revolution of 1934 and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. On the other hand, it is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernize the country were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralization and women's right to vote. ### Civil War and Francoist dictatorship The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936: on 17 and 18 July, part of the military carried out a coup d'état that triumphed in only part of the country. The situation led to a civil war, in which the territory was divided into two zones: one under the authority of the Republican government, that counted on outside support from the Soviet Union and Mexico (and from International Brigades), and the other controlled by the putschists (the Nationalist or rebel faction), most critically supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of non-intervention. General Francisco Franco was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels on 1 October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial social revolution also ensued. The civil war was viciously fought and there were many atrocities committed by all sides. The war claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from the country. On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of World War II, the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in Francoist concentration camps. The regime remained nominally "neutral" for much of the Second World War, although it was sympathetic to the Axis and provided the Nazi Wehrmacht with Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist Falange Española de las JONS and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "Movimiento Nacional", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the later's name in official documents along the 1950s. After the war Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the Cold War period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. In the 1960s, Spain registered an unprecedented rate of economic growth which was propelled by industrialisation, a mass internal migration from rural areas to Madrid, Barcelona and the Basque Country and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by authoritarianism, promotion of a unitary national identity, National Catholicism, and discriminatory language policies. ### Restoration of democracy In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside the country and in exile met in the congress of the European Movement in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy. With Franco's death in November 1975, Juan Carlos succeeded to the position of King of Spain and head of state in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new Spanish Constitution of 1978 and the restoration of democracy, the State devolved much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on autonomous communities. The Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria or 1977 Massacre of Atocha. In the Basque Country, moderate Basque nationalism coexisted with a radical nationalist movement led by the armed organisation ETA until the latter's dissolution in May 2018. The group was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule but had continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy. On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose a military-backed government. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender. During the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like La Movida Madrileña. In May 1982 Spain joined NATO, followed by a referendum after a strong social opposition. That year the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986 Spain joined the European Economic Community, which later became the European Union. The PSOE was replaced in government by the Partido Popular (PP) in 1996 after scandals around participation of the government of Felipe González in the Dirty war against ETA. On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the euro, and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse. In 2002, the Prestige oil spill occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 José María Aznar supported US president George W. Bush in the Iraq War, and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a local Islamist terrorist group inspired by Al-Qaeda carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by bombing commuter trains in Madrid. Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group ETA, evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the 2004 Spanish general election, the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties PP and PSOE exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident. The PSOE won the election, led by José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. In the early 2000s, the proportion of Spain's foreign born population increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the financial crisis. In 2005, the Spanish government legalised same sex marriage, becoming the third country worldwide to do so. Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010. The bursting of the Spanish property bubble in 2008 led to the 2008–16 Spanish financial crisis. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption in Royal family and People's Party served as a backdrop to the 2011–12 Spanish protests. Catalan independentism also rose. In 2011, Mariano Rajoy's conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes. As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact. On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became Felipe VI. In October 2017 a Catalan independence referendum was held and the Catalan parliament voted to unilaterally declare independence from Spain to form a Catalan Republic on the day the Spanish Senate was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister. On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election. No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state. In June 2018, the Congress of Deputies passed a motion of no-confidence against Rajoy and replaced him with the PSOE leader Pedro Sánchez. In January 2020, the COVID-19 virus was confirmed to have spread to Spain, causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make active euthanasia legal. Geography --------- At 505,992 km2 (195,365 sq mi), Spain is the world's fifty-second largest country and Europe's fourth largest country. It is some 47,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) smaller than France. Mount Teide (Tenerife) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a transcontinental country, having territory in both Europe and Africa. Spain lies between latitudes 27° and 44° N, and longitudes 19° W and 5° E. On the west, Spain is bordered by Portugal; on the south, it is bordered by Gibraltar and Morocco, through its exclaves in North Africa (Ceuta and Melilla, and the peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera). On the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it is bordered by France and Andorra. Along the Pyrenees in Girona, a small exclave town called Llívia is surrounded by France. Extending to 1,214 km (754 mi), the Portugal–Spain border is the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union. ### Islands Spain also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the Strait of Gibraltar, known as *plazas de soberanía* ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the Chafarinas Islands and Alhucemas. The peninsula of de Vélez de la Gomera is also regarded as a *plaza de soberanía*. The isle of Alborán, located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of Almería, Andalusia. The little Pheasant Island in the River Bidasoa is a Spanish-French condominium. There are 11 major islands in Spain, all of them having their own governing bodies (Cabildos insulares in the Canaries, Consells insulars in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the Pityusic islands, part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro in the Canarian archipelago and Mallorca, Ibiza, Menorca and Formentera in the Balearic archipelago. ### Mountains and rivers Mainland Spain is a rather mountainous landmass, dominated by high plateaus and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the Cordillera Cantábrica (Cantabrian Range), Sistema Ibérico (Iberian System), Sistema Central (Central System), Montes de Toledo, Sierra Morena and the Sistema Bético (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the 3,478-metre-high (11,411-foot) Mulhacén, located in Sierra Nevada, is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the Teide, a 3,718-metre (12,198 ft) active volcano in the Canary Islands. The Meseta Central (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central. There are several major rivers in Spain such as the Tagus (*Tajo*), Ebro, Guadiana, Douro (*Duero*), Guadalquivir, Júcar, Segura, Turia and Minho (*Miño*). Alluvial plains are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia. ### Climate Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and orographic conditions: * The Mediterranean climate, characterised by warm/hot and dry summers, is dominant in the peninsula. It has two varieties: *Csa* and *Csb* according to the Köppen climate classification. + The *Csa* zone is associated to areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Mediterranean and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout Andalusia, Extremadura and much, if not most, of the centre of the country. The *Csa* zone covers climatic zones with both warm and cool winters which are considered extremely different from each other at a local level, reason for which Köppen classification is often eschewed within Spain. Local climatic maps generally divide the Mediterranean zone (which covers most of the country) between warm-winter and cool-winter zones, rather than according to summer temperatures. + The *Csb* zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western Castile–León, northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably Galicia). Note areas with substantial summer rainfall such as Galicia are classed as oceanic. * The semi-arid climate (*BSk*, *BSh*), is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the Region of Murcia, southern Valencia and eastern Andalusia. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the Ebro valley, which crosses southern Navarre, central Aragon and western Catalonia. It also is found in Madrid, Extremadura, Castilla-La Mancha, and some locations of western Andalusia. The dry season extends beyond the summer and average temperature depends on altitude and latitude. * The oceanic climate (*Cfb*), located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region (Basque Country, Cantabria, Asturias, and partly Galicia and Castile–León). Additionally it is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the Iberian System and in the Pyrenean valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (*Cfa*) also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought. Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the alpine climate in areas with very high altitude, the humid subtropical climate in areas of northeastern Spain and the continental climates (*Dfc*, *Dfb* / *Dsc*, *Dsb*) in the Pyrenees as well as parts of the Cantabrian Range, the Central System, Sierra Nevada and the Iberian System, and a typical desert climate (*BWk*, *BWh*) in the zone of Almería, Murcia and eastern Canary Islands. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) during their coolest month, thus having a tropical climate. ### Fauna and flora The fauna presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and Eurasia, and the great diversity of habitats and biotopes, the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions. The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and latitude. Spain includes different phytogeographic regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and biotic factors. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries. Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries. In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year. Politics -------- Felipe VI, King of SpainPedro Sánchez, Prime Minister of Spain The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King Juan Carlos dismissed Carlos Arias Navarro and appointed the reformer Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister. The resulting general election in 1977 convened the *Constituent Cortes* (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978. After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution – a culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. As a result, Spain is now composed of 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities with varying degrees of autonomy thanks to its Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation. The Spanish administration approved the *Gender Equality Act* in 2007 aimed at furthering equality between genders in Spanish political and economic life. According to Inter-Parliamentary Union data as of 1 September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the lower (or single) House. The Gender Empowerment Measure of Spain in the United Nations Human Development Report is 0.794, 12th in the world. ### Government Spain is a constitutional monarchy, with a hereditary monarch and a bicameral parliament, the *Cortes Generales* (English: Spanish Parliament, lit. 'General Courts'). The legislative branch is made up of the Congress of Deputies (*Congreso de los Diputados*), a lower house with 350 members, elected by popular vote on block lists by proportional representation to serve four-year terms, and the Senate (*Senado*), an upper house with 259 seats of which 208 are directly elected by popular vote, using a limited voting method, and the other 51 appointed by the regional legislatures to also serve four-year terms. The executive branch consists of a Council of Ministers presided over by the Prime Minister, who is nominated as candidate by the monarch after holding consultations with representatives from the different parliamentary groups, voted in by the members of the lower house during an investiture session and then formally appointed by the monarch. Spain is organisationally structured as a so-called *Estado de las Autonomías* ("State of Autonomies"); it is one of the most decentralised countries in Europe, along with Switzerland, Germany and Belgium; for example, all autonomous communities have their own elected parliaments, governments, public administrations, budgets, and resources. Health and education systems among others are managed by the Spanish communities, and in addition, the Basque Country and Navarre also manage their own public finances based on foral provisions. In Catalonia, the Basque Country, Navarre and the Canary Islands, a full-fledged autonomous police corps replaces some of the State police functions (see *Mossos d'Esquadra*, *Ertzaintza*, *Policía Foral/Foruzaingoa* and *Policía Canaria*). ### Foreign relations After the return of democracy following the death of Franco in 1975, Spain's foreign policy priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the Franco years and expand diplomatic relations, enter the European Community, and define security relations with the West. As a member of NATO since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. Even on many international issues beyond western Europe, Spain prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political co-operation mechanisms.[*vague*] Spain has maintained its special relations with Hispanic America and the Philippines. Its policy emphasises the concept of an Ibero-American community, essentially the renewal of the concept of *"Hispanidad"* or *"Hispanismo"*, as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy." The country is involved in a number of territorial disputes. Spain claims Gibraltar, a Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula. Another dispute surrounds the Savage Islands; Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands. Spain claims sovereignty over the Perejil Island, a small, uninhabited rocky islet located in the South shore of the Strait of Gibraltar; it was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla and the *plazas de soberanía* islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza. ### Military The Spanish Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army (*Ejército de Tierra*); Navy (*Armada*); and Air and Space Force (*Ejército del Aire y del Espacio*). The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (*Fuerzas Armadas Españolas*). Their commander-in-chief is the King of Spain, Felipe VI. The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the Chief of the Defence Staff (JEMAD). The Defence Staff (*Estado Mayor de la Defensa*) assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body. The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. The country also has the 77,000 strong Civil Guard which comes under the control of the Ministry of defense in times of a national emergency. The Spanish defense budget is 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion) a 1% increase for 2015. The increase comes because of security concerns in the country. Military conscription was suppressed in 2001. ### Human rights The Spanish Constitution of 1978 "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions". According to Amnesty International (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address. Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its LGBT community. Among the countries studied by Pew Research Center in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted. ### Administrative divisions #### Autonomous communities Galicia Navarre Community of Madrid La Rioja Aragon Catalonia Valencian Community Castilla– La Mancha Extremadura *Portugal* Castile and León Asturias Cantabria Basque Country Region of Murcia Andalusia Ceuta Melilla *France* Balearic Islands Canary Islands *Mediterranean Sea* *Atlantic Ocean* *Andorra* *Atlantic Ocean* *Gibraltar (UK)* *Morocco* Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the current constitution came into effect (in 1978) in recognition of the right to self-government of the "*nationalities* and regions of Spain". The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on devolution, is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies". The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the Statute of Autonomy. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution. Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as *nationalities*, were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community, the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands, and Aragon. The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own parliaments and governments. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. Only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy. Beyond fiscal autonomy, the *nationalities*—Andalusia, the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia—were devolved more powers than the rest of the communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Navarre have police corps of their own: Ertzaintza, Mossos d'Esquadra and the Policía Foral respectively. Other communities have more limited forces or none at all, like the *Policía Autónoma Andaluza* in Andalusia or the BESCAM in Madrid. #### Provinces and municipalities Autonomous communities are divided into provinces, which served as their territorial building blocks. In turn, provinces are divided into municipalities. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs, and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State. The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the 1833 territorial division by Javier de Burgos, and in all, the Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community. Economy ------- Spain's capitalist mixed economy is the 14th largest worldwide and the 4th largest in the European Union, as well as the Eurozone's 4th largest.The ce ntre-right government of former prime minister José María Aznar worked successfully to gain admission to the group of countries launching the euro in 1999. Unemployment stood at 17.1% in June 2017, below Spain's early 1990s unemployment rate of at over 20%. The youth unemployment rate (35% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards. Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large informal economy, and an education system which OECD reports place among the poorest for developed countries, along with the United States. Since the 1990s some Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America. Spain is the second biggest foreign investor there, after the United States. Spanish companies have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India. Spanish companies invested in fields like renewable energy commercialisation (Iberdrola was the world's largest renewable energy operator), technology companies like Telefónica, Abengoa, Mondragon Corporation (which is the world's largest worker-owned cooperative), Movistar, Hisdesat, Indra, train manufacturers like CAF, Talgo, global corporations such as the textile company Inditex, petroleum companies like Repsol or Cepsa and infrastructure, with six of the ten biggest international construction firms specialising in transport being Spanish, like Ferrovial, Acciona, ACS, OHL and FCC. The automotive industry in Spain is one of the largest employers in the country. In 2015 Spain was the 8th largest automobile producer country in the world and still in 2022 the 2nd largest car manufacturer in Europe after Germany. By 2016, the automotive industry was generating 8.7 percent of Spain's gross domestic product, employing about nine percent of the manufacturing industry. By 2008 the automobile industry was the 2nd most exported industry while in 2015 about 80% of the total production was for export. German companies poured €4.8 billion into Spain in 2015, making the country the second-largest destination for German foreign direct investment behind only the U.S. The lion's share of that investment—€4 billion—went to the country's auto industry. ### Tourism In 2017, Spain was the second most visited country in the world, recording 82 million tourists which marked the fifth consecutive year of record-beating numbers. The headquarters of the World Tourism Organization are located in Madrid. Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure has made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. In the last five decades, international tourism in Spain has grown to become the second largest in the world in terms of spending, worth approximately 40 billion Euros or about 5% of GDP in 2006. Castile and Leon is the Spanish leader in rural tourism linked to its environmental and architectural heritage. ### Energy In 2010 Spain became the solar power world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz. Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy. In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain. On 9 November 2010, wind energy reached a historic peak covering 53% of mainland electricity demand and generating an amount of energy that is equivalent to that of 14 nuclear reactors. Other renewable energies used in Spain are hydroelectric, biomass and marine. Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are nuclear (8 operative reactors), gas, coal, and oil. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each. ### Science and technology The Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings. Spain was ranked 29th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022. Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country. Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries. ### Transport The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts. Spain aims to put one million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency. The former Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastián said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution." Spain has the most extensive high-speed rail network in Europe, and the second-most extensive in the world after China. As of 2019, Spain has a total of over 3,400 km (2,112.66 mi) of high-speed tracks linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Valladolid, with the trains operated at commercial speeds up to 310 km/h (190 mph). On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese bullet train and the French TGV. Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%). Should the aims of the ambitious AVE programme (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7,000 km (4,300 mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than three hours and Barcelona within four hours. There are 47 public airports in Spain. The busiest one is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 15th busiest airport, as well as the European Union's fourth busiest. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 35 million passengers in 2011, being the world's 31st-busiest airport. Other main airports are located in Majorca, Málaga, Las Palmas (Gran Canaria), and Alicante. Demographics ------------ In 2019, the population of Spain officially reached 47 million people, as recorded by the *Padrón municipal* (Spain's Municipal Register). Spain's population density, at 91/km2 (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain has risen 2 1/2 times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s. In 2017, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across Spain was 1.33 children born per woman, one of the lowest in the world, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 5.11 children born per woman in 1865. Spain subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 43.1 years. Native Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After the birth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America (39%), North Africa (16%), Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%). In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco. Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several Sub-Saharan countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, South Asian and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, Germans, French and others. ### Urbanisation |    Largest cities or towns in Spain*Instituto Nacional de Estadística* (2019) | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Autonomous community | Pop. | Rank | Name | Autonomous community | Pop. | | | MadridMadridBarcelonaBarcelona | 1 | Madrid | Community of Madrid | 3,266,126 | 11 | Alicante | Valencian Community | 334,887 | ValenciaValenciaSevilleSeville | | 2 | Barcelona | Catalonia | 1,608,746 | 12 | Córdoba | Andalusia | 325,701 | | 3 | Valencia | Valencian Community | 794,288 | 13 | Valladolid | Castile and León | 298,412 | | 4 | Seville | Andalusia | 688,592 | 14 | Vigo | Galicia | 295,364 | | 5 | Zaragoza | Aragon | 674,997 | 15 | Gijón | Principality of Asturias | 271,780 | | 6 | Málaga | Andalusia | 574,654 | 16 | L'Hospitalet | Catalonia | 254,804 | | 7 | Murcia | Region of Murcia | 453,258 | 17 | Vitoria-Gasteiz | Basque Country | 251,774 | | 8 | Palma | Balearic Islands | 416,065 | 18 | A Coruña | Galicia | 245,711 | | 9 | Las Palmas | Canary Islands | 379,925 | 19 | Elche | Valencian Community | 232,517 | | 10 | Bilbao | Basque Country | 346,843 | 20 | Granada | Andalusia | 232,462 | ### Immigration According to the official Spanish statistics (INE) there were 5.4 million foreign residents in Spain in 2020 (11.4%) while all citizens born outside of Spain were 7.2 million in 2020, 15.23% of the total population. According to residence permit data for 2011, more than 860,000 were Romanian, about 770,000 were Moroccan, approximately 390,000 were British, and 360,000 were Ecuadorian. Other sizeable foreign communities are Colombian, Bolivian, German, Italian, Bulgarian, and Chinese. There are more than 200,000 migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa living in Spain, principally Senegaleses and Nigerians. Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving illegally by sea, has caused noticeable social tension. Within the EU, Spain had the 2nd highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers, up to 2008. The number of immigrants in Spain had grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million. In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people. There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce. Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived. In 2008, prior to the onset of the economic crisis, the *Financial Times* reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU. In 2008, the government instituted a "Plan of Voluntary Return" which encouraged unemployed immigrants from outside the EU to return to their home countries and receive several incentives, including the right to keep their unemployment benefits and transfer whatever they contributed to the Spanish Social Security. The programme had little effect. What the programme failed to do, the sharp and prolonged economic crisis has done from 2010 to 2011 in that tens of thousands of immigrants have left the country due to lack of jobs. In 2011 alone, more than half a million people left Spain. For the first time in decades the net migration rate was expected to be negative, and nine out of 10 emigrants were foreigners. ### Languages Spain is a multilingual state. Spanish—featured in the 1978 Spanish Constitution as *castellano* ('Castilian')—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931. As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respective autonomous communities. The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in *their* territories. Besides Spanish, other territorialized languages include Aragonese, Aranese, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Ceutan Arabic (Darija), Catalan, Galician, Portuguese and Tamazight, to which the Romani Caló and the sign languages may add up. The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection. Those enjoying recognition as official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan (in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community, where it is referred to as 'Valencian'); Galician (in Galicia); Basque (in the Basque Country and part of Navarre); and Aranese in Catalonia. Spanish is natively spoken by 74%, Catalan by 17%, Galician by 7% and Basque by 2% of the Spanish population. Some of the most spoken foreign languages used by the immigrant communities include Moroccan Arabic, Romanian and English. ### Education State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The current education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (*Ley Orgánica de Educación*), or Fundamental Law for the Education. In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (*Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa*), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called *Ley Wert* (Wert Law). Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE). The levels of education are preschool education, primary education, secondary education and post-16 education. In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the *Formación Profesional Básica* (basic vocational education); the *Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio* or *CFGM* (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the *Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior* or *CFGS* (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level. The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science. ### Health The health care system of Spain (Spanish National Health System) is considered one of the best in the world, in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organization. The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain. The total health spending is 9.4% of the GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the OECD. ### Religion Religious self-definition in Spain (CIS survey; sample size: 3,935; February 2023)   Practicing Catholic (18.5%)  Non-Practicing Catholic (37.5%)  Believer in another religion (2.7%)  Agnostic (12.6%)  Indifferent/Non-believer (12.3%)  Atheist (14.9%)  Did not answer (1.5%) Roman Catholicism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam, Judaism, and evangelical Christianity is also recognised in law. According to a 2020 study by the Spanish Centre for Sociological Research, about 61% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 3% other faiths, and about 35% identify with no religion. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious. The Spanish constitution enshrines secularism in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character," while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups. Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members. There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations. A study made by the Union of Islamic Communities of Spain demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain as of 2019[update], accounting for 4–5% of the total population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the Maghreb (especially Morocco) and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality. Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Culture ------- Spain is a Western country and one of the major Latin countries of Europe, and a cultural superpower. Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the Catholic Church, which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity. Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire. ### World Heritage Sites Spain has 49 World Heritage Sites. These include the landscape of Monte Perdido in the Pyrenees, which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which is shared with Portugal, the Heritage of Mercury, shared with Slovenia and the Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests, shared with other countries of Europe. In addition, Spain has also 14 Intangible cultural heritage, or "Human treasures". ### Literature Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of Mozarabic Romance (such as refrains) sprinkled in Arabic and Hebrew texts. Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the *Glosas Emilianenses* written in Latin, Basque and Romance. Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in Latin, which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken. A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in Toledo, where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular, Castilian. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside Galician-Portuguese across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century. The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, Occitan, became increasingly Catalanised in the 14th and 15th centuries. Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the *Cantar de Mio Cid*, *Tirant lo Blanch*, *The Book of Good Love* and *Coplas por la muerte de su padre*. Genres such as Mester de Juglaría and Mester de Clerecía were cultivated. Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a Golden era of Castilian literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan. Famous Early Modern works include *La Celestina* and *Lazarillo de Tormes*. The famous *Don Quijote de La Mancha* by Miguel de Cervantes was written in this time. Other writers from the period are: Francisco de Quevedo, Lope de Vega, Calderón de la Barca or Tirso de Molina.During the Enlightenment authors included Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos or Leandro Fernández de Moratín. Steps of Spanish Romantic literature (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter. In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued. The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of Spanish Realism, which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations. The major realist writer was Benito Pérez Galdós. The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan *Renaixença* or the Galician *Rexurdimento*. Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century. 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the Generation of '98, the Generation of '27, Generation of '36 and the Generation of '50. Premio Planeta de Novela and Miguel de Cervantes Prize are the two main awards in Spanish literature. ### Philosophy The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as Seneca, Trajan, Lucan, or Martial); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the Generation of 98); or simply by outright denying its existence. The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (chief architect of the myth around it) against Antonio Pérez. Foreign imports such as Krausism proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries. ### Art Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and American artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish and influences in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, Spanish Baroque and Neoclassical periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the Pre-Romanesque art and architecture, Herrerian architecture or the Isabelline Gothic. During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included El Greco, José de Ribera, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo and Francisco Zurbarán. Also in the Baroque period, Diego Velázquez created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as *Las Meninas* and *Las Hilanderas*. Francisco Goya painted during a historical period that includes the Spanish Independence War, the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nations-states. Joaquín Sorolla is a well-known modern impressionist painter and there are many important Spanish painters belonging to the modernism art movement, including Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Juan Gris and Joan Miró. ### Sculpture The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. Alonso Berruguete (Valladolid School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni and Damián Forment. There were two Schools: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez Montañés belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed. Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida, and Pablo Serrano. ### Cinema After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I. The conflict offered the Spanish industry of silent films an opportunity for further growth. Local studios for sound films were created in 1932. The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching dubbed films. Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as *Pan's Labyrinth* and *Volver*. Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the *Fantaterror [es]*, the cine *quinqui* and the so-called *destape* [es] films. As of 2021, the festivals of San Sebastián and Málaga are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country. ### Architecture Earth and gypsum are very common materials of the traditional vernacular architecture in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located). Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples of Islamicate architecture, belonging to the Western Islamic tradition, were built in the Middle Ages in places such as Córdoba, Seville, or Granada. Similarly to the Maghreb, stucco decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages. Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing a pre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flourishing of the Gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The so-called Mudéjar style came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims. The arrival of Modernism produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture and Spanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown. ### Music and dance Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular. In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals, Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real, the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía. Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sónar which features pop and techno acts, and Benicàssim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts. The Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival is one of the main ones in its genre. The most popular traditional musical instrument, the guitar, originated in Spain. Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or *gaiteros*, mainly in Asturias and Galicia. ### Cuisine Paella, a traditional Valencian dishJamón ibérico is one of the most expensive hams.​ Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified: ***Mediterranean*** Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as *pescaíto frito* (fried fish); cold soups like *gazpacho*; and many rice-based dishes like *paella* from Valencia and *arròs negre* (black rice) from Catalonia. ***Inner*** Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based *Castilian soup*, along with substantial stews such as *cocido madrileño*. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, such as Manchego cheese. ***Atlantic*** Spain – the Northern coast, including Asturian, Basque, Cantabrian and Galician cuisine – vegetable and fish-based stews like *caldo gallego* and *marmitako*. Also, the lightly cured *lacón* ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style cod, albacore or anchovy or the Galician octopus-based *polbo á feira* and shellfish dishes. ### Sport While varieties of football have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid CF and FC Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Championship in 1964, 2008 and 2012 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments. Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, futsal, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics and Paralympics that were hosted in Barcelona, which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing. In their respective regions, the traditional games of Basque pelota and Valencian pilota both are popular. ### Public holidays and festivals Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally. Spain's National Day (*Fiesta Nacional de España*) is celebrated on 12 October. There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is San Fermín, in Pamplona. While its most famous event is the *encierro*, or the running of the bulls. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over 1,000,000 people attending every year. Other festivals include: La Tomatina tomato festival in Buñol, Valencia, the carnivals in the Canary Islands, the Falles in Valencia or the Holy Week in Andalusia and Castile and León. See also -------- * Outline of Spain * Topographical relief of Spain Further reading --------------- * Carr, Raymond, ed. *Spain: a history*. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000. * Callaghan O.F Joseph. A History of Medieval Spain Cornell University Press 1983 Government * E-Government portal for Spain Maps * Wikimedia Atlas of Spain * Geographic data related to Spain at OpenStreetMap Tourism * Official tourism portal for Spain 40°N 4°W / 40°N 4°W / 40; -4

Spain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain

**Kanpur**, formerly **Cawnpore** (/kɑːnˈpʊər/ pronunciation (help·info)), is a large industrial city located in the central-western part of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. Founded in 1207, Kanpur became one of the most important commercial and military stations of British India. Kanpur is also the financial capital of Uttar Pradesh. Nestled on the banks of Ganges River, Kanpur has been the major financial and industrial centre of North India and also the ninth-largest urban economy in India. Today it is famous for its colonial architecture, gardens, parks and fine quality leather, plastic and textile products which are exported mainly to the West. It is known for its rich cultural heritage, bustling markets, vibrant nightlife, beautiful parks and gardens, delicious cuisine and much more. The city is home to historical monuments such as the Jajmau Ghat which dates back to 17th century AD. Kanpur is also home to several historical sites such as the Bithoor Museum, Bhitargaon Temple, European Cemetry and Nanarao Park. Kanpur also hosts various events throughout year. It is the 10th most populous city and the 9th most populous urban agglomeration in India (*Census of India, 2011*). Kanpur was an important British garrison town until 1947, when India gained independence. The urban district of Kanpur *Nagar* serves as the headquarters of the Kanpur Division, Kanpur Range and Kanpur Zone. With the first woollen mill of India, commonly known as the **Lal Imli** (*literally meaning "Red Tamarind"*, for a brand produced by the mill) by the British India Corporation established here in 1876 by Alexander MacRobert. The eastern and northern façades of the mill are reminiscent of the Palace of Westminster, due to their architecture, proximity to the Ganges river and with the north-east corner of the mill being topped by a clock tower similar to Big Ben in London. This similarity underscores the city's importance and prestige during the British times, which extends till date; making the Lal Imli — a great highlight of the city. The city is also widely regarded as the *"Leather City of the World"* and is predominantly nicknamed as the *"Manchester of the East"*, for its chemical, textile and leather industries. According to 2011 Indian census, it is the most populous urban city and the largest urban agglomeration in Uttar Pradesh while the population of city and its suburb were around 5 million making it the eighth-most populous metropolitan area in India. Furthermore, it is considered the world's most polluted city by particulate matter concentration. In 2018, Kanpur was considered by the World Health Organization as the city with the world's worst air pollution. History ------- In 1207, Raja Kanh Deo of the Kanhpuriya clan of Rajputs established the city of Kanhpur and made it his capital, which later came to be known as Kanpur. ### 1857 Uprising In the 19th century, Cawnpore was an important British garrison with barracks for 7,000 soldiers. During the First Indian War of Independence of 1857, 900 British men, women and children were besieged in the fortifications for 22 days by rebels under Nana Sahib. They surrendered on the agreement that they would get safe passage to the nearby Sati Chaura Ghat whereupon they would board barges and be allowed to go by river to Allahabad. Though controversy surrounds what exactly happened at the Sati Chaura Ghat, and who fired the first shot, it is known that, soon afterwards, the departing British were shot at by the sepoys and were either killed or captured. Some of the British officers later claimed that the sepoys had, on purpose, placed the boats as high in the mud as possible, to cause delay. They also claimed that Nana Sahib's camp had previously arranged for the sepoys to fire upon and to kill all of the English. Although the East India Company later accused Nana Sahib of betrayal and murder of innocent people, no evidence has ever been found to prove that Nana Sahib had planned or ordered the massacre. Some historians believe that the Sati Chaura Ghat massacre was the result of confusion and not of any plan implemented by Nana Sahib or of his associates. Lieutenant Mowbray Thomson, one of the four male survivors of the massacre, believed that the rank-and-file sepoys who spoke to him did not know of the killing to come. Many were killed and the remaining 200 British women and children were brought back to shore and sent to a building called the Bibighar (*House of the Ladies*). After some time, the commanders of the rebels decided to kill their hostages. The rebel soldiers refused to carry out orders and butchers from the nearby town were brought in to kill the hostages three days before the British entered the city on 18 July. The dismembered bodies were thrown into a deep well nearby. The British, under General Neill, retook the city and committed a series of retaliations against the rebel sepoys and those civilians caught in the area, including women, children and old men. The Cawnpore massacre, as well as similar events elsewhere, were seen by the British as justification for unrestrained vengeance. "Remember Cawnpore" became a British war cry for the rest of the war. Urban infrastructure -------------------- The metropolitan region defined under JNNURM by Kanpur Nagar Nigam, includes the Kanpur Nagar Nigam area, 8 kilometres around KNN boundary and newly included 47 villages of Unnao district on the north-eastern side, it extends to Murtaza Nagar, in the west its limit is up to Akbarpur, Kanpur Dehat Nagar Panchayat limit, on the eastern side the limit has been expanded on the road leading to Fatehpur and in extended up to. The metropolitan region area includes the area of Shuklaganj Municipal Committee (Nagar Palika), Unnao Municipal Committee (Nagar Palika), Akbarpur Village Authority (Nagar Panchayat) and Bithoor Village Authority (Nagar Panchayat) area. In 1997–98, total metropolitan region area has increased to 89131.15 hectare out of which 4,743.9 hectare (5.31%) was non-defined (prohibited area) and rest 29,683 hectare and 54,704 hectare (61.39%) was urban and rural area respectively. Climate ------- Like most of lowland northern India, Kanpur has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (*Cwa*) bordering on a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh*) under the Köppen climate classification. Famous Personalities -------------------- Sir Lala Padampat Singhania-Indian Industrialist Lala Kamalapat Singhania-Indian Industrialist | Climate data for Kanpur Airport (1981-2010, extremes 1901-2006) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 31.1(88.0) | 35.6(96.1) | 42.8(109.0) | 45.6(114.1) | 47.2(117.0) | 47.3(117.1) | 45.0(113.0) | 40.6(105.1) | 40.0(104.0) | 40.6(105.1) | 36.1(97.0) | 31.3(88.3) | 47.3(117.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 22.3(72.1) | 25.4(77.7) | 32.0(89.6) | 38.0(100.4) | 39.8(103.6) | 39.0(102.2) | 33.8(92.8) | 33.2(91.8) | 33.1(91.6) | 32.5(90.5) | 28.6(83.5) | 24.4(75.9) | 31.9(89.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 8.2(46.8) | 10.6(51.1) | 15.6(60.1) | 21.1(70.0) | 25.1(77.2) | 27.2(81.0) | 26.4(79.5) | 26.1(79.0) | 24.8(76.6) | 19.0(66.2) | 12.8(55.0) | 8.7(47.7) | 18.8(65.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | 1.6(34.9) | 0.6(33.1) | 7.2(45.0) | 11.1(52.0) | 16.4(61.5) | 20.6(69.1) | 21.7(71.1) | 21.7(71.1) | 11.8(53.2) | 4.6(40.3) | 0.5(32.9) | −0.9(30.4) | −0.9(30.4) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 9.2(0.36) | 9.2(0.36) | 2.9(0.11) | 2.7(0.11) | 8.2(0.32) | 61.8(2.43) | 185.3(7.30) | 191.7(7.55) | 138.1(5.44) | 33.9(1.33) | 3.4(0.13) | 2.1(0.08) | 648.5(25.52) | | Average rainy days | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 2.9 | 9.6 | 9.0 | 6.1 | 1.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 32.6 | | Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) | 59 | 46 | 34 | 27 | 31 | 45 | 74 | 77 | 72 | 62 | 62 | 62 | 54 | | Source: India Meteorological Department | Demographics ------------ | Religion in Kanpur (2011) | | --- | | Religion | | Percent | | Hinduism |   | 78.03% | | Islam |   | 19.85% | | Sikhism |   | 1.01% | | Christianity |   | 0.46% | | Other or not stated |   | 0.47% | As per the provisional results of 2011 census, Kanpur Nagar district has a population of 4,581,000. The literacy rate was 79.65 per cent and sex ratio was 862. There are 35 Parsis in Kanpur with their Fire temple at The Mall. Hinduism is a majority in Kanpur with a sizeable minority of Muslims. Sikhs, Christians and Buddhists are below 2 percent. Although final data of census 2023 is yet to be declared, population of Kanpur Nagar District is projected as 63,67,963 in year 2023 (estimation as per aadhar ‘UIDAI’ data). As per 2011 Census, population of Kanpur City and its suburbs was 30,15,645 making it the largest urban agglomeration of Uttar Pradesh. Thereafter, urban area of Kanpur City has expanded to a large extent. However, limits of its urban area is still pending for approval by the Government. Tentatively population of Kanpur City and Kanpur metropolitan area in 2023 is projected as 38,12,000 and 40,26,000 respectively as per the data available so far. Awadhi is the native dialect. Hindi and Urdu are the predominant languages in the city. Punjabi is spoken by 1.25%, while Bengali is spoken by over 11,000 people in the city. Government and politics ----------------------- | | | --- | | **Officials** | | **Divisional Commissioner** | Raj Shekhar | | **District Magistrate** | Neha Sharma | | **Additional Director General, Kanpur Zone** | Avanish Chandra | | **Inspector General, Kanpur Range** | Alok Singh | | **DIG/Senior Superintendent of Police** | Sonia Singh | | **Vice Chairman, Kanpur Development Authority** | Kinjal Singh | | **Mayor** | Pramila Pandey | | **Municipal Commissioner** | Avinash Singh | | **District Judge** | Shashi Kant Shukla | | **Chief Metropolitan Magistrate** | Shabistan Aquil | ### Administration #### General administration Kanpur division which consists of six districts, and is headed by the divisional commissioner of Kanpur, who is an Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officer of high seniority, the commissioner is the head of local government institutions (including municipal corporations) in the division, is in charge of infrastructure development in his division, and is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the division. The district magistrate of Kanpur reports to the divisional commissioner. The current commissioner is Dr. Raj Shekhar. Kanpur district administration is headed by the district magistrate of Kanpur, who is an IAS officer. The DM is in charge of property records and revenue collection for the central government and oversees the elections held in the city. The DM is also responsible for maintaining law and order in the city. The DM is assisted by a chief development officer; four additional district magistrates for finance/revenue, city, land acquisition, and civil supply; one city magistrat; and seven additional city magistrates. The district has three tehsils viz. Sadar, Bilhaur and Ghatampur, each headed by a sub-divisional magistrate. The current DM is Mr. Vishak G #### Civic Administration Kanpur municipality was established on 22 November 1861, and was upgraded to a municipal corporation in 1959. The local government of Kanpur is governed under the Municipal act for the state, Uttar Pradesh Municipal Corporation Act, 1959. The area under the municipal limits of Kanpur city, or Kanpur Municipal Corporation, is spread over an area of 260 square km. It oversees civic activities in the city. The head of the corporation is the mayor, but the executive and administration of the corporation are the responsibility of the municipal commissioner, who is an Uttar Pradesh government-appointed Provincial Civil Service officer of high seniority. The executive wing is headed by municipal commissioner, Avinash Singh and has the following departments: Revenue, City Cleansing, Engineering, Marg Prakash, Health, Accounts, Personnel/HRD, Swasthya Vibhag, Education, Mukya Nagar Lekha Vibhag, Pariyojna, Udyan Vibhag, Chikitsa Vibhag, Encroachment & Cattle Catching Department. There is also an executive committee present in the city. The development of infrastructure in the city is overseen by Kanpur Development Authority (KDA), which comes under the Housing Department of Uttar Pradesh government. The divisional commissioner of Kanpur acts as the *ex-officio* Chairman of KDA, whereas a vice chairperson, a government-appointed IAS officer, looks after the daily matters of the authority. The current vice-chairman of Kanpur Development Authority is K. Vijayendra Pandian. The municipality receives revenue from general tax, advertisement tax, income from municipal properties, grants from state government etc. #### Law and order The Kanpur District Court is headed by the district judge of Kanpur, who is assisted by numerous additional district judges, civil judges (senior division) and additional civil judges. Kanpur is a notified metropolitan area by UP Government under Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, and therefore has a chief metropolitan magistrate, who is assisted by several metropolitan magistrates. The 2017 district judge was Shashi Kant Shukla, and the chief metropolitan magistrate was Shabistan Aquil. #### Police administration Kanpur district comes under the Kanpur Police Zone and Kanpur Police Range, Kanpur Zone is headed by an additional director general-ranked Indian Police Service (IPS) officer, and the Kanpur Range is headed inspector general-ranked IPS officer. The current ADG, Kanpur Zone is Avanish Chandra, and IG, Kanpur Range is Alok Singh. The district police is headed by a deputy inspector general/senior superintendent of police (DIG/SSP), who is an IPS officer, and is assisted by seven superintendents of police or additional superintendents of police for east, west, south, rural area, crime, traffic and modern control, who are either IPS officers or Provincial Police Service (PPS) officers. Each of the several police circles is headed by a circle officer (CO) in the rank of deputy superintendent of police. The current DIG/SSP is Sonia Singh. ### Politics #### Local politics The city is divided into 6 zones and 110 wards with a ward population range of 19,000 to 26,000 and 110 corporators directly elected from each ward. As mandated by the 74th constitutional amendment, there were 11 ward committees in Kanpur municipal corporation in 1991. Local elections were last held in 2022, when the mayor, Pramila Pandey from the BJP, was re-elected. The previous mayor had been Captain (retired) Jagatvir Singh Drona. As of 2006, Kanpur Municipal Council has an elected mayor-in-council system. #### State politics Kanpur Nagar district encompasses one Lok Sabha constituency and ten Uttar Pradesh Vidhan Sabha constituencies[*citation not found*]. The city of Kanpur has one representative member of parliament in Lok Sabha for Kanpur, Satyadev Pachauri. ### Civic Utilities The first development plan of the city was created by the Kanpur Development Board in 1943. This was followed by the masterplan being designed by the Town and Country Planning Department from 1962 to 1991, which was adopted after the establishment of the Kanpur Development Authority in 1974. The most recent masterplan is the Draft Master Plan of 2021 . Electricity is supplied to the city by Kanpur Electricity Supply Company (KESCO), which is under the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd (UPPCL). Fire services are under the state, Uttar Pradesh Fire Service. Water supply, sewerage is done by the Jal Kal vibhag of KMC. Infrastructure development and maintenance is done by the state's body, UP Jal Nigam. The piped water supply of Kanpur City was started in 1892. After construction of Ganga Barrage on the river, a permanent and reliable source for the water supply got available to provide 1600 mld raw water. The city also receives water from the catchment areas of rivers Ganga and Pandu. However, while the total water supply requirement is 600 mld only 385 mld of potable water is being supplied. The city loses water due to leaky pipes and contamination of natural water sources. There is a severe water crisis in Kanpur. In 2015, Ganga Pollution Control Unit in Kanpur got about Rs 200 crores to make 4 STPs functional. The city then reported having 3 STPs for domestic waste. In 2017, there was only one sewage treatment plant for waste from tanneries, biggest source of industrial pollution to the Ganga, was to be replaced by a newer one costing 400 cr as the old one could only treat 9 MLD at the most. 823.1 MLD of untreated sewage and 212.42 MLD of industrial effluent flow into the river. In 2019, another STP costing worth Rs 816.25 was to be set up. As of 2020, While the government has stopped pollution from Kanpur's biggest drain, Sishamau, of Kanpur's 48 drains, eight still have no devices to stop effluents. Solid waste management is handled by the KMC. As of 2015, Kanpur generates 1,500 tonnes of solid wastes from domestic and industrial sources, 64,000 tonnes of hazardous waste annually which includes metals and waste generated by tanneries, dye industries and chemical industries; while coal ash produced in Kanpur amounts to 71,000 tonnes per annum. Transport --------- **Airways** Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi Airport or Kanpur Military Airport has direct scheduled commercial non-stop flights to New Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore only. The nearest International Airport is the Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport in Lucknow, which is around 77.1 km from Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. **Railways** Kanpur Central is a major railhead and is among the busiest railway stations in the country. Rail routes connect it to all major cities in the state and the country. It is an A-1 category railway station coming under the Prayagraj railway division of North Central Railway zone of Indian Railways. Around 300 trains pass through the station daily. Other major railway stations serving the city include Kanpur Anwarganj, Govindpuri, Panki, Kalyanpur, Rawatpur, Chandari, Kanpur Bridge and Chakeri. **Roadways** The city has had chronic problems with maintaining local roads. There are several important National Highways that pass through Kanpur. | NH No | Route | Total Length | | --- | --- | --- | | NH 19 | Delhi » Mathura » Agra » Kanpur » Allahabad » Varanasi » Mohania » Aurangabad » Barhi » Palsit » Asansol » Kolkata | 1435 | | NH 27 | Porbandar » Udaipur » Kota » Shivpuri » Jhansi » Kanpur » Lucknow  » Darbhanga » Alipurduar » Guwahati » Silchar | 3507 | | NH 34 | Gangotri Dham » Rishikesh » Haridwar » Bijnore » Ghaziabad » Aligarh » Kannauj » Kanpur » Hamirpur » Mahoba » Chhatarpur » Jabalpur » Lakhnadon | 1426 | | NH (Proposed) | Kanpur » Raebareli » Sultanpur » Shahganj » Azamgarh » Gaura Barhaj » Siwan » Muzaffarpur | 581 | | NE 6 Lucknow-Kanpur Expressway (Proposed) | Kanpur » Lucknow | 62 | The UPSRTC Inter State Bus Station (ISBT) of Kanpur officially named as the "Shaheed Major Salman Khan Bus Station". It is locally known as the "Jhakarkati Bus Station". It provides buses to important cities of India. Other UPSRTC controlled Important Bus stations are Chunniganj Bus Stand for Farrukhabad, Bareilly and Uttranchal routes, Naubasta Bus Stand for Hamirpur route, Fazalganj is another hub for Private carriers. **Ring road** In 2011 it was reported by The Indian Express that "The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) is all set to develop a four-lane outer ring road along the periphery of Kanpur with an aim to prevent traffic congestion in the industrial city caused by long-distance heavy vehicles. The new road, which will help the heavy vehicles to bypass the city, will be developed on Built, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis under the phase-VII of National Highways Development Programme (NHDP)" **Kanpur Metro** The Kanpur Metro is a mass rapid transit (MRT) system in Kanpur. The metro is owned and operated by the Uttar Pradesh Metro Rail Corporation (UPMRC). It consists of two lines- Orange Line and Blue Line. The priority corridor of the Orange Line, which connects IIT Kanpur to Motijheel was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 28 December 2021. Education and research ---------------------- ### Higher education Prestigious public engineering institution Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur is located in Kanpur city. It was one of the first Indian Institutes of Technology established in 1959, created with the assistance of a consortium of nine US research universities as part of the Kanpur Indo-American Programme (KIAP). Other educational institutions in the city include three state universities. Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University is one of the largest universities in northern India catering to urban and rural students offering professional and academic courses in the disciplines of Arts, Science, Commerce, Law, Engineering, Biotechnology, Computer Applications, Management and Medicine. Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology is an agricultural university named after the Indian revolutionary Chandrashekhar Azad which caters to the needs of the farming community of 29 districts of Uttar Pradesh. Harcourt Butler Technical University (HBTI) offers Bachelors, Masters, and Doctoral programs in engineering, as well as Masters programs in Business Administration, and Computer Applications. Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology for Handicapped, an institution to provide technical education to specially-abled students inaugurated by former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1997, is also situated in Kanpur. There are also private universities in the city such as Rama University, which is part of the Rama Group. There are several private technical and management institutions in the city. ### Medical education Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi Memorial Medical College (GSVM Medical College) is a state-run medical college in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. It was founded in 1956 and named after Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi, a freedom fighter and journalist from Kanpur. Lala Lajpat Rai Hospital, which is also known as Hallet Hospital, is associated with GSVM, Kanpur. See also -------- * Kanpur Dehat (Lok Sabha constituency) * List of cities in Uttar Pradesh * List of engineering colleges in Kanpur * List of people from Kanpur * Renamed places in Kanpur * List of twin towns and sister cities in India * Second Battle of Cawnpore * *Cawnpore* painted by Samuel Prout and engraved by C Mottram.

Kanpur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanpur

**Blackpool** is a seaside resort in Lancashire, England. Located on the northwest coast of England, it is the main settlement within the borough also called Blackpool. The town is by the Irish Sea, between the Ribble and Wyre rivers, and is 27 miles (43 km) north of Liverpool and 40 miles (64 km) northwest of Manchester. At the 2011 census, the unitary authority of Blackpool had an estimated population of 139,720 while the urban settlement had a population of 147,663, making it the most populous settlement in Lancashire, and the fifth-most populous in North West England after Manchester, Liverpool, Bolton and Warrington. The wider built-up area (which also includes additional settlements outside the unitary authority) had a population of 239,409, making it the fifth-most populous urban area in the North West after the Manchester, Liverpool, Preston and Birkenhead areas. It is home to the Blackpool Tower, which when built in 1894 was the tallest building in the British Empire. Throughout the Medieval and Early Modern period, Blackpool was a coastal hamlet in Lancashire's Amounderness Hundred and remained as such until the mid-18th century, when it became fashionable in England to travel to the coast in the summer to improve well-being. In 1781, visitors attracted to Blackpool's 7-mile (11 km) sandy beach were able to use a new private road, built by Thomas Clifton and Sir Henry Hoghton. Stagecoaches began running to Blackpool from Manchester in the same year, and from Halifax in 1782. In the early 19th century, Henry Banks and his son-in-law John Cocker erected new buildings in Blackpool, which increased its population from less than 500 in 1801 to over 2,500 in 1851. St John's Church in Blackpool was consecrated in 1821. Blackpool rose to prominence as a major centre of tourism in England when a railway was built in the 1840s connecting it to the industrialised regions of northern England. The railway made it much easier and cheaper for visitors to reach Blackpool, triggering an influx of settlers; in 1876, Blackpool was incorporated as a borough, governed by its own town council and aldermen. In 1881, Blackpool was a booming resort with a population of 14,000 and a promenade complete with piers, fortune-tellers, public houses, trams, donkey rides, fish and chip shops, and theatres. By 1901, the population of Blackpool was 47,000, by which time its place was cemented as "the archetypal British seaside resort". By 1951, it had grown to 147,000 people. Shifts in tastes, combined with opportunities for British people to travel overseas, affected Blackpool's status as a leading resort in the late 20th century. Its urban fabric and economy both remain relatively undiversified and firmly rooted in the tourism sector, and the borough's seafront continues to attract millions of visitors every year. Blackpool's major attractions and landmarks include Blackpool Tower, Blackpool Illuminations, Pleasure Beach, Blackpool Zoo, Sandcastle Water Park, the Winter Gardens and Blackpool Tramway (the UK's only surviving first-generation tramway). History ------- ### Toponymy Blackpool gets its name from a historic drainage channel (possibly Spen Dyke) that ran over a peat bog, discharging discoloured water into the Irish Sea, which formed a black pool (on the other side of the sea, "Dublin" (Dubh Linn) is derived from the Irish for "black pool"). Another explanation is that the local dialect for stream was "pul" or "poole", hence "Black poole". People originating from Blackpool are called Sandgrownians or *Sandgrown'uns* (this is also sometimes used for persons originating from Morecambe and Southport) or *Seasiders* (although this is more commonly associated with Blackpool F.C.). ### Early history A 13,500-year-old elk skeleton was found with man-made barbed bone points (probably from spears) on Blackpool Old Road in Carleton in 1970. Now displayed in the Harris Museum this provided the first evidence of humans living on the Fylde as far back as the Palaeolithic era. The Fylde was also home to a British tribe, the Setantii (the "dwellers in the water") a sub-tribe of the Brigantes, who from about AD80 were controlled by Romans from their fort at Dowbridge, Kirkham. During the Roman occupation the area was covered by oak forests and bog land. Some of the earliest villages on the Fylde, which were later to become part of Blackpool town, were named in the Domesday Book in 1086. Many of them were Anglo-Saxon settlements. Some though had 9th and 10th century Viking place names. The Vikings and Anglo-Saxons seem to have co-existed peacefully, with some Anglo-Saxon and Viking placenames later being joined – such as Layton-with-Warbreck and Bispham-with-Norbreck. Layton was controlled by the Butlers, Barons of Warrington from the 12th century. In medieval times Blackpool emerged as a few farmsteads on the coast within Layton-with-Warbreck, the name coming from "le pull", a stream that drained Marton Mere and Marton Moss into the sea close to what is now Manchester Square. The stream ran through peatlands that discoloured the water, so the name for the area became "Black Poole". In the 15th century the area was just called *Pul*, and a 1532 map calls the area "the pole howsys alias the north howsys". In 1602, entries in Bispham Parish Church baptismal register include both *Poole* and for the first time *blackpoole*. The first house of any substance, Foxhall, was built toward the end of the 17th century by Edward Tyldesley, the Squire of Myerscough and son of the Royalist Sir Thomas Tyldesley. An Act of Parliament in 1767 enclosed a common, mostly sand hills on the coast, that stretched from Spen Dyke southwards. Plots of the land were allocated to landowners in Bispham, Layton, Great Marton and Little Marton. The same act also provided for the layout of a number of long straight roads that would be built in the areas south of the town centre, such as Lytham Road, St. Annes Road, Watson Road and Highfield Road. ### Taking the cure By the middle of the 18th century, the practice of sea bathing to cure diseases was becoming fashionable among the wealthier classes, and visitors began making the arduous trek to Blackpool for that purpose. In 1781, Thomas Clifton and Sir Henry Hoghton built a private road to Blackpool, and a regular stagecoach service from Manchester and Halifax was established. A few amenities, including four hotels, an archery stall and bowling greens, were developed, and the town grew slowly. The 1801 census records the town's population at 473. The growth was accelerated by the actions of Henry Banks, often considered to be the "Father of Blackpool". In 1819 he purchased the Lane Ends estate, including the Lane Ends Hotel, and built the first holiday cottages. In 1837, his son-in-law Dr. John Cocker built Blackpool's first assembly rooms which still stand on the corner of Victoria Street and Bank Hey Street. ### Arrival of the railways The most significant event in the early growth of the town occurred in 1846, with the completion of a branch line to Blackpool from Poulton on the main Preston and Wyre Joint Railway line from Preston to Fleetwood. Fleetwood declined as a resort, as its founder and principal financial backer, Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, went bankrupt. In contrast, Blackpool boomed. A sudden influx of visitors, arriving by rail, provided the motivation for entrepreneurs to build accommodation and create new attractions, leading to more visitors and a rapid cycle of growth throughout the 1850s and 1860s. In 1851 a Board of Health was formed. Gas lighting was introduced in 1852, and piped water in 1864. By 1851, the town's population was over 2,500. The growth was intensified by the practice among the Lancashire cotton mill owners of closing the factories for a week every year to service and repair machinery. These became known as wakes weeks. Each town's mills would close for a different week, allowing Blackpool to manage a steady and reliable stream of visitors over a prolonged period in the summer. In 1863, the North Pier was completed, rapidly becoming a centre of attraction for elite visitors. Central Pier was completed in 1868, with a theatre and a large open-air dance floor. The town expanded southward beyond what is today known as the Golden Mile, towards South Shore, and South Pier was completed in 1893, making Blackpool the only town in the United Kingdom with three piers. In 1878, the Winter Gardens complex opened, incorporating ten years later the Opera House, said to be the largest in Britain outside London. The town was granted a Charter of Incorporation as a municipal borough in 1876. W.H. Cocker, son of John Cocker, and therefore grandson of Henry Banks, was its first mayor. The town would become a county borough in 1904. From the 1880s until the First World War, Blackpool was one of the regular destinations for the Bass Excursions, when trains would take employees of Bass's Burton brewery on an annual trip to the seaside. ### Electricity Much of Blackpool's growth and character from the 1870s on was predicated on the town's pioneering use of electrical power. In 1879, it became the first municipality in the world to have electric street lighting, as large parts of the promenade were wired. The lighting and its accompanying pageants reinforced Blackpool's status as the North of England's most prominent holiday resort, and its specifically working-class character. It was the forerunner of the present-day Blackpool Illuminations. In 1885 one of the world's first electric tramways was laid down as a conduit line running from Cocker Street to Dean Street on the Promenade. The line was operated by the Blackpool Electric Tramway Company until 1892 when their lease expired and Blackpool Corporation took over running the line. A further line was added in 1895 from Manchester Square along Lytham Road to South Shore, and the line was extended north, first to Gynn Square in 1899, and then to Fleetwood. In 1899 the conduit system was replaced by overhead wires. The tramway has remained in continuous service to this day. By the 1890s, the town had a population of 35,000 and could accommodate 250,000 holidaymakers. The number of annual visitors, many staying for a week, was estimated at three million. 1894 saw the opening of two of the town's most prominent buildings: the Grand Theatre on Church Street and Blackpool Tower on the Promenade. The Grand Theatre was one of Britain's first all-electric theatres. The first decade of the new century saw the development of the Promenade as it is known today and further development southwards beyond South Shore towards Harrowside and Squires Gate. The Pleasure Beach was first established about this time. Seasonal static illuminations were first set up in 1912, although due to World War I and its aftermath they only enjoyed two seasons until they were re-introduced in 1925. The illuminations extended the holiday season into September and early October, ceremonially switched on by notables and celebrities. ### Towards the present The inter-war period saw Blackpool attain pre-eminence as a holiday destination. By 1920, Blackpool claimed around eight million visitors per year, three times as many as its nearest British rivals, still drawn largely from the mill towns of East Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire. Stanley Park was laid out in 1920 and opened in 1926. The area around the park has become renowned for some of the most desirable residences in the area. In 1937, Littlewoods opened its first department store in the town. Documents have been found to suggest that the reason Blackpool escaped heavy damage in World War II was that Adolf Hitler had earmarked the town to remain a place of leisure after his planned invasion. Despite this, on 11 September 1940, German bombs fell near Blackpool North railway station and eight people were killed in nearby houses in Seed Street. This site today is occupied by the new Town Hall offices and Sainsbury's Supermarket. In the same war, the Free Polish Air Force made its headquarters in exile at Blackpool in Talbot Square, after the force evacuated to Britain from France. The nearby Layton Cemetery contains the war graves of 26 Polish airmen. The famous No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was formed in Blackpool, and became the most successful Fighter Command unit shooting down 126 German machines in only 42 days during the Battle of Britain. Blackpool's population boom was complete by 1951, by which time some 147,000 people were living in the town – compared to 47,000 in 1901 and a mere 14,000 in 1881. In the decade after the war, the town continued to attract more visitors, reaching a zenith of 17 million per year. However, several factors combined to make this growth untenable. The decline of the textile industry led to a de-emphasis of the traditional week-long break, known as wakes week. The rise of package holidays took many of Blackpool's traditional visitors abroad where the weather was more reliably warm and dry and improved road communications, epitomised by the construction of the M55 motorway in 1975, made Blackpool more feasible as a day trip rather than an overnight stay. The economy, however, remains relatively undiversified, and firmly rooted in the tourism sector. Government ---------- Though the Blackpool Urban Area extends beyond the statutory boundaries of Blackpool to encompass Fleetwood, Cleveleys, Thornton, Poulton-le-Fylde and Lytham St Annes, Blackpool remains administratively separate with its wider borough. Between 1904 and 1974, Blackpool formed a county borough independent of the administrative county of Lancashire. With the passage of the Local Government Act 1972, Blackpool's county borough status was abolished and it was made part of the shire county of Lancashire. On 1 April 1998, however, Blackpool was made a unitary authority and re-formed as an autonomous local government. However, it remains part of Lancashire for ceremonial purposes. As of the 2019 election Blackpool Council is currently controlled by the Labour Party, who took control from the Conservatives in 2011. They are the largest party represented with 23 councillors followed by the Conservative Party with 15 councillors. | Year | Labour | Conservatives | | --- | --- | --- | | 2019 | 23 | 15 | Blackpool is covered by two Westminster constituencies: * Blackpool North and Cleveleys, * Blackpool South. Demographics ------------ The population of Blackpool has been declining constantly since 2001 and is expected to decline even further in the future. In the 2011 census Blackpool was stated to have the highest percentage of divorced people in the country, 13.1% compared to the average of 9% for England and Wales. This decreased slightly in 2023 to 12.06% ### Population change Population growth in Blackpool since 1981| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1951 | 144,199 | —     | | 1961 | 153,452 | +0.62% | | 1971 | 149,417 | −0.27% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1981 | 138,599 | −0.75% | | 1991 | 145,997 | +0.52% | | 2001 | 142,193 | −0.26% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 2011 | 142,065 | −0.01% | | 2016 | 139,720 | −0.33% | | | Source: | ### Public health In 2017, Blackpool had the fourth highest rate of antidepressant prescription in England with the most common health problems being depression, stress and anxiety. At 12.9%, Blackpool had the highest fraction of working-age people too sick to work and has no improvement on this percentage since 1999 despite the rate in the North West England as a whole improving from 11% in 1999 to 7.8% in 2016. Blackpool also has high rates of obesity (13.5%), smoking (27%) and alcoholic liver disease (28 deaths per 100 thousand). Men in the Bloomfield ward had the lowest life expectancy at birth, 68.2 years, of any ward in England and Wales in 2016. Economy ------- This is a chart of the trend of regional gross value added (GVA) of Blackpool at current basic prices by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. | Year | Regional GVA | Agriculture | Industry | Services | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1995 | **1,276** | 9 | 276 | 992 | | 2000 | **1,444** | 1 | 210 | 1,234 | | 2003 | **1,598** | 1 | 220 | 1,377 | While Blackpool hosts a large number of small businesses and self-employed people, there are some large employers. The government-owned National Savings and Investments was based at Marton, together with their Hardware random number generator, *ERNIE* ( "Electronic Random Number Indicator Equipment"), which picked the Premium Bond numbers until their demolition in 2017. Other government agencies are based at Warbreck and Norcross further up the Fylde coast. Burton's Biscuit Company, Tangerine Confectionery produce biscuits and other confectionery products, Klarius UK manufactures automotive components, Victrex manufactures high-performance polymers and the Glasdon Group is a plastics manufacturer making litter bins, park benches and reflective road signs. TVR formerly produced sports cars at its Bispham factory. Blackpool was also the original site of Swallow Sidecar Company, forerunner of Jaguar Cars. The 2015 HSBC research on rental yields ranks Blackpool in the top three cities with the best rental returns. The numerous urban regeneration projects, the property prices which are among the most affordable in the UK, and the high rental yields create a very favourable environment for real estate investors. Blackpool's main shopping streets are Church Street, Victoria Street, Birley Street, Market Street, Corporation Street, Bank Hey Street, Abingdon Street and Talbot Road. There is currently one shopping centre within the town, Houndshill Shopping Centre. Geography --------- ### Physical Blackpool rests in the middle of the western edge of The Fylde, which is a coastal plain atop a peninsula. The seafront consists of a 7-mile sandy beach, with a flat coastline in the south of the district, which rises once past the North Pier to become the North Cliffs, with the highest point nearby at the Bispham Rock Gardens at around 34 metres (112 ft). The majority of the town district is built up, with very little semi-rural space such as at Marton Mere. Due to the low-lying terrain, Blackpool experiences occasional flooding, with a large-scale project completed in 2017 to rebuild the seawall and promenade to mitigate this. ### Climate Blackpool has, like all of the UK, a temperate maritime climate according to the Köppen climate classification system. Thus the same cool summer, frequent overcast skies and small annual temperature range is typical. The absolute minimum temperature stands at −15.1 °C (4.8 °F), recorded during December 1981, however −18.3 °C (−0.9 °F) was recorded in January 1881. The lowest temperature to occur in recent years is −11.9 °C (10.6 °F) during December 2010. In a more normal winter, the coldest night averages −7.6 °C (18.3 °F). The absolute maximum temperature recorded in Blackpool was 33.7 °C (92.7 °F) during July 1976. The highest temperature to occur in recent years is 33.5 °C (92.3 °F) during July 2015. In a more normal summer, the warmest day will likely average 28.1 °C (82.6 °F), with slightly fewer than 5 days a year attaining a temperature of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or above. Rainfall averages slightly less than 900 mm (35 in), with over 1 mm of precipitation occurring on 147 days of the year. | Climate data for Blackpool (BLK), elevation: 10 m (33 ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1960–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 14.3(57.7) | 18.4(65.1) | 19.4(66.9) | 24.4(75.9) | 28.6(83.5) | 31.3(88.3) | 37.2(99.0) | 32.2(90.0) | 30.0(86.0) | 26.2(79.2) | 16.8(62.2) | 15.0(59.0) | 37.2(99.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.3(45.1) | 7.8(46.0) | 9.7(49.5) | 12.6(54.7) | 15.7(60.3) | 18.1(64.6) | 19.8(67.6) | 19.5(67.1) | 17.6(63.7) | 14.1(57.4) | 10.4(50.7) | 7.9(46.2) | 13.4(56.1) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.8(40.6) | 5.0(41.0) | 6.6(43.9) | 8.9(48.0) | 11.8(53.2) | 14.5(58.1) | 16.4(61.5) | 16.3(61.3) | 14.1(57.4) | 11.1(52.0) | 7.7(45.9) | 5.2(41.4) | 10.2(50.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.3(36.1) | 2.2(36.0) | 3.4(38.1) | 5.1(41.2) | 7.9(46.2) | 10.9(51.6) | 12.9(55.2) | 13.0(55.4) | 10.6(51.1) | 8.0(46.4) | 5.0(41.0) | 2.5(36.5) | 7.0(44.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −11.5(11.3) | −13.2(8.2) | −9.7(14.5) | −6.1(21.0) | −1.9(28.6) | −1.0(30.2) | 3.3(37.9) | 1.9(35.4) | −0.7(30.7) | −4.3(24.3) | −7.0(19.4) | −15.1(4.8) | −15.1(4.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 77.8(3.06) | 64.0(2.52) | 54.4(2.14) | 48.7(1.92) | 54.0(2.13) | 63.1(2.48) | 66.0(2.60) | 79.9(3.15) | 83.5(3.29) | 101.4(3.99) | 94.7(3.73) | 99.1(3.90) | 886.6(34.91) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 14.4 | 11.4 | 11.2 | 9.9 | 9.9 | 10.1 | 10.9 | 12.2 | 11.6 | 14.4 | 15.7 | 15.6 | 147.3 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 55.0 | 80.4 | 119.3 | 175.5 | 217.9 | 210.1 | 201.1 | 182.6 | 141.8 | 98.0 | 60.7 | 49.3 | 1,591.7 | | Source 1: Met Office | | Source 2: KNMI | 1. ↑ Weather station is located 2.8 miles (4.5 km) from the Blackpool town centre. ### Green belt Blackpool is within a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties and is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the Blackpool urban area and other nearby conurbations in Lancashire from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on the permitted building. As the town's urban area is highly built up, only 70 hectares (0.70 km2; 0.27 sq mi) (2017) of green belt exists within the borough, covering the cemetery, its grounds and nearby academy/college playing fields by Carleton, as well as the football grounds near the airport by St Annes. Further afield, portions are dispersed around the wider Blackpool urban area into the surrounding Lancashire districts of Fylde and Wyre, helping to keep the settlements of Lytham St Annes, Poulton-le-Fylde, Warton/Freckleton and Kirkham separated. Tourism ------- Blackpool is heavily dependent on tourism. In what is often regarded as its heyday (1900–1950), Blackpool thrived as the factory workers of Northern England took their annual holidays there en masse, known as wakes weeks. Photographs from that era show crowds of tourists on the beach and promenade. Blackpool was also a preferred destination of visitors from Glasgow and remains so to this day. The town went into decline when affordable air travel arrived in the 1960s and the many previous visitors instead travelled to Mediterranean coastal resorts due to competitive prices and the more reliable weather. Today Blackpool remains the most popular seaside resort in the UK; however, the town has suffered a serious drop in numbers of visitors which have fallen from 17 million in 1992 to 10 million today. Similarly Pleasure Beach Blackpool was the country's most popular free attraction with 6 million visitors a year but has lost over a million visitors since 1998 and has recently introduced a £6 entrance fee. In July 2010, an independent survey of 4,500 members of the general public by consumer magazine *Which? Holiday* (now *Which? Travel*) found that Blackpool was the UK's favourite seaside resort, followed by Brighton, Whitby, Bournemouth and Scarborough. Blackpool has now improved the seawall and promenade, and Blackpool Tower has been revamped. In February 2012, a number of tourist attractions in Blackpool collaborated to produce the Blackpool Resort Pass which allows for discounted access in one ticket. The original pass included visits to Merlin Entertainments attractions and Blackpool Pleasure Beach. In February 2013, Marketing Blackpool, formerly the Tourism division of Blackpool Council, led the relaunch of the Blackpool Resort Pass which includes additional attractions including Blackpool Zoo, Sandcastle Waterpark and Blackpool Model Village and Gardens. Blackpool has a pioneering publicly owned Municipal wireless network Wi-Fi, which covers the entire town centre, promenade and beach front. Visitors can take a virtual tour of Blackpool, and full internet access is available. ### Conferences Outside the main holiday season, Blackpool's Winter Gardens routinely used to host major political and trade union conferences. However, in recent years these are increasingly taking place in major cities with modern, purpose-built conference centres. The National Union of Students last held its Annual Conference in Blackpool in 2009; they will now be hosted by the Sage Gateshead. In January 2011, Blackpool hosted the NEEC Conference (formerly the North of England Education Conference), a key date in the education calendar. The Winter Gardens also hold the National Pensioners' Parliament. The Young Farmers convention has been held regularly in Blackpool since the late 1960s. ### Entertainment Blackpool remains a summer entertainment venue but many local establishments now trade all year round. It is known for specialising in variety shows featuring entertainers catering to a broad range of tastes, from family-friendly Ken Dodd to the 'adults only' humour of Roy 'Chubby' Brown. In recent years artists such as DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, Britney Spears and Pitbull, have performed in Blackpool and have performed during the MTV Illuminations switch-on weekends. In 2018 The Blackpool festival took place on the comedy carpet in front of the Blackpool Tower which over three days played host to world class DJs and entertainers.[*who?*] For the following four Fridays after the illuminations switch-on the town plays host to the world fireworks championship where four teams from around the world design their displays in time with music and are judged on their technique and display. On the fifth Friday following the illuminations switch-on the competition winner is announced and performs another display. These displays often attract thousands of visitors to the promenade. Regular shows include those from Viva cabaret bar, the legends shows, Funny Girls, Joey Blower, Joe Longthorn as well as regular performances at both the Winter Gardens and Grand Theatre. The town has also seen a number of new food outlets opening. The Tower Ballroom still opens daily for dancing and hosts international dance competitions as well as playing host to many episodes of Strictly Come Dancing. The Grand Theatre (locally known as 'The Grand') was designed by Victorian theatre architect Frank Matcham and was opened in 1894 after a construction period of seven months, at a cost of £20,000 between December 1893 and July 1894. The project was conceived and financed by local theatre manager Thomas Sergenson who had been using the site of the Grand for several years to stage a circus. He had also transformed the fortunes of other local theatres. Matcham's brief was to build Sergenson the "prettiest theatre in the land". The Grand was Matcham's first theatre to use an innovative 'cantilever' design to support the tiers, thereby reducing the need for the usual pillars and so allowing clear views of the stage from all parts of the auditorium. The town also plays host to the longest-running seaside show in Britain, Legends, which features multiple tribute artists with a live band and dance troupe, first appearing at the North Pier in 1999, then at the Central Pier from 2000 to 2012 and now at the Sands Venue. Current tribute artists include "Neil Diamond", "Adele", "Elton John" and "Robbie Williams". In February 2018 council chiefs attended a convention in Florida to identify a new "concert venue" concept for the town, doubling as a new purpose-built centre for conferences and conventions. The site earmarked for the propose project is the old central station site which now serves as a car park and police station with law courts on Bonny Street. The police have since moved to a brand new facility near to the M55 motorway entrance and the site in central Blackpool is earmarked for the new potential development. An Imax cinema has been announced by the council as adding on to the existing Hounds Hill shopping centre on land that is now a ground level car park. The development is to be shared with the Wilko store which is to re-locate from its current location to make way for a new hotel and transport hub as part of the current urban regeneration and infrastructure improvements in the town. Expected final completion for these projects has still not been announced although work has begun on some of the foundation works. ### Events and festivals | Event/Festival | Years | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Blackpool Illuminations | 1879–present | Blackpool Illuminations, consisting of a series of lighted displays and collages arranged along the entire length of the seafront, 7 miles (11 km) in total, attract many visitors from late August to early November. | | Blackpool Air Show | 1909–present | The air show is an annual free event. | | Blackpool Dance Festival | 1920–present | A ballroom dance competition of international significance, as featured in the 1996 film *Shall We Dance?* | | Rebellion Festival | 1996–present | An annual punk rock festival which, after a couple of intervening years in nearby Morecambe, made its permanent home in Blackpool. | | The Blackpool Festival | 2018–present | The Comedy Carpet in front of the Blackpool Tower is transformed into a festival ground for the weekend with family entertainment during the daytime and adult dance festival style evening sessions. | | The British Country Music Festival | 2019–present | Annual music festival focusing on British artists in the Country and Americana genre. | ### Gay Blackpool Blackpool had its first gay pride celebration in 2006. Historically, seaside resorts have been able to provide niches for minority groups. Blackpool, like other English resorts, has had a reputation for being a safe community for gay people. During World War II, there was a proliferation of cafés, pubs and clubs where homosexual men could meet in Blackpool. In the 1990s, the town began to be promoted as a gay tourist destination. Blackpool contains several bars, pubs and nightclubs aimed at the LGBT community. These include Funny Girls (a burlesque cabaret showbar), Buzz, Flamingo, and the Flying Handbag. As of the 2021 census, 3.26% of Blackpool residents aged over 16 identified as gay men or lesbians; this is the twelfth highest proportion among the 331 local authorities in England and Wales. ### Pollution Pollution was often found in the seawater at Blackpool, in particular bacteria counts that frequently exceeded the standards of the Environment Agency. However, sea water quality improved significantly since unfavourable reports in 2013, with the resort's south beach winning a Blue Flag award in 2016, and three other beaches achieving Seaside Award Status. Regeneration ------------ Blackpool has taken steps to improve its tourism industry. One controversial proposal, which had the involvement of the local council, was to transform Blackpool into a casino resort along the lines of the Las Vegas Strip and Atlantic City, making it the centre point of gambling in the UK. Ultimately, Manchester was selected for the initial trial by the Government's Casinos Advisory Panel. Since this decision, Blackpool's council and MPs have lobbied Parliament extensively, claiming their bid was misunderstood. The local newspaper, the *Blackpool Gazette*, sent a petition signed by over 11,500 local residents and visitors demanding the decision be reconsidered. On 29 March 2007, the Advisory Panel's recommendations were approved by the House of Commons, but rejected by the House of Lords, meaning the bill would be reconsidered by parliament. However, in early 2008 the House of Lords voted against the super-casino proposal, and the Government proceeded no further with the idea. In 2019, plans to develop a casino with other visitor attractions on the central car park (Blackpool Central Station) site were announced. The Talbot Gateway is a planned civic quarter, originally costed at £285m in 2003. As of 2022[update] work was continuing on what is reported to be a "billion-pound growth and prosperity programme". Regeneration work was completed in July 2009 on Waterloo Road in South Shore that transformed the area into a modern shopping centre. £1 million of public investment is helping to improve the public realm and act as a catalyst for the regeneration of South Shore. In March 2010 it was confirmed that a deal had been made for Blackpool Council to purchase some of Blackpool's most notable landmarks from private ownership. The deal, totalling £38.9m, had national and local government backing and included the purchase of: * Blackpool Tower * The Winter Gardens * The Sea Life Centre * Louis Tussauds Wax Works * The Blackpool Tower Dungeon * Indoor Golf Centre * Bonny Street Market * Mr T's Amusement Arcade Merlin Entertainments Group also took over the running of Louis Tussauds Wax Works, converting it into their better-known brand, Madame Tussauds Wax Works. The Winter Gardens were purchased by Blackpool Council; the complex is operated by Crown Entertainment Centres Ltd. Landmarks and places of interest -------------------------------- ### Major attractions | Attraction | Opened | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Blackpool Pleasure Beach | 1896 | An amusement park with rides including the *Big One*, which was the world's fastest and tallest complete circuit rollercoaster between 1994 and 1996. | | Blackpool Tower | 1894 | Inspired by the Eiffel Tower in Paris it is 518 feet (158 m) in height. Home of the *Tower Ballroom*, *Tower Circus*, *Tower Dungeon* and *Tower Eye* attractions. | | Sandcastle Water Park | 1986 | The UK's largest indoor waterpark, home to 18 slides and attractions including the largest indoor rollercoaster waterslide in the world and first indoor sidewinder. | | North Pier | 1863 | The northernmost of Blackpool's three piers, includes a small shopping and amusements arcade, the *Merrie England* bar, a small tramway and the *North Pier Theatre*. | | Central Pier | 1868 | The middle pier includes a large ferris wheel, rides, amusement arcades, shops and a large family entertainment venue. | | South Pier | 1893 | The southernmost pier houses an arcade, family bar, rides and the *Adrenaline Zone*, featuring Sky Swing and Sky Screamer. | | Blackpool Zoo | 1972 | A 30-acre zoo housing over 1,500 animals from around the world, including elephants, camels, tigers, lions and giraffes. | | SEALIFE Blackpool | 1990 | A large aquarium featuring a walk-through shark tank, touch pools, diving experience, daily feeds and informative talks. Also offers behind the scenes tours. | | Madame Tussauds | 1929 | A large waxworks museum, featuring interactive sets and experiences – includes Corrie's *Rovers Return*, *Marvel Super Heroes* and *Doctor Who*. Rebranded in 2011. | | Heritage Tramway | 1885 | A number of restored trams continue to operate heritage tours on one of the world's oldest electric tramways, along Blackpool's promenade. | ### Other attractions | Attraction | Opened | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Ice Arena | 1937 | The oldest purpose built ice theatre in the world and home of the *Hot Ice Show*. Open for public skating daily. | | Stanley Park | 1926 | Grade II historic park with sports arena, boating lake, art deco restaurant and Italian gardens. | | Comedy Carpet | 2011 | An area of 2,200m2 opposite the Tower, with jokes and punchlines set into the pavement. | | Ripley's Believe It or Not! | 1991 | A museum of curiosities and record breakers, set over two floors. | | Pasaje Del Terror | 1998 | A walkthrough live action horror attraction featuring actors and special effects. | | Model Village & Gardens | 1972 | A miniature village attraction, complete with gardens and fountains. | ### Theatres & Venues * Grand Theatre, Blackpool was built by Frank Matcham in 1894. It offers a mix of drama, dance, opera, ballet and comedy including a yearly pantomime. * The Winter Gardens is a large entertainment and conference venue in the town centre. It includes the Opera House (one of the largest theatres in Europe), Pavilion Theatre, Empress Ballroom, Spanish Hall, Arena and Olympia. * The Imperial Hotel is a large red-brick Victorian hotel, which has hosted guests such as Charles Dickens, Queen Elizabeth II and Margaret Thatcher. * Funny Girls is a drag cabaret burlesque showbar, located on Dickson Road. * Viva Cabaret Showbar & Events Suite is a Vegas-style production show venue next to the Tower. ### Former attraction The *Doctor Who* Exhibition, which closed in 2009, was the biggest *Doctor Who* exhibition in the UK, containing props and costumes from the long-running BBC TV series, including some from recently aired programmes. Transport --------- ### Air Blackpool Airport operated regular charter and scheduled flights throughout the UK and Europe. The airport is actually just over the borough boundary into Fylde Borough, although a proposal to reorganise Blackpool's borders would see the airport incorporated into Blackpool Borough. This airport, formerly known as Blackpool Squires Gate Airport, is one of the oldest in the UK having hosted public flying meetings in 1909 and 1910. After a gap, it was active from the 1930s to mid 2014 and from December 2014 to date. Airlines that served Blackpool, before its temporary closure in late 2014, included Jet2.com and Aer Arran. The airport was reopened to small aircraft after failing to find a buyer in December 2014. The airport's most recent scheduled services to Belfast and the Isle of Man ceased when Citywing suspended operations in March 2017. Access to the town by air is now via Liverpool John Lennon Airport or Manchester Airport, both approximately 60 kilometres (37 mi) away by road. In 1927 the local council announced that an airfield would be built near Stanley Park, which would become Stanley Park Aerodrome offering flights to the Isle of Man for £1-16s–0d (£1.80). The airport opened in 1929 and was officially opened by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in 1931. However, with the opening of Squires Gate Airport a decision was announced in 1936 by the Ministry of Transport to close the Stanley Park airfield. In fact, civil operations continued until the outbreak of war with scheduled services to the Isle of Man and elsewhere. During the war, Stanley Park was used as a Royal Air Force (RAF) training station, known as No. 3 School of Technical Training. Vickers assembled many Wellington bombers here and Bristol Beaufighters were repaired for the RAF. The airfield closed in 1947. The land on which the airport stood now covers Blackpool Zoo and a hotel and golf course. The hangars from the old airport are still in use at Blackpool Zoo as the main entrance building, Playbarn, Education Academy and camel house. ### Bus and coach * Blackpool Transport operates the main bus services in and around Blackpool * Stagecoach Merseyside & South Lancashire operates the regional bus and coach services in and out of Blackpool * National Express operates the main long-distance coach services in and out of Blackpool Facilities include: * Blackpool Talbot Road Bus Station, which was the main town centre bus station but is now a gym. Blackpool Transport stopped using the bus station in the early 2000s after a disagreement with Blackpool Council regarding the state of the bus station building. Blackpool Transport now use Market Street and Corporation Street, in the town centre, as their bus interchange. National Express have also recently stopped using this bus station, moving to the new National Express Blackpool Central Coach Station. * Blackpool Central Coach Station, is main coach station for all National Express coach services. which is also used by some independent coach operators. The coach station has a booking office and toilet facilities. * Blackpool Lonsdale Road Coach Station, was the main coach station for South Shore district of Blackpool. This was mainly used by independent coach operators. The coach station has a café, shop and toilet facilities but is in a state of disrepair. * Blackpool Colosseum Bus & Coach Station, which was the main bus and coach station in South Shore. Located next to Blackpool Transport Headquarters, it was demolished to make way for a Somerfield supermarket. The site is now occupied by the link road from the M55 motorway and additional depot parking. ### Railway Blackpool is located in BlackpoolBlackpool North**Blackpool North**Blackpool Pleasure Beach**Blackpool Pleasure Beach**Blackpool South**Blackpool South**Layton**Layton**Squires Gate**Squires Gate**Blackpool Central*Blackpool Central*South Shore*South Shore*class=notpageimage| **Railway station** *Site of former railway station* Train operators that serve Blackpool are: * Avanti West Coast * Northern Trains Stations in the town are, or were: * Blackpool North (originally Talbot Road) * Blackpool Pleasure Beach (originally Burlington Road Halt) * Blackpool South (originally Waterloo Road) * Layton (originally Bispham) * Squires Gate (just outside the borough boundary but serving Blackpool Airport) * Blackpool Central (originally Hounds Hill, closed 1964) * South Shore (renamed Lytham Road 1903, closed 1916) Blackpool once had two railway terminals with a total of over 30 platforms, mainly used by excursion traffic in the summer. Blackpool Central, close to Blackpool Tower, was closed in 1964, while Blackpool North was largely demolished and rebuilt as a smaller facility. The route of the former excursion line into Blackpool Central is now used as a link road from the M55 motorway to the town centre. The line into Blackpool via Lytham St Annes now has a station serving Blackpool Pleasure Beach but terminates at Blackpool South station. The line into North station is now the more important. ### Road The M55 motorway links the town to the national motorway network. Other major roads in the town are the A583 to Kirkham and Preston, the A587 and A585 to Fleetwood, the A586 to Poulton-le-Fylde, Garstang and Lancaster and the A584 and B5261 which both lead to Lytham St Annes. ### Tram The Blackpool Tramway runs from Starr Gate in Blackpool to Fleetwood and is the only surviving first-generation tramway in the United Kingdom. The tramway dates back to 1885 and is one of the oldest electric tramways in the world. It is run by Blackpool Transport, owned by Blackpool Council. The tramway runs for 11 miles (18 km) and carries 6,500,000 passengers each year. The tramway was for a long time the only working tramway in the United Kingdom outside of museums. It was also the UK's first electric system. However, there are now a number of other tramways, including Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and West Midlands Metro. On 1 February 2008 it was announced that the Government had agreed to a joint Blackpool Transport and Blackpool Council bid for funding toward the total upgrade of the track. The government contributed £60.3m of the total £85.3m cost. Blackpool Council and Lancashire County Council each provided about £12.5m. The Government's decision meant that the entire length of the tramway from Starr Gate to Fleetwood was upgraded and also sixteen new trams joined the fleet. In April 2012, the tramway reopened after the major reconstruction. Day to day services are run by the 16 Flexity 2 trams. Several double deck English Electric Balloon trams from the older fleet have been widened to work alongside the new trams to provide additional capacity in the summer months. Several non-modified older trams also operate a heritage service from Pleasure Beach to Little Bispham on weekends and holidays. An extension of the new service to Blackpool North railway station was planned to open by April 2019 between the existing North Pier stop of the Blackpool Tramway, along Talbot Road, and terminating at Blackpool North railway station, but was delayed and is now on schedule to open Summer 2022. Filmography ----------- The resort is featured in the 1934 film *Sing as We Go*, starring Gracie Fields, as well as other cinema and TV productions, including *Forbidden* (1949), *Hindle Wakes* (1952), *Holiday* (1957), *Coasting* (1990), *Funny Bones* (1995) starring Lee Evans and Oliver Platt and directed by St. Annes born Peter Chelsom, and *The Parole Officer* (2001) starring Steve Coogan. The Japanese film *Shall We Dance?* (1996) closes with a scene at the World Ballroom Dancing Championships in Blackpool. All the hair styling for the film was completed by Blackpool-born-and-bred hairstylist Eileen Clough, who has been in the trade since the 1960s. In the Hollywood remake of the film (2004), directed by Peter Chelsom, Blackpool is mentioned but not shown. Blackpool is the setting for *Bhaji on the Beach* (1993) directed by Gurinder Chadha. The film *Like It Is* (1998) directed by Paul Oremland was also partly filmed in Blackpool. The opening scenes were filmed in the Flamingo. The 2005 television comedy/thriller series *Funland* revolved around the fictionalised, seedier aspects of Blackpool. The town also features heavily in the BBC television serial *Blackpool*, starring David Morrissey, Sarah Parish and David Tennant and first broadcast in 2004, and the one-off follow-up *Viva Blackpool*, broadcast in June 2006. In 2006 Lion Television filmed *The Great British Summer*, which featured many buildings in Blackpool. The Royal Windsor Hotel was featured, with the owner talking all about the hotel seasons and industry. Bernard Manning was also shown at the hotel doing his spot through the season hosted by Blackpool Born local Entertainer & DJ Gordon Head and other local acts. *The Great British Summer* was narrated by Alan Titchmarsh. Between 10 September 2012 and 19 November 2012 the resort was featured in Channel 4's *999: What's Your Emergency?*. The resort was also featured in the three-part reality television series, *Blackpool Lights* on Channel 5 in December 2013. As well as this, the 2016 Tim Burton film *Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children* also features Blackpool and its key tourist attraction, The Blackpool Tower. Blackpool was once again featured in a Channel 5 documentary series from 26 October 2017, this time entitled *Bargain Loving Brits in Blackpool*. The series ran for six episodes until 30 November 2017. Culture ------- ### Music Reginald Dixon, MBE, ARCM, who held the position as organist at the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool from March 1930 until March 1970 made and sold more recordings than any other organist. Blackpool Symphony Orchestra was founded by Percy Dayman in 1921. It presents an annual series of concerts and organises educational and community outreach projects. #### 1950s Frank Sinatra performed at the Opera House on several occasions in the 1950s. A 1953 concert was recorded and eventually released on CD many years later. #### 1960s The Beatles had a long and varied association with Blackpool, including a significant event in John Lennon's early childhood and multiple gigs in the town between 1963 and 1965. Formed in Blackpool in 1963, The Rockin' Vickers were a rock and roll beat combo most notable for featuring Ian "Lemmy" Kilmister, then known as Ian Frasier, later of Hawkwind and more famously Motörhead, as a bassist and vocalist. The band recorded four singles before splitting in 1967. The other Rockin' Vickers guitarist, Nick Gribbon, continues to perform in pubs in and around Blackpool as *Nick Unlimited*, with an open door policy that has given many talented younger Blackpool musicians their first opportunity to play live. The Executives were a Blackpool band who recorded a handful of singles in the 1960s including the original 1964 version of March of the Mods, which became a top 40 hit for Joe Loss and His Orchestra in the same year. The tune was written by Tony Carr, the father of Executives' frontman Roy Carr, who later became a well-known music journalist with *New Musical Express* and the author of several books on popular music and executive editor of music magazines including *New Musical Express*, *Melody Maker* and *Vox*. Executives bass player Glenn Cornick became a founding member of Jethro Tull, later forming Wild Turkey. Tony Williams, The Executives' guitarist, joined Stealers Wheel soon after its formation in 1972 and also briefly joined Jethro Tull in 1978 as a touring bassist. Additionally, the nascent Jethro Tull, then called The Blades, featuring future Tull members Ian Anderson, John Evan, Jeffrey Hammond, and Barrie Barlow, formed as students in Blackpool in the early 1960s. Blackpool was notorious for having imposed an indefinite ban on the Rolling Stones from performing in the town in 1964 after a riot broke out among the audience who had found their performance "suggestive" during their concert at the Empress Ballroom. The ban was lifted forty-four years later in March 2008. The *Jimi Hendrix – Experience* video and DVD features concert footage of Hendrix's performance at Blackpool's Opera House in 1967. #### 1970s Psychedelic rock band Complex were formed in Blackpool in 1968 and self-released two albums in 1971. Only 99 copies of their self-titled debut were pressed and this extremely rare vinyl album has since been described as "one of the "Holy Trinity" items of rare British Psychedelia". The band continued to play until 1978 when they disbanded with the onset of punk. Limited edition remastered versions of both Complex albums were released by Guersson in 2012. A number of bands from Blackpool achieved a level of success during the punk and post-punk era. Factory Records' Section 25 were formed in 1977 in Poulton-le-Fylde, a small market town on the outskirts of Blackpool, as were the 1976–79 version of punk band Skrewdriver, who recorded several singles and an album for the Chiswick label (the skinhead "white power" rock act of the same name that gained notoriety later, contained only one member of the original band). Both bands claimed Blackpool as their place of origin. #### 1980s and 1990s Another Blackpool band signed to Factory was Tunnelvision, who recorded just one single for the label in 1981. When Barry Lights relocated his Lightbeat record label from Leeds to Blackpool in 1981, the label's first Blackpool signing was electronic rock band Zoo Boutique. After releasing the debut single by Fleetwood punk band One Way System, Lights set up specialist hardcore punk *Beat the System* label. Blackpool punk band The Fits were amongst the first to benefit, eventually releasing four indie chart hit singles in 1982–85. The Membranes who featured John Robb initially set up their own Vinyl Drip record label in 1981 before achieving three indie top 20 hits from 1984 to 1986, reaching number 6 in John Peel's Festive Fifty in 1984 and making a pre-recorded appearance on Channel 4 rock show The Tube. The Ceramic Hobs formed in 1985 and to date have "made more than 30 uncategorisable releases on vinyl, CD and cassette for many different worldwide record labels". Blackpool musician Lucifer's "Cyber Punk Rock" EPs of 1994 contained the first full vocal songs intended for playback on a computer. #### 2000 onwards 21st century musical exports from Blackpool include Karima Francis, The Locals, who first appeared on *BBC Introducing* when they were just 15, Goonies Never Say Die, Litterbug, Aiden Grimshaw who came ninth on the 2010 series of *X Factor*, The Senton Bombs, UFX/Uncle Fester and Little Boots, who topped the *BBC Sound of...* poll in 2009. The White Stripes recorded their first official DVD, *Under Blackpool Lights*, at the Empress Ballroom in the Winter Gardens on 27 and 28 January 2004. Get Up Kids guitarist Jim Suptic's Kansas City, Missouri, indie rock band Blackpool Lights is named after the DVD title. In 2005, a compilation album, The Ugly Truth About Blackpool Volume One, chronologically documenting the best of Blackpool indie rock music from 1977 to 2005, was released by Andy Higgins' JSNTGM Records in conjunction with the Arts Council, Blackpool Evening Gazette and Blackpool Council. Volume 2, showcasing the best Blackpool indie bands active in 2005/6 was released the following year. Other Blackpool recording artists on JSNTGM include Sick 56, Erase Today and Litterbug. Each August since 2006, Blackpool has been the venue for the largest festival of punk rock in the world, the annual Rebellion Festival, which is held in the Winter Gardens over four days and features over 200 punk bands. In the 2010s, Grime music in Blackpool increased dramatically with the invention of BGMedia. They gained millions of views but also caught controversy due to the lyrical content of BGMedia rappers. In August 2018, German Indie label Firestation Records released in Europe and Japan an eleven track retrospective album 'Illuminated', on Vinyl and CD, by the late 1980s Blackpool Indie Band 'Rik Rak'. #### Songs about Blackpool In 1937 George Formby's song "With My Little Stick of Blackpool Rock", was banned by BBC radio for having suggestive lyrics. The Kinks' song "Autumn Almanac" contains the following lines: "... I go to Blackpool for my holidays/Sit in the open sunlight ..." "She Sold Blackpool Rock" was a minor success in 1969 for Honeybus as the follow up to their 1968 top ten hit single "I Can't Let Maggie Go". Graham Nash's semi-autobiographical song "Military Madness" begins "In an upstairs room in Blackpool / By the side of a northern sea / The army had my father / And my mother was having me". Paul McCartney recorded a song entitled "Blackpool" amongst a number of demo home recordings in the years 1971 and 1972. The Jethro Tull song "Up the 'Pool" from the 1972 *Living in the Past* album is about Blackpool, singer Ian Anderson and other members of the band's childhood home. Another Tull track about the beach attractions of Blackpool is "Big Dipper", from the 1976 album *Too Old to Rock 'n' Roll: Too Young to Die!*. In the early 1980s the then Blackpool-based band The Membranes used the town as the subject matter for their "Tatty Seaside Town" 1988 single, which was later covered by Therapy? in 1994. Other songs written about Blackpool include *Oh Blackpool* by The Beautiful South and several different songs called "Blackpool", by Sham 69, Macc Lads, Roy Harper and The Delgados. "Blackpool" is also the title song from a production co-written with author Irvine Welsh and Vic Godard (Subway Sect) in 2002, later released as a four-song EP called *Blackpool*. A song called "Blackpool Fool" appears on the Frank Sidebottom album A, B, C & D (1997). Franz Ferdinand's 2013 "Love Illumination" single was originally called "Blackpool Illuminati". Songs that mention Blackpool in the lyrics include "Elvis Impersonator: Blackpool Pier", the opening track of the Manic Street Preachers album *Everything Must Go*, which contains the lyric "20ft high off Blackpool Promenade" amongst other references to Blackpool. The opening line of Soft Cell's 1982 "Say Hello, Wave Goodbye" hit (later a hit for David Gray in 1998) "Standing at the door of the Pink Flamingo, Crying in the rain" is believed to be a reference to Blackpool's famous gay nightclub The Flamingo. Låpsley's chillout song "Painter (Valentine)" includes the lines "you can paint these wings and make me fly / crush coming over like the R.E.M kind / orange in the colour like Blackpool on the sunrise". Folk songs written about the town include The Houghton Weavers anthem "The Blackpool Belle" ("Oh the Blackpool Belle was a getaway train that went from Northern stations. What a beautiful sight on a Saturday night bound for the illuminations"), Jasper Carrot's "Day Trip To Blackpool" ("Didn't we have a miserable time the day we went to Blackpool? An 'orrible day, we got drunk on the way And spent our money on chips and bingo...") and Mike Harding's single "Talking Blackpool Blues" ("Well my Mam and Dad and Gran and me / We went to Blackpool by sea / It rained and rained for most of the day / But we all got tanned in a funny sort of way"). #### Notable musicians born in Blackpool * John Evan, keyboard player with Jethro Tull (1969–1980), leader of The Blades, John Evan Band and John Evan Smash * Jeffrey Hammond, bass guitarist with Jethro Tull, (1970–1975) * Chris Lowe of Pet Shop Boys * Nick McCarthy of Franz Ferdinand * Larry Cassidy of Section 25 * Gary Miller (1924–1968), had a hit with The Yellow Rose of Texas * Graham Nash of The Hollies / Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young * Robert Smith of The Cure * John Robb, singer and bass guitarist * Jon Gomm acoustic guitarist * Maddy Prior, folk singer * Rae Morris, singer-songwriter * Victoria Hesketh, better known as her stage name Little Boots * David Atherton, conductor and co-founder of the London Sinfonietta * Boston Manor, alternative rock band ### Media Newspapers that cover the Blackpool area include the *Blackpool Gazette*, the daily newspaper covering the Fylde Coast area, known locally as *The Gazette*. They also publish a free weekly newspaper, the *Blackpool Reporter*, which is delivered to householders in Blackpool. The Gazette also publishes a daily online version in Polish, *Witryna Polska* (*Polish Gazette*) to cater for the local Polish community. The *Lancashire Evening Post* is a daily evening newspaper covering the county of Lancashire. Blackpool has a pioneering publicly owned *Municipal wireless network*, Wi-Fi that covers the entire town centre, promenade and beach front. Full internet access is available via the publicly owned *Municipal wireless network*. Local radio was provided by Radio Wave, a commercial radio station, based on Mowbray Drive in Blackpool, which covered the Fylde Coast area. This radio station closed and last aired on 20 August 2020. Blackpool also falls in the coverage area of BBC Radio Lancashire, Rock FM, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire, Smooth North West and Heart North West. Blackpool Gay Radio provides a part-time radio service catering for the local gay community featuring a mix of music, local features, news and celebrity interviews. Blackpool also has four music related internet radio stations: * Fylde FM, the Fylde Coast's largest internet radio station. * Radio Vibe 2001 – 2003 (Blackpool Fylde & Wyre), an online music service only. * Splash Net Radio * Lancashire's Lighthouse Radio (Part of LLR Ministries) Radio Victoria, based in Victoria Hospital, broadcasts throughout the hospital. National television with local opt-outs is provided by ITV Granada, the ITV franchise holder for the North West, BBC North West, the regional BBC station for the North West region. Blackpool also has a dedicated local TV news service, That's Lancashire, part of the That's TV network, broadcast from their studio in Preston. ### Sport #### Boxing Blackpool has two main venues for boxing fight nights, the Tower Circus Arena and the Winter Gardens, which both hold regular fight nights throughout the year. Events at these venues have been screened on Sky Sports, British Eurosport and Channel M. Blackpool is home to many current and former professional boxers including Brian Rose (born in Birmingham), Jack Arnfield, Jeff Thomas (born in Dordrecht), Mathew Ellis (born in Oldham), Matty Askin (born in Barnsley), RP Davies and Scott Cardle. #### Cricket Blackpool Cricket Club are Blackpool's major cricketing team; they won the League Cup in 2013 and were National Champions in 1990. They won the Lancashire Cup on eight occasions between 1973 and 1996 and were League Champions fourteen times. Their home is in the grounds of Stanley Park, which also hosts Lancashire County Cricket Club. #### Football The town's professional football club is Blackpool F.C., who have spent 31 seasons in the top division and won the 1953 FA Cup Final. There are other, smaller football clubs located within Blackpool, including A.F.C. Blackpool, Blackpool Wren Rovers and Squires Gate. #### Golf There are three golf clubs in Blackpool. Blackpool North Shore Golf Club opened in 1904, moving to its present site on Knowle Hill in 1927; the new course was designed by Harry Colt. In 1926, an Alister MacKenzie designed course opened within Stanley Park; it is home to Blackpool Park Golf Club. The newest addition is Herons' Reach Golf Resort, which was designed by Peter Allis and Clive Clark and opened in 1992. Blackpool Golf Club, which opened in 1894, was located in South Shore; it closed at the beginning of World War II, with the land subsequently becoming part of Blackpool Airport. #### Rugby Blackpool Borough were the first professional rugby league club in the town. However, they eventually folded after leaving the town in 1987. Blackpool Panthers were formed in 2004 and played in Co-operative Championship One. They ground-shared at Bloomfield Road then in 2007 at Woodlands Memorial Ground, the home of Fylde Rugby Club in the neighbouring town of Lytham St Annes. The club ceased to exist after the 2010 season due to lack of finance. Blackpool Stanley, Blackpool Scorpions and Blackpool Sea Eagles are amateur rugby league clubs in the town. The resort formerly held the now discontinued Northern Rail Cup Final at Bloomfield Road, a Rugby League knockout competition for all clubs outside of the Super League attracting many thousands of visitors. Blackpool is currently home to the annual 'Summer Bash' rugby league tournament held at Bloomfield Road, where an entire round of Championship matches are played in the city to showcase the sport. Blackpool also has a rugby union club, called Blackpool RUFC. Their home ground is Norbreck Rugby Ground. #### Running The annual Blackpool Marathon is staged on the Promenade each April. Thousands of competitors run on the closed Promenade, organised by Fylde Coast Runners. #### Professional wrestling The Pleasure Beach's Horseshoe Show Bar was home to professional wrestling events throughout the season, promoted by Bobby Baron. The bar shows were home to a "wrestling booth" where members of the public could challenge the wrestlers for cash prizes for each round they survived. These challenges would be taken by shooters, wrestlers skilled in the brutal submission holds of catch wrestling, which they could deploy to defend the prize money even against skilled amateur wrestlers. Booths such as these had been a foundation of the professional wrestling industry since the 19th century, and Baron's booth is reputed to have been the last of its kind in the world. Numerous renowned professional wrestlers worked as carnival shooters at the booth, including future WWE star William Regal; his tag team partner Robbie Brookside; Shak Khan, who runs a catch wrestling school in the area; Dave Duran (John Palin) and future women's champion Klondyke Kate. The booth ended with Baron's death in 1994, although other promoters have since held shows in the bar. Additionally, the Tower Circus was a frequent venue for wrestling shows. A photograph of noted wrestling villain Jack Pye in action at the circus was, for some time in the late 2000s, displayed by the entrance to the circus. The tradition was revived by ASW when they promoted a summer season at the venue in 2008, and a similar summer season in 2012 at the Winter Gardens. The Tower Ballroom hosted one date of the six show live tour of the *World of Sport Wrestling* TV show in February 2019. WWE held a tournament at the Empress Ballroom on 14 and 15 January 2017 to crown the inaugural WWE United Kingdom Champion. In attendance were Regal and Triple H, with the latter commenting to local journalists, "Blackpool has this reputation. It's easy to get to, a lot of people come here and when they come here they lose it and that's what we wanted. I almost feel like there wasn't really another choice." Tyler Bate won the inaugural tournament to become the first WWE United Kingdom Champion. Several renowned wrestlers have invested in Blackpool. Kendo Nagasaki owns the Trades Hotel and KAOS Nightclub, Rex Strong (born Barry Shearman, 1942–2017) owned the Hadley Hotel, and Johnny Saint owned a block of holiday flats in the town. Shirley "Big Daddy" Crabtree worked as a lifeguard on Central Pier. He was reunited, on a 1979 edition of ITV's *This Is Your Life*, with a woman whose life he had saved in the course of his duties. The Blackpool Combat Club, a heel faction in All Elite Wrestling led by Regal, was named in honour of Blackpool. Religion -------- Blackpool has a number of Christian churches, including 18 Anglican and 10 Catholic churches. Other Christian groups in the town include Blackpool Baptist Tabernacle, Blackpool Christian Centre, Blackpool Community Church, Kings Christian Centre, Liberty Church, and New Life Community Church. The Shrine of Our Lady of Lourdes is now redundant and is being converted into a community centre by the Historic Chapels Trust. There were previously two synagogues in Blackpool for its Jewish population, now down to one. The Blackpool Reform Jewish Congregation caters to the Reform population and is located on Raikes Parade with a synagogue hall and classroom facilities, a purpose-built sanctuary hall and an assembly room. Blackpool United Hebrew Congregation was an Orthodox synagogue located on Leamington Road with a synagogue hall and community centre. The synagogue closed in May 2012 due to a declining Orthodox population, with the final rabbi David Braunold having retired in 2011. As of January 2022, the building which formerly housed the synagogue was awaiting new use. There is a residential Buddhist Centre in North Shore called Keajra Kadampa Buddhist Centre which is a member of the New Kadampa Tradition. There are also two mosques for the Muslim population: the purpose-built Blackpool Central Mosque & Islamic Community Centre is located on Revoe Street and provides prayer facilities while the Blackpool Islamic Community Centre (BICC) offers Islamic education. Blackpool also has small communities of Bahaʼis, Hindus, Jains, Mormons, and Sikhs. The Blackpool Faith Forum was established in 2001 in conjunction with Blackpool Council to provide interfaith dialogue between the various faith groups in the town, to raise awareness of the various faiths in the town and to promote a multifaith community. It is linked to the Interfaith Network of UK. In February 2007 a youth forum was established, Blackpool Faith Forum for Youth (BIFFY). Education --------- As well as 29 state primary schools and eight state secondary schools, there is also a range of activities for children and young people in the town. Some of these are delivered by *Blackpool Young People Services* (a part of Blackpool Council). Shipwrecks ---------- A number of shipwrecks have occurred on the coastline of Blackpool. The most recent occurrence was the grounding of the cruiser *Coco Leoni* in March 2008. Famously, in 1897, HMS *Foudroyant*, Nelson's flagship before HMS *Victory*, was grounded close to North Pier in a storm. Crimes ------ Blackpool has experienced numerous high-profile crimes since the early 20th century. In 2012, Blackpool was identified as a "crime hotspot", and in 2016 was revealed as having the fourth-highest murder rate in the UK. Rates of violent crime, sexual assault and domestic violence exceed national averages. In 1913, the "Brides in the Bath" serial killer George Joseph Smith drowned his second wife Alice in their rented room of a boarding house on Regent Road. He was due to be the beneficiary of a sizeable life insurance policy upon his wife's death. In 1971, Supt Gerry Richardson, 38, was shot dead while chasing a gang of London thugs who had robbed a resort jewellers. The five-man group bungled the raid on Preston's Jewellers in the Strand. They arrived late and failed to check a back room where the shop manager had already raised a silent alarm connected to Blackpool Police Station. As the gang made their getaway they became involved in a high-speed chase through the streets of North Shore which ended with Supt Richardson's tragic murder at the hands of "Fat" Freddie Sewell. Supt Richardson was posthumously awarded the George Cross in 1972. Wounded Inspector Carl Walker also received the George Cross. In 1972, Ahmad Alami (the son of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem) murdered three sleeping children at Blackpool Victoria Hospital. He also stabbed two nurses and other children sleeping on the ward.[*failed verification*] Alami was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and judged unfit to stand trial. He was detained at Broadmoor high security hospital for several years before being released and deported back to his native Jordan. In 1999, Stuart Michael Diamond was convicted of the brutal murder of a homeless 17-year-old heroin addict, Christopher Hartley. Diamond murdered Hartley and dismembered his body before 'dumping' the remains in a hotel 'swill bin'; Hartley's head was never recovered. In 2007, the jury in the case of the alleged rape and murder of Blackpool schoolgirl Charlene Downes, 14, heard a police surveillance tape of Jordanian Iyad Albattikhi, 29, and Iranian Mohammed Reveshi, 50, allegedly detailing her stabbing, and her later alleged disposal in their "Funny Boyz" kebab shop's mincing machine by the prosecution. Albattikhi allegedly boasted that he had sold her remains in kebabs. Both men were acquitted of the alleged offence. John Bromley-Davenport, for the defence, said: "We have uncovered within the Blackpool Police force an astonishing catalogue of incompetence, failure to disclose, manipulation and lies, some of which were uttered on oath during the trial last year. If the jury at that trial had swallowed the lies and been duped by the manipulation then a grave miscarriage of justice would have occurred." Notable people -------------- Blackpool has been the birthplace and/or home to a number of notable people. Twin towns/Sister cities ------------------------ Blackpool is twinned with: * Germany Bottrop, Germany * China Sanya, China Freedom of the Borough ---------------------- The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Blackpool. ### Individuals * William Henry Cocker: 19 June 1897. * Joseph Heap: 19 November 1907. * John Bickerstaffe: 6 February 1912. * James Fish: 6 February 1912. * James Ward: 16 November 1914. * Robert Butcher Mather: 16 November 1914. * John Grime: 3 November 1915. * James Heyes: 3 November 1915. * David Lloyd George: 6 August 1918. * Brigadier General Thomas Edward Topping: 2 August 1922. * Thomas Bickerstaffe: 4 August 1926. * Sir Lindsay Parkinson: 4 August 1926. * William Henry Broadhead : 4 August 1926. * Henry Brown : 3 October 1928. * Samuel Hill : 3 October 1928. * John Collins : 3 October 1928. * Thomas Fielding : 3 October 1928. * Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby : 1 August 1934. * Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp: 23 March 1937. * Sir Cuthbert Cartwright Grundy: 31 January 1938. * Sir Winston Churchill: 4 September 1946. * Field Marshal Lord Montgomery of Alamein: 21 July 1948. * Eli Hey Howe: 3 March 1950. * Tom Gallon Lumb: 3 March 1950. * Thomas Fenton: 3 March 1950. * Sir Harold R Grime : 3 March 1950. * Rhodes William Marshall: 2 May 1973. * Harold Grimbledeston: 2 May 1973. * Ernest Alfred Machin: 2 May 1973. * Joseph Shepherd Richardson: 2 May 1973. * Leonard Broughton: 2 May 1973. * Raymond Jacobs: 25 June 1984. * Walter Uriah Robinson: 25 June 1984. * Harold Leslie Hoyle: 25 June 1984. * Percy Patrick Hall: 25 June 1984. * Stan Mortensen: 29 November 1989. * Doris Thompson: 9 April 2003. * Jimmy Armfield: 9 April 2003. ### Military units * R (Blackpool) Battery 288 (2nd West Lancashire) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment Royal Artillery, Territorial Army: 1961. * HMS Penelope RN: 1990. * 12th Regiment Royal Artillery: 2005. * The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment: 2017. * The Loyal North Lancashire Regiment. * HMS Triumph RN: 2017. See also -------- * Blackpool High Tide Organ * Listed buildings in Blackpool

Blackpool

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool

**Giugliano in Campania** (Italian pronunciation: [dʒuʎˈʎaːno iŋ kamˈpaːnja]), also known simply as **Giugliano**, is a city and *comune* in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, Italy. As of 2017[update], it had some 124,000 inhabitants, making it the most populated Italian city that is not a provincial capital. History ------- In 5th-4th century BCE the territory of Giugliano was settled by the Osci, who founded, among the many cities, Atella and Liternum, both of them flourished under the dominion of Rome. The area is that known as Terra di Lavoro, which was the most fertile part of Campania felix. Near "Lake Patria", there was the ancient city of Liternum. In 194 BC it became a Roman colony. The town is mainly famous as the residence of the elder Scipio Africanus, who withdrew from Rome and died there. His tomb and villa are described by Seneca the Younger. In 455, the town was pillaged and destroyed by Genseric and his Vandals. The surviving population migrated to the present historical center of Giugliano. The city remained a small center until 1207, when Cuma was destroyed by the Neapolitans; some of the citizens from that town, including the clergy and the cathedral capitular, took shelter in Giugliano. The first documents mentioning a fief in Giugliano dates from 1270. In 1495 Charles VIII of France, having occupied the Kingdom of Naples, gave the feud to Count Michele Riccio, from whom it was taken away with the defeat of the French. Carbones in 1536 and then Carafas in 1542 sold their shares to Cosimo Pinelli, whose family administered Giugliano correctly for about a century. Cosimo, with his influence, obtained the concession of the jurisdiction which administratively freed the fief of Giugliano from Aversa's interference. In 1545 he had the ducal palace built there, at the time the center of power. In this period there was a notable boost to the economy and to the cultural and social growth of the Giugliano university, leaving various artistic testimonies. In 1639 Galeazzo Pinelli sold the shares due to Cesare D'Aquino. The period of the lordship of the D'Aquinos created chaos and discontent among the population, who asked the viceroy for help for the abuses suffered. In 1647, Henry I, Duke of Guise descended into Italy with his army, with claims to the crown of Naples, and set up his camp in Giugliano with about 5,000 soldiers. During the seventeenth century the Mancini family was invested, probably for a short time, with the barony of Giugliano with Domenico Nicola II, former Marquis of Fusignano and Vice Grand Chancellor of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1691 the feud passed to Francesco Grillo who acquired the title of "Duke of Giugliano". With the death of Duke Domenico Grillo, without children, it was devolved to the Royal Court. The Viceroy and Prince of Stigliano, Marcantonio Colonna, bought it in 1778 and held it until the French Revolution. With the French decade of Joseph Bonaparte, the subversive laws of feudalism were enacted decreeing the end of all feudal privileges in the Kingdom of Naples and the beginning of the municipal administration. Therefore the last to govern the Giuglianese feud was the Colonna dynasty, after which power passed into the hands of the citizens. Lords of the city were, in sequence, the Vulcano, Filomarino, Pignatelli, D'Aquino, Pinelli and Colonna. After the unification of Italy, in 1863, the specific *"In Campania"* was added to the name *"Giugliano"* to distinguish it from the homonyms then existing. Geography --------- It is located in a fertile coastal plain north-west of Naples, the so-called Agro Giuglianese, thus serving as a market for agricultural products to the city. The plain on which it sits was known in ancient Roman times as the Campania Felix, the only relief being Monte San Severino. The altitude difference is between a few meters above sea level in the maritime area and 97 m above sea level in the historic centre. The coastal stretch, low and sandy, extends on the *Domitian coast* for over 3 km, from Marina di Varcaturo to Lido di Licola. Within the territory is Lago Patria, with the locality of the same name on its banks. The lake is not of volcanic origin, but residual behind the dunes, i.e. generated by the closure of sand dunes towards the sea. ### Neighboring communes Giugliano in Campania borders the following municipalities: Aversa, Casapesenna, Castel Volturno, Lusciano, Melito di Napoli, Mugnano di Napoli, Parete, Pozzuoli, Qualiano, Quarto, San Cipriano d'Aversa, Sant'Antimo, Trentola-Ducenta, Villa Literno and Villaricca. Main sights ----------- * *Palazzo Pinelli*, built in 1545 by architect Giovanni Francesco di Palma. It had a side tower, which was later demolished. * Church of *Santa Sofia* (17th century), designed by Domenico Fontana. It was finished in 1730-1745 by the Neapolitan architect Domenico Antonio Vaccaro. It houses the tomb of Giovan Battista Basile. * Church of the *Annunziata*, known from the 16th century. It is home to several canvasses by Neapolitan artists such as Massimo Stanzione and Carlo Sellitto. it has a nave with apse and transept; the pulpit is in Roccoco style, while the rest of the interior is decorated in Baroque style. Notable are also the large wooden organ (late 16th century), the Chapel of *Madonna della Pace* and early 16th *Stories of the Virgin* in the left transept. * Church of *Sant'Anna*. Of the original building, existing in the 14th century, the bell tower remains. It houses 16th-century paintings by Fabrizio Santafede and Pietro Negroni. * Church of *Madonna delle Grazie*, with a 14th-century bell tower and a 16th-century portal. The interior has a 15th-century Gothic *Incoronation of the Virgin* and early 16th-century frescoes. * Church of *Santa Maria della Purità* or of *the Souls of Purgatory*(18th century). It was designed by Domenico Antonio Vaccaro, who also designed the internal stuccos and the covering of the dome, made as fish scales. The structure is an octagonal plant and has four altars, besides the greater one. * Ancient town of *Liternum*. The excavations brought to light, between 1930 and 1936, some elements of the city center (forum with a temple, a basilica and a small theater) dating from the beginning of the Roman Empire. Outside the city walls, the remains of the amphitheater and the necropolis have been identified. * Lake Patria, in the frazione of the same name, it was called by ancient Roman "Literna Palus". It is part of the Natural Reserve "Foce Volurno - Costa di Licola". Transportation -------------- Giugliano is served by Naples–Aversa railway, a railway suburban train connection to the Naples Metro. Another station, Giugliano-Qualiano, is located some kilometers outside the city. It is part of the Villa Literno–Naples line, a branch of the Rome–Formia–Naples railway. Famous people ------------- * Giovan Battista Basile, poet, courtier, and fairy tale collector * Scipio Africanus, Roman general * Adriana Basile, composer and singer * Raffaele Cantone, magistrate * Nicola Mignogna, politician and a significant contributor of “Risorgimento” See also -------- * S.S.C. Giugliano * Liternum * Licola ### Bibliography * Basile, Agostino (1800). *Memorie istoriche della terra di Giugliano* (in Italian). Naples.

Giugliano in Campania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugliano_in_Campania

**Joseph** (/ˈdʒoʊzəf, -səf/; Hebrew: יוֹסֵף, lit. 'He shall add'; Standard: *Yōsef*, Tiberian: *Yōsēp̄*; alternatively: יְהוֹסֵף, lit. 'Yahweh shall add'; Standard: *Yəhōsef*, Tiberian: *Yŏhōsēp̄*; Arabic: يوسف, romanized: *Yūsuf*; Ancient Greek: Ἰωσήφ, romanized: *Iōsēph*) is an important Hebrew figure in the Bible's Book of Genesis. He was the first of the two sons of Jacob and Rachel (Jacob's twelfth child and eleventh son). He is the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Joseph. His story functions as an explanation for Israel's residence in Egypt. He is the favourite son of the patriarch Jacob, and his jealous brothers sell him into slavery in Egypt, where he eventually ends up incarcerated. After correctly interpreting the dreams of Pharaoh, however, he rises to second-in-command in Egypt and saves Egypt during a famine. Jacob's family travels to Egypt to escape the famine, and it is through him that they are given leave to settle in the Land of Goshen (the eastern part of the Nile Delta). The composition of the story can be dated to the period between the 7th century BCE and the third quarter of the 5th century BCE, which is roughly the period to which scholars date the Book of Genesis. In Jewish tradition, he is the ancestor of a second Messiah called "Mashiach ben Yosef", who will wage war against the forces of evil alongside Mashiach ben David and die in combat with the enemies of God and Israel. Etymology --------- The Bible offers two explanations of the name *Yōsēf:* first it is compared to the Hebrew root אסף (*ʾ-s-p*), meaning "to gather, remove, take away": "And she conceived, and bore a son; and said, God hath *taken away* my reproach" (Genesis 30:23); *Yōsēf* is then identified with the similar root יסף (*y-s-p*), meaning "to add": "And she called his name Joseph; and said, The LORD shall *add* to me another son." (Genesis 30:24). Biblical narrative ------------------ ### Birth and family Joseph, son of Jacob and Rachel, lived in the land of Canaan with ten half-brothers, one full brother, and at least one half-sister. He was Rachel's firstborn and Jacob's eleventh son. Of all the sons, Joseph was preferred by his father, who gave him a "long coat of many colors". When Joseph was seventeen years old, he shared with his brothers two dreams he had: in the first dream, Joseph and his brothers gathered bundles of grain, of which those his brothers gathered, bowed to his own. In the second dream, the sun (father), the moon (mother), and eleven stars (brothers) bowed to Joseph himself. These dreams, implying his supremacy, angered his brothers (Genesis 37:1–11) and made the brothers plot his demise. * Joseph's dream of grainJoseph's dream of grain * Joseph's dream of starsJoseph's dream of stars ### Plot against Joseph Joseph's half-brothers were jealous of him; (Genesis 37:18–20) wherefore, in Dothan, most of them plotted to kill him, with the exception of Reuben, who suggested to have Joseph thrown into an empty cistern, intending to rescue Joseph himself. Unaware of this secondary intention, the others obeyed him first. Upon imprisoning Joseph, the brothers saw a camel caravan carrying spices and perfumes to Egypt, and sold Joseph to these merchants. Thereafter the guilty brothers painted goat's blood on Joseph's coat and showed it to Jacob, who therefore believed Joseph had died (Genesis 37:12–35). ### Potiphar's house Ultimately, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh's guard (Genesis 37:36, Genesis 39:1). Later, Joseph became Potiphar's personal servant, and subsequently his household's superintendent. Here, Potiphar's wife (called Zuleika in later tradition) tried to seduce Joseph, which he refused. Angered by his running away from her, she made a false accusation of rape, and thus assured his imprisonment (Genesis 39:1–20). ### Joseph in prison The warden put Joseph in charge of the other prisoners, and soon afterward Pharaoh's chief cup-bearer and chief baker, who had offended the Pharaoh, were thrown into the prison. Both men had dreams, and Joseph, being able to interpret dreams, asked to hear them. The cup-bearer's dream was about a vine with three branches that was budding. And as it was budding, its blossoms came out and they produced grapes. The cup-bearer took those grapes and squeezed them into Pharaoh's cup, and placed the cup in Pharaoh's hand. Joseph interpreted this dream as the cup-bearer being restored as cup-bearer to the Pharaoh within three days. The baker's dream was about three baskets full of bread for the Pharaoh, and birds were eating the bread out of those baskets. Joseph interpreted this dream as the baker being hanged within three days and having his flesh eaten by birds. Joseph requested that the cup-bearer mention him to Pharaoh to secure his release from prison, but the cup-bearer, reinstalled in office, forgot Joseph. After two more years, the Pharaoh dreamt of seven lean cows which devoured seven fat cows; and of seven withered ears of grain which devoured seven fat ears. When the Pharaoh's advisers failed to interpret these dreams, the cup-bearer remembered Joseph. Joseph was then summoned. He interpreted the dream as seven years of abundance followed by seven years of famine, and advised the Pharaoh to store surplus grain. ### Vizier of Egypt Following the prediction, Joseph became Vizier, under the name of Zaphnath-Paaneah (Hebrew: צָפְנַת פַּעְנֵחַ *Ṣāp̄naṯ Paʿnēaḥ*), and was given Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On, to be his wife. During the seven years of abundance, Joseph ensured that the storehouses were full and that all produce was weighed. In the sixth year, Asenath bore two children to Joseph: Manasseh and Ephraim. When the famine came, it was so severe that people from surrounding nations came to Egypt to buy bread. The narrative also indicates that they went straight to Joseph or were directed to him, even by the Pharaoh himself (Genesis 41:37–57). As a last resort, all of the inhabitants of Egypt, less the Egyptian priestly class, sold their properties and later themselves (as slaves) to Joseph for seed; wherefore Joseph set a mandate that, because the people would be sowing and harvesting seed on government property, a fifth of the produce should go to the Pharaoh. This mandate lasted until the days of Moses (Genesis 47:20–31). ### Brothers sent to Egypt In the second year of famine, Joseph's half brothers were sent to Egypt to buy goods. When they came to Egypt, they stood before the Vizier but did not recognize him as their brother Joseph, who was now in his late 30s; but Joseph *did* recognize them and did not speak at all to them in his native tongue of Hebrew. After questioning them, he accused them of being spies. After they mentioned a younger brother at home, the Vizier (Joseph) demanded that he be brought to Egypt as a demonstration of their veracity. This was Joseph's full brother, Benjamin. Joseph placed his brothers in prison for three days. On the third day, he brought them out of prison to reiterate that he wanted their youngest brother brought to Egypt to demonstrate their veracity. The brothers conferred amongst themselves speaking in Hebrew, reflecting on the wrong they had done to Joseph. Joseph understood what they were saying and removed himself from their presence because he was caught in emotion. When he returned, the Vizier took Simeon and bound him as a hostage. Then he had their donkeys prepared with grain and sent the other brothers back to Canaan. Unbeknownst to them, Joseph had also returned their money to their money sacks (Genesis 42:1–28). ### The silver cup The remaining brothers returned to their father in Canaan, and told him all that had transpired in Egypt. They also discovered that all of their money sacks still had money in them, and they were dismayed. Then they informed their father that the Vizier demanded that Benjamin be brought before him to demonstrate that they were honest men. Jacob became greatly distressed, feeling deprived of successive sons: Joseph, Simeon, and (prospectively) Benjamin. After they had consumed all of the grain that they brought back from Egypt, Jacob told his sons to go back to Egypt for more grain. With Reuben and Judah's persistence, they persuaded their father to let Benjamin join them for fear of Egyptian retribution (Genesis 42:29–43:15). Upon their return to Egypt, the steward of Joseph's house received the brothers. When they were brought to Joseph's house, they were apprehensive about the returned money in their money sacks. They thought that the missed transaction would somehow be used against them as way to induct them as slaves and to confiscate their possessions. So they immediately informed the steward of what had transpired. The steward put them at ease, telling them not to worry about the money, and brought out their brother Simeon. Then he brought the brothers into the house of Joseph and received them hospitably. When the Vizier (Joseph) appeared, they gave him gifts from their father. Joseph saw and inquired of Benjamin, and was overcome by emotion but did not show it. He withdrew to his chambers and wept. When he regained control of himself, he returned and ordered a meal to be served. The Egyptians would not dine with Hebrews at the same table, as doing so was considered loathsome, thus the sons of Israel were served at a separate table (Genesis 43:16–44:34). That night, Joseph ordered his steward to load the brothers' donkeys with food and all their money. The money they had brought was double what they had offered on the first trip. Deceptively, Joseph also ordered the steward to put his silver cup in Benjamin's sack. The following morning the brothers began their journey back to Canaan. Joseph ordered the steward to go after the brothers and to question them about the "missing" silver cup. When the steward caught up with the brothers, he seized them and searched their sacks. The steward found the cup in Benjamin's sack - just as he had planted it the night before. This caused a stir amongst the brothers. However, they agreed to be escorted back to Egypt. When the Vizier (Joseph) confronted them about the silver cup, he demanded that the one who possessed the cup in his bag become his slave. In response, Judah pleaded with the Vizier that Benjamin be allowed to return to his father, and that he himself be kept in Benjamin's place as a slave (Genesis 44). ### Family reunited Judah appealed to the Vizier begging that Benjamin be released and that he be enslaved in his stead, because of the silver cup found in Benjamin's sack. The Vizier broke down into tears. He could not control himself any longer and so he sent the Egyptian men out of the house. Then he revealed to the Hebrews that he was in fact their brother, Joseph. He wept so loudly that even the Egyptian household heard it outside. The brothers were frozen and could not utter a word. He brought them closer and relayed to them the events that had happened and told them not to fear, that what they had meant for evil, God had meant for good. Then he commanded them to go and bring their father and his entire household into Egypt to live in the province of Goshen, because there were five more years of famine left. So Joseph supplied them Egyptian transport wagons, new garments, silver money, and twenty additional donkeys carrying provisions for the journey. (Genesis 45:1–28) Thus, Jacob (also known as Israel) and his entire house of seventy gathered up with all their livestock and began their journey to Egypt. As they approached Egyptian territory, Judah went ahead to ask Joseph where the caravan should unload. They were directed into the province of Goshen and Joseph readied his chariot to meet his father there. It had been over twenty years since Joseph had last seen his father. When they met, they embraced each other and wept together for quite a while. His father then remarked, "Now let me die, since I have seen your face, because you are still alive." (Genesis 46:1–34) Afterward, Joseph's family personally met the Pharaoh of Egypt. The Pharaoh honored their stay and even proposed that if there were any qualified men in their house, then they may elect a chief herdsman to oversee Egyptian livestock. Because the Pharaoh had such a high regard for Joseph, practically making him his equal, it had been an honor to meet his father. Thus, Israel was able to bless the Pharaoh. (Genesis 47:1–47:12) The family was then settled in Goshen. ### Father's blessing and passing The house of Israel acquired many possessions and multiplied exceedingly during the course of seventeen years, even through the worst of the seven-year famine. At this time, Joseph's father was 147 years old and bedridden. He had fallen ill and lost most of his vision. Joseph was called into his father's house and Israel pleaded with his son that he not be buried in Egypt. Rather, he requested to be carried to the land of Canaan to be buried with his forefathers. Joseph was sworn to do as his father asked of him. (Genesis 47:27–31) Later, Joseph came to visit his father having with him his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. Israel declared that they would be heirs to the inheritance of the house of Israel, as if they were his own children, just as Reuben and Simeon were. Then Israel laid his left hand on the eldest Mannasseh's head and his right hand on the youngest Ephraim's head and blessed Joseph. However, Joseph was displeased that his father's right hand was not on the head of his firstborn, so he switched his father's hands. But Israel refused saying, "but truly his younger brother shall be greater than he," a declaration he made just as Israel himself was to his firstborn brother Esau. To Joseph, he gave a portion more of Canaanite property than he had to his other sons; land that he fought for against the Amorites. (Genesis 48:1–22) Then Israel called all of his sons in and prophesied their blessings or curses to all twelve of them in order of their ages. To Joseph he declared: > Joseph is a fruitful bough, even a fruitful bough by a well; whose branches run over the wall. The archers have sorely grieved him, and shot at him, and hated him: But his bow abode in strength, and the arms of his hands were made strong by the hands of the Mighty God of Jacob (From thence is the Shepherd, the Stone of Israel), Even by the God of your father who shall help thee; and by the Almighty who shall bless thee With blessings of heaven above, Blessings of the deep that lieth under, Blessings of the breasts and of the womb. The blessings of thy father have prevailed above the blessings of my progenitors unto the utmost bound of the everlasting hills. They shall be on the head of Joseph, And on the crown of the head of him that was separate from his brethren. > > — Genesis 49:22–26 KJV After relaying his prophecies, Israel died. The family, including the Egyptians, mourned him seventy days. Joseph had his father embalmed, a process that took forty days. Then he prepared a great ceremonial journey to Canaan leading the servants of the Pharaoh, and the elders of the houses Israel and Egypt beyond the Jordan River. They stopped at Atad where they observed seven days of mourning. Here, their lamentation was so great that it caught the attention of surrounding Canaanites who remarked "This is a deep mourning of the Egyptians." So they named this spot Abel Mizraim. Then Joseph buried Israel in the cave of Machpelah, the property of Abraham when he bought it from the Hittites. (Genesis 49:33–50:14) After their father died, the brothers of Joseph feared retribution for being responsible for Joseph's deliverance into Egypt as a slave. Joseph wept as they spoke and told them that what had happened was God's purpose to save lives and the lives of his family. He comforted them and their ties were reconciled. (Genesis 50:15–21) ### Joseph's burial Joseph lived to the age of 110, living to see his great-grandchildren. Before he died, he made the children of Israel swear that when they left the land of Egypt they would take his bones with them, and on his death his body was embalmed and placed in a coffin in Egypt. (Genesis 50:22–26) The children of Israel remembered their oath, and when they left Egypt during the Exodus, Moses took Joseph's bones with him. (Exodus 13:19) The bones were buried at Shechem, in the parcel of ground which Jacob bought from the sons of Hamor (Joshua 24:32), which has traditionally been identified with site of Joseph's Tomb, before Jacob and all his family moved to Egypt. Shechem was in the land which was allocated by Joshua to the Tribe of Ephraim, one of the tribes of the House of Joseph, after the conquest of Canaan. Composition and literary motifs ------------------------------- The majority of modern scholars agree that the Joseph story is a Wisdom novella constructed by a single author and that it reached its current form in the 5th century BCE at the earliest. Its redaction history may have included a first "Reuben version" originating in the northern kingdom of Israel and intended to justify the domination by the "house of Joseph" over the other tribes, this was followed by a later "Judah-expansion" (chapters 38 and 49) elevating Judah as the rightful successor to Jacob, and finally various embellishments so that the novella would function as the bridge between the Genesis and the story of Moses and the Exodus. The motif of dreams/dream interpretation contributes to a strong story-like narrative. The plot begins by showing Joseph as a dreamer; this leads him into trouble as, out of jealousy, his brothers sell him into slavery. The next two instances of dream interpretation establish his reputation as a great interpreter of dreams; first, he begins in a low place, interpreting the dreams of prisoners. Then Joseph is summoned to interpret the dreams of Pharaoh himself. Impressed with Joseph's interpretations, Pharaoh appoints him as second-in-command (Gen 41:41). This sets up the climax of the story, which many regard to be the moment Joseph reveals his identity to his brothers (Gen 45:3). Jewish tradition ---------------- ### Selling Joseph In the midrash, the selling of Joseph was part of God's divine plan for him to save his tribes. The favoritism Israel showed Joseph and the plot against him by his brothers were divine means of getting him into Egypt. Maimonides comments that even the villager in Shechem, about whom Joseph inquired his brother's whereabouts, was a "divine messenger" working behind the scene. A midrash asked, *How many times was Joseph sold?* In analyzing Genesis Chapter 37, there are five different Hebrew names used to describe five different groups of people involved in the transaction of selling Joseph, according to Rabbi Judah and Rav Huna. The first group identified, are Joseph's brothers when Judah brings up the idea of selling Joseph in verses 26 and 27. The first mention of Ishmaelites (Yishma'elîm) is in verse 25. Then the Hebrew phrase *ʼnāshîm midyanîm sōĥrîm* in verse 28 describes Midianite traders. A fourth group in verse 36 is named in Hebrew as *m‘danîm* that is properly identified as Medanites. The final group, where a transaction is made, is among the Egyptians in the same verse. After identifying the Hebrew names, Rabbi Judah claims that Joseph was sold four times: First his brothers sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites (Yishma'elîm), then the Ishmaelites sold him to the Midianite traders (ʼnāshîm midyanîm sōĥrîm), the Midianite traders to the Medanites (m‘danîm), and the Medanites into Egypt. Rav Huna adds one more sale by concluding that after the Medanites sold him to the Egyptians, a fifth sale occurred when the Egyptians sold him to Potiphar. (Genesis Rabbah 84:22) ### Potiphar's wife Joseph had good reasons not to have an affair with Potiphar's wife: he did not want to abuse his master's trust; he believed in the sanctity of marriage; and it went against his ethical, moral and religious principles taught to him by his father Jacob. According to the Midrash, Joseph would have been immediately executed by the sexual assault charge against him by Potiphar's wife. Abravanel explains that she had accused other servants of the same crime in the past. Potiphar believed that Joseph was incapable of such an act and petitioned Pharaoh to spare his life. However, punishment could not have been avoided because of her class status and limited public knowledge of her scheme. According to *Legend of the Jews*, the name of Potiphar's wife is Zuleikha and when she was enticing Joseph to give up to her sinful passion, God appeared unto him, holding the foundation of earth (*Eben Shetiyah*), that He would destroy the world if Joseph touched her. ### Silver cup for divination Jewish tradition holds that Joseph had his steward plant his personal silver cup in Benjamin's sack to test his brothers. He wanted to know if they would be willing to risk danger in order to save their half brother Benjamin. Since Joseph and Benjamin were born from Rachel, this test was necessary to reveal if they would betray Benjamin as they did with Joseph when he was seventeen. Because *Joseph the Dreamer* predicts the future by analyzing dreams, alternative Jewish tradition claims that he practiced divination using this silver cup as the steward charged and as Joseph himself claimed in Genesis 44:15. ### Raising Joseph In one Talmudic story, Joseph was buried in the Nile river, as there was some dispute as to which province should be honored by having his tomb within its boundaries. Moses, led there by an ancient holy woman named Serach, was able by a miracle to raise the sarcophagus and to take it with him at the time of the Exodus. Christian tradition ------------------- Joseph is mentioned in the New Testament as an example of faith (Hebrews 11:22). Joseph is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on 26 July. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, he is known as "Joseph the all-comely", a reference not only to his physical appearance, but more importantly to the beauty of his spiritual life. They commemorate him on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before Christmas) and on Holy and Great Monday (Monday of Holy Week). In icons, he is sometimes depicted wearing the nemes headdress of an Egyptian vizier. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod commemorates him as a patriarch on 31 March. In addition to honoring him, there was a strong tendency in the patristic period to view his life as a typological precursor to Christ. This tendency is represented in John Chrysostom who said that Joseph's suffering was "a type of things to come", Caesarius of Arles who interpreted Joseph's famous coat as representative of the diverse nations who would follow Christ, Ambrose of Milan who interpreted the standing sheaf as prefiguring the resurrection of Christ, and others. This tendency, although greatly diminished, was followed throughout late antiquity, the Medieval Era, and into the Reformation. Even John Calvin, sometimes hailed as the father of modern grammatico-historical exegesis, writes "in the person of Joseph, a lively image of Christ is presented." In addition, some Christian authors have argued that this typological interpretation finds its origin in the speech of Stephen in Acts 7:9–15, as well as the Gospel of Luke and the parables of Jesus, noting strong verbal and conceptual collocation between the Greek translation of the portion of Genesis concerning Joseph and the Parable of the Wicked Tenants and the Parable of the Prodigal Son. Gregory of Tours claimed that Joseph built the pyramids and they were used as granaries. Islamic tradition ----------------- Joseph (Arabic: يوسُف, **Yūsuf**) is regarded by the Quran as a prophet (Quran, suras vi. 84, xl. 34), and a whole chapter Yusuf (sura xii.) is devoted to him, the only instance in the Quran in which an entire chapter is devoted to a complete story of a person. It is described in the Quran as the 'best of stories'. Joseph is said to have been extremely handsome, which attracted his Egyptian master's wife to attempt to seduce him. Muhammad is believed to have once said, "One half of all the beauty God apportioned for mankind went to Joseph and his mother; the other one half went to the rest of mankind." The story has a lot in common with the biblical narrative, but with certain differences. In the Quran the brothers ask Jacob ("Yaqub") to let Joseph go with them. Joseph is thrown into a well, and was taken as a slave by a passing caravan. When the brothers claimed to the father that a wolf had eaten Joseph, he observed patience. In the Bible, Joseph discloses himself to his brethren before they return to their father the second time after buying grain. But in Islam they returned leaving behind Benjamin because the mizzen bowl of the king was found in his bag. Similarly, the eldest son of Jacob had decided not to leave the land because of the oath taken to protect Benjamin beforehand. When Jacob learned their story after their return, he wept in grief till he lost his eyesight because of sorrow. He thus charged his sons to go and inquire about Joseph and his brother and despair not of God's mercy. It was during this return to Egypt that Joseph disclosed his real identity to his brothers. He admonished and forgave them, he sent also his garment which healed the patriarch's eyes as soon as it was cast unto his face. The remaining verses describe the migration of Jacob's family to Egypt and the emotional meeting of Jacob and his long lost son, Joseph. The family prostrated before him hence the fulfilment of his dream aforetime. The story concludes by Joseph praying, "My lord you have indeed bestowed upon me of the sovereignty and taught me something of the interpretation of dreams- the (only) creator of heavens and the earth! You are my Guardian in this world and in the Hereafter. Cause me to die as a believer and join me with the righteous" (Qur'an 12:101). Baha'i tradition ---------------- There are numerous mentions of Joseph in Bahá'í writings. These come in the forms of allusions written by the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. In the *Kitáb-i-Aqdas*, Bahá'u'lláh states that "from my laws, the sweet-smelling savour of my garment can be smelled" and, in the *Four Valleys*, states that "the fragrance of his garment blowing from the Egypt of Baha," referring to Joseph. Bahá'í commentaries have described these as metaphors with the garment implying the recognition of a manifestation of God. In the *Qayyumu'l-Asma'*, the Báb refers to Bahá'u'lláh as the true Joseph and makes an analogous prophecy regarding Bahá'u'lláh suffering at the hands of his brother, Mírzá Yahyá. Literature and culture ---------------------- * *Somnium morale Pharaonis* (13th century), by Cistercian monk Jean de Limoges, is a collection of fictional letters exchanged between Pharaoh, Joseph, and other characters of the narrative regarding the interpretation of Pharaoh's dream. * *Joseph and his Brethren*, 1743, an oratorio by George Frideric Handel. * *Josephslegende* (The Legend of Joseph) is a 1914 work by Richard Strauss for the Ballets Russes. * *Joseph and His Brothers* (1933–1943), a four-novel omnibus by Thomas Mann, retells the Genesis stories surrounding Joseph, identifying Joseph with the figure of Osarseph known from Josephus, and the pharaoh with Akhenaten. * 1961 film, *The Story of Joseph and His Brethren* (Giuseppe venduto dai fratelli) * 1974 film, *The Story of Jacob and Joseph* * 1979, New Media Bible Genesis Project (TV)-cap. Joseph And His Brothers * The long-running musical *Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat* by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice is based on the biblical story of Joseph, up through Genesis chapter 46. It was adapted into the 1999 film of the same name. * In 1995, Turner Network Television released the made-for-television movie *Joseph* starring Ben Kingsley as Potiphar, Lesley Ann Warren as Potiphar's wife, Paul Mercurio as Joseph and Martin Landau as Jacob. * In 2000, *DreamWorks Animation* released a direct-to-video animated musical film based on the life of Joseph, titled *Joseph: King of Dreams*. American Actor Ben Affleck provided the speaking voice of Joseph, with Australian Theater Singer David Campbell providing the singing voice * *Yousuf e Payambar* or Joseph, the Prophet is an Iranian television series from 2008, directed by Farajullah Salahshur, which tells the story of Prophet Joseph from the Quran and Islamic traditions. * The cultural impact of the Joseph story in early-modern times is discussed in Lang 2009 * *Rappresentatione di Giuseppe e i suoi Fratelli / Joseph and his Brethren* - a musical drama in three acts composed by Elam Rotem for ensemble Profeti della Quinta (2013, Pan Classics). * *José do Egito* (English: Joseph from Egypt) is a Brazilian miniseries produced and broadcast by RecordTV. It premiered on January 30, 2013, and ended on October 9, 2013. It is based on the biblical account of the book of Genesis that deals with the patriarch Joseph, son of Jacob. * The 2003 VeggieTales children's video *The Ballad of Little Joe* retells Joseph's Genesis stories in the style and setting of an American Western film. * The 2019 novel *Joseph and the Way of Forgiveness* by Stephen Mitchell retells the story of Joseph in the form of a midrash with emphasis on the thoughts and beliefs of a flawed Joseph. See also -------- * Book of Joseph (Latter Day Saints) * Joseph's tomb * List of slaves * Yousuf-e Payambar References ---------- ### Sources * Gesenius, Wilhelm; Robinson, Edward (1882). *A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament*. Houghton Mifflin and Company. * Jastrow, Marcus (1903). *A dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic literature*. Vol. 1. London: Luzac & Co. * Kugel, James L. (1990). *In Potiphar's House: The Interpretive Life of Biblical Texts*. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-064907-4. * Lang, Bernhard (2009). *Joseph in Egypt: A Cultural Icon from Grotius to Goethe*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15156-5. * Naghdy, Fazel (2012). *A Tutorial on the Kitab-i-iqan: A Journey Through the Book of Certitude*. Fazel Naghdy. ISBN 978-1-4663-1100-8. * Redford, Donald B. (1970). *A study of the biblical story of Joseph: (Genesis 37–50)*. Leiden: Brill. * Redford, Donald B. (1993) [1992]. *Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00086-2. * Smith, Morton (1984). "Jewish religious life in the Persian period". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Judaism: Introduction; The Persian period*. SUNY series in Judaica. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21880-1. * Scharfstein, Sol (2008). *Torah and Commentary: The Five Books of Moses : Translation, Rabbinic and Contemporary Commentary*. KTAV. ISBN 978-1-60280-020-5. * Schenke, Hans-Martin (1968). "Jacobsbrunnen-Josephsgrab-Sychar. Topographische Untersuchungen und Erwägungen in der Perspektive von Joh. 4,5.6". *Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins*. **84** (2): 159–84. JSTOR 27930842. * Soggin, J.A. (1993). "Notes on the Joseph Story". In A. Graeme Auld (ed.). *Understanding Poets and Prophets: Essays in Honour of George Wishart Anderson*. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781850754275. * Soggin, J. Alberto (1999). *An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah*. Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. ISBN 978-0-334-02788-1. * Tottoli, Roberto (2002). *Biblical Prophets in the Qur'ān and Muslim Literature*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1394-3. ### Further reading * de Hoop, Raymond (1999). *Genesis 49 in its literary and historical context*. Oudtestamentische studiën, Oudtestamentisch Werkgezelschap in Nederland. Vol. 39. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10913-1. * Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). *The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts*. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Retrieved 11 September 2011. * Genung, Matthew C. (2017). *The Composition of Genesis 37: Incoherence and Meaning in the Exposition of the Joseph Story Archived 18 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine*. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2. Reihe. 95. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-155150-5. * Goldman, Shalom (1995). *The wiles of women/the wiles of men: Joseph and Potiphar's wife in ancient Near Eastern, Jewish, and Islamic folklore*. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2683-8. * Louden, Bruce (2011). "The Odyssey and the myth of Joseph; Autolykos and Jacob". *Homer's Odyssey and the Near East*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–104. ISBN 978-0-521-76820-7. * Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E (2011). *Biblical History and Israel's Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History*. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-6260-0. * Rivka, Ulmer (2009). *Egyptian cultural icons in Midrash*. Studia Judaica. Vol. 52. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-022392-7. Retrieved 8 September 2011. * Sills, Deborah (1997). "Strange Bedfellows: Politics and Narrative in Philo". In Breslauer, S. Daniel (ed.). *The seductiveness of Jewish myth: challenge or response?*. SUNY series in Judaica. SUNY. pp. 171–90. ISBN 978-0-7914-3602-8. Retrieved 8 September 2011. * Sperling, S. David (2003). *The Original Torah: The Political Intent of the Bible's Writers*. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-9833-1. Retrieved 8 September 2011. * Völter, Daniel (1909). *Aegypten und die Bibel: die Urgeschichte Israels im Licht der aegyptischen Mythologie* (4th ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. Retrieved 8 September 2011.

Joseph (Genesis)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_(Genesis)

**Formic acid** (from Latin *formica* 'ant'), systematically named **methanoic acid**, is the simplest carboxylic acid, and has the chemical formula HCOOH and structure H−C(=O)−O−H. It is an important intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs naturally, most notably in some ants. Esters, salts and the anion derived from formic acid are called formates. Industrially, formic acid is produced from methanol. Natural occurrence ------------------ In nature, formic acid is found in most ants and in stingless bees of the genus *Oxytrigona*. Wood ants from the genus *Formica* can spray formic acid on their prey or to defend the nest. The puss moth caterpillar (*Cerura vinula*) will spray it as well when threatened by predators. It is also found in the trichomes of stinging nettle (*Urtica dioica*). Apart from that, this acid is incorporated in many fruits such as pineapple (0.21mg per 100g), apple (2mg per 100g) and kiwi (1mg per 100g), as well as in many vegetables, namely onion (45mg per 100g), eggplant (1.34 mg per 100g) and, in extremely low concentrations, cucumber (0.11mg per 100g). Formic acid is a naturally occurring component of the atmosphere primarily due to forest emissions. History ------- Some alchemists and naturalists were aware that ant hills give off an acidic vapor as early as the 15th century. The first person to describe the isolation of this substance (by the distillation of large numbers of ants) was the English naturalist John Ray, in 1671. Ants secrete the formic acid for attack and defense purposes. Formic acid was first synthesized from hydrocyanic acid by the French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac. In 1855, another French chemist, Marcellin Berthelot, developed a synthesis from carbon monoxide similar to the process used today. Formic acid was long considered a chemical compound of only minor interest in the chemical industry. In the late 1960s, significant quantities became available as a byproduct of acetic acid production. It now finds increasing use as a preservative and antibacterial in livestock feed. Properties ---------- Formic acid is a colorless liquid having a pungent, penetrating odor at room temperature, comparable to the related acetic acid. Formic acid is about ten times stronger than acetic acid. It is miscible with water and most polar organic solvents, and is somewhat soluble in hydrocarbons. In hydrocarbons and in the vapor phase, it consists of hydrogen-bonded dimers rather than individual molecules. Owing to its tendency to hydrogen-bond, gaseous formic acid does not obey the ideal gas law. Solid formic acid, which can exist in either of two polymorphs, consists of an effectively endless network of hydrogen-bonded formic acid molecules. Formic acid forms a high-boiling azeotrope with water (22.4%). Liquid formic acid tends to supercool. Chemical reactions ------------------ ### Decomposition Formic acid readily decomposes by dehydration in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid to form carbon monoxide and water: HCO2H → H2O + CO Treatment of formic acid with sulfuric acid is a convenient laboratory source of CO. In the presence of platinum, it decomposes with a release of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. HCO2H → H2 + CO2 Soluble ruthenium catalysts are also effective. Carbon monoxide free hydrogen has been generated in a very wide pressure range (1–600 bar). ### Reactant Formic acid shares most of the chemical properties of other carboxylic acids. Because of its high acidity, solutions in alcohols form esters spontaneously. Formic acid shares some of the reducing properties of aldehydes, reducing solutions of metal oxides to their respective metal. Formic acid is a source for a formyl group for example in the formylation of methylaniline to N-methylformanilide in toluene. In synthetic organic chemistry, formic acid is often used as a source of hydride ion, as in the Eschweiler-Clarke reaction: The Eschweiler–Clark reactionThe Eschweiler–Clark reaction It is used as a source of hydrogen in transfer hydrogenation, as in the Leuckart reaction to make amines, and (in aqueous solution or in its azeotrope with triethylamine) for hydrogenation of ketones. ### Addition to alkenes Formic acid is unique among the carboxylic acids in its ability to participate in addition reactions with alkenes. Formic acids and alkenes readily react to form formate esters. In the presence of certain acids, including sulfuric and hydrofluoric acids, however, a variant of the Koch reaction occurs instead, and formic acid adds to the alkene to produce a larger carboxylic acid. ### Formic acid anhydride An unstable formic anhydride, H(C=O)−O−(C=O)H, can be obtained by dehydration of formic acid with *N*,*N′*-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide in ether at low temperature. Production ---------- In 2009, the worldwide capacity for producing formic acid was 720 thousand tonnes (1.6 billion pounds) per year, roughly equally divided between Europe (350 thousand tonnes or 770 million pounds, mainly in Germany) and Asia (370 thousand tonnes or 820 million pounds, mainly in China) while production was below 1 thousand tonnes or 2.2 million pounds per year in all other continents. It is commercially available in solutions of various concentrations between 85 and 99 w/w %. As of 2009[update], the largest producers are BASF, Eastman Chemical Company, LC Industrial, and Feicheng Acid Chemicals, with the largest production facilities in Ludwigshafen (200 thousand tonnes or 440 million pounds per year, BASF, Germany), Oulu (105 thousand tonnes or 230 million pounds, Eastman, Finland), Nakhon Pathom (n/a, LC Industrial), and Feicheng (100 thousand tonnes or 220 million pounds, Feicheng, China). 2010 prices ranged from around €650/tonne (equivalent to around $800/tonne) in Western Europe to $1250/tonne in the United States. ### From methyl formate and formamide When methanol and carbon monoxide are combined in the presence of a strong base, the result is methyl formate, according to the chemical equation: CH3OH + CO → HCO2CH3 In industry, this reaction is performed in the liquid phase at elevated pressure. Typical reaction conditions are 80 °C and 40 atm. The most widely used base is sodium methoxide. Hydrolysis of the methyl formate produces formic acid: HCO2CH3 + H2O → HCOOH + CH3OH Efficient hydrolysis of methyl formate requires a large excess of water. Some routes proceed indirectly by first treating the methyl formate with ammonia to give formamide, which is then hydrolyzed with sulfuric acid: HCO2CH3 + NH3 → HC(O)NH2 + CH3OH 2 HC(O)NH2 + 2H2O + H2SO4 → 2HCO2H + (NH4)2SO4 A disadvantage of this approach is the need to dispose of the ammonium sulfate byproduct. This problem has led some manufacturers to develop energy-efficient methods of separating formic acid from the excess water used in direct hydrolysis. In one of these processes, used by BASF, the formic acid is removed from the water by liquid-liquid extraction with an organic base. ### Niche and obsolete chemical routes #### By-product of acetic acid production A significant amount of formic acid is produced as a byproduct in the manufacture of other chemicals. At one time, acetic acid was produced on a large scale by oxidation of alkanes, by a process that cogenerates significant formic acid. This oxidative route to acetic acid has declined in importance so that the aforementioned dedicated routes to formic acid have become more important. #### Hydrogenation of carbon dioxide The catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 to formic acid has long been studied. This reaction can be conducted homogeneously. #### Oxidation of biomass Formic acid can also be obtained by aqueous catalytic partial oxidation of wet biomass by the OxFA process. A Keggin-type polyoxometalate (H5PV2Mo10O40) is used as the homogeneous catalyst to convert sugars, wood, waste paper, or cyanobacteria to formic acid and CO2 as the sole byproduct. Yields of up to 53% formic acid can be achieved. #### Laboratory methods In the laboratory, formic acid can be obtained by heating oxalic acid in glycerol and extraction by steam distillation. Glycerol acts as a catalyst, as the reaction proceeds through a glyceryl oxalate intermediate. If the reaction mixture is heated to higher temperatures, allyl alcohol results. The net reaction is thus: C2O4H2 → HCO2H + CO2 Another illustrative method involves the reaction between lead formate and hydrogen sulfide, driven by the formation of lead sulfide. Pb(HCOO)2 + H2S → 2HCOOH + PbS #### Electrochemical production It has been reported that formate can be formed by the electrochemical reduction of CO2 (in the form of bicarbonate) at a lead cathode at pH 8.6: HCO− 3 + H 2O + 2e− → HCO− 2 + 2OH− or CO 2 + H 2O + 2e− → HCO− 2 + OH− If the feed is CO 2 and oxygen is evolved at the anode, the total reaction is: CO2 + OH− → HCO− 2 + 1/2 O2 ### Artificial photosynthesis In August 2020, researchers at Cambridge University announced a stand-alone advanced 'photosheet' technology that converts sunlight, carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and formic acid with no other inputs. ### Biosynthesis Formic acid is named after ants which have high concentrations of the compound in their venom. In ants, formic acid is derived from serine through a 5,10-methenyltetrahydrofolate intermediate. The conjugate base of formic acid, formate, also occurs widely in nature. An assay for formic acid in body fluids, designed for determination of formate after methanol poisoning, is based on the reaction of formate with bacterial formate dehydrogenase. Uses ---- ### Agriculture A major use of formic acid is as preservative and antibacterial agent in livestock feed. In Europe, it is applied on silage, including fresh hay, to promote the fermentation of lactic acid and to suppress the formation of butyric acid; it also allows fermentation to occur quickly, and at a lower temperature, reducing the loss of nutritional value. Formic acid arrests certain decay processes and causes the feed to retain its nutritive value longer, and so it is widely used to preserve winter feed for cattle. In the poultry industry, it is sometimes added to feed to kill *E. coli* bacteria. Use as a preservative for silage and (other) animal feed constituted 30% of the global consumption in 2009. Beekeepers use formic acid as a miticide against the tracheal mite (*Acarapis woodi*) and the *Varroa destructor* mite and *Varroa jacobsoni* mite. ### Energy Formic acid can be used in a fuel cell (it can be used directly in formic acid fuel cells and indirectly in hydrogen fuel cells). Electrolytic conversion of electrical energy to chemical fuel has been proposed as a large-scale source of formate by various groups. The formate could be used as feed to modified *E. coli* bacteria for producing biomass. Natural microbes do exist that can feed on formic acid or formate (see Methylotroph). Formic acid has been considered as a means of hydrogen storage. The co-product of this decomposition, carbon dioxide, can be rehydrogenated back to formic acid in a second step. Formic acid contains 53 g/L hydrogen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, which is three and a half times as much as compressed hydrogen gas can attain at 350 bar pressure (14.7 g/L). Pure formic acid is a liquid with a flash point of +69 °C, much higher than that of gasoline (−40 °C) or ethanol (+13 °C). It is possible to use formic acid as an intermediary to produce isobutanol from CO2 using microbes. ### Soldering Formic acid has a potential application in soldering. Due to its capacity to reduce oxide layers, formic acid gas can be blasted at an oxide surface to increase solder wettability. ### Chromatography Formic acid used as a volatile pH modifier in HPLC and capillary electrophoresis. Formic acid is often used as a component of mobile phase in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) analysis and separation techniques for the separation of hydrophobic macromolecules, such as peptides, proteins and more complex structures including intact viruses. Especially when paired with mass spectrometry detection, formic acid offers several advantages over the more traditionally used phosphoric acid. ### Other uses Formic acid is also significantly used in the production of leather, including tanning (23% of the global consumption in 2009), and in dyeing and finishing textiles (9% of the global consumption in 2009) because of its acidic nature. Use as a coagulant in the production of rubber consumed 6% of the global production in 2009. Formic acid is also used in place of mineral acids for various cleaning products, such as limescale remover and toilet bowl cleaner. Some formate esters are artificial flavorings and perfumes. Formic acid application has been reported to be an effective treatment for warts. Safety ------ Formic acid has low toxicity (hence its use as a food additive), with an LD50 of 1.8 g/kg (tested orally on mice). The concentrated acid is corrosive to the skin. Formic acid is readily metabolized and eliminated by the body. Nonetheless, it has specific toxic effects; the formic acid and formaldehyde produced as metabolites of methanol are responsible for the optic nerve damage, causing blindness, seen in methanol poisoning. Some chronic effects of formic acid exposure have been documented. Some experiments on bacterial species have demonstrated it to be a mutagen. Chronic exposure in humans may cause kidney damage. Another possible effect of chronic exposure is development of a skin allergy that manifests upon re-exposure to the chemical. Concentrated formic acid slowly decomposes to carbon monoxide and water, leading to pressure buildup in the containing vessel. For this reason, 98% formic acid is shipped in plastic bottles with self-venting caps. The hazards of solutions of formic acid depend on the concentration. The following table lists the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals for formic acid solutions: | Concentration (weight percent) | Pictogram | H-Phrases | | --- | --- | --- | | 2–10% | GHS07: Exclamation mark | H315 | | 10–90% | GHS05: Corrosive | H313 | | >90% | GHS05: Corrosive | H314 | Formic acid in 85% concentration is flammable, and diluted formic acid is on the U.S. Food and Drug Administration list of food additives. The principal danger from formic acid is from skin or eye contact with the concentrated liquid or vapors. The U.S. OSHA Permissible Exposure Level (PEL) of formic acid vapor in the work environment is 5 parts per million parts of air (ppm). See also -------- * Orthoformic acid * Formic acid vehicle

Formic acid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formic_acid

**Marseille** (/mɑːrˈseɪ/ *mar-SAY*, French: [maʁsɛj] (), locally [maχˈsɛjə] (); also spelled in English as **Marseilles**; Occitan: *Marselha* [maʀˈsejɔ, -ˈsijɔ]; Italian: *Marsiglia*) is the prefecture of the French department of Bouches-du-Rhône and capital of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Situated in the Provence region of southern France, it is located on the coast of the Gulf of Lion, part of the Mediterranean Sea, near the mouth of the Rhône river. Its occupants are called *Marseillais*. Marseille is the second most populous city in France, with 870,321 inhabitants in 2020 (Jan. census) over a municipal territory of 241 km2 (93 sq mi). Together with its suburbs and exurbs, the Marseille metropolitan area, which extends over 3,972 km2 (1,534 sq mi), had a population of 1,879,601 at the Jan. 2020 census, the third most populated in France after those of Paris and Lyon. The cities of Marseille, Aix-en-Provence, and 90 suburban municipalities have formed since 2016 the Aix-Marseille-Provence Metropolis, an indirectly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of wider metropolitan issues, with a population of 1,903,173 at the Jan. 2020 census. Founded around 600 BC by Greek settlers from Phocaea, Marseille is the oldest city in France, as well as one of Europe's oldest continuously inhabited settlements. It was known to the ancient Greeks as Massalia (Greek: Μασσαλία, romanized: *Massalía*) and to Romans as *Massilia*. The name *Massalia* probably derives from *μᾶζα* (mass, lump, barley-cake), the "lump" being the La Garde rock. Marseille has been a trading port since ancient times. In particular, it experienced a considerable commercial boom during the colonial period and especially during the 19th century, becoming a prosperous industrial and trading city. Nowadays the Old Port still lies at the heart of the city, where the manufacture of Marseille soap began some six centuries ago. Overlooking the port is the Basilica of Notre-Dame-de-la-Garde or "Bonne-mère" for the people of Marseille, a Romano-Byzantine church and the symbol of the city. Inherited from this past, the Grand Port Maritime de Marseille (GPMM) and the maritime economy are major poles of regional and national activity and Marseille remains the first French port, the second Mediterranean port and the fifth European port. Since its origins, Marseille's openness to the Mediterranean Sea has made it a cosmopolitan city marked by cultural and economic exchanges with Southern Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and Asia. In Europe, the city has the third largest Jewish community after London and Paris. In the 1990s, the Euroméditerranée project for economic development and urban renewal was launched. New infrastructures and renovations were carried out in the 2000s and 2010s: the tramway, the renovation of the Hôtel-Dieu into a luxury hotel, the expansion of the Velodrome Stadium, the CMA CGM Tower, as well as other quayside museums such as the Museum of Civilisations of Europe and the Mediterranean (MuCEM). As a result, Marseille now has the most museums in France after Paris. The city was named European Capital of Culture in 2013 and European Capital of Sport in 2017. Home of the association football club Olympique de Marseille, one of the most successful and widely supported clubs in France, Marseille has also hosted matches at the 1998 World Cup and Euro 2016. It is also home to several higher education institutions in the region, including the University of Aix-Marseille. Geography --------- Marseille is the third-largest metropolitan area in France after Paris and Lyon. To the east, starting in the small fishing village of Callelongue on the outskirts of Marseille and stretching as far as Cassis, are the Calanques, a rugged coastal area interspersed with small fjord-like inlets. Farther east still are the Sainte-Baume (a 1,147 m (3,763 ft) mountain ridge rising from a forest of deciduous trees), the city of Toulon and the French Riviera. To the north of Marseille, beyond the low Garlaban and Etoile mountain ranges, is the 1,011 m (3,317 ft) Mont Sainte Victoire. To the west of Marseille is the former artists' colony of l'Estaque; farther west are the Côte Bleue, the Gulf of Lion and the Camargue region in the Rhône delta. The airport lies to the north west of the city at Marignane on the Étang de Berre. The city's main thoroughfare (the wide boulevard called the Canebière) stretches eastward from the Old Port to the Réformés quarter. Two large forts flank the entrance to the Old Port—Fort Saint-Nicolas on the south side and Fort Saint-Jean on the north. Farther out in the Bay of Marseille is the Frioul archipelago which comprises four islands, one of which, If, is the location of Château d'If, made famous by the Dumas novel *The Count of Monte Cristo*. The main commercial centre of the city intersects with the Canebière at Rue St Ferréol and the Centre Bourse (one of the city's main shopping malls). The centre of Marseille has several pedestrianised zones, most notably Rue St Ferréol, Cours Julien near the Music Conservatory, the Cours Honoré-d'Estienne-d'Orves off the Old Port and the area around the Hôtel de Ville. To the south east of central Marseille in the 6th arrondissement are the Prefecture and the monumental fountain of Place Castellane, an important bus and metro interchange. To the south west are the hills of the 7th and 8th arrondissements, dominated by the basilica of Notre-Dame de la Garde. Marseille's main railway station—Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles—is north of the Centre Bourse in the 1st arrondissement; it is linked by the Boulevard d'Athènes to the Canebière. ### Climate The city has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa*) with cool-mild winters with moderate rainfall, because of the wet westerly winds, and hot, mostly dry summers, due to the dry winds blowing from the Sahara at that period. December, January, and February are the coldest months, averaging temperatures of around 12 °C (54 °F) during the day and 4 °C (39 °F) at night. July and August are the hottest months, averaging temperatures of around 28–30 °C (82–86 °F) during the day and 19 °C (66 °F) at night in the Marignane airport (35 km (22 mi) from Marseille) but in the city near the sea the average high temperature is 27 °C (81 °F) in July. Marseille receives the most sunlight of any French city, 2,858 hours per year on average, while the average sunshine in the country is around 1,950 hours. It is also the driest major city with only 512 mm (20 in) of precipitation annually, mainly due to the mistral, a cold, dry wind originating in the Rhône Valley that occurs mostly in winter and spring and which generally brings clear skies and sunny weather to the region. Less frequent is the sirocco, a hot, sand-bearing wind, coming from the Sahara. Snowfalls are infrequent; over 50% of years do not experience a single snowfall. The hottest temperature was 40.6 °C (105.1 °F) on 26 July 1983 during a great heat wave, the lowest temperature was −16.8 °C (1.8 °F) on 13 February 1929 during a strong cold wave. | Climate data for Marseille-Marignane (Marseille Provence Airport), elevation: 36 m, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1921–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.9(67.8) | 22.5(72.5) | 25.4(77.7) | 29.6(85.3) | 34.9(94.8) | 39.6(103.3) | 39.7(103.5) | 39.2(102.6) | 34.3(93.7) | 30.4(86.7) | 25.2(77.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 39.7(103.5) | | Average high °C (°F) | 11.8(53.2) | 12.8(55.0) | 16.4(61.5) | 19.3(66.7) | 23.5(74.3) | 27.9(82.2) | 30.7(87.3) | 30.5(86.9) | 25.9(78.6) | 21.3(70.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 12.4(54.3) | 20.7(69.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 7.7(45.9) | 8.3(46.9) | 11.4(52.5) | 14.3(57.7) | 18.4(65.1) | 22.5(72.5) | 25.2(77.4) | 24.9(76.8) | 20.9(69.6) | 17.0(62.6) | 11.7(53.1) | 8.4(47.1) | 15.9(60.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.6(38.5) | 3.7(38.7) | 6.5(43.7) | 9.4(48.9) | 13.3(55.9) | 17.2(63.0) | 19.7(67.5) | 19.4(66.9) | 15.9(60.6) | 12.6(54.7) | 7.7(45.9) | 4.4(39.9) | 11.1(52.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | −12.4(9.7) | −16.8(1.8) | −10.0(14.0) | −2.4(27.7) | 0.0(32.0) | 5.4(41.7) | 7.8(46.0) | 8.1(46.6) | 1.0(33.8) | −2.2(28.0) | −5.8(21.6) | −12.8(9.0) | −16.8(1.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 47.1(1.85) | 29.8(1.17) | 29.5(1.16) | 51.6(2.03) | 37.7(1.48) | 27.9(1.10) | 10.8(0.43) | 25.8(1.02) | 82.0(3.23) | 73.3(2.89) | 75.9(2.99) | 40.9(1.61) | 532.3(20.96) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 5.1 | 4.6 | 4.2 | 5.8 | 4.4 | 2.8 | 1.4 | 2.7 | 4.8 | 5.9 | 7.0 | 4.7 | 53.5 | | Average snowy days | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 1.9 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 147.9 | 173.1 | 234.7 | 250.8 | 298.6 | 337.8 | 372.2 | 333.8 | 263.7 | 196.1 | 150.8 | 138.1 | 2,897.6 | | Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 | | Source 1: Météo France | | Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV) | | Climate data for Marseille (Longchamp observatory), elevation: 75 m, 1981–2003 averages, extremes 1868–2003 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 21.2(70.2) | 22.7(72.9) | 26.1(79.0) | 28.6(83.5) | 33.2(91.8) | 36.9(98.4) | 40.6(105.1) | 38.6(101.5) | 33.8(92.8) | 30.9(87.6) | 24.3(75.7) | 23.1(73.6) | 40.6(105.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 11.8(53.2) | 12.7(54.9) | 15.9(60.6) | 18.3(64.9) | 22.6(72.7) | 26.2(79.2) | 29.6(85.3) | 29.1(84.4) | 25.2(77.4) | 20.9(69.6) | 15.2(59.4) | 12.5(54.5) | 20.0(68.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.4(47.1) | 8.9(48.0) | 11.6(52.9) | 13.8(56.8) | 17.9(64.2) | 21.3(70.3) | 24.5(76.1) | 24.1(75.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 16.9(62.4) | 11.8(53.2) | 9.3(48.7) | 15.8(60.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 4.9(40.8) | 5.1(41.2) | 7.3(45.1) | 9.3(48.7) | 13.1(55.6) | 16.4(61.5) | 19.4(66.9) | 19.1(66.4) | 16.1(61.0) | 13.0(55.4) | 8.3(46.9) | 6.0(42.8) | 11.5(52.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −10.5(13.1) | −14.3(6.3) | −7.0(19.4) | −3.0(26.6) | 0.0(32.0) | 4.7(40.5) | 8.5(47.3) | 8.1(46.6) | 0.0(32.0) | −3.0(26.6) | −6.9(19.6) | −11.4(11.5) | −14.3(6.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 51.1(2.01) | 32.1(1.26) | 30.7(1.21) | 51.1(2.01) | 38.7(1.52) | 23.5(0.93) | 7.6(0.30) | 27.9(1.10) | 71.6(2.82) | 78.6(3.09) | 58.0(2.28) | 52.3(2.06) | 523.2(20.60) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 5.5 | 4.5 | 4.0 | 6.1 | 4.3 | 2.5 | 1.3 | 2.4 | 4.1 | 6.1 | 6.1 | 5.8 | 52.6 | | Source 1: Météo France | | Source 2: Infoclimat.fr | | Climate data for Marseille-Marignane (Marseille Provence Airport), elevation: 36 m, 1961-1990 normals and extremes | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.1(66.4) | 22.1(71.8) | 25.4(77.7) | 26.6(79.9) | 30.1(86.2) | 34.4(93.9) | 39.7(103.5) | 38.6(101.5) | 32.7(90.9) | 30.1(86.2) | 24.4(75.9) | 20.7(69.3) | 39.7(103.5) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 13.3(55.9) | 16.7(62.1) | 18.0(64.4) | 20.5(68.9) | 24.9(76.8) | 28.4(83.1) | 32.4(90.3) | 30.9(87.6) | 27.4(81.3) | 22.5(72.5) | 17.0(62.6) | 14.7(58.5) | 32.4(90.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 10.5(50.9) | 12.3(54.1) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.9(64.2) | 21.8(71.2) | 25.6(78.1) | 28.9(84.0) | 28.5(83.3) | 25.2(77.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 14.6(58.3) | 11.5(52.7) | 19.3(66.8) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 6.6(43.9) | 8.4(47.1) | 10.2(50.4) | 13.3(55.9) | 17.1(62.8) | 20.7(69.3) | 23.6(74.5) | 23.3(73.9) | 20.2(68.4) | 16.2(61.2) | 10.6(51.1) | 7.6(45.7) | 14.8(58.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.7(36.9) | 4.0(39.2) | 5.7(42.3) | 8.7(47.7) | 12.4(54.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.0(64.4) | 15.4(59.7) | 11.5(52.7) | 6.9(44.4) | 4.0(39.2) | 10.3(50.5) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | −1.6(29.1) | −0.6(30.9) | 2.4(36.3) | 6.2(43.2) | 10.1(50.2) | 14.2(57.6) | 16.5(61.7) | 16.4(61.5) | 13.3(55.9) | 6.8(44.2) | 3.8(38.8) | −0.3(31.5) | −1.6(29.1) | | Record low °C (°F) | −12.4(9.7) | −15.0(5.0) | −7.4(18.7) | 0.3(32.5) | 2.2(36.0) | 6.8(44.2) | 11.7(53.1) | 9.4(48.9) | 6.6(43.9) | 0.4(32.7) | −5.0(23.0) | −12.3(9.9) | −15.0(5.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 42.4(1.67) | 47.7(1.88) | 42.7(1.68) | 37.0(1.46) | 38.2(1.50) | 23.3(0.92) | 6.0(0.24) | 25.7(1.01) | 37.8(1.49) | 45.0(1.77) | 48.2(1.90) | 56.3(2.22) | 450.3(17.74) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6.5 | 6.0 | 5.5 | 5.3 | 4.9 | 3.5 | 1.6 | 3.0 | 3.6 | 5.8 | 5.1 | 6.0 | 56.8 | | Average snowy days | 0.8 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 2.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 75 | 72 | 67 | 65 | 64 | 63 | 59 | 62 | 69 | 74 | 75 | 77 | 69 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 150.0 | 155.5 | 215.1 | 244.8 | 292.5 | 326.2 | 366.4 | 327.4 | 254.3 | 204.5 | 155.5 | 143.3 | 2,835.5 | | Percent possible sunshine | 53 | 53 | 59 | 62 | 65 | 72 | 79 | 77 | 68 | 61 | 54 | 52 | 63 | | Source 1: NOAA | | Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity) | History ------- Marseille was founded as the Greek colony of Massalia circa 600 BC, and was populated by Greek settlers from Phocaea (modern Foça, Turkey). It became the preeminent Greek *polis* in the Hellenized region of southern Gaul. The city-state sided with the Roman Republic against Carthage during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), retaining its independence and commercial empire throughout the western Mediterranean even as Rome expanded its empire into Western Europe and North Africa. However, the city lost its independence following the Roman Siege of Massilia in 49 BC, during Caesar's Civil War, in which Massalia sided with the exiled faction at war with Julius Caesar. Afterward, the Gallo-Roman culture was initiated. The city maintained its position as a premier maritime trading hub even after its capture by the Visigoths in the fifth century AD, although the city went into decline following the sack of AD 739 by the forces of Charles Martel against the Umayyad Arabs. It became part of the County of Provence during the tenth century, although its renewed prosperity was curtailed by the Black Death of the 14th century and a sack of the city by the Crown of Aragon in 1423. The city's fortunes rebounded with the ambitious building projects of René of Anjou, Count of Provence, who strengthened the city's fortifications during the mid-15th century. During the 16th century, the city hosted a naval fleet with the combined forces of the Franco-Ottoman alliance, which threatened the ports and navies of the Genoese Republic. Marseille lost a significant portion of its population during the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720, but the population had recovered by mid-century. In 1792, the city became a focal point of the French Revolution, and though France's national anthem was born in Strasbourg, it was first sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille, hence the name the crowd gave it: *La Marseillaise*. The Industrial Revolution and establishment of the Second French colonial empire during the 19th century allowed for the further expansion of the city, although it was occupied by the German Wehrmacht in November 1942 and subsequently heavily damaged during World War II. The city has since become a major center for immigrant communities from former French colonies in Africa, such as French Algeria. Economy ------- Marseille is a major French centre for trade and industry, with excellent transportation infrastructure (roads, sea port and airport). Marseille Provence Airport is the fourth largest in France. In May 2005, the French financial magazine *L'Expansion* named Marseille the most dynamic of France's large cities, citing figures showing that 7,200 companies had been created in the city since 2000. As of 2019[update], the Marseille metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to US$81.4 billion, or US$43,430 per capita (purchasing power parity). ### Port Historically, the economy of Marseille was dominated by its role as a port of the French Empire, linking the North African colonies of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia with Metropolitan France. The Old Port was replaced as the main port for trade by the Port de la Joliette (now part of Marseille-Fos Port) during the Second Empire and now contains restaurants, offices, bars and hotels and functions mostly as a private marina. The majority of the port and docks, which experienced decline in the 1970s after the oil crisis, have been recently redeveloped with funds from the European Union. Fishing remains important in Marseille and the food economy of Marseille is fed by the local catch; a daily fish market is still held on the Quai des Belges of the Old Port. The economy of Marseille and its region is still linked to its commercial port, the first French port and the fifth European port by cargo tonnage, which lies north of the Old Port and eastern in Fos-sur-Mer. Some 45,000 jobs are linked to the port activities and it represents €4 billion of added value to the regional economy. 100 million tons of freight pass annually through the port, 60% of which is petroleum, making it number one in France and the Mediterranean and number three in Europe. However, in the early 2000s, the growth in container traffic was being stifled by the constant strikes and social upheaval. The port is among the 20th firsts in Europe for container traffic with 1,062,408 TEU and new infrastructure has already raised the capacity to 2 million TEU. Marseille is connected with the Rhône via a canal and thus has access to the extensive waterway network of France. Petroleum is shipped northward to the Paris basin by pipeline. The city also serves as France's leading centre of oil refining. ### Companies, services and high technologies In recent years,[*when?*] the city has also experienced a large growth in service sector employment and a switch from light manufacturing to a cultural, high-tech economy. The Marseille region is home to thousands of companies, 90% of which are small and medium enterprises with less than 500 employees.[*full citation needed*] Among the most famous ones are CMA CGM, container-shipping giant; Compagnie maritime d'expertises (Comex), world leader in sub-sea engineering and hydraulic systems; Airbus Helicopters, an Airbus division; Azur Promotel, an active real estate development company; *La Provence*, the local daily newspaper; RTM, Marseille's public transport company; and Société Nationale Maritime Corse Méditerranée (SNCM), a major operator in passenger, vehicle and freight transportation in the Western Mediterranean. The urban operation Euroméditerranée has developed a large offer of offices and thus Marseille hosts one of the main business district in France. Marseille is the home of three main technopoles: Château-Gombert (technological innovations), Luminy (biotechnology) and La Belle de Mai (17,000 sq.m. of offices dedicated to multimedia activities). ### Tourism and attractions The port is also an important arrival base for millions of people each year, with 2.4 million including 890,100 from cruise ships. With its beaches, history, architecture and culture (24 museums and 42 theatres), Marseille is one of the most visited cities in France, with 4.1 million visitors in 2012. They take place in three main sites, the Palais du Pharo, Palais des Congrès et des Expositions (Parc Chanot) and World Trade Center. In 2012 Marseille hosted the World Water Forum. Several urban projects have been developed to make Marseille attractive. Thus new parks, museums, public spaces and real estate projects aim to improve the city's quality of life (Parc du 26e Centenaire, Old Port of Marseille, numerous places in Euroméditerranée) to attract firms and people. Marseille municipality acts to develop Marseille as a regional nexus for entertainment in the south of France with high concentration of museums, cinemas, theatres, clubs, bars, restaurants, fashion shops, hotels, and art galleries. ### Employment Unemployment in the economy fell from 20% in 1995 to 14% in 2004.[*needs update*] However, Marseille unemployment rate remains higher than the national average. In some parts of Marseille, youth unemployment is reported to be as high as 40%.[*needs update*] Administration -------------- The city of Marseille is divided into 16 municipal arrondissements, which are themselves informally divided into 111 neighbourhoods (French: *quartiers*). The arrondissements are regrouped in pairs, into 8 sectors, each with a mayor and council (like the arrondissements in Paris and Lyon). Municipal elections are held every six years and are carried out by sector. There are 303 councilmembers in total, two-thirds sitting in the sector councils and one third in the city council. The 9th arrondissement of Marseille is the largest in terms of area because it comprises parts of Calanques National Park. With a population of 89,316 (2007), the 13th arrondissement of Marseille is the most populous one. From 1950 to the mid-1990s, Marseille was a Socialist (PS) and Communist (PCF) stronghold. Gaston Defferre (PS) was consecutively reelected six times as Mayor of Marseille from 1953 until his death in 1986. He was succeeded by Robert Vigouroux of the European Democratic and Social Rally (RDSE). Jean-Claude Gaudin of the conservative UMP was elected Mayor of Marseille in 1995. Gaudin was reelected in 2001, 2008 and 2014. In recent years, the Communist Party has lost most of its strength in the northern boroughs of the city, whereas the National Front has received significant support. At the last municipal election in 2014, Marseille was divided between the northern arrondissements dominated by the left (PS) and far-right (FN) and the southern part of town dominated by the conservative (UMP). Marseille is also divided in twelve cantons, each of them sending two members to the Departmental Council of the Bouches-du-Rhône department. ### Mayors of Marseille since the beginning of the 20th century | Mayor | Term start | Term end |   | Party | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Siméon Flaissières [fr] | 1895 | 1902 | | POF | | Albin Curet [fr] (acting) | 1902 | 1902 | | Independent | | Jean-Baptiste-Amable Chanot [fr] | 1902 | 1908 | | FR | | Emmanuel Allard [fr] | 1908 | 1910 | | FR | | Clément Lévy (acting) | 1910 | 1910 | | Independent | | Bernard Cadenat | 1910 | 1912 | | SFIO | | Jean-Baptiste-Amable Chanot [fr] | 1912 | 1914 | | FR | | Eugène Pierre [fr] | 1914 | 1919 | | Independent | | Siméon Flaissières [fr] | 1919 | 1931 | | SFIO | | Simon Sabiani | 1931 | 1931 | | Independent | | Georges Ribot [fr] | 1931 | 1935 | | RAD | | Henri Tasso | 1935 | 1939 | | SFIO | | *Nominated administrators* | 1939 | 1946 | | Independent | | Jean Cristofol | 1946 | 1947 | | PCF | | Michel Carlini | 1947 | 1953 | | RPF | | Gaston Defferre | 1953 | 1986 | | SFIO, PS | | Jean-Victor Cordonnier [fr] (acting) | 1986 | 1986 | | PS | | Robert Vigouroux | 1986 | 1995 | | PS, DVG | | Jean-Claude Gaudin | 1995 | 2020 | | UDF-PR, DL, UMP, LR | | Michèle Rubirola | 2020 | 2020 | | EELV | | | Benoît Payan | 2020 | *Incumbent* | | PS | Demographics ------------ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Population of the commune of Marseille (241 km²)(within 2020 borders)| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1800 | 96,413 | —     | | 1806 | 99,169 | +0.47% | | 1821 | 109,483 | +0.66% | | 1831 | 145,115 | +2.86% | | 1836 | 146,239 | +0.15% | | 1841 | 154,035 | +1.04% | | 1846 | 183,186 | +3.47% | | 1851 | 195,258 | +1.28% | | 1856 | 233,817 | +3.86% | | 1861 | 260,910 | +2.19% | | 1866 | 300,131 | +2.84% | | 1872 | 312,864 | +0.69% | | 1876 | 318,868 | +0.42% | | 1881 | 360,099 | +2.38% | | 1886 | 376,143 | +0.96% | | 1891 | 403,749 | +1.47% | | 1896 | 442,239 | +1.85% | | 1901 | 491,161 | +2.13% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1906 | 517,498 | +1.06% | | 1911 | 550,619 | +1.25% | | 1921 | 586,341 | +0.63% | | 1926 | 600,196 | +0.47% | | 1931 | 609,881 | +0.32% | | 1936 | 620,232 | +0.34% | | 1946 | 636,264 | +0.26% | | 1954 | 661,407 | +0.48% | | 1962 | 778,071 | +2.10% | | 1968 | 889,029 | +2.25% | | 1975 | 908,600 | +0.31% | | 1982 | 874,436 | −0.54% | | 1990 | 800,550 | −1.10% | | 1999 | 798,430 | −0.03% | | 2009 | 850,602 | +0.65% | | 2014 | 858,120 | +0.18% | | 2020 | 870,321 | +0.24% | | | | | All figures come from population censuses. Figures from 1926 to 1936 (incl.) are the redressed figures calculated by INSEE to correct the overestimated population of Marseille published by the municipal authorities at the time (10,000s of false residents had been added by the municipal authorities to artificially inflate the population figures and remain the 2nd largest city of France ahead of Lyon).Source: EHESS and INSEE | | Population of the Marseille metropolitan area (3,972 km²)(92 communes, within 2020 borders)| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1800 | 249,235 | —     | | 1806 | 256,191 | +0.46% | | 1821 | 274,426 | +0.46% | | 1831 | 315,951 | +1.42% | | 1836 | 319,252 | +0.20% | | 1841 | 328,244 | +0.56% | | 1846 | 360,774 | +1.88% | | 1851 | 373,521 | +0.70% | | 1856 | 413,542 | +2.16% | | 1861 | 446,330 | +1.52% | | 1866 | 486,571 | +1.74% | | 1872 | 496,241 | +0.33% | | 1876 | 500,458 | +0.19% | | 1881 | 532,643 | +1.22% | | 1886 | 545,220 | +0.52% | | 1891 | 569,762 | +0.91% | | 1896 | 608,754 | +1.34% | | 1901 | 660,766 | +1.66% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1906 | 688,924 | +0.85% | | 1911 | 723,847 | +0.99% | | 1921 | 759,119 | +0.48% | | 1926 | 791,464 | +0.84% | | 1931 | 818,346 | +0.67% | | 1936 | 839,596 | +0.51% | | 1946 | 870,126 | +0.36% | | 1954 | 936,888 | +0.91% | | 1962 | 1,120,791 | +2.32% | | 1968 | 1,324,444 | +2.82% | | 1975 | 1,470,128 | +1.51% | | 1982 | 1,551,793 | +0.77% | | 1990 | 1,594,849 | +0.34% | | 1999 | 1,675,790 | +0.55% | | 2009 | 1,800,563 | +0.73% | | 2014 | 1,834,927 | +0.38% | | 2020 | 1,879,601 | +0.40% | | | | | All figures come from population censuses. Figures from 1926 to 1936 (incl.) use for the commune of Marseille the redressed figures calculated by INSEE to correct the overestimated population published by the municipal authorities at the time (10,000s of false residents had been added by the municipal authorities to artificially inflate the population figures and remain the 2nd largest city of France ahead of Lyon).Source: EHESS and INSEE | | ### Immigration Because of its pre-eminence as a Mediterranean port, Marseille has always been one of the main gateways into France. This has attracted many immigrants and made Marseille a cosmopolitan melting pot. By the end of the 18th century about half the population originated from elsewhere in Provence mostly and also from southern France.[*page needed*] Economic conditions and political unrest in Europe and the rest of the world brought several other waves of immigrants during the 20th century: Greeks and Italians started arriving at the end of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century, up to 40% of the city's population was of Italian origin; Russians in 1917; Armenians in 1915 and 1923; Vietnamese in the 1920s, 1954 and after 1975; Corsicans during the 1920s and 1930s; Spanish after 1936; Maghrebis (both Arab and Berber) in the inter-war period; Sub-Saharan Africans after 1945; Maghrebi Jews in the 1950s and 1960s; the Pieds-Noirs from the former French Algeria in 1962; and then from Comoros. At the 2019 census, 81.4% of the inhabitants of the Marseille metropolitan area were natives of Metropolitan France, 0.6% were born in Overseas France, and 18.0% were born in foreign countries (two-fifth of whom French citizens from birth, in particular Pieds-Noirs from Algeria arrived in Metropolitan France after the independence of Algeria in 1962). A quarter of the immigrants living in the Marseille metropolitan area were born in Europe (half of them in Italy, Portugal, and Spain), 46% were born in the Maghreb (almost two-third of them in Algeria), 14% in the rest of Africa (almost half of them in the Indian Ocean islands of Comoros, Madagascar, and Mauritius, not counting those born in Réunion and Mayotte who are not legally immigrants), and 15.0% in the rest of the world (not counting those born in the French overseas departments of the Americas and in the French territories of the South Pacific, who are not legally immigrants). Currently, about one third of the population of Marseille can trace their roots back to Italy. Marseille also has the second-largest Corsican and Armenian populations of France. Other significant communities include Maghrebis, Turks, Comorians, Chinese, and Vietnamese. The largest immigrant communities are Italians (290,000 Italians, or 33%), then Muslims - mainly Maghrebis (200,000 Muslims, or 23%), then Corsicans (100,000 Corsicans, or 11.5%), then Armenians (80,000 Armenians, or 9%). In 1999, in several arrondissements, about 40% of the young people under 18 were of Maghrebi origin (at least one immigrant parent). Since 2013 a significant number of Central- and Eastern European immigrants have settled in Marseille, attracted by better job opportunities and the good climate of this Mediterranean city. The main nationalities of the immigrants are Romanian and Polish. Place of birth of residents of the Marseille metropolitan area at the 2019 census| Born inMetropolitan France | Born inOverseas France | Born in foreigncountries with Frenchcitizenship at birth | Immigrants | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 81.4% | 0.6% | 7.1% | 10.9% | | from Europe | from the Maghreb | from Africa (excl. Maghreb) | | 2.7% | 5.0% | 1.5% | | from Turkey | from Asia (excl. Turkey) | from the Americas & Oceania | | 0.4% | 1.0% | 0.3% | | **^a** Persons born abroad of French parents, such as Pieds-Noirs and children of French expatriates.**^b** An immigrant is by French definition a person born in a foreign country and who did not have French citizenship at birth. Note that an immigrant may have acquired French citizenship since moving to France, but is still listed as an immigrant in French statistics. On the other hand, persons born in France with foreign citizenship (the children of immigrants) are not listed as immigrants.**^c** Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria | | Source: INSEE | Place of birth of residents of the city proper of Marseille at the 1999 and 2019 censuses| Year | Born inMetropolitan France | Born inOverseas France | Born in foreigncountries with Frenchcitizenship at birth | Immigrants | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2019 | 75.9% | 0.8% | 8.2% | 15.1% | | from Europe | from the Maghreb | from Africa (excl. Maghreb) | | 2.6% | 7.5% | 2.7% | | from Turkey | from Asia (excl. Turkey) | from the Americas & Oceania | | 0.6% | 1.4% | 0.3% | | 1999 | 78.9% | 0.9% | 8.8% | 11.4% | | from EU-15 | non-EU-15 | | 2.1% | 9.3% | | **^a** Persons born abroad of French parents, such as Pieds-Noirs and children of French expatriates.**^b** An immigrant is by French definition a person born in a foreign country and who did not have French citizenship at birth. Note that an immigrant may have acquired French citizenship since moving to France, but is still listed as an immigrant in French statistics. On the other hand, persons born in France with foreign citizenship (the children of immigrants) are not listed as immigrants.**^c** Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria | | Source: INSEE | ### Religion According to data from 2010, major religious communities in Marseille include: * Christians - 909,930 or 84.5% (Roman Catholic 68.5%, Armenian Apostolic 7.5%, Protestant [mostly Pentecostal] 7.1%, Eastern Orthodox 1.4%) * Muslim - 200,000 or 25% * Non-religious -156.000 or 14.5% * Jewish - 52,000 - 80,000 or 4.9% * Hindu - 4,000 or 0.4% * Buddhist - 3,000 or 0.3%. Culture ------- Marseille is a city that has its own unique culture and is proud of its differences from the rest of France. Today it is a regional centre for culture and entertainment with an important opera house, historical and maritime museums, five art galleries and numerous cinemas, clubs, bars and restaurants. Marseille has a large number of theatres, including La Criée, Le Gymnase and the Théâtre Toursky. There is also an extensive arts centre in La Friche, a former match factory behind the Saint-Charles station. The Alcazar, until the 1960s a well known music hall and variety theatre, has recently been completely remodelled behind its original façade and now houses the central municipal library. Other music venues in Marseille include Le Silo (also a theatre) and GRIM. Marseille has also been important in the arts. It has been the birthplace and home of many French writers and poets, including Victor Gélu [fr], Valère Bernard, Pierre Bertas, Edmond Rostand and André Roussin. The small port of l'Estaque on the far end of the Bay of Marseille became a favourite haunt for artists, including Auguste Renoir, Paul Cézanne (who frequently visited from his home in Aix), Georges Braque and Raoul Dufy. ### Multi-cultural influences Rich and poor neighborhoods exist side by side. Although the city is not without crime, Marseille has a larger degree of multicultural tolerance. Urban geographers say the city's geography, being surrounded by mountains, helps explain why Marseille does not have the same problems as Paris. In Paris, ethnic areas are segregated and concentrated in the periphery of the city. Residents of Marseille are of diverse origins, yet appear to share a similar particular identity. An example is how Marseille responded in 2005, when ethnic populations living in other French cities' suburbs rioted, but Marseille remained relatively calm. Marseille served as the European Capital of Culture for 2013 along with Košice. It was chosen to give a 'human face' to the European Union to celebrate cultural diversity and to increase understanding between Europeans. One of the intentions of highlighting culture is to help reposition Marseille internationally, stimulate the economy, and help to build better interconnection between groups. Marseille-Provence 2013 (MP2013) featured more than 900 cultural events held throughout Marseille and the surrounding communities. These cultural events generated more than 11 million visits. The European Capital of Culture was also the occasion to unveil more than 600 million euros in new cultural infrastructure in Marseille and its environs, including the MuCEM designed by Rudy Ricciotti. Early on, immigrants came to Marseille locally from the surrounding Provence region. By the 1890s immigrants came from other regions of France as well as Italy. Marseille became one of Europe's busiest port by 1900. Marseille has served as a major port where immigrants from around the Mediterranean arrive. Marseille continued to be multicultural. Armenians from the Ottoman Empire began arriving in 1913. In the 1930s, Italians settled in Marseille. After World War II, a wave of Jewish immigrants from North Africa arrived. In 1962, a number of French colonies gained their independence, and the French citizens from Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia arrived in Marseille. The city had an economic downturn and lost many jobs. Those who could afford to move left and the poorest remained. For a while, the mafia appeared to run the city, and for a period of time the communist party was prominent. Multi-cultural Marseille can be observed by a visitor at the market at Noailles, also called Marché des Capucins, in old town near the Old Port. There, Lebanese bakeries, an African spice market, Chinese and Vietnamese groceries, fresh vegetables and fruit, shops selling couscous, shops selling Caribbean food are side by side with stalls selling shoes and clothing from around the Mediterranean. Nearby, people sell fresh fish and men from Tunisia drink tea. Although most Armenians arrived after the Armenian Genocide, Armenians had a long presence even before the 20th and late 19th centuries. Armenians, having an extensive trade network worldwide, massively traded with Marseille and its port. Most notably, during the 16th century, and after the Armenians gained a monopoly over Iranian silk, which was granted to them by Shah Abbas of Iran, the trade flow of Armenians of Marseille increased tremendously. Merchants of Armenian origin received trade privileges in France by Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu (1585–1642) and later on Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683) Marseille a free port in 1669. One notable Armenian-Iranian merchant gained a patent from Louis XIV (1638–1715) over Iranian silk. Armenians also became successful money-lenders and bankers in the city. Due to these policies and the multiculturalism of the city of Marseille, Armenians became very wealthy, and the legacy of the Armenians in the city still lives on. ### Tarot de Marseille The most commonly used tarot deck takes its name from the city; it has been called the *Tarot de Marseille* since the 1930s—a name coined for commercial use by the French cardmaker and cartomancer Paul Marteau, owner of B–P Grimaud. Previously this deck was called *Tarot italien* (Italian Tarot) and even earlier it was simply called Tarot. Before being *de Marseille*, it was used to play the local variant of tarocchi before it became used in cartomancy at the end of the 18th century, following the trend set by Antoine Court de Gébelin. The name *Tarot de Marseille* (Marteau used the name *ancien Tarot de Marseille*) was used by contrast to other types of Tarots such as *Tarot de Besançon*; those names were simply associated with cities where there were many cardmakers in the 18th century (previously several cities in France were involved in cardmaking). Another local tradition is the making of santons, small hand-crafted figurines for the traditional Provençal Christmas creche. Since 1803, starting on the last Sunday of November, there has been a Santon Fair in Marseille; it is currently held in the Cours d'Estienne d'Orves, a large square off the Vieux-Port. ### Opera Marseille's main cultural attraction was, since its creation at the end of the 18th century and until the late 1970s, the Opéra. Located near the Old Port and the Canebière, at the very heart of the city, its architectural style was comparable to the classical trend found in other opera houses built at the same time in Lyon and Bordeaux. In 1919, a fire almost completely destroyed the house, leaving only the stone colonnade and peristyle from the original façade. The classical façade was restored and the opera house reconstructed in a predominantly Art Deco style, as the result of a major competition. Currently the Opéra de Marseille stages six or seven operas each year. Since 1972, the Ballet national de Marseille has performed at the opera house; its director from its foundation to 1998 was Roland Petit. ### Popular events and festivals There are several popular festivals in different neighborhoods, with concerts, animations, and outdoor bars, like the Fête du Panier in June. On 21 June, there are dozens of free concerts in the city as part of France's Fête de la Musique, featuring music from all over the world. Being free events, many Marseille residents attend. Marseille hosts a Gay Pride event in early July. In 2013, Marseille hosted Europride, an international LGBT event, 10 July–20. At the beginning of July, there is the International Documentary Festival. At the end of September, the electronic music festival Marsatac takes place. In October, the *Fiesta des Suds* offers many concerts of world music. ### Hip hop music Marseille is also well known in France for its hip hop music. Bands like IAM originated from Marseille. Other known groups include Fonky Family, Psy 4 de la Rime (including rappers Soprano and Alonzo), and Keny Arkana. In a slightly different way, ragga music is represented by Massilia Sound System. ### Food * Bouillabaisse is the most famous seafood dish of Marseille. It is a fish stew containing at least three varieties of very fresh local fish: typically red rascasse (Scorpaena scrofa); sea robin (fr: *grondin*); and European conger (fr: *congre*). It can include gilt-head bream (fr: *dorade*); turbot; monkfish (fr: *lotte* or *baudroie*); mullet; or silver hake (fr: *merlan*), and it usually includes shellfish and other seafood such as sea urchins (fr: *oursins*), mussels (fr: *moules*); velvet crabs (fr: *étrilles*); spider crab (fr: *araignées de mer*), plus potatoes and vegetables. In the traditional version, the fish is served on a platter separate from the broth. The broth is served with rouille, a mayonnaise made with egg yolk, olive oil, red bell pepper, saffron, and garlic, spread on pieces of toasted bread, or *croûtons*. In Marseille, bouillabaisse is rarely made for fewer than ten people; the more people who share the meal, and the more different fish that are included, the better the bouillabaisse. * Aïoli is a sauce made from raw garlic, lemon juice, eggs and olive oil, served with boiled fish, hard boiled eggs and cooked vegetables. * Anchoïade [fr] is a paste made from anchovies, garlic, and olive oil, spread on bread or served with raw vegetables. * Bourride is a soup made with white fish (monkfish, European sea bass, whiting, etc.) and aïoli. * Fougasse is a flat Provençal bread, similar to the Italian focaccia. It is traditionally baked in a wood oven and sometimes filled with olives, cheese or anchovies. * Navette de Marseille [fr] are, in the words of food writer M. F. K. Fisher, "little boat-shaped cookies, tough dough tasting vaguely of orange peel, smelling better than they are." * Farinata#French variations is chickpea flour boiled into a thick mush, allowed to firm up, then cut into blocks and fried. * Pastis is an alcoholic beverage made with aniseed and spice. It is extremely popular in the region. * Pieds paquets is a dish prepared from sheep's feet and offal. * Pistou is a combination of crushed fresh basil and garlic with olive oil, similar to the Italian pesto. The "soupe au pistou" combines pistou in a broth with pasta and vegetables. * Tapenade is a paste made from chopped olives, capers, and olive oil (sometimes anchovies may be added). ### Films set in Marseille Marseille has been the setting for many films. Main sights ----------- Marseille is listed as a major centre of art and history. The city has many museums and galleries and there are many ancient buildings and churches of historical interest. ### Central Marseille Most of the attractions of Marseille (including shopping areas) are located in the 1st, 2nd, 6th and 7th arrondissements. These include: * The Old Port or Vieux-Port, the main harbour and marina of the city. It is guarded by two massive forts (Fort Saint-Nicolas and Fort Saint-Jean) and is one of the main places to eat in the city. Dozens of cafés line the waterfront. The Quai des Belges at the end of the harbour is the site of the daily fish market. Much of the northern quayside area was rebuilt by the architect Fernand Pouillon after its destruction by the Nazis in 1943. * The Hôtel de Ville (City Hall), a baroque building dating from the 17th century. * The Centre Bourse and the adjacent Rue St Ferreol district (including Rue de Rome and Rue Paradis), the main shopping area in central Marseille. * The Porte d'Aix, a triumphal arch commemorating French victories in the Spanish Expedition. * The Hôtel-Dieu, a former hospital in *Le Panier*, transformed into an InterContinental hotel in 2013. * La Vieille Charité in *Le Panier*, an architecturally significant building designed by the Puget brothers. The central baroque chapel is situated in a courtyard lined with arcaded galleries. Originally built as an alms house, it is now home to an archeological museum and a gallery of African and Asian art, as well as bookshops and a café. It also houses the Marseille International Poetry Centre. * The Cathedral of Sainte-Marie-Majeure or La Major, founded in the fourth century, enlarged in the 11th century and completely rebuilt in the second half of the 19th century by the architects Léon Vaudoyer and Henri-Jacques Espérandieu. The present day cathedral is a gigantic edifice in Romano-Byzantine style. A romanesque transept, choir and altar survive from the older medieval cathedral, spared from complete destruction only as a result of public protests at the time. * The 12th-century parish church of Saint-Laurent and adjoining 17th-century chapel of Sainte-Catherine, on the quayside near the cathedral. * The Abbey of Saint-Victor, one of the oldest places of Christian worship in Europe. Its fifth-century crypt and catacombs occupy the site of a Hellenic burial ground, later used for Christian martyrs and venerated ever since. Continuing a medieval tradition, every year at Candlemas a Black Madonna from the crypt is carried in procession along Rue Sainte for a blessing from the archbishop, followed by a mass and the distribution of "navettes" and green votive candles. ### Museums In addition to the two in the Centre de la Vieille Charité, described above, the main museums are: * The Musée des Civilisations de l'Europe et de la Méditerranée (MuCEM) and the Villa Méditerranée were inaugurated in 2013. The MuCEM is devoted to the history and culture of European and Mediterranean civilisations. The adjacent Villa Méditerranée, an international centre for cultural and artistic interchange, is partially constructed underwater. The site is linked by footbridges to the Fort Saint-Jean and to the Panier. * The Musée Regards de Provence, opened in 2013, is located between the Cathedral of Notre Dame de la Majeur and the Fort Saint-Jean. It occupies a converted port building constructed in 1945 to monitor and control potential sea-borne health hazards, in particular epidemics. It now houses a permanent collection of historical artworks from Provence as well as temporary exhibitions. * The Musée du Vieux Marseille, housed in the 16th-century Maison Diamantée, describing everyday life in Marseille from the 18th century onwards. * The Musée des Docks Romains preserves in situ the remains of Roman commercial warehouses, and has a small collection of objects, dating from the Greek period to the Middle Ages, that were uncovered on the site or retrieved from shipwrecks. * The Marseille History Museum (Musée d'Histoire de Marseille), devoted to the history of the town, located in the Centre Bourse. It contains remains of the Greek, and Roman history of Marseille as well as the best preserved hull of a sixth-century boat in the world. Ancient remains from the Hellenic port are displayed in the adjacent archeological gardens, the *Jardin des Vestiges*. * The Musée Cantini, a museum of modern art near the Palais de Justice. It houses artworks associated with Marseille as well as several works by Picasso. * The Musée Grobet-Labadié, opposite the Palais Longchamp, houses an exceptional collection of European objets d'art and old musical instruments. * The 19th-century Palais Longchamp, designed by Esperandieu, is located in the Parc Longchamp. Built on a grand scale, this italianate colonnaded building rises up behind a vast monumental fountain with cascading waterfalls. The jeux d'eau marks and masks the entry point of the Canal de Provence into Marseille. Its two wings house the Musée des beaux-arts de Marseille (a fine arts museum), and the Natural History Museum (Muséum d'histoire naturelle de Marseille). * The Château Borély is located in the Parc Borély, a park off the Bay of Marseille with the Jardin botanique E.M. Heckel, a botanical garden. The Museum of the Decorative Arts, Fashion and Ceramics opened in the renovated château in June 2013. * The Musée d'Art Contemporain de Marseille [fr] (MAC), a museum of contemporary art, opened in 1994. It is devoted to American and European art from the 1960s to the present day. * The Musée du Terroir Marseillais [fr] in Château-Gombert, devoted to Provençal crafts and traditions. * The MuCEM, Musée Regards de Provence and Villa Mediterannée, with Notre Dame de la Majeur on the rightThe MuCEM, Musée Regards de Provence and Villa Mediterannée, with Notre Dame de la Majeur on the right * The sixteenth century Maison Diamantée which houses the Musée du Vieux MarseilleThe sixteenth century Maison Diamantée which houses the Musée du Vieux Marseille * The music room in the Grobet-Labadié museumThe music room in the Grobet-Labadié museum * The Palais Longchamp with its monumental fountainThe Palais Longchamp with its monumental fountain ### Outside central Marseille The main attractions outside the city centre include: * The 19th-century Basilica of Notre-Dame de la Garde, an enormous Romano-Byzantine basilica built by architect Espérandieu in the hills to the south of the Old Port. The terrace offers views of Marseille and its surroundings. * The Stade Vélodrome, the home stadium of the city's main football team, Olympique de Marseille. * The Unité d'Habitation, an influential and iconic modernist building designed by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier in 1952. On the third floor is the gastronomic restaurant, Le Ventre de l'Architecte. On the roof is the contemporary gallery MaMo opened in 2013. * The Docks de Marseille, a 19th-century warehouse transformed into offices. * The Pharo Gardens, a park with views of the Mediterranean and the Old Port. * The Corniche, a waterfront road between the Old Port and the Bay of Marseille. * The beaches at the Prado, Pointe Rouge, Les Goudes, Callelongue and Le Prophète. * The Calanques, a mountainous coastal area, is home to Calanques National Park which became France's tenth national park in 2012. * The islands of the Frioul archipelago in the Bay of Marseille, accessible by ferry from the Old Port. The prison of Château d'If was one of the settings for The Count of Monte Cristo, the novel by Alexandre Dumas. The neighbouring islands of Ratonneau and Pomègues are joined by a human-made breakwater. The site of a former garrison and quarantine hospital, these islands are also of interest for their marine wildlife. Education --------- A number of the faculties of the three universities that comprise Aix-Marseille University are located in Marseille: * University of Provence * Université de la Méditerranée Aix-Marseille II * Université Paul Cézanne Aix-Marseille III In addition Marseille has four *grandes écoles*: * Ecole Centrale de Marseille part of Centrale Graduate School * École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies * Institut polytechnique des sciences avancées * KEDGE Business School The main French research bodies including the CNRS, INSERM and INRA are all well represented in Marseille. Scientific research is concentrated at several sites across the city, including Luminy, where there are institutes in developmental biology (the IBDML), immunology (CIML), marine sciences and neurobiology (INMED), at the CNRS Joseph Aiguier campus (a world-renowned institute of molecular and environmental microbiology) and at the Timone hospital site (known for work in medical microbiology). Marseille is also home to the headquarters of the IRD, which promotes research into questions affecting developing countries. Transport --------- ### International and regional transport The city is served by an international airport, Marseille Provence Airport, located in Marignane. The airport is the fifth busiest French airport, was known as the fourth most important European traffic growth in 2012. An extensive network of motorways connects Marseille to the north and west (A7), Aix-en-Provence in the north (A51), Toulon (A50) and the French Riviera (A8) to the east. Gare de Marseille Saint-Charles is Marseille's main railway station. It operates direct regional services to Aix-en-Provence, Briançon, Toulon, Avignon, Nice, Montpellier, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Nantes, etc. Gare Saint-Charles is also one of the main terminal stations for the TGV in the south of France making Marseille reachable in three hours from Paris (a distance of over 750 km) and just over one and a half hours from Lyon. There are also direct TGV lines to Lille, Brussels, Nantes, Geneva, Strasbourg and Frankfurt as well as Eurostar services to London (just in the summer) and Thello services to Milan (just one a day), via Nice and Genoa. There is a new long-distance bus station adjacent to new modern extension to the Gare Saint-Charles with destinations mostly to other Bouches-du-Rhône towns, including buses to Aix-en-Provence, Cassis, La Ciotat and Aubagne. The city is also served with 11 other regional trains stations in the east and the north of the city, including Marseille-Blancarde. Marseille has a large ferry terminal, the *Gare Maritime*, with services to Corsica, Sardinia, Algeria and Tunisia. ### Public transport Marseille is connected by the Marseille Métro train system operated by the *Régie des transports de Marseille* (RTM). It consists of two lines: Line 1 (blue) between Castellane and La Rose opened in 1977 and Line 2 (red) between Sainte-Marguerite-Dromel and Bougainville opened between 1984 and 1987. An extension of the Line 1 from Castellane to La Timone was completed in 1992, another extension from La Timone to La Fourragère (2.5 km (1.6 mi) and 4 new stations) was opened in May 2010. The Métro system operates on a turnstile system, with tickets purchased at the nearby adjacent automated booths. Both lines of the Métro intersect at Gare Saint-Charles and Castellane. Three bus rapid transit lines are under construction to better connect the Métro to farther places (Castellane -> Luminy; Capitaine Gèze – La Cabucelle -> Vallon des Tuves; La Rose -> Château Gombert – Saint Jérôme). An extensive bus network serves the city and suburbs of Marseille, with 104 lines and 633 buses. The three lines of the tramway, opened in 2007, go from the CMA CGM Tower towards Les Caillols. As in many other French cities, a bike-sharing service nicknamed "Le vélo", free for trips of less than half an hour, was introduced by the city council in 2007. A free ferry service operates between the two opposite quays of the Old Port. From 2011 ferry shuttle services operate between the Old Port and Pointe Rouge; in spring 2013 it will also run to l'Estaque. There are also ferry services and boat trips available from the Old Port to Frioul, the Calanques and Cassis. Sport ----- The city boasts a wide variety of sports facilities and teams. The most popular team is the city's football club, Olympique de Marseille, which was the finalist of the UEFA Champions League in 1991, before winning the competition in 1993, the only French club to do so as of 2022. The club also became finalists of the UEFA Europa League in 1999, 2004 and 2018. The club had a history of success under then-owner Bernard Tapie. The club's home, the Stade Vélodrome, which can seat around 67,000 people, also functions for other local sports, as well as the national rugby team. Stade Velodrome hosted a number of games during the 1998 FIFA World Cup, 2007 Rugby World Cup, and UEFA Euro 2016. The local rugby teams are Marseille XIII and Marseille Vitrolles Rugby. Marseille is famous for its important pétanque activity, it is even renowned as the *pétanque capitale*. In 2012 Marseille hosted the Pétanque World Championship and the city hosts every year the Mondial la Marseillaise de pétanque, the main pétanque competition. Sailing is a major sport in Marseille. The wind conditions allow regattas in the warm waters of the Mediterranean. Throughout most seasons of the year it can be windy while the sea remains smooth enough to allow sailing. Marseille has been the host of 8 (2010) Match Race France events which are part of the World Match Racing Tour. The event draws the world's best sailing teams to Marseille. The identical supplied boats (J Boats J-80 racing yachts) are raced two at a time in an on the water dogfight which tests the sailors and skippers to the limits of their physical abilities. Points accrued count towards the World Match Racing Tour and a place in the final event, with the overall winner taking the title ISAF World Match Racing Tour Champion. Match racing is an ideal sport for spectators in Marseille, as racing in close proximity to the shore provides excellent views. The city was also considered as a possible venue for 2007 America's Cup. CN Marseille has traditionally been one of France's dominant Water polo teams as it won the Championnat de France a total of 36 times. Marseille is also a place for other water sports such as windsurfing and powerboating. Marseille has three golf courses. The city has dozens of gyms and several public swimming pools. Running is also popular in many of Marseille's parks such as Le Pharo and Le Jardin Pierre Puget. An annual footrace is held between the city and neighbouring Cassis: the Marseille-Cassis Classique Internationale. Notable people -------------- Marseille was the birthplace of: * Pytheas (fl. fourth century BC), Greek merchant, geographer and explorer * Petronius (fl. first century AD), Roman novelist and satirist * Pierre Demours (1702–1795), physician * Pierre Blancard (1741-1826), introduced the chrysanthemum to France * Jean-Henri Gourgaud, aka. "Dugazon" (1746–1809), actor * Jean-Baptiste Benoît Eyriès (1767–1846), geographer, author and translator * Désirée Clary (1777–1860), wife of King Carl XIV Johan of Sweden, and therefore *Queen Desirée* or *Queen Desideria of Sweden* * Sabin Berthelot (1794–1880), naturalist and ethnologist * Adolphe Thiers (1797–1877), first president of the Third Republic * Étienne Joseph Louis Garnier-Pages (1801–1841), politician * Honoré Daumier (1808–1879), caricaturist and painter * Joseph Autran (1813–1877), poet * Charles-Joseph-Eugene de Mazenod (1782–1861), bishop of Marseille and founder of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate. * Lucien Petipa (1815–1898), ballet dancer * Joseph Mascarel (1816–1899), mayor of Los Angeles * Marius Petipa (1818–1910), ballet dancer and choreographer * Ernest Reyer (1823–1909), opera composer and music critic * Olivier Émile Ollivier (1825–1913), statesman * Victor Maurel (1848–1923), operatic baritone * Joseph Pujol, aka. "Le Pétomane" (1857–1945), entertainer * Charles Fabry (1867–1945), physicist * Edmond Rostand (1868–1918), poet and dramatist * Pavlos Melas (1870–1904), Greek army officer * Louis Nattero, (1870–1915), painter * Vincent Scotto (1876–1952), guitarist, songwriter * Charles Camoin (1879–1965), fauvist painter * Henri Fabre (1882–1984), aviator and inventor of the first seaplane * Frédéric Mariotti (1883–1971), actor * Darius Milhaud (1892–1974), composer and teacher * Berty Albrecht (1893–1943), French Resistance, Croix de Guerre * Antonin Artaud (1897–1948), author * Henri Tomasi (1901–1971), composer and conductor * Zino Francescatti (1902–1991), violinist * Fernandel (1903–1971), actor * Marie-Madeleine Fourcade (1909–1989), French Resistance, Commander of the Légion d'honneur * Éliane Browne-Bartroli (Eliane Plewman, 1917–1944), French Resistance, Croix de Guerre * César Baldaccini (1921–1998), sculptor * Louis Jourdan (1921–2015), actor * Jean-Pierre Rampal (1922–2000), flautist * Alice Colonieu, (1924–2010), ceramist * Paul Mauriat (1925–2006), orchestra leader, composer * Maurice Béjart (1927–2007), ballet choreographer * Régine Crespin (1927–2007), opera singer * Ginette Garcin (1928–2010), actor * André di Fusco (1932–2001), known as André Pascal, songwriter, composer * Henry de Lumley (born 1934), archaeologist * Sacha Sosno (1937–2013), sculptor * Michel Lazdunski (born 1938), biochemist * Jean-Pierre Ricard (born 1944), cardinal, archbishop of Bordeaux * Georges Chappe (born 1944), cyclist * Jean-Claude Izzo (1945–2000), author * Denis Ranque (born 1952), businessman * Ariane Ascaride (born 1954), actress * Myriam Fox-Jerusalmi (born 1961), world champion slalom canoer * Eric Cantona (born 1966), Manchester United and France national team football player * Patrick Fiori (born 1969), singer * Marc Panther (born 1970), member of the popular Japanese rock band Globe * Zinedine Zidane (born 1972), professional football player and former captain of the France national football team * Romain Barnier (born 1976), freestyle swimmer * Sébastien Grosjean (born 1978), tennis player * Philippe Echaroux (born 1983), photographer * Mathieu Flamini (born 1984), football player * Rémy Di Gregorio (born 1985), cyclist * Jessica Fox (born 1994), French-born Australian slalom canoer International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Marseille is twinned with 14 cities, all of them being port cities, with the exception of Marrakech. * Ivory Coast Abidjan, Ivory Coast (1958) * Belgium Antwerp, Belgium (1958) * Denmark Copenhagen, Denmark (1958) * Senegal Dakar, Senegal (1968) * Italy Genoa, Italy (1958) * Scotland Glasgow, Scotland (2006) * Israel Haifa, Israel (1958) * Germany Hamburg, Germany (1958) * Japan Kobe, Japan (1961) * Morocco Marrakech, Morocco (2004) * Ukraine Odesa, Ukraine (1972) * Greece Piraeus, Greece (1984) * China Shanghai, China (1987) * Tunisia Tunis, Tunisia (1989) ### Partner cities In addition, Marseille has signed various types of formal agreements of cooperation with 27 cities all over the world: * Morocco Agadir, Morocco (2003) * Egypt Alexandria, Egypt (1990) * Algeria Algiers, Algeria (1980) * Mali Bamako, Mali (1991) * Spain Barcelona, Spain (1998) * Lebanon Beirut, Lebanon (2003) * Morocco Casablanca, Morocco (1998) * Poland Gdańsk, Poland (1992) * Turkey Istanbul, Turkey (2003) * Israel Jerusalem (2006) * Cyprus Limassol, Cyprus * Togo Lomé, Togo (1995) * France Lyon, France * Morocco Meknes, Morocco (1998) * Uruguay Montevideo, Uruguay (1999) * France Nice, France * France Nîmes, France * Morocco Rabat, Morocco (1989) * Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia (2013) * Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina (2003) * Greece Thessaloniki, Greece * Albania Tirana, Albania (1991) * Libya Tripoli, Libya (1991) * Tunisia Tunis, Tunisia (1998) * Chile Valparaíso, Chile (2013) * Bulgaria Varna, Bulgaria (2007) * Armenia Yerevan, Armenia (1992) See also -------- * List of films set in Marseille * Marcel Pagnol * Marseille Marine Fire Battalion * Marseille soap ### Bibliography * Palanque, J.R. (1990). "Ligures, Celtes et Grecs" [Ligures, Celts and Greeks]. In Baratier, Edouard (ed.). *Histoire de la Provence* [*History of Provence*]. Univers de la France (in French). Toulouse: Editions Privat. ISBN 2-7089-1649-1. * Abulafia, David, ed. (1999). *The New Cambridge Medieval History*. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36289-X. * Duchêne, Roger; Contrucci, Jean (1998). *Marseille, 2600 ans d'histoire* [*Marseille, 2600 Years of History*] (in French). Paris: Editions Fayard. ISBN 2-213-60197-6. * Kitson, Simon (2014). *Police and Politics in Marseille, 1936–1945*. Amsterdam: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-24835-9. * Liauzu, Claude (1996). *Histoire des migrations en Méditerranée occidentale* [*History of Migration in the Western Mediterranean*] (in French). Brussels: Editions Complexe. ISBN 2-87027-608-7. * Trott, Victoria (2007). Cannon, Gwen; Watkins, Gaven (eds.). *Provence*. London: Michelin Apa Publications. ISBN 978-1-906261-29-0. Further reading --------------- * Cobb, Richard (2001). *Marseille* (in French). Paris: Allia. ISBN 978-2-84485-064-5. * Savitch, H.V.; Kantor, Paul (2002). *Cities in the International Market Place: The Political Economy of Urban Development in North America and Western Europe*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09159-5. * Peraldi, Michel; Samson, Michel (2006). *Gouverner Marseille : Enquête sur les mondes politiques marseillais*. Editions La Découverte. ISBN 2-7071-4964-0. * Busquet, Raoul (1954). *Histoire de la Provence des origines à la révolution française*. Éditions Jeanne Lafitte. ISBN 2-86276-319-5. * Attard-Marainchi, Marie-Françoise; Échinard, Pierre; Jordi, Jean-Jacques; Lopez, Renée; Sayad, Abdelmalek; Témime, Émile (2007). *Migrance – histoires des migrations à Marseille*. Éditions Jeanne Laffitte. ISBN 978-2-86276-450-4., single book comprising 4 separate volumes: *La préhistoire de la migration* (1482–1830); *L'expansion marseillaise et "l'invasion italienne"* (1830–1918); *Le cosomopolitisme de l'entre-deux-guerres* (1919–1945); *Le choc de la décolonisation* (1945–1990).

Marseille

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marseille

**Polytheism** is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God who is, in most cases, transcendent. In religions that accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses may be representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles; they can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator deity or transcendental absolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies). Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally; they can be henotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity, or kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times. Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the development and spread of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which enforce monotheism. It is well documented throughout history, from prehistory and the earliest records of ancient Egyptian religion and ancient Mesopotamian religion to the religions prevalent during Classical antiquity, such as ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and in ethnic religions such as Germanic, Slavic, and Baltic paganism and Native American religions. Notable polytheistic religions practiced today include Taoism, Shenism or Chinese folk religion, Japanese Shinto, Santería, most Traditional African religions, and various neopagan faiths such as Wicca. Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to be pantheists and others consider themselves to be monotheists. Both are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith. Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of monotheism and polytheism, holding that Brahman is the sole *ultimate reality* of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping multiple gods and goddesses. Terminology ----------- The term comes from the Greek πολύ *poly* ("many") and θεός *theos* ("god") and was coined by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were just called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) or pagans (locals) or by the clearly pejorative term idolaters (worshippers of "false" gods). In modern times, the term polytheism was first revived in French by Jean Bodin in 1580, followed by Samuel Purchas's usage in English in 1614. Soft versus hard ---------------- A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called soft polytheism and hard polytheism. "Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychological archetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g. Odin, Zeus, and Indra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known as omnitheism. In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures. "Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may also reject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether. Gods and divinity ----------------- The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights, and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped. Types of deities ---------------- Types of deities often found in polytheism may include: * Creator deity * Culture hero * Death deity (chthonic) * Life-death-rebirth deity * Love goddess * Mother goddess * Political deity (such as a king or emperor) * Sky deity (celestial) * Solar deity * Trickster deity * Water deity * Lunar deity * Deities of music, arts, science, farming, or other endeavors Religion and mythology ---------------------- In the Classical era, 4th century CE Neoplatonist Sallustius categorized mythology into five types: 1. Theological: myths that contemplate the essence of the gods, such as Cronus swallowing his children, which Sallustius regarded as expressing in allegory the essence of divinity 2. Physical: expressing the activities of gods in the world 3. Psychological: myths as allegories of the activities of the soul itself or the soul's acts of thought 4. Material: regarding material objects as gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, the ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon 5. Mixed The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",[*unreliable source?*] though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished[*according to whom?*] from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice. Scholars such as Jaan Puhvel, J. P. Mallory, and Douglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancient Proto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *\*dyēus*, which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples. Ancient and historical religions -------------------------------- Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods, the Egyptian gods, the pantheon attested in Classical Antiquity (in ancient Greek and Roman religion), the Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, and the Aztec gods. In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the Æsir–Vanir war in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with the ancient Egyptian deity Osiris, who was later worshipped in ancient Greece. Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited the empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. ### Ancient Greece The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus, this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves' *The Greek Myths* cites two sources that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did. Hades was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom was counted among their number in antiquity. Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature. Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Greek religion tempered Etruscan cult and belief to form much of the later Roman religion. During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools like Epicureanism developed distinct theologies. Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship. Folk religions -------------- The majority of so-called "folk religions" in the world today (distinguished from traditional ethnic religions) are found in the Asia-Pacific region. This fact conforms to the trend of the majority of polytheist religions being found outside the western world. Folk religions are often closely tied to animism. Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present in monotheistic societies. Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known as priesthoods, or any formal sacred texts. They often coincide with other religions as well. Abrahamic monotheistic religions, which dominate the western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others. Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions. Modern religions ---------------- ### Buddhism Buddhism is typically classified as non-theistic, but depending on the type of Buddhism practiced, it may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods. The Buddha is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god. Devas, a Sanskrit word for *gods*, are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. They may have been humans who had positive karma in their life and were reborn as a deva. A common Buddhist practice is tantra, which is the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing yourself as a deity, and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents. Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the Japanese Shinto religion, in which deities called kami are worshipped, is sometimes mixed with Buddhism. ### Christianity Although Christianity is usually described as a monotheistic religion, it is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of the Trinity. The Trinity believes that God consists of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Because the deity is in three parts, some people believe Christianity should be considered a form of Tritheism or Polytheism. Christians contend that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance," but that a deity cannot be a person, who has one individual identity. Christianity inherited the idea of one God from Judaism, and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith. Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism to be the normal state in human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he complains, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at least henotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the *King of Heaven*, as Matteo Ricci did. In 1508, a London Lollard named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods. #### Mormonism Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods". Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism, teaches exaltation defined as the idea that people can become like god in the afterlife. Mormonism also affirms the existence of a Heavenly Mother, and the prevailing view among Mormons is that God the Father was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and who became perfect after following this higher God. Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in the Book of Mormon describe a trinitarian conception of God (e.g. 2 Nephi 31:21; Alma 11:44), but were superseded by later revelations. Due to teachings within Mormon cosmology, some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods. Mormons teach that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a oneness of purpose, not of substance. They believe that the early Christian church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism) into Christian doctrine. Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God, who is the literal Father of the spirits of humans. It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as He is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Christ's teaching that those who receive God's word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36), because as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes. Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine. ### Hinduism Hinduism is not a monolithic religion: a wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural. Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures. Hindus venerate deities in the form of the *murti*, or idol. The *Puja* (worship) of the murti is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, there are sects who have advocated that there is no need of giving a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond the things which human can see or feel tangibly. Especially the Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Brahmo Samaj founded by Ram Mohan Roy (there are others also) do not worship deities. Arya Samaj favours Vedic chants and Havan, while Brahmo Samaj stresses simple prayers. Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta. Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others. Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four of them propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be, and is often approached through worship of Murtis, called "Archa-Vigraha", which are described in the Vedas as identical with His various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology. The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Adi Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, without will, without thought, without intelligence. In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, and Kali, but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the Atman. Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic, and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness." Sita Ram Goel, another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote: > "I had an occasion to read the typescript of a book [Ram Swarup] had finished writing in 1973. It was a profound study of Monotheism, the central dogma of both Islam and Christianity, as well as a powerful presentation of what the monotheists denounce as Hindu Polytheism. I had never read anything like it. It was a revelation to me that Monotheism was not a religious concept but an imperialist idea. I must confess that I myself had been inclined towards Monotheism till this time. I had never thought that a multiplicity of Gods was the natural and spontaneous expression of an evolved consciousness." > > Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The Rig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows: > > They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. *To what is One*, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. **Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda** > > > ### Zoroastrianism Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, but Zoroastrianism does not deny other deities. Ahura Mazda has yazatas ("good agents") some of which include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya. Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshiped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita. Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos". Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism". ### Tengrism The nature of Tengrism remains debatable. According to many scholars, Tengrism was originally polytheistic, but a monotheistic branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as the supreme being evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches. It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles, and, perhaps, only by the 12th-13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire). According to Jean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved later out of a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...". Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, the sky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism. The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic native religious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists. ### Modern Paganism **Modern Paganism**, also known as **neopaganism** and **contemporary paganism**, is a group of contemporary religious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe. Although they have commonalities, contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse and no single set of beliefs, practices, or texts are shared by them all. Founder of modern paganism Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism. English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of *soft polytheism*. In her novel *The Sea Priestess*, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator." #### Reconstructionism Reconstructionist polytheists apply scholarly disciplines such as history, archaeology and language study to revive ancient, traditional religions that have been fragmented, damaged or even destroyed, such as Norse Paganism, Roman and Celtic. A reconstructionist endeavors to revive and reconstruct an authentic practice, based on the ways of the ancestors but workable in contemporary life. These polytheists sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only as inspired by historical religions but in many cases as a continuation or revival of those religions.[*self-published source?*] #### Wicca Wicca is a duotheistic faith created by Gerald Gardner that allows for polytheism. Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound). It is an orthopraxic mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood in order to consider oneself Wiccan. Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature. ### Serer In Africa, polytheism in Serer religion dates to the Neolithic Era or possibly earlier, when the ancient ancestors of the Serer people represented their *Pangool* on the Tassili n'Ajjer. The supreme creator deity in Serer religion is Roog. However, there are many deities and Pangool (singular : *Fangool*, the interceders with the divine) in Serer religion. Each one has its own purpose and serves as Roog's agent on Earth. Amongst the Cangin speakers, a sub-group of the Serers, Roog is known as Koox. Use as a term of abuse ---------------------- The term "polytheist" is sometimes used by Sunni Muslim extremist groups such as Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as a derogatory reference to Shiite Muslims, whom they view as having "strayed from Islam's monotheistic creed because of the reverence they show for historical figures, like Imam Ali". Professor Paul Vitz, an opponent of Selfism, viewed America as a "most polytheistic nation". Polydeism --------- **Polydeism** (from the Greek πολύ *poly* ("many") and Latin *deus* meaning god) is a portmanteau referencing a polytheistic form of deism, encompassing the belief that the universe was the collective creation of multiple gods, each of whom created a piece of the universe or multiverse and then ceased to intervene in its evolution. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in deism, that a monotheistic God created the universe, but now expresses no apparent interest in it, by supposing that if the universe is the construct of many gods, none of them would have an interest in the universe as a whole. Creighton University Philosophy professor William O. Stephens, who has taught this concept, suggests that C. D. Broad projected this concept in Broad's 1925 article, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God". Broad noted that the arguments for the existence of God only tend to prove that "a designing mind *had* existed in the past, not that it *does* exist now. It is quite compatible with this argument that God should have died long ago, or that he should have turned his attention to other parts of the Universe", and notes in the same breath that "there is nothing in the facts to suggest that there is only one such being". Stephens contends that Broad, in turn, derived the concept from David Hume. Stephens states: > David Hume's criticisms of the argument from design include the argument that, for all we know, a committee of very powerful, but not omnipotent, divine beings could have collaborated in creating the world, but then afterwards left it alone or even ceased to exist. This would be polydeism. > > This use of the term appears to originate at least as early as Robert M. Bowman Jr.'s 1997 essay, *Apologetics from Genesis to Revelation*. Bowman wrote: > Materialism (illustrated by the Epicureans), represented today by atheism, skepticism, and deism. The materialist may acknowledge superior beings, but they do not believe in a Supreme Being. Epicureanism was founded about 300 BC by Epicurus. Their world view might be called "polydeism:" there are many gods, but they are merely superhuman beings; they are remote, uninvolved in the world, posing no threat and offering no hope to human beings. Epicureans regarded traditional religion and idolatry as harmless enough as long as the gods were not feared or expected to do or say anything. > > Sociologist Susan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book, *Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women*, which includes a chapter titled, "No Father in Heaven: Androgyny and Polydeism". She writes that she has "chosen to gloss on 'polydeism' a range of beliefs in more than one supernatural entity". Sered used this term in a way that would encompass polytheism, rather than exclude much of it, as she intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems that assert the influence of "spirits or ancestors". This use of the term, however, does not accord with the historical misuse of *deism* as a concept to describe an absent creator god. See also -------- * Animism * Ethnic religion * Hellenismos * Judgement of Paris * Monolatry * Pantheism * Panentheism * Polytheistic reconstructionism * Shirk (polytheism) * West African Vodun * Henotheism * Kathenotheism Further reading --------------- * Assmann, Jan, 'Monotheism and Polytheism' in: Sarah Iles Johnston (ed.), *Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide*, Harvard University Press (2004), ISBN 0-674-01517-7, pp. 17–31. * Burkert, Walter, *Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical*, Blackwell (1985), ISBN 0-631-15624-0. * Greer, John Michael; *A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism*, ADF Publishing (2005), ISBN 0-9765681-0-1 * Iles Johnston, Sarah; *Ancient Religions*, Belknap Press (September 15, 2007), ISBN 0-674-02548-2 * Paper, Jordan; *The Deities are Many: A Polytheistic Theology*, State University of New York Press (March 3, 2005), ISBN 978-0-7914-6387-1 * Penchansky, David, *Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible* (2005), ISBN 0-664-22885-2. * Swarup, Ram, & Frawley, David (2001). *The word as revelation: Names of gods*. New Delhi: Voice of India. ISBN 978-8185990682

Polytheism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytheism

The **International Space Station** (**ISS**) is the largest modular space station in low Earth orbit. The project involves five space agencies: the United States' NASA, Russia's Roscosmos, Japan's JAXA, Europe's ESA, and Canada's CSA. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which scientific research is conducted in astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields. The ISS is suited for testing the spacecraft systems and equipment required for possible future long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS programme evolved from the Space Station *Freedom*, a 1984 American proposal to construct a permanently crewed Earth-orbiting station, and the contemporaneous Soviet/Russian *Mir-2* proposal from 1976 with similar aims. The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian *Salyut*, Almaz, and *Mir* stations and the American Skylab. It is the largest artificial object in the Solar System and the largest satellite in low Earth orbit, regularly visible to the naked eye from Earth's surface. It maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi) by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the *Zvezda* Service Module or visiting spacecraft. The ISS circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day. The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is operated by Russia, while the United States Orbital Segment (USOS) is run by the United States as well as other countries. The Russian segment includes six habitable modules. The US segment includes seven habitable modules, whose support services are distributed 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA. The length along the major axis of the pressurized sections is 218 ft (66 m), and the total habitable volume of these sections is 13,696 cu ft (387.8 m3). Roscosmos had previously endorsed the continued operation of ROS through 2024, having proposed using elements of the segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. However, continued cooperation has been rendered uncertain by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and subsequent international sanctions on Russia, which may cause changes in funding on their side of the space station. The first ISS component was launched in 1998, and the first long-term residents arrived on 2 November 2000 after being launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on 31 October 2000. The station has since been continuously occupied for 22 years and 236 days, the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of 9 years and 357 days held by the *Mir* space station. The latest major pressurised module, *Nauka*, was fitted in 2021, a little over ten years after the previous major addition, *Leonardo* in 2011. In January 2022, the station's operation authorization was extended to 2030, with funding secured within the United States through that year. There have been calls to privatize ISS operations after that point to pursue future Moon and Mars missions, with former NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine stating: "given our current budget constraints, if we want to go to the moon and we want to go to Mars, we need to commercialize low Earth orbit and go on to the next step." The ISS consists of pressurised habitation modules, structural trusses, photovoltaic solar arrays, thermal radiators, docking ports, experiment bays and robotic arms. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets and US Space Shuttles. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the SpaceX Dragon 2, and the Northrop Grumman Space Systems Cygnus, and formerly the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle, and SpaceX Dragon 1. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth, which is used, for example, to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. As of April 2022[update], 251 astronauts, cosmonauts, and space tourists from 20 different nations have visited the space station, many of them multiple times. History ------- In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called *Freedom* as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. In 1984 the ESA was invited to participate in Space Station *Freedom*, and the ESA approved the Columbus laboratory by 1987. The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), or *Kibō*, was announced in 1985, as part of the *Freedom* space station in response to a NASA request in 1982. In early 1985, science ministers from the European Space Agency (ESA) countries approved the *Columbus* programme, the most ambitious effort in space undertaken by that organisation at the time. The plan spearheaded by Germany and Italy included a module which would be attached to *Freedom*, and with the capability to evolve into a full-fledged European orbital outpost before the end of the century. The space station was also going to tie the emerging European and Japanese national space programmes closer to the US-led project, thereby preventing those nations from becoming major, independent competitors too. In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station. They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be involved in the Mir programme, including American Shuttles docking, in the Shuttle–*Mir* programme. On 12 April 2021, at a meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin, then-Deputy Prime Minister Yury Borisov announced he had decided that Russia might withdraw from the ISS programme in 2025. According to Russian authorities, the timeframe of the station's operations has expired and its condition leaves much to be desired. On 26 July 2022, Borisov, who had become head of Roscosmos, submitted to Putin his plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024. However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of space station operations, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans. On 21 September 2022, Borisov stated that Russia was "highly likely" to continue to participate in the ISS programme until 2028. Purpose ------- The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have been realised. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes. ### Scientific research Comet Lovejoy photographed by Expedition 30 commander Dan BurbankExpedition 8 Commander and Science Officer Michael Foale conducts an inspection of the Microgravity Science Glovebox Fisheye view of several labs and the Space ShuttleCubeSats are deployed by the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers. The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences. Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease. Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance. Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs. On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS. According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays". The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity. Some simple forms of life called extremophiles, as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation. Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars. Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult. In August 2020, scientists reported that bacteria from Earth, particularly *Deinococcus radiodurans* bacteria, which is highly resistant to environmental hazards, were found to survive for three years in outer space, based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of panspermia, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed in various ways, including space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids or contaminated spacecraft. Remote sensing of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have dramatically increased during the 2010s after the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined aerosols, ozone, lightning, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Sun, cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3, ISS-RapidScat, ECOSTRESS, the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation, and the Cloud Aerosol Transport System. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include SOLAR, the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope, the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI), and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer. #### Freefall Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects: * Drag from the residual atmosphere. * Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew. * Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment gyroscopes. * Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes. * Gravity-gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a rigid body. Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space. Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of superconductivity. The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground. Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits. ### Exploration The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance as well as repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states that "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations". Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS. In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars." A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership. NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort". Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects. ### Education and cultural outreach The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email. ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. In one lesson, students can navigate a 3D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time. The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society". Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life. In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of *Kibō* utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields. Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science." Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station. *First Orbit* is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during Expedition 26/27. The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website *firstorbit.org*. In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station, which was released on YouTube. It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space. In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on Wikipedia articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia. In November 2021, a virtual reality exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced. Construction ------------ ### Manufacturing Since the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the U.S. components *Destiny*, *Unity*, the Integrated Truss Structure, and the solar arrays were fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Michoud Assembly Facility. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch. The Russian modules, including *Zarya* and *Zvezda*, were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. *Zvezda* was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for *Mir-2*, but was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module. The European Space Agency (ESA) *Columbus* module was manufactured at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe. The other ESA-built modules – *Harmony*, *Tranquility*, the *Leonardo* MPLM, and the *Cupola* – were initially manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory in Turin, Italy. The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing. The Japanese Experiment Module *Kibō*, was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tsukuba Space Center, and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. The *Kibo* module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the SSPF. The Mobile Servicing System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and the *Dextre* grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the David Florida Laboratory) and the United States, under contract by the Canadian Space Agency. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman. ### Assembly The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998. Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of *Rassvet*. All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); by 5 June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles. The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction. The first module of the ISS, *Zarya*, was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket. It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. A passive NASA module, *Unity*, was launched two weeks later aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to *Zarya* by astronauts during EVAs. The *Unity* module has two Pressurised Mating Adapters (PMAs): one connects permanently to *Zarya* and the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station. At that time, the Russian (Soviet) station *Mir* was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years. On 12 July 2000, the *Zvezda* module was launched into orbit. Onboard preprogrammed commands deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna. *Zvezda* then became the passive target for a rendezvous with *Zarya* and *Unity*, maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the *Zarya*–*Unity* vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. *Zarya*'s computer transferred control of the station to *Zvezda*'s computer soon after docking. *Zvezda* added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, and exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control, enabling permanent habitation of the station. The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign "*Alpha*", which he and cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome "*International Space Station*". The name "*Alpha*" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s, and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1. Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time. Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: "For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage." Yuriy Semenov [ru], the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "*Alpha*" as he felt that *Mir* was the first modular space station, so the names "*Beta*" or "*Mir* 2" for the ISS would have been more fitting. Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions STS-92 and STS-97. These two flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays to supplement the station's four existing arrays. Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the *Pirs* docking compartment. The Space Shuttles *Discovery*, *Atlantis*, and *Endeavour* delivered the *Destiny* laboratory and *Quest* airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure. The expansion schedule was interrupted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle *Columbia* disaster and a resulting hiatus in flights. The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by *Discovery*. Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with *Atlantis*, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the *Harmony* node and *Columbus* European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of *Kibō*. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of *Kibō* was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian *Poisk* module. The third node, *Tranquility*, was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle *Endeavour*, alongside the *Cupola*, followed by the penultimate Russian module, *Rassvet*, in May 2010. *Rassvet* was delivered by Space Shuttle *Atlantis* on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded *Zarya* module in 1998. The last pressurised module of the USOS, *Leonardo*, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of *Discovery*, STS-133. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by *Endeavour* on STS-134 the same year. By June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure. Two power modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2. are still to be launched. Russia's new primary research module *Nauka* docked in July 2021, along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station. Russia's latest addition, the nodal module *Prichal*, docked in November 2021. The gross mass of the station changes over time. The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about 417,289 kg (919,965 lb) (as of 3 September 2011[update]). The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators. Structure --------- The ISS is a modular space station. Modular stations can allow modules to be added to or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility. * Overview blueprint of componentsOverview blueprint of components * The ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing SpaceX Crew-2 capsuleThe ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing SpaceX Crew-2 capsule * Diagram structure of International Space Station after installation of iROSA solar arrays (as of 2023)Diagram structure of International Space Station after installation of iROSA solar arrays (as of 2023) Below is a diagram of major station components. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red. Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray. Other unpressurised components are yellow. The *Unity* node joins directly to the *Destiny* laboratory. For clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Russiandocking port | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | *Zvezda* DOS-8(service module) | | Solar array | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Russiandocking port | *Poisk* (MRM-2)airlock | | | | | | | | | *Pirs*airlock | Russiandocking port | | Means of attachmentof large payloads | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | Heat radiator | | | | | | | | *ERA*portable workpost | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | European (ERA)robotic arm | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Russiandocking port | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Nauka* MLM-U(lab) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Russiandocking port | | *Prichal* | | Russiandocking port | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | *Nauka* MLM-Uexperiment airlock | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Russian docking port via temporary adapter | | Russiandocking port | | Russiandocking port | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array (partially retracted) | | *Zarya* FGB(first module) | | Solar array (partially retracted) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Rassvet*(MRM-1) | Russiandocking port | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | PMA 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cargo spacecraftberthing port | | | *Leonardo*cargo bay | | | | | BEAMhabitat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Quest*airlock | | *Unity*Node 1 | | *Tranquility*Node 3 | | *Bishop*airlock | | | | | | | | | | | | | ESP-2 | | | | | | | *Cupola* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | iROSA | | | iROSA | | | | | | | | | | | iROSA | | | iROSA | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | | Solar array | | Heat radiator | | | Heat radiator | | | Solar array | | | Solar array | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ELC 2, AMS | | | | | Z1 truss | | | | | ELC 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | S5/6 Truss | S3/S4 Truss | S1 Truss | S0 Truss | P1 Truss | P3/P4 Truss | P5/6 Truss | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ELC 4, ESP 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ELC 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dextrerobotic arm | | | Canadarm2robotic arm | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | | Solar array | | | | | | | | | | | Solar array | | | Solar array | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | iROSA | | | iROSA | | | | | | | | | | | iROSA | | | iROSA | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ESP-1 | *Destiny*laboratory | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Kibō* logisticscargo bay | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | IDA 3docking adapter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cargo spacecraftberthing port | | | PMA 3docking port | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Kibō*robotic arm | | | | | | | External payloads | *Columbus*laboratory | | *Harmony*Node 2 | | *Kibō*laboratory | *Kibō*external platform | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Axiom modules | | PMA 2docking port | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | IDA 2docking adapter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ### Pressurised modules #### *Zarya* *Zarya* (Russian: Заря, lit. 'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the Russian: "Функционально-грузовой блок", lit. '*Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok*' or *ФГБ*), is the first module of the ISS to have been launched. The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly. With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, *Zarya,* as of August 2021*,* is primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks. The *Zarya* is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian *Salyut* program. The name *Zarya* ("Dawn") was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States. #### *Unity* The *Unity* connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS. It connects the Russian and U.S. segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together. The module is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations (forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections to other modules. *Unity* measures 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) in diameter, is 5.47 metres (17.9 ft) long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by Boeing in a manufacturing facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. *Unity* is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are *Harmony* and *Tranquility*. #### *Zvezda* *Zvezda* (Russian: Звезда, meaning "star"), *Salyut* DOS-8, is also known as the *Zvezda* Service Module. It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS. Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station. The module was manufactured by RKK Energia, with major sub-contracting work by GKNPTs Khrunichev. *Zvezda* was launched on a Proton rocket on 12 July 2000, and docked with the *Zarya* module on 26 July 2000. #### *Destiny* The *Destiny* module, also known as the U.S. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. It was berthed to the *Unity* module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001. *Destiny* is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974. The Boeing Company began construction of the 14.5-tonne (32,000 lb) research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. *Destiny* was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It launched on 7 February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle *Atlantis* on STS-98. Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields. Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science. #### *Quest* The Joint Airlock (also known as "Quest") is provided by the U.S. and provides the capability for ISS-based Extravehicular Activity (EVA) using either a U.S. Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) or Russian Orlan EVA suits. Before the launch of this airlock, EVAs were performed from either the U.S. Space Shuttle (while docked) or from the Transfer Chamber on the Service Module. Due to a variety of system and design differences, only U.S. space suits could be used from the Shuttle and only Russian suits could be used from the Service Module. The Joint Airlock alleviates this short-term problem by allowing either (or both) spacesuit systems to be used. The Joint Airlock was launched on ISS-7A / STS-104 in July 2001 and was attached to the right hand docking port of Node 1. The Joint Airlock is 20 ft. long, 13 ft. in diameter, and weighs 6.5 tons. The Joint Airlock was built by Boeing at Marshall Space Flight Center. The Joint Airlock was launched with the High Pressure Gas Assembly. The High Pressure Gas Assembly was mounted on the external surface of the Joint Airlock and will support EVAs operations with breathing gases and augments the Service Module's gas resupply system. The Joint Airlock has two main components: a crew airlock from which astronauts and cosmonauts exit the ISS and an equipment airlock designed for storing EVA gear and for so-called overnight "campouts" wherein Nitrogen is purged from astronaut's bodies overnight as pressure is dropped in preparation for spacewalks the following day. This alleviates the bends as the astronauts are repressurized after their EVA. The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock. It is equipped with lighting, external handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA). The UIA is located on one wall of the crew airlock and provides a water supply line, a wastewater return line, and an oxygen supply line. The UIA also provides communication gear and spacesuit power interfaces and can support two spacesuits simultaneously. This can be either two American EMU spacesuits, two Russian ORLAN spacesuits, or one of each design. #### *Poisk* *Poisk* (Russian: По́иск, lit. 'Search') was launched on 10 November 2009 attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2, on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. *Poisk* is used as the Russian airlock module, containing two identical EVA hatches. An outward-opening hatch on the *Mir* space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock. All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing. Poisk is used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provides contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits. The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS. Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on July 26, 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS. #### *Harmony* *Harmony*, also known as *Node 2*, is the "utility hub" of the ISS. It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data. Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here. *Harmony* was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on 23 October 2007. After temporarily being attached to the port side of the *Unity* node, it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the *Destiny* laboratory on 14 November 2007. *Harmony* added 75.5 m3 (2,666 cu ft) to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 percent, from 424.8 to 500.2 m3 (15,000 to 17,666 cu ft). Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be "U.S. Core Complete". #### *Tranquility* *Tranquility*, also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola. The European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency had *Tranquility* manufactured by Thales Alenia Space. A ceremony on 20 November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA. On 8 February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission. #### *Columbus* *Columbus* is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency. Like the *Harmony* and *Tranquility* modules, the *Columbus* laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle *Atlantis* on 7 February 2008, on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany. The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building *Columbus*, including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them. #### *Kibō* The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed *Kibō* (きぼう, *Kibō*, Hope), is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA. It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the *Harmony* module. The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final components were launched on STS-127. #### *Cupola* The *Cupola* is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word **cupola**, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the *Tranquility* (Node 3) module. With the *Cupola* attached, ISS assembly reached 85 percent completion. The *Cupola*'s central window has a diameter of 80 cm (31 in). #### *Rassvet* *Rassvet* (Russian: Рассвет; lit. "dawn"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (Russian: Малый исследовательский модуль, МИМ 1) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS). The module's design is similar to the *Mir* Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995. *Rassvet* is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft. It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle *Atlantis* on the STS-132 mission on 14 May 2010, and was connected to the ISS on 18 May 2010. The hatch connecting *Rassvet* with the ISS was first opened on 20 May 2010. On 28 June 2010, the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module. #### MLM outfittings In May 2010, equipment for *Nauka* was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle *Atlantis*. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of *Rassvet* (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the European Robotic Arm (ERA) (which was launched with *Nauka*) and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator, internal hardware and an experiment airlock for launching CubeSats to be positioned on the modified ASA-G forward port near the nadir end of the *Nauka* module. The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to *Nauka*, which enables the module to host more scientific experiments. The airlock is used only to pass experiments inside and outside the module, with the aid of ERA – very similar to the Japanese airlock and Nanoracks Bishop Airlock on the U.S. segment of the station. The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator and experiments airlock Shk from *Rassvet* and transfer them over to *Nauka* during VKD-56 and VKD-57 spacewalk respectively. This process took several months. A portable work platform will also be transferred over in near future, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks. Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO). Delivered in two parts to Nauka by Progress MS-18 (LCCS part) and Progress MS-21 (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process. It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk. #### *Leonardo* The *Leonardo* Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the International Space Station. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. *Leonardo* is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the US Orbital Segment. The *Leonardo* PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci. #### Bigelow Expandable Activity Module The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016, was berthed to the station on 16 April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016. #### International Docking Adapters The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the *Harmony* module. Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally, IDA-1 was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at *Harmony*'s forward port, and IDA-2 would be installed on PMA-3 at *Harmony*'s zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in a launch incident, IDA-2 was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016, while IDA-3 was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019. #### Bishop Airlock Module The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially funded airlock module launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020. The module was built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing. It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers. #### *Nauka* *Nauka* (Russian: Наука, lit. 'Science'), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: *Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль*, усоверше́нствованный, or *МЛМ-У)*, is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21 July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, *Nauka* was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the *Rassvet* module and moved to *Zarya*'s nadir port. *Nauka* was successfully docked to *Zvezda*'s nadir port on 29 July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the *Pirs* module. It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft. #### *Prichal* *Prichal*, also known as *Uzlovoy* Module or UM (Russian: Узловой Модуль Причал, lit. 'Nodal Module Berth'), is a 4-tonne (8,800 lb) ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM was launched in November 2021. It was integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo spacecraft and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the *Nauka* module. One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems. The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (OPSEK). ### Unpressurised elements The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted. The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 metres (356 ft) long. The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs). While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms. Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129, STS-133 and STS-134. As of January 2011[update], only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilised – the Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2 – which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).[*needs update*] There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the *Kibō* Exposed Facility serves as an external "porch" for the *Kibō* complex, and a facility on the European *Columbus* laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10, and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017. The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter. The commercial *Bartolomeo* External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard CRS-20 and attached to the European *Columbus* module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on *Kibō*, and four on *Columbus*. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother. #### Robotic arms and cargo cranes Commander Volkov stands on *Pirs* with his back to the Soyuz whilst operating the manual Strela crane (which is holding photographer Oleg Kononenko)Dextre, like many of the station's experiments and robotic arms, can be operated from Earth, allowing tasks to be performed while the crew sleeps The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components: * Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre around to perform tasks. * Dextre is a 1,560 kg (3,440 lb) robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control. * The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS. A grapple fixture was added to *Zarya* on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the Russian Orbital Segment. Also installed during STS-134 was the 15 m (50 ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS. Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks. Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the *Kibō* Exposed Facility, was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the *Kibō* Pressurised Module. The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other. The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, was launched alongside the *Nauka* module. The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two *Strela* (Russian: Стрела́, lit. 'Arrow') cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45 kg (99 lb). ### Former module #### *Pirs* Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26 July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for *Nauka* module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits. The *Pirs* module attached to the ISSISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the International Space Station ### Planned components #### Axiom segment In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS with a launch date of 2024. The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm fixed-price contract basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's *Harmony (Node 2)* module. Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom plans to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS. Canadarm 2 will also help to berth the Axiom Space Station modules to the ISS and will continue its operations on the Axiom Space Station after the retirement of ISS in late 2020s. ### Proposed components #### Xbase Made by Bigelow Aerospace. In August 2016 Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-sized ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. The module is called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hopes to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station. #### Independence-1 Nanoracks, after finalizing its contract with NASA, and after winning NextSTEPs Phase II award, is now developing its concept Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would turn spent rocket tanks into a habitable living area to be tested in space. In Spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as the Independence-1, the first 'outpost' in Nanoracks' Space Outpost Program. #### Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects. It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew. ### Cancelled components Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 *Columbia* disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity. The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station. The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of *Zvezda* in case of a launch failure. Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research. They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module. The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays. #### Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components) **Science Power Module 1** (**SPM-1**, also known as **NEM-1**) and **Science Power Module 2** (**SPM-2**, also known as **NEM-2**) are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the *Prichal* module, which is currently docked to the *Nauka* module. In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2027 and docking to the free-flying *Nauka* module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited. NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028. Onboard systems --------------- ### Life support The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the *Zvezda* service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The *Nauka* laboratory has a complete set of life support systems. #### Atmospheric control systems The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to that of Earth. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft. The *Elektron* system aboard *Zvezda* and a similar system in *Destiny* generate oxygen aboard the station. The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in *Zvezda*. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters. Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces O2 and H2 by electrolysis of water and vents H2 overboard. The 1 kW (1.3 hp) system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. *Mir* was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at 450–500 °C (842–932 °F), producing 600 litres (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) of O2. This unit is manually operated. The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the *Quest* airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the *Tranquility* module (Node 3), which produces O2 by electrolysis. Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane. ### Power and thermal control Russian solar arrays, backlit by sunsetOne of the eight truss mounted pairs of USOS solar arraysISS new roll out solar array as seen from a zoom camera on the P6 Truss Double-sided solar arrays provide electrical power to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light reflected off from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth. The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 V low voltage DC from two rotating solar arrays mounted on *Zvezda*. The USOS uses 130–180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters. The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts. These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m2 (4,036 sq ft) in area and 58 m (190 ft) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the *alpha gimbal* once per orbit; the *beta gimbal* follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude. The station originally used rechargeable nickel–hydrogen batteries (NiH2) for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station. Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program. The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma contactor units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma. The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station. The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including *Kibō* and *Columbus*, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss. ### Communications and computers Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and mission control centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes. The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the *Lira* antenna mounted to *Zvezda*. The *Lira* antenna also has the capability to use the *Luch* data relay satellite system. This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS, although two new *Luch* satellites – *Luch*-5A and *Luch*-5B – were launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system. Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between *Zvezda*, *Zarya*, *Pirs*, *Poisk*, and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on *Zvezda*'s exterior. The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and Ku band (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston. Data channels for the Canadarm2, European *Columbus* laboratory and Japanese *Kibō* modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role. Communications between modules are carried on an internal wireless network. An array of laptops in the US labLaptop computers surround the Canadarm2 consoleAn error message displays a problem with a hard drive on a laptop aboard the ISS UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station. Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to *Zvezda* to accurately dock with the station. The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15 laptop computers. The laptops have run Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems. Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. Portable Computer System (PCS) laptops connect to the Primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM) as remote terminals via a USB to 1553 adapter. Station Support Computer (SSC) laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi and ethernet, which connects to the ground via Ku band. While originally this provided speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station, NASA upgraded the system in late August 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s. Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced. Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices. The operating system used for key station functions is the Debian Linux distribution. The migration from Microsoft Windows to Linux was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility. In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission. It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA. ISS crew members have access to the Internet, and thus the web. This was first enabled in 2010, allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first tweet from space. Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using remote desktop mode, thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking attempts. Operations ---------- ### Expeditions *Zarya* and *Unity* were entered for the first time on 10 December 1998Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the first resident crew to the station in October 2000 Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle *Columbia*. From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010. With the arrival of crew on US commercial vehicles beginning in 2020, NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS was originally designed for. Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes. Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 675 days, 3 hours and 48 minutes during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52 and Axiom Mission 2. ### Private flights Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike. As of June 2023[update], thirteen space tourists have visited the ISS; nine were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and four were transported on American SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft. For one-tourist missions, when professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station. Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required. The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40 million to members of the public who could pass a medical exam. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS. Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space. Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been "excellent." She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay. The 2009 documentary *Space Tourists* follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled "an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space." In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight. This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence. At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS. After a 12-year hiatus, the first two wholly space tourism-dedicated private spaceflights to the ISS were undertaken. Soyuz MS-20 launched in December 2021, carrying visiting Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and two Japanese space tourists under the aegis of the private company Space Adventures; in April 2022, the company Axiom Space chartered a SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft and sent its own employee astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and three space tourists to the ISS for Axiom Mission 1, followed in May 2023 by one more tourist, John Shoffner, alongside employee astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts for Axiom Mission 2. ### Fleet operations A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified M-MIM2, M-SO1 and M-UM module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European ATVs, 9 Japanese HTVs, 1 Boeing Starliner, 30 SpaceX Dragon (both crewed and uncrewed) and 18 Cygnus missions. There are currently eleven available docking ports for visiting spacecraft: 1. *Harmony* forward (with *IDA 2*) 2. *Harmony* zenith (with *IDA 3*) 3. *Harmony* nadir 4. *Unity* nadir 5. *Prichal* nadir 6. *Prichal* aft 7. *Prichal* forward 8. *Prichal* starboard 9. *Prichal* port 10. *Poisk* zenith 11. *Rassvet* nadir 12. *Zvezda* aft #### Crewed As of 22 May 2023[ref], 269 people from 21 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times. The United States sent 163 people, Russia sent 57, Japan sent 11, Canada sent nine, Italy sent five, France sent four, Germany sent four, the United Arab Emirates sent two, Saudi Arabia sent two, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Israel, and Sweden. #### Uncrewed Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches. Resupply missions typically use the Russian Progress spacecraft, former European ATVs, Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft. The primary docking system for Progress spacecraft is the automated Kurs system, with the manual TORU system as a backup. ATVs also used Kurs, however they were not equipped with TORU. Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months. The other spacecraft – the Japanese HTV, the SpaceX Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman Cygnus – rendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the *Harmony* or *Unity* module for one to two months. Under CRS phase 2, Cargo Dragon docks autonomously at IDA-2 or IDA-3. As of December 2020[update], Progress spacecraft have flown most of the uncrewed missions to the ISS. Soyuz MS-22 was launched in 2022. A micro-meteorite impact in December 2022 caused a coolant leak in its external radiator and it was considered risky for human landing. Thus MS-22 reentered uncrewed on 28 March 2023 and Soyuz MS-23 was launched uncrewed on 24 February 2023, to return the MS-22 crew. #### Currently docked/berthed | Spacecraft | Type | Mission | Location | Arrival (UTC) | Departure (planned) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Progress MS No. 452 | Russia | Uncrewed | Progress MS-22 | Zvezda aft | 11 February 2023 | 21 August 2023 | | Soyuz MS No. 754 | Russia | Crewed/ Uncrewed | Soyuz MS-23 | *Prichal* nadir | 26 February 2023 | 27 September 2023 | | *Crew Dragon *Endeavour** | United States | Crewed | Crew-6 | *Harmony* forward | 3 March 2023 | 27 August 2023 | | Progress MS No. 453 | Russia | Uncrewed | Progress MS-23 | Poisk zenith | 24 May 2023 | 21 August 2023 | | *Cargo Dragon C208* | United States | Uncrewed | Spx-28 | *Harmony* zenith | 6 June 2023 | June 2023 | #### Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation | Modules and spacecraft | Type | Current location | Relocated location | Relocation date (planned) | EVA Assisted | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Crew Dragon *Endeavour** (Crew-6) | United States | Crewed | *Harmony* forward | *Harmony* zenith | July 2023 | No | | ERA Portable Workpost | Russia | Module | *Rassvet* forward | *Nauka* forward | July 2023 | Yes (Russian VKD-60) | #### Scheduled missions * All dates are UTC. Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change. * Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude). Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit. Nadir is closest the Earth, zenith is on top. Port is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel; starboard to the right. | Mission | Launch date (NET) | Spacecraft | Type | Launch vehicle | Launch site | Launch provider | Docking/berthing port | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | NG-19 | July 2023 | S.S Laurel Clark | Uncrewed | Antares 230+ | United States Wallops Pad OA | United States Northrop Grumman | *Unity* nadir | | SpaceX Crew-7 | 17 August 2023 | Dragon 2 | Crewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Harmony* forward or zenith | | Progress MS-24 | 23 August 2023 | Progress MS No. 454 | Uncrewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Zvezda* aft | | Soyuz MS-24 | 15 September 2023 | Soyuz MS | Crewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Rassvet* nadir | | NG-20 | November 2023 | Cygnus | Uncrewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Unity* nadir | | AX-3 | November 2023 | Crew Dragon | Crewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Harmony* zenith | | Progress MS-25 | 1 December 2023 | Progress MS No. 455 | Uncrewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Prichal* nadir | | SpX-29 | December 2023 | Cargo Dragon | Uncrewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Harmony* zenith | | SNC-1 | January 2024 | Dream Chaser *Tenacity* | Uncrewed | Vulcan Centaur VC4L | United States Cape Canaveral SLC-41 | United States United Launch Alliance | *Harmony* nadir | | HTV-X1 | 3 January 2024 | HTV-X | Uncrewed | H3-24L | Japan Tanegashima LA-Y2 | Japan JAXA | *Harmony* nadir | | NG-21 | January 2024 | Cygnus | Uncrewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Unity* nadir | | SpaceX Crew-8 | February 2023 | Dragon 2 | Crewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Harmony* forward or zenith | | Progress MS-26 | February 2024 | Progress MS No. 456 | Uncrewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Zvezda* aft | | Soyuz MS-25 | 13 March 2023 | Soyuz MS | Crewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Prichal* nadir | | AX-4 | H1 2024 | Crew Dragon | Crewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Harmony* forward | | Progress MS-27 | June 2024 | Progress MS No. 457 | Uncrewed | Soyuz-2.1a | Kazakhstan Baikonur Site 31/6 | Russia Roscosmos | *Poisk* zenith | | NG-22 | July 2024 | Cygnus | Uncrewed | Falcon 9 Block 5 | United States Kennedy LC-39A | United States SpaceX | *Unity* nadir | | Starliner-1 | Q3 2024 | Boeing Starliner SC-2 | Crewed | Atlas V N22 | United States Cape Canaveral SLC-41 | United States United Launch Alliance | *Harmony* forward | #### Docking All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. When it catches up it uses laser equipment to optically recognise *Zvezda*, along with the Kurs system for redundancy. Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. Progress and ATV supply craft can remain at the ISS for six months, allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash. From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations. Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the *Columbia* disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS. The average expedition requires 2,722 kg of supplies, and by 9 March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around 22,000 meals. Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year. Other vehicles berth instead of docking. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks. Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months. The berthing Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon were contracted to fly cargo to the station under phase 1 of the Commercial Resupply Services program. From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this has happened to date. On 25 May 2012, SpaceX delivered the first commercial cargo with a Dragon spacecraft. #### Launch and docking windows Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials. ### Repairs Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload. Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an *Elektron* oxygen generator in 2006, and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thruster, *Elektron*, *Vozdukh* and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit. During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly. An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight. The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage. Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint. In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious. The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak. It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined. In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems. The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down. Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module. A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality. The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing, which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump. The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011 MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured. The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed. On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power. On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history. ### Mission control centres The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including RKA Mission Control Center, ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Payload Operations and Integration Center, Columbus Control Center and Mobile Servicing System Control. Life aboard ----------- ### Living quarters The living and working space on the International Space Station is larger than a six-bedroom house (complete with six sleeping quarters, two bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window). ### Crew activities A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up. The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which was a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission. The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two "sleep stations" in the *Zvezda*, one in *Nauka* and four more installed in *Harmony*. The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. The ROS crew quarters in *Zvezda* include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing. A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop. Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads. During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and colour temperatures adjusted. ### Food and personal hygiene On the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity, so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking. The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables. Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them using the on-board galley. The galley features two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides both heated and unheated water. Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption. Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment. Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on *Skylab* and *Salyut* 3. By *Salyut* 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity. The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water. There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in *Zvezda* and *Tranquility*. These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal. A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal. Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct "urine funnel adapters" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet. The diverted urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water. In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS. The space toilet in the *Zvezda* module in the Russian segmentThe main toilet in the US Segment inside the *Tranquility* module\* Both toilets are a Russian design. ### Crew health and safety #### Overall On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other. In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers. #### Radiation The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about 70,000 km (43,000 mi) from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose. Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level. Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day, about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is only one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station. #### Stress There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the *Salyut* 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5 m × 6 m] and leave them together for two months." NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station *Mir*. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months. The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better. Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking. #### Medical The physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face. Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment. To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. #### Microbiological environmental hazards Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five *Enterobacter bugandensis* bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts. Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi. Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been done to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis. The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on June 5, 2023 aboard the SpaceX CRS-28 cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by light microsocopy, the present experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow spectrographic analysis. Two of the plaques will be returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months. In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to earth for analysis. In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture. The present study utilized molecular-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmeceutical and medical industries. #### Noise Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions. For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations. The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility. Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch. During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels. NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions. There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise. #### Fire and toxic gases An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules. Orbit ----- ### Altitude and orbital inclination Graph showing the changing altitude of the ISS from November 1998 until November 2018Animation of ISS orbit from 14 September 2018 to 14 November 2018. Earth is not shown. The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 370 km (230 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (290 mi), in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas. It travels at an average speed of 28,000 kilometres per hour (17,000 mph), and completes 15.5 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km). Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles. Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the *Zvezda* service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to *Zvezda*'s aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed. Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum at an annual cost of about $210 million. The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station. Initially, *Zarya*, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module *Zvezda* docked and was transferred control. *Zvezda* contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System. Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), *Zvezda* computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting. ### Orientation *Zvezda* uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters. Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics. ### Orbital debris threats The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum. Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from 1.5–5.0 cm-thick (0.59–1.97 in) aluminium, a 10 cm-thick (3.9 in) intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top. Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009. Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015. In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules. A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters to avoid a collision with hazardous space debris. * A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at 7 km/s (23,000 ft/s), the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this 15 cm (5.9 in) crater in a solid block of aluminiumA 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at 7 km/s (23,000 ft/s), the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this 15 cm (5.9 in) crater in a solid block of aluminium * Radar-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of geostationary satellitesRadar-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of geostationary satellites * Example of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space StationExample of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station * A blueprint of a typical debris "Whipple Shield" designA blueprint of a typical debris "Whipple Shield" design ### Sightings from Earth The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark. The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the Earth's shadow. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds. The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces. The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty. Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see *Live viewing* below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow. In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town. The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes. Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014. * Skytrack long duration exposure of the ISSSkytrack long duration exposure of the ISS * The ISS on its first pass of the night passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014The ISS on its first pass of the night passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014 * The ISS passing north on its third pass of the night near local midnight in June 2014The ISS passing north on its third pass of the night near local midnight in June 2014 * The ISS passing west on its fifth pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014The ISS passing west on its fifth pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014 #### Astrophotography Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours. Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers. International co-operation -------------------------- Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal." On the same day, Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?" Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit. On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024. However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans. ### Participating countries * Brazil (1997–2007) * Canada * European Space Agency + Belgium + Denmark + France + Germany + Italy + Netherlands + Norway + Spain + Sweden + Switzerland + United Kingdom * Japan * Russia * United States End of mission -------------- According to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched. Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area. In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the lowest risk to human life. OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (*Nauka*), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to *Nauka*. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024. At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and *Zvezda 2* as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded. On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028. There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities. In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018. Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022. In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean. NASA will launch the deorbiting spacecraft, a year before reentry, docking at the Harmony forward port either through a CBM or to PMA 2/IDA 2 after the removal of Axiom Orbital Segment. The spacecraft would only be functional during the final days of ISS, once the station's orbit has decayed to 220 km (140 mi). The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to 160 km (99 mi), followed by a final deorbiting burn. Cost ---- The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab. In film ------- Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries *Space Station 3D* from 2002, or *A Beautiful Planet* from 2016, the ISS is the subject of feature films such as *The Day After Tomorrow* (2004), *Life* (2017), *Love* (2011), or – together with the Chinese station Tiangong 1 – in *Gravity* (2013). In 2022, the movie *The Challenge* (*Doctor's House Call*) was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space. See also -------- * *A Beautiful Planet* – 2016 IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS * Center for the Advancement of Science in Space – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS * List of accidents and incidents involving the International Space Station * List of International Space Station expeditions * List of International Space Station spacewalks * List of commanders of the International Space Station * List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station * List of space stations * List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station * Politics of outer space * Science diplomacy * *Space Station 3D* – 2002 Canadian documentary **Attribution:** * Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Further reading --------------- * *Reference Guide to the International Space Station* (PDF) (Utilization ed.). NASA. September 2015. NP-2015-05-022-JSC. * *Reference Guide to the International Space Station* (PDF) (Assembly Complete ed.). NASA. 2010. ISBN 978-0-16-086517-6. NP-2010-09-682-HQ. * O'Sullivan, John. *European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019* (Springer Nature, 2020). * Ruttley, Tara M., Julie A. Robinson, and William H. Gerstenmaier. "The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization." *Social Science Quarterly* 98.4 (2017): 1160–1174. online ### Agency ISS websites * Canada Canadian Space Agency * European Space Agency * France Centre national d'études spatiales (National Centre for Space Studies) * Germany German Aerospace Center Archived 7 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine * Italy Italian Space Agency * Japan Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency * Russia S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia Archived 27 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine * Russia Russian Federal Space Agency Archived 27 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine * United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration ### Research * NASA: Daily ISS Reports * NASA: Station Science * ESA: *Columbus* * RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian Segment Archived 11 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine ### Live viewing * Live ISS webcam by NASA at uStream.tv * Live HD ISS webcams by NASA HDEV at uStream.tv * Sighting opportunities at NASA.gov * Complete Orbital Position at KarhuKoti.com * Real-time position at Heavens-above.com * Real-time tracking and position at uphere.space ### Multimedia * Johnson Space Center image gallery at Flickr.com * ISS tour with Sunita Williams by NASA at YouTube.com * Journey to the ISS by ESA at YouTube.com * *The Future of Hope*, *Kibō* module documentary by JAXA at YouTube.com * Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS: *Orbit – Remastered*, *Orbit: Uncut*; *The Four Seasons*, *Nocturne – Earth at Night*, *Earthbound*, *The Pearl* (see Flickr album for more)

International Space Station

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station

**Socrates** (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης; c. 470–399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no texts and is known mainly through the posthumous accounts of classical writers, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. These accounts are written as dialogues, in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine a subject in the style of question and answer; they gave rise to the Socratic dialogue literary genre. Contradictory accounts of Socrates make a reconstruction of his philosophy nearly impossible, a situation known as the Socratic problem. Socrates was a polarizing figure in Athenian society. In 399 BC, he was accused of impiety and corrupting the youth. After a trial that lasted a day, he was sentenced to death. He spent his last day in prison, refusing offers to help him escape. Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity. They demonstrate the Socratic approach to areas of philosophy including epistemology and ethics. The Platonic Socrates lends his name to the concept of the Socratic method, and also to Socratic irony. The Socratic method of questioning, or elenchus, takes shape in dialogue using short questions and answers, epitomized by those Platonic texts in which Socrates and his interlocutors examine various aspects of an issue or an abstract meaning, usually relating to one of the virtues, and find themselves at an impasse, completely unable to define what they thought they understood. Socrates is known for proclaiming his total ignorance; he used to say that the only thing he was aware of was his ignorance, seeking to imply that the realization of our ignorance is the first step in philosophizing. Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and has continued to do so in the modern era. He was studied by medieval and Islamic scholars and played an important role in the thought of the Italian Renaissance, particularly within the humanist movement. Interest in him continued unabated, as reflected in the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Depictions of Socrates in art, literature, and popular culture have made him a widely known figure in the Western philosophical tradition. Sources and the Socratic problem -------------------------------- Socrates did not document his teachings. All that is known about him comes from the accounts of others: mainly the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, who were both his pupils; the Athenian comic dramatist Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary); and Plato's pupil Aristotle, who was born after Socrates's death. The often contradictory stories from these ancient accounts only serve to complicate scholars' ability to reconstruct Socrates's true thoughts reliably, a predicament known as the Socratic problem. The works of Plato, Xenophon, and other authors who use the character of Socrates as an investigative tool, are written in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and his interlocutors and provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought. Socratic dialogues (*logos sokratikos*) was a term coined by Aristotle to describe this newly formed literary genre. While the exact dates of their composition are unknown, some were probably written after Socrates's death. As Aristotle first noted, the extent to which the dialogues portray Socrates authentically is a matter of some debate. ### Plato and Xenophon An honest man, Xenophon was no trained philosopher. He could neither fully conceptualize nor articulate Socrates's arguments. He admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotism, and courage on the battlefield. He discusses Socrates in four works: the *Memorabilia*, the *Oeconomicus*, the *Symposium*, and the *Apology of Socrates*. He also mentions a story featuring Socrates in his *Anabasis*. *Oeconomicus* recounts a discussion on practical agricultural issues. Like Plato's *Apology*, Xenophon's *Apologia* describes the trial of Socrates, but the works diverge substantially and, according to W. K. C. Guthrie, Xenophon's account portrays a Socrates of "intolerable smugness and complacency". *Symposium* is a dialogue of Socrates with other prominent Athenians during an after-dinner discussion, but is quite different from Plato's *Symposium*: there is no overlap in the guest list. In *Memorabilia*, he defends Socrates from the accusations of corrupting the youth and being against the gods; essentially, it is a collection of various stories gathered together to construct a new apology for Socrates. Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward. Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades. How trustworthy Plato is in representing the attributes of Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he did not represent views other than Socrates's own is not shared by many contemporary scholars. A driver of this doubt is the inconsistency of the character of Socrates that he presents. One common explanation of this inconsistency is that Plato initially tried to accurately represent the historical Socrates, while later in his writings he was happy to insert his own views into Socrates's words. Under this understanding, there is a distinction between the *Socratic* Socrates of Plato's earlier works and the *Platonic* Socrates of Plato's later writings, although the boundary between the two seems blurred. Xenophon's and Plato's accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person. Xenophon's Socrates is duller, less humorous and less ironic than Plato's. Xenophon's Socrates also lacks the philosophical features of Plato's Socrates—ignorance, the Socratic method or *elenchus*—and thinks *enkrateia* (self-control) is of pivotal importance, which is not the case with Plato's Socrates. Generally, *logoi Sokratikoi* cannot help us to reconstruct the historical Socrates even in cases where their narratives overlap, as authors may have influenced each other's accounts. ### Aristophanes and other sources Writers of Athenian comedy, including Aristophanes, also commented on Socrates. Aristophanes's most important comedy with respect to Socrates is *The Clouds*, in which Socrates is a central character. In this drama, Aristophanes presents a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophism, ridiculing Socrates as an absurd atheist. Socrates in *Clouds* is interested in natural philosophy, which conforms to Plato's depiction of him in *Phaedo*. What is certain is that by the age of 45, Socrates had already captured the interest of Athenians as a philosopher. It is not clear whether Aristophanes's work is useful in reconstructing the historical Socrates. Other ancient authors who wrote about Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo and Aristotle, all of whom wrote after Socrates's death. Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter's Academy for twenty years. Aristotle treats Socrates without the bias of Xenophon and Plato, who had an emotional tie with Socrates, and he scrutinizes Socrates's doctrines as a philosopher. Aristotle was familiar with the various written and unwritten stories of Socrates. His role in understanding Socrates is limited. He does not write extensively on Socrates; and, when he does, he is mainly preoccupied with the early dialogues of Plato. There are also general doubts on his reliability on the history of philosophy. Still, his testimony is vital in understanding Socrates. ### The Socratic problem In a seminal work titled "The Worth of Socrates as a Philosopher" (1818), the philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon's accounts; his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem. Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon for his naïve representation of Socrates. Xenophon was a soldier, argued Schleiermacher, and was therefore not well placed to articulate Socratic ideas. Furthermore, Xenophon was biased in his depiction of his former friend and teacher: he believed Socrates was treated unfairly by Athens, and sought to prove his point of view rather than to provide an impartial account. The result, said Schleiermacher, was that Xenophon portrayed Socrates as an uninspiring philosopher. By the early 20th century, Xenophon's account was largely rejected. The philosopher Karl Joel, basing his arguments on Aristotle's interpretation of *logos sokratikos*, suggested that the Socratic dialogues are mostly fictional: according to Joel, the dialogues' authors were just mimicking some Socratic traits of dialogue. In the mid-20th century, philosophers such as Olof Gigon and Eugène Dupréel, based on Joel's arguments, proposed that the study of Socrates should focus on the various versions of his character and beliefs rather than aiming to reconstruct a historical Socrates. Later, ancient philosophy scholar Gregory Vlastos suggested that the early Socratic dialogues of Plato were more compatible with other evidence for a historical Socrates than his later writings, an argument that is based on inconsistencies in Plato's own evolving depiction of Socrates. Vlastos totally disregarded Xenophon's account except when it agreed with Plato's. More recently, Charles H. Kahn has reinforced the skeptical stance on the unsolvable Socratic problem, suggesting that only Plato's *Apology* has any historical significance. Biography --------- Socrates was born in 470 or 469 BC to Sophroniscus and Phaenarete, a stoneworker and a midwife, respectively, in the Athenian deme of Alopece; therefore, he was an Athenian citizen, having been born to relatively affluent Athenians. He lived close to his father's relatives and inherited, as was customary, part of his father's estate, securing a life reasonably free of financial concerns. His education followed the laws and customs of Athens. He learned the basic skills of reading and writing and, like most wealthy Athenians, received extra lessons in various other fields such as gymnastics, poetry and music. He was married twice (which came first is not clear): his marriage to Xanthippe took place when Socrates was in his fifties, and another marriage was with a daughter of Aristides, an Athenian statesman. He had three sons with Xanthippe. Socrates fulfilled his military service during the Peloponnesian War and distinguished himself in three campaigns, according to Plato. Another incident that reflects Socrates's respect for the law is the arrest of Leon the Salaminian. As Plato describes in his *Apology*, Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos and told by representatives of the Thirty Tyrants (which began ruling in 404 BC) to arrest Leon for execution. Again Socrates was the sole abstainer, choosing to risk the tyrants' wrath and retribution rather than to participate in what he considered to be a crime. Socrates attracted great interest from the Athenian public and especially the Athenian youth. He was notoriously ugly, having a flat turned-up nose, bulging eyes and a large belly; his friends joked about his appearance. Socrates was indifferent to material pleasures, including his own appearance and personal comfort. He neglected personal hygiene, bathed rarely, walked barefoot, and owned only one ragged coat. He moderated his eating, drinking, and sex, although he did not practice full abstention. Although Socrates was attracted to youth, as was common and accepted in ancient Greece, he resisted his passion for young men because, as Plato describes, he was more interested in educating their souls. Socrates did not seek sex from his disciples, as was often the case between older and younger men in Athens. Politically, he did not take sides in the rivalry between the democrats and the oligarchs in Athens; he criticized both. The character of Socrates as exhibited in *Apology*, *Crito*, *Phaedo* and *Symposium* concurs with other sources to an extent that gives confidence in Plato's depiction of Socrates in these works as being representative of the real Socrates. Socrates died in Athens in 399 BC after a trial for impiety and the corruption of the young that lasted for only a day. He spent his last day in prison among friends and followers who offered him a route to escape, which he refused. He died the next morning, in accordance with his sentence, after drinking poison hemlock. He had never left Athens, except during the military campaigns which he had participated in. Trial of Socrates ----------------- In 399 BC, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, and for impiety. Socrates defended himself unsuccessfully. He was found guilty by a majority vote cast by a jury of hundreds of male Athenian citizens and, according to the custom, proposed his own penalty: that *he* should be given free food and housing by the state, for the services he rendered to the city. In the alternative, he proposed that he be fined one mina of silver (according to him, all he had). The jurors declined his offer and ordered the death penalty. The official charges were: (1) corrupting youth; (2) worshipping false gods; and (3) not worshipping the state religion. Socrates was charged in a politically tense climate. In 404 BC, the Athenians had been crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, the Spartans laid siege to Athens. They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants. Because of their tyrannical measures, some Athenians organized to overthrow the Tyrants—and, indeed, they managed to do so briefly—until a Spartan request for aid from the Thirty arrived and a compromise was sought. When the Spartans left again, however, democrats seized the opportunity to kill the oligarchs and reclaim the government of Athens. The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty in accordance with the charge of *asebeia*. Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon. After a month or two, in late spring or early summer, the trial started and likely went on for most of one day. There were two main sources for the religion-based accusations. First, Socrates had rejected the anthropomorphism of traditional Greek religion by denying that the gods did bad things like humans do. Second, he seemed to believe in a *daimonion*—an inner voice with, as his accusers suggested, divine origin. Plato's *Apology* starts with Socrates answering the various rumours against him that have given rise to the indictment. First, Socrates defends himself against the rumour that he is an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes's *The Clouds*; or a sophist. Against the allegations of corrupting the youth, Socrates answers that he has never corrupted anyone intentionally, since corrupting someone would carry the risk of being corrupted back in return, and that would be illogical, since corruption is undesirable. On the second charge, Socrates asks for clarification. Meletus responds by repeating the accusation that Socrates is an atheist. Socrates notes the contradiction between atheism and worshipping false gods. He then claims that he is "God's gift" to the Athenians, since his activities ultimately benefit Athens; thus, in condemning him to death, Athens itself will be the greatest loser. After that, he says that even though no human can reach wisdom, seeking it is the best thing someone can do, implying money and prestige are not as precious as commonly thought. Socrates was given the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty. He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, but he did not do so. Instead, according to Plato, he requested that a fine should be imposed on him and also suggested that free meals should be provided for him daily in recognition of his worth to Athens. According to Xenophon, however, Socrates made no proposals. The jurors favoured the death penalty by making him drink a cup of hemlock (a poisonous liquid). In return, Socrates warned jurors and Athenians that criticism of them by his many disciples was inescapable, unless they became good men. After a delay caused by Athenian religious ceremonies, Socrates spent his last day in prison. His friends visited him and offered him an opportunity to escape, which he declined. The question of what motivated Athenians to convict Socrates remains controversial among scholars. There are two theories. The first is that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds; the second, that he was accused and convicted for political reasons. Another, more recent, interpretation synthesizes the religious and political theories, arguing that religion and state were not separate in ancient Athens. The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that Plato's and Xenophon's accounts of the trial mostly focus on the charges of impiety. In those accounts, Socrates is portrayed as making no effort to dispute the fact that he did not believe in the Athenian gods. Against this argument stands the fact that many skeptics and atheist philosophers during this time were not prosecuted. According to the argument for political persecution, Socrates was targeted because he was perceived as a threat to democracy. It was true that Socrates did not stand for democracy during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants and that most of his pupils were against the democrats. The case for it being a political persecution is usually challenged by the existence of an amnesty that was granted to Athenian citizens in 403 BC to prevent escalation to civil war after the fall of the Thirty. However, as the text from Socrates's trial and other texts reveal, the accusers could have fuelled their rhetoric using events prior to 403 BC. Philosophy ---------- ### Socratic method A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method, or the method of refutation (*elenchus*). It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as *Apology*, *Crito*, *Gorgias*, *Republic I*, and others. The typical *elenchus* proceeds as follows. Socrates initiates a discussion about a topic with a known expert on the subject, usually in the company of some young men and boys, and by dialogue proves the expert's beliefs and arguments to be contradictory. Socrates initiates the dialogue by asking his interlocutor for a definition of the subject. As he asks more questions, the interlocutor's answers eventually contradict the first definition. The conclusion is that the expert did not really know the definition in the first place. The interlocutor may come up with a different definition. That new definition, in turn, comes under the scrutiny of Socratic questioning. With each round of question and answer, Socrates and his interlocutor hope to approach the truth. More often, they continue to reveal their ignorance. Since the interlocutors' definitions most commonly represent the mainstream opinion on a matter, the discussion places doubt on the common opinion. Socrates also tests his own opinions through the Socratic method. Thus Socrates does not teach a fixed philosophical doctrine. Rather, he acknowledges his own ignorance while searching for truth with his pupils and interlocutors. Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of the Socratic method, or indeed if there even *was* a Socratic method. In 1982, the scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos claimed that the Socratic method could not be used to establish the truth or falsehood of a proposition. Rather, Vlastos argued, it was a way to show that an interlocutor's beliefs were inconsistent. There have been two main lines of thought regarding this view, depending on whether it is accepted that Socrates is seeking to prove a claim wrong. According to the first line of thought, known as the constructivist approach, Socrates indeed seeks to refute a claim by this method, and the method helps in reaching affirmative statements. The non-constructivist approach holds that Socrates merely wants to establish the inconsistency between the premises and conclusion of the initial argument. ### Socratic priority of definition Socrates starts his discussions by prioritizing the search for definitions. In most cases, Socrates initiates his discourse with an expert on a subject by seeking a definition—by asking, for example, what virtue, goodness, justice, or courage is. To establish a definition, Socrates first gathers clear examples of a virtue and then seeks to establish what they had in common. According to Guthrie, Socrates lived in an era when sophists had challenged the meaning of various virtues, questioning their substance; Socrates's quest for a definition was an attempt to clear the atmosphere from their radical skepticism. Some scholars have argued that Socrates does not endorse the priority of definition as a principle, because they have identified cases where he does not do so. Some have argued that this priority of definition comes from Plato rather than Socrates. Philosopher Peter Geach, accepting that Socrates endorses the priority of definition, finds the technique fallacious. Αccording to Geach, one may know a proposition even if one cannot define the terms in which the proposition is stated. ### Socratic ignorance Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethical concepts such as arete (i.e., goodness, courage) since he does not know the nature of such concepts. For example, during his trial, with his life at stake, Socrates says: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he really possesses this art (*technē*), and teaches for so moderate a fee. Certainly I would pride and preen myself if I knew (*epistamai*) these things, but I do not know (*epistamai*) them, gentlemen". In some of Plato's dialogues, Socrates appears to credit himself with some knowledge, and can even seem strongly opinionated for a man who professes his own ignorance. There are varying explanations of the Socratic inconsistency (other than that Socrates is simply being inconsistent). One explanation is that Socrates is being either ironic or modest for pedagogical purposes: he aims to let his interlocutor to think for himself rather than guide him to a prefixed answer to his philosophical questions. Another explanation is that Socrates holds different interpretations of the meaning of "knowledge". Knowledge, for him, might mean systematic understanding of an ethical subject, on which Socrates firmly rejects any kind of mastery; or might refer to lower-level cognition, which Socrates may accept that he possesses. In any case, there is consensus that Socrates accepts that acknowledging one's lack of knowledge is the first step towards wisdom. Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a claim encapsulated in the saying "I know that I know nothing". This is often attributed to Socrates on the basis of a statement in Plato's *Apology*, though the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in Plato's early writings on Socrates. In other statements, though, he implies or even claims that he does have knowledge. For example, in Plato's *Apology* Socrates says: "...but that to do injustice and disobey my superior, god or man, this I *know* to be evil and base..." (*Apology*, 29b6–7). In his debate with Callicles, he says: "...I *know* well that if you will agree with me on those things which my soul believes, those things will be the very truth..." Whether Socrates genuinely thought he lacked knowledge or merely feigned a belief in his own ignorance remains a matter of debate. A common interpretation is that he was indeed feigning modesty. According to Norman Gulley, Socrates did this to entice his interlocutors to speak with him. On the other hand, Terence Irwin claims that Socrates's words should be taken literally. Gregory Vlastos argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims. On his view, for Socrates, there are two separate meanings of "knowledge": Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for "certain", and E stands for *elenchus*, i.e. the Socratic method). Knowledge-C is something unquestionable whereas Knowledge-E is the knowledge derived from Socrates's *elenchus*. Thus, Socrates speaks the truth when he says he knows-C something, and he is also truthful when saying he knows-E, for example that it is evil for someone to disobey his superiors, as he claims in *Apology*. Not all scholars have agreed with this semantic dualism. James H. Lesher has argued that Socrates claimed in various dialogues that one word is linked to one meaning (i.e. in *Hippias Major*, *Meno*, and *Laches*). Lesher suggests that although Socrates claimed that he had no knowledge about the nature of virtues, he thought that in some cases, people can know some ethical propositions. ### Socratic irony There is a widespread assumption that Socrates was an ironist, mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle. Socrates's irony is so subtle and slightly humorous that it often leaves the reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun. Plato's *Euthyphro* is filled with Socratic irony. The story begins when Socrates is meeting with Euthyphro, a man who has accused his own father of murder. When Socrates first hears the details of the story, he comments, "It is not, I think, any random person who could do this [prosecute one's father] correctly, but surely one who is already far progressed in wisdom". When Euthyphro boasts about his understanding of divinity, Socrates responds that it is "most important that I become your student". Socrates is commonly seen as ironic when using praise to flatter or when addressing his interlocutors. Scholars are divided on why Socrates uses irony. According to an opinion advanced since the Hellenistic period, Socratic irony is a playful way to get the audience's attention. Another line of thought holds that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessible only to those who can separate the parts of his statements which are ironic from those which are not. Gregory Vlastos has identified a more complex pattern of irony in Socrates. On Vlastos's view, Socrates's words have a double meaning, both ironic and not. One example is when he denies having knowledge. Vlastos suggests that Socrates is being ironic when he says he has no knowledge (where "knowledge" means a lower form of cognition); while, according to another sense of "knowledge", Socrates is serious when he says he has no knowledge of ethical matters. This opinion is not shared by many other scholars. ### Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism For Socrates, the pursuit of *eudaimonia* motivates all human action, directly or indirectly. Virtue and knowledge are linked, in Socrates's view, to *eudaimonia*, but how closely he considered them to be connected is still debated. Some argue that Socrates thought that virtue and *eudaimonia* are identical. According to another view, virtue serves as a means to *eudaimonia* (the "identical" and "sufficiency" theses, respectively). Another point of debate is whether, according to Socrates, people desire what is in fact good—or, rather, simply what they *perceive* as good. Moral intellectualism refers to the prominent role Socrates gave to knowledge. He believed that all virtue was based on knowledge (hence Socrates is characterized as a *virtue* intellectualist). He also believed that humans were guided by the cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of impulses (a view termed *motivational* intellectualism). In Plato's *Protagoras* (345c4–e6), Socrates implies that "no one errs willingly", which has become the hallmark of Socratic virtue intellectualism. In Socratic moral philosophy, priority is given to the intellect as being the way to live a good life; Socrates deemphasizes irrational beliefs or passions. Plato's dialogues that support Socrates's *intellectual motivism*—as this thesis is named—are mainly the *Gorgias* (467c–8e, where Socrates discusses the actions of a tyrant that do not benefit him) and *Meno* (77d–8b, where Socrates explains to Meno his view that no one wants bad things, unless they do not know what is good and bad in the first place). Scholars have been puzzled by Socrates's view that *akrasia* (acting because of one's irrational passions, contrary to one's knowledge or beliefs) is impossible. Most believe that Socrates left no space for irrational desires, although some claim that Socrates acknowledged the existence of irrational motivations, but denied they play a primary role in decision-making. ### Religion Socrates's religious nonconformity challenged the views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries. In Ancient Greece, organized religion was fragmented, celebrated in a number of festivals for specific gods, such as the City Dionysia, or in domestic rituals, and there were no sacred texts. Religion intermingled with the daily life of citizens, who performed their personal religious duties mainly with sacrifices to various gods. Whether Socrates was a practicing man of religion or a 'provocateur atheist' has been a point of debate since ancient times; his trial included impiety accusations, and the controversy has not yet ceased. Socrates discusses divinity and the soul mostly in *Alcibiades*, *Euthyphro*, and *Apology*. In *Alcibiades* Socrates links the human soul to divinity, concluding "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself." His discussions on religion always fall under the lens of his rationalism. Socrates, in *Euthyphro*, reaches a conclusion which takes him far from the age's usual practice: he considers sacrifices to the gods to be useless, especially when they are driven by the hope of receiving a reward in return. Instead he calls for philosophy and the pursuit of knowledge to be the principal way of worshipping the gods. His rejection of traditional forms of piety, connecting them to self-interest, implied that Athenians should seek religious experience by self-examination. Socrates argued that the gods were inherently wise and just, a perception far from traditional religion at that time. In *Euthyphro*, the Euthyphro dilemma arises. Socrates questions his interlocutor about the relationship between piety and the will of a powerful god: Is something good because it is the will of this god, or is it the will of this god because it is good? In other words, does piety follow the good, or the god? The trajectory of Socratic thought contrasts with traditional Greek theology, which took *lex talionis* (the eye for an eye principle) for granted. Socrates thought that goodness is independent from gods, and gods must themselves be pious. Socrates affirms a belief in gods in Plato's *Apology*, where he says to the jurors that he acknowledges gods more than his accusers. For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granted; in none of his dialogues does he probe whether gods exist or not. In *Apology*, a case for Socrates being agnostic can be made, based on his discussion of the great unknown after death, and in *Phaedo* (the dialogue with his students in his last day) Socrates gives expression to a clear belief in the immortality of the soul. He also believed in oracles, divinations and other messages from gods. These signs did not offer him any positive belief on moral issues; rather, they were predictions of unfavorable future events. In Xenophon's *Memorabilia*, Socrates constructs an argument close to the contemporary teleological intelligent-design argument. He claims that since there are many features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (e.g., eyelids), a divine creator must have created the universe. He then deduces that the creator should be omniscient and omnipotent and also that it created the universe for the advance of humankind, since humans naturally have many abilities that other animals do not. At times, Socrates speaks of a single deity, while at other times he refers to plural "gods". This has been interpreted to mean that he either believed that a supreme deity commanded other gods, or that various gods were parts, or manifestations, of this single deity. It has been a source of puzzlement how Socrates's religious beliefs can be consistent with his strict adherence to rationalism. Philosophy professor Mark McPherran suggests that Socrates interpreted every divine sign through secular rationality for confirmation. Professor of ancient philosophy A. A. Long suggests that it is anachronistic to suppose that Socrates believed the religious and rational realms were separate. ### Socratic daimonion In several texts (e.g., Plato's *Euthyphro* 3b5; *Apology* 31c–d; Xenophon's *Memorabilia* 1.1.2) Socrates claims he hears a daimōnic sign—an inner voice heard usually when he was about to make a mistake. Socrates gave a brief description of this daimonion at his trial (*Apology* 31c–d): "...The reason for this is something you have heard me frequently mention in different places—namely, the fact that I experience something divine and daimonic, as Meletus has inscribed in his indictment, by way of mockery. It started in my childhood, the occurrence of a particular voice. Whenever it occurs, it always deters me from the course of action I was intending to engage in, but it never gives me positive advice. It is this that has opposed my practicing politics, and I think its doing so has been absolutely fine." Modern scholarship has variously interpreted this Socratic *daimōnion* as a rational source of knowledge, an impulse, a dream or even a paranormal experience felt by an ascetic Socrates. ### Virtue and knowledge Socrates's theory of virtue states that all virtues are essentially one, since they are a form of knowledge. For Socrates, the reason a person is not good is because they lack knowledge. Since knowledge is united, virtues are united as well. Another famous dictum—"no one errs willingly"—also derives from this theory. In *Protagoras*, Socrates argues for the unity of virtues using the example of courage: if someone knows what the relevant danger is, they can undertake a risk. Aristotle comments: " ... Socrates the elder thought that the end of life was knowledge of virtue, and he used to seek for the definition of justice, courage, and each of the parts of virtue, and this was a reasonable approach, since he thought that all virtues were sciences, and that as soon as one knew [for example] justice, he would be just..." ### Love Some texts suggest that Socrates had love affairs with Alcibiades and other young persons; others suggest that Socrates's friendship with young boys sought only to improve them and were not sexual. In *Gorgias*, Socrates claims he was a dual lover of Alcibiades and philosophy, and his flirtatiousness is evident in *Protagoras*, *Meno* (76a–c) and *Phaedrus* (227c–d). However, the exact nature of his relationship with Alcibiades is not clear; Socrates was known for his self-restraint, while Alcibiades admits in the *Symposium* that he had tried to seduce Socrates but failed. The Socratic theory of love is mostly deduced from *Lysis*, where Socrates discusses love at a wrestling school in the company of Lysis and his friends. They start their dialogue by investigating parental love and how it manifests with respect to the freedom and boundaries that parents set for their children. Socrates concludes that if Lysis is utterly useless, nobody will love him—not even his parents. While most scholars believe this text was intended to be humorous, it has also been suggested that *Lysis* shows Socrates held an egoistic view of love, according to which we only love people who are useful to us in some way. Other scholars disagree with this view, arguing that Socrates's doctrine leaves room for non-egoistic love for a spouse; still others deny that Socrates suggests any egoistic motivation at all. In *Symposium*, Socrates argues that children offer the false impression of immortality to their parents, and this misconception yields a form of unity among them. Scholars also note that for Socrates, love is rational. It is notable that Socrates, who claims to know only that he does not know, makes an exception (in Plato's *Symposium*), where he says he will tell the truth about Love, which he learned from a 'clever woman'. Classicist Armand D'Angour has made the case that Socrates was in his youth close to Aspasia, and that Diotima, to whom Socrates attributes his understanding of love in *Symposium*, is based on her; however, it is also possible that Diotima really existed. ### Socratic philosophy of politics While Socrates was involved in public political and cultural debates, it is hard to define his exact political philosophy. In Plato's *Gorgias,* he tells Callicles: "I believe that I'm one of a few Athenians—so as not to say I'm the only one, but the only one among our contemporaries—to take up the true political craft and practice the true politics. This is because the speeches I make on each occasion do not aim at gratification but at what's best." His claim illustrates his aversion for the established democratic assemblies and procedures such as voting—since Socrates saw politicians and rhetoricians as using tricks to mislead the public. He never ran for office or suggested any legislation. Rather, he aimed to help the city flourish by "improving" its citizens. As a citizen, he abided by the law. He obeyed the rules and carried out his military duty by fighting wars abroad. His dialogues, however, make little mention of contemporary political decisions, such as the Sicilian Expedition. Socrates spent his time conversing with citizens, among them powerful members of Athenian society, scrutinizing their beliefs and bringing the contradictions of their ideas to light. Socrates believed he was doing them a favor since, for him, politics was about shaping the moral landscape of the city through philosophy rather than electoral procedures. There is a debate over where Socrates stood in the polarized Athenian political climate, which was divided between oligarchs and democrats. While there is no clear textual evidence, one widely held theory holds that Socrates leaned towards democracy: he disobeyed the one order that the oligarchic government of the Thirty Tyrants gave him; he respected the laws and political system of Athens (which were formulated by democrats); and, according to this argument, his affinity for the ideals of democratic Athens was a reason why he did not want to escape prison and the death penalty. On the other hand, there is some evidence that Socrates leaned towards oligarchy: most of his friends supported oligarchy, he was contemptuous of the opinion of the many and was critical of the democratic process, and *Protagoras* shows some anti-democratic elements. A less mainstream argument suggests that Socrates favoured democratic republicanism, a theory that prioritizes active participation in public life and concern for the city. Yet another suggestion is that Socrates endorsed views in line with liberalism, a political ideology formed in the Age of Enlightenment. This argument is mostly based on *Crito* and *Apology*, where Socrates talks about the mutually beneficial relationship between the city and its citizens. According to Socrates, citizens are morally autonomous and free to leave the city if they wish—but, by staying within the city, they also accept the laws and the city's authority over them. On the other hand, Socrates has been seen as the first proponent of civil disobedience. Socrates's strong objection to injustice, along with his refusal to serve the Thirty Tyrants' order to arrest Leon, are suggestive of this line. As he says in *Critias*, "One ought never act unjustly, even to repay a wrong that has been done to oneself." Ιn the broader picture, Socrates's advice would be for citizens to follow the orders of the state, unless, after much reflection, they deem them to be unjust. Legacy ------ ### Hellenistic era Carnelian gem imprint representing Socrates, Rome, 1st century BC–1st century AD (left); Wall painting at a house depicting Socrates, 1st–5th century AD, Museum of Ephesus (right) Socrates's impact was immense in philosophy after his death. With the exception of the Epicureans and the Pyrrhonists, almost all philosophical currents after Socrates traced their roots to him: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cynics, and the Stoics. Interest in Socrates kept increasing until the third century AD. The various schools differed in response to fundamental questions such as the purpose of life or the nature of *arete* (virtue), since Socrates had not handed them an answer, and therefore, philosophical schools subsequently diverged greatly in their interpretation of his thought. He was considered to have shifted the focus of philosophy from a study of the natural world, as was the case for pre-Socratic philosophers, to a study of human affairs. Immediate followers of Socrates were his pupils, Euclid of Megara, Aristippus, and Antisthenes, who drew differing conclusions among themselves and followed independent trajectories. The full doctrines of Socrates's pupils are difficult to reconstruct. Antisthenes had a profound contempt of material goods. According to him, virtue was all that mattered. Diogenes and the Cynics continued this line of thought. On the opposite end, Aristippus endorsed the accumulation of wealth and lived a luxurious life. After leaving Athens and returning to his home city of Cyrene, he founded the Cyrenaic philosophical school which was based on hedonism, and endorsing living an easy life with physical pleasures. His school passed to his grandson, bearing the same name. There is a dialogue in Xenophon's work in which Aristippus claims he wants to live without wishing to rule or be ruled by others. In addition, Aristippus maintained a skeptical stance on epistemology, claiming that we can be certain only of our own feelings. This view resonates with the Socratic understanding of ignorance. Euclid was a contemporary of Socrates. After Socrates's trial and death, he left Athens for the nearby town of Megara, where he founded a school, named the Megarians. His theory was built on the pre-Socratic monism of Parmenides. Euclid continued Socrates's thought, focusing on the nature of virtue. The Stoics relied heavily on Socrates. They applied the Socratic method as a tool to avoid inconsistencies. Their moral doctrines focused on how to live a smooth life through wisdom and virtue. The Stoics assigned virtue a crucial role in attaining happiness and also prioritized the relation between goodness and ethical excellence, all of which echoed Socratic thought. At the same time, the philosophical current of Platonism claimed Socrates as its predecessor, in ethics and in its theory of knowledge. Arcesilaus, who became the head of the Academy about 80 years after its founding by Plato, radically changed the Academy's doctrine to what is now known as Academic Skepticism, centered on the Socratic philosophy of ignorance. The Academic Skeptics competed with the Stoics over who was Socrates's true heir with regard to ethics. While the Stoics insisted on knowledge-based ethics, Arcesilaus relied on Socratic ignorance. The Stoics' reply to Arcesilaus was that Socratic ignorance was part of Socratic irony (they themselves disapproved the use of irony), an argument that ultimately became the dominant narrative of Socrates in later antiquity. While Aristotle considered Socrates an important philosopher, Socrates was not a central figure in Aristotelian thought. One of Aristotle's pupils, Aristoxenus even authored a book detailing Socrates's scandals. The Epicureans were antagonistic to Socrates. They attacked him for superstition, criticizing his belief in his *daimonion* and his regard for the oracle at Delphi. They also criticized Socrates for his character and various faults, and focusing mostly on his irony, which was deemed inappropriate for a philosopher and unseemly for a teacher. The Pyrrhonists were also antagonistic to Socrates, accusing him of being a prater about ethics, who engaged in mock humility, and who sneered at and mocked people. ### Medieval world Socratic thought found its way to the Islamic Middle East alongside that of Aristotle and the Stoics. Plato's works on Socrates, as well as other ancient Greek literature, were translated into Arabic by early Muslim scholars such as Al-Kindi, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and the Muʿtazila. For Muslim scholars, Socrates was hailed and admired for combining his ethics with his lifestyle, perhaps because of the resemblance in this regard with Muhammad's personality. Socratic doctrines were altered to match Islamic faith: according to Muslim scholars, Socrates made arguments for monotheism and for the temporality of this world and rewards in the next life. His influence in the Arabic-speaking world continues to the present day. In medieval times, little of Socrates's thought survived in the Christian world as a whole; however, works on Socrates from Christian scholars such as Lactantius, Eusebius and Augustine were maintained in the Byzantine Empire, where Socrates was studied under a Christian lens. After the fall of Constantinople, many of the texts were brought back into the world of Roman Christianity, where they were translated into Latin. Overall, ancient Socratic philosophy, like the rest of classical literature before the Renaissance, was addressed with skepticism in the Christian world at first. During the early Italian Renaissance, two different narratives of Socrates developed. On the one hand, the humanist movement revived interest in classical authors. Leonardo Bruni translated many of Plato's Socratic dialogues, while his pupil Giannozzo Manetti authored a well-circulated book, a *Life of Socrates*. They both presented a civic version of Socrates, according to which Socrates was a humanist and a supporter of republicanism. Bruni and Manetti were interested in defending secularism as a non-sinful way of life; presenting a view of Socrates that was aligned with Christian morality assisted their cause. In doing so, they had to censor parts of his dialogues, especially those which appeared to promote homosexuality or any possibility of pederasty (with Alcibiades), or which suggested that the Socratic *daimon* was a god. On the other hand, a different picture of Socrates was presented by Italian Neoplatonists, led by the philosopher and priest Marsilio Ficino. Ficino was impressed by Socrates's un-hierarchical and informal way teaching, which he tried to replicate. Ficino portrayed a holy picture of Socrates, finding parallels with the life of Jesus Christ. For Ficino and his followers, Socratic ignorance signified his acknowledgement that all wisdom is God-given (through the Socratic *daimon*). ### Modern times In early modern France, Socrates's image was dominated by features of his private life rather than his philosophical thought, in various novels and satirical plays. Some thinkers used Socrates to highlight and comment upon controversies of their own era, like Théophile de Viau who portrayed a Christianized Socrates accused of atheism, while for Voltaire, the figure of Socrates represented a reason-based theist. Michel de Montaigne wrote extensively on Socrates, linking him to rationalism as a counterweight to contemporary religious fanatics. In the 18th century, German idealism revived philosophical interest in Socrates, mainly through Hegel's work. For Hegel, Socrates marked a turning point in the history of humankind by the introduction of the principle of free subjectivity or self-determination. While Hegel hails Socrates for his contribution, he nonetheless justifies the Athenian court, for Socrates's insistence upon self-determination would be destructive of the *Sittlichkeit* (a Hegelian term signifying the way of life as shaped by the institutions and laws of the State). Also, Hegel sees the Socratic use of rationalism as a continuation of Protagoras' focus on human reasoning (as encapsulated in the motto *homo mensura*: "man is the measure of all things"), but modified: it is our reasoning that can help us reach objective conclusions about reality. Also, Hegel considered Socrates as a predecessor of later ancient skeptic philosophers, even though he never clearly explained why. Søren Kierkegaard considered Socrates his teacher, and authored his master's thesis on him, *The Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates*. There he argues that Socrates is not a moral philosopher but is purely an ironist. He also focused on Socrates's avoidance of writing: for Kierkegaard, this avoidance was a sign of humility, deriving from Socrates's acceptance of his ignorance. Not only did Socrates not write anything down, according to Kierkegaard, but his contemporaries misconstrued and misunderstood him as a philosopher, leaving us with an almost impossible task in comprehending Socratic thought. Only Plato's *Apology* was close to the real Socrates, in Kierkegaard's view. In his writings, he revisited Socrates quite frequently; in his later work, Kierkegaard found ethical elements in Socratic thought. Socrates was not only a subject of study for Kierkegaard, he was a model as well: Kierkegaard paralleled his task as a philosopher to Socrates. He writes, "The only analogy I have before me is Socrates; my task is a Socratic task, to audit the definition of what it is to be a Christian", with his aim being to bring society closer to the Christian ideal, since he believed that Christianity had become a formality, void of any Christian essence. Kierkegaard denied being a Christian, as Socrates denied possessing any knowledge. Friedrich Nietzsche resented Socrates's contributions to Western culture. In his first book, *The Birth of Tragedy* (1872), Nietzsche held Socrates responsible for what he saw as the deterioration of ancient Greek civilization during the 4th century BC and after. For Nietzsche, Socrates turned the scope of philosophy from pre-Socratic naturalism to rationalism and intellectualism. He writes: "I conceive of [the Presocratics] as precursors to a reformation of the Greeks: but not of Socrates"; "with Empedocles and Democritus the Greeks were well on their way towards taking the correct measure of human existence, its unreason, its suffering; they never reached this goal, thanks to Socrates". The effect, Nietzsche proposed, was a perverse situation that had continued down to his day: our culture is a Socratic culture, he believed. In a later publication, *The Twilight of the Idols* (1887), Nietzsche continued his offensive against Socrates, focusing on the arbitrary linking of reason to virtue and happiness in Socratic thinking. He writes: "I try to understand from what partial and idiosyncratic states the Socratic problem is to be derived: his equation of reason = virtue = happiness. It was with this absurdity of a doctrine of identity that he fascinated: ancient philosophy never again freed itself [from this fascination]". From the late 19th century until the early 20th, the most common explanation of Nietzsche's hostility towards Socrates was his anti-rationalism; he considered Socrates the father of European rationalism. In the mid-20th century, philosopher Walter Kaufmann published an article arguing that Nietzsche admired Socrates. Current mainstream opinion is that Nietzsche was ambivalent towards Socrates. Continental philosophers Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss and Karl Popper, after experiencing the horrors of World War II, amidst the rise of totalitarian regimes, saw Socrates as an icon of individual conscience. Arendt, in *Eichmann in Jerusalem* (1963), suggests that Socrates's constant questioning and self-reflection could prevent the banality of evil. Strauss considers Socrates's political thought as paralleling Plato's. He sees an elitist Socrates in Plato's *Republic* as exemplifying why the *polis* is not, and could not be, an ideal way of organizing life, since philosophical truths cannot be digested by the masses. Popper takes the opposite view: he argues that Socrates opposes Plato's totalitarian ideas. For Popper, Socratic individualism, along with Athenian democracy, imply Popper's concept of the "open society" as described in his *Open Society and Its Enemies* (1945). See also -------- * Bibliography of Socrates * *De genio Socratis* * List of cultural depictions of Socrates * List of speakers in Plato's dialogues * Socratic fallacy * Socratic Letters Sources ------- * Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (2009). *A Companion to Socrates*. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Ahbel-Rappe, Sara (2011). *Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed*. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-3325-1. * Alon, Ilai (2009). "Socrates in Arabic Philosophy". 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"Socrates and Religious Debate in the Scottish Enlightenment". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). *Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates*. Brill. pp. 658–683. doi:10.1163/9789004396753\_027. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182644665. * May, Hope (2000). *On Socrates*. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-57604-2. * McPherran, Mark L. (2011). "Socratic religion". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). *The Cambridge Companion to Socrates*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 111–127. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.006. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. * McPherran, Mark L. (2013). "Socratic theology and piety". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 257–277. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * McPartland, Keith (2013). "Socratic Ignorance and Types of Knowledge". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 94–135. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * McLean, Daniel R. (2009). "The Private Life of Socrates in Early Modern France". In Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (eds.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Wiley. pp. 353–367. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch22. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Muench, Paul (2009). "Kierkegaard's Socratic Point of View". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 389–405. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch24. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Nails, Debra (2020). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "Socrates". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. * Ober, Josiah (2010). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). *The Cambridge Companion to Socrates*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521833424.007. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. * Obdrzalek, Suzanne (2013). "Socrates on Love". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 210–232. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * Porter, James I. (2009). "Nietzsche and 'The Problem of Socrates'". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 406–425. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch25. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Ralkowski, Mark (2013). "The politics of impiety why was Socrates prosecuted by the Athenian democracy ?". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 301–327. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * Raymond, Christopher C. (2019). "Nietzsche's Revaluation of Socrates". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). *Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates*. Brill. pp. 837–683. doi:10.1163/9789004396753\_033. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182444038. * Reshotko, Naomi (2013). "Socratic eudaimonism". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 156–184. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * Rowe, Christopher (2006). "Socrates in Plato's Dialogues". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 159–170. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch10. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Rudebusch, George (2009). "Socratic Love". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 186–199. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch11. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Segvic, Heda (2006). "No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 171–185. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch10. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. * Schur, David; Yamato, Lori (2019). "Kierkegaard's Socratic Way of Writing". In Kyriakos N. Demetriou (ed.). *Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates*. Brill Publishers. pp. 820–836. doi:10.1163/9789004396753\_032. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 181535294. * Trizio, Michele (2019). "Socrates in Byzantium". In Moore, Christopher (ed.). *Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates*. Brill Publishers. pp. 592–618. doi:10.1163/9789004396753\_024. ISBN 978-90-04-39675-3. S2CID 182037431. * Vasiliou, Iakovos (2013). "Socratic irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 20–33. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * Vlastos, Gregory (1985). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". *The Philosophical Quarterly*. Oxford University Press (OUP). **35** (138): 1–31. doi:10.2307/2219545. ISSN 0031-8094. JSTOR 2219545. * Vlastos, Gregory (1991). *Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2. * Waterfield, Robin (2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * Wolfsdorf, David (2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). *The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates*. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 34–67. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. * White, Nicholas (2009). "Socrates in Hegel and Others". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). *A Companion to Socrates*. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. pp. 368–387. doi:10.1002/9780470996218.ch23. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. Further reading --------------- * Brun, Jean (1978). *Socrate* (in French) (6th ed.). Presses universitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2. * Benson, Hugh (1992). *Essays on the philosophy of Socrates*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-506757-6. OCLC 23179683. * Rudebusch, George (2009). *Socrates*. Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-5085-9. OCLC 476311710. * Taylor, C. C. W. (1998). *Socrates*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287601-0. * Taylor, C. C. W. (2019). *Socrates: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-883598-1. * Vlastos, Gregory (1994). *Socratic Studies*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5.

Socrates

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates

**Strike action**, also called **labor strike**, **labour strike**, or simply **strike**, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. As striking became a more common practice, governments were often pushed to act (either by private business or by union workers). When government intervention occurred, it was rarely neutral or amicable. Early strikes were often deemed unlawful conspiracies or anti-competitive cartel action and many were subject to massive legal repression by state police, federal military power, and federal courts. Many Western nations legalized striking under certain conditions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Occasionally, strikes destabilize the rule of a particular political party or ruler; in such cases, strikes are often part of a broader social movement taking the form of a campaign of civil resistance. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard and the 1981 Warning Strike led by Lech Wałęsa. These strikes were significant in the long campaign of civil resistance for political change in Poland, and were an important mobilizing effort that contributed to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of communist party rule in eastern Europe. History ------- ### Origin of the term The use of the English word "strike" to describe a work protest was first seen in 1768, when sailors, in support of demonstrations in London, "struck" or removed the topgallant sails of merchant ships at port, thus crippling the ships. ### Pre-industrial strikes The first historically certain account of strike action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty, under Pharaoh Ramses III in ancient Egypt on 14 November in 1152 BCE. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid. The Egyptian authorities raised the wages. The first Jewish source for the idea of a labor strike appears in the Talmud, which describes that the bakers who prepared showbread for the altar went on strike. An early predecessor of the general strike may have been the *secessio plebis* in ancient Rome. In *The Outline of History*, H. G. Wells characterized this event as "the general strike of the plebeians; the plebeians seem to have invented the strike, which now makes its first appearance in history." Their first strike occurred because they "saw with indignation their friends, who had often served the state bravely in the legions, thrown into chains and reduced to slavery at the demand of patrician creditors". ### During and after the Industrial Revolution The strike action only became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the industrial working class; they lived in towns and cities, exchanging their labor for payment. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak in Britain, a true and widespread 'workers consciousness' was awakening. In 1838, a Statistical Society of London committee "used the first written questionnaire… The committee prepared and printed a list of questions 'designed to elicit the complete and impartial history of strikes.'" In 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. After the second Chartist Petition was presented to Parliament in April 1842 and rejected, the strike began in the coal mines of Staffordshire, England, and soon spread through Britain affecting factories, cotton mills in Lancashire and coal mines from Dundee to South Wales and Cornwall. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the mutinous masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. As much as half of the then industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist, political establishment. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote: > *by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, and woe betide the wealthy Englishmen when it becomes conscious of this fact … The English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer.* > > As the 19th century progressed, strikes became a fixture of industrial relations across the industrialized world, as workers organized themselves to collectively bargain for better wages and standards with their employers. Karl Marx condemned the theory of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work *The Poverty of Philosophy*. ### Recognition strikes A recognition strike is an industrial strike implemented in order to force a particular employer or industry to recognize a trade union as the legitimate collective bargaining agent for a company's workers. In 1949, their use in the United States was described as "a weapon used with varying results by labor for the last forty years or more". One example cited was the successful formation of the United Auto Workers. They were more common prior to the advent of modern American labor law (including the National Labor Relations Act), which introduced processes legally compelling an employer to recognize the legitimacy of properly certified unions. Two examples include the U.S. Steel recognition strike of 1901, and the subsequent coal strike of 1902. A 1936 study of strikes in the United States indicated that about one third of the total number of strikes between 1927 and 1928, and over 40 percent in 1929, were due to "demands for union recognition, closed shop, and protest against union discrimination and violation of union agreements". A 1988 study of strike activity and unionization in non-union municipal police departments between 1972 and 1978 found that recognition strikes were carried out "primarily where bargaining laws [provided] little or no protection of bargaining rights." In 1937, there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history. The number of major strikes and lockouts in the U.S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010. Companies countered the threat of a strike by threatening to close or move a plant. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted in 1967, ensures the right to strike in Article 8. The European Social Charter, adopted in 1961, also ensures the right to strike in Article 6. The Farah Strike, 1972–1974, labeled the "strike of the century," was organized and led by Mexican American women predominantly in El Paso, Texas. Frequency and duration ---------------------- Strikes are rare, in part because many workers are not covered by a collective bargaining agreement. Strikes that do occur are generally fairly short in duration. Labor economist John Kennan notes: > In Britain in 1926 (the year of the general strike) about 9 workdays per worker were lost due to strikes. In 1979, the loss due to strikes was a little more than one day per worker. These are the extreme cases. In the 79 years following 1926, the number of workdays lost in Britain was less than 2 hours per year per worker. In the U.S., idleness due to strikes never exceeded one half of one percent of total working days in any year during the period 1948-2005; the average loss was 0.1% per year. Similarly, in Canada over the period 1980-2005, the annual number of work days lost due to strikes never exceeded one day per worker; on average over this period lost worktime due to strikes was about one-third of a day per worker. Although the data are not readily available for a broad sample of developed countries, the pattern described above seems quite general: days lost due to strikes amount to only a fraction of a day per worker per annum, on average, exceeding one day only in a few exceptional years. > > Since the 1990s, strike actions have generally further declined, a phenomenon that might be attributable to lower information costs (and thus more readily available access to information on economic rents) made possible by computerization and rising personal indebtedness, which increases the cost of job loss for striking workers. In the United States, the number of workers involved in major work stoppages (including strikes and, less commonly, lockouts) that involved at least a thousand workers for at least one full shift generally declined from 1973 to 2017 (coinciding with a general decrease in overall union membership), before substantially increasing in 2018 and 2019. In the 2018 and 2019 period, 3.1% of union members were involved in a work stoppage each year on average, these strikes also contained more workers than ever recorded with an average of 20,000 workers participating in each major work stoppage in 2018 and 2019. ### By country For the period from 1996 to 2000, the ten countries with the most strike action (measured by average number of days not worked for every 1000 employees) were as follows: | Country | Days not worked | | --- | --- | | Denmark | 296 | | Iceland | 244 | | Canada | 217 | | Spain | 189 | | Norway | 135 | | South Korea | 95 | | Ireland | 90 | | Australia | 86 | | Italy | 76 | | France | 67 | Variations ---------- Most strikes are organized by labor unions during collective bargaining as a last resort. The object of collective bargaining is for the employer and the union to come to an agreement over wages, benefits, and working conditions. A collective bargaining agreement may include a clause (a contractual "no-strike clause") which prohibits the union from striking during the term of the agreement. Under U.S. labor law, a strike in violation of a no-strike clause is not a protected concerted activity. The scope of a no-strike clause varies; generally, the U.S. courts and National Labor Relations Board have determined that a collective bargaining agreement's no-strike clause has the same scope as the agreement's arbitration clauses, such that "the union cannot strike over an arbitrable issue." The U.S. Supreme Court held in *Jacksonville Bulk Terminals Inc. v. International Longshoremen's Association* (1982), a case involving the International Longshoremen's Association refusing to work with goods for export to the Soviet Union in protest against its invasion of Afghanistan, that a no-strike clause does not bar unions from refusing to work as a political protest (since that is not an "arbitrable" issue), although such activity may lead to damages for a secondary boycott. Whether a no-strike clause applies to sympathy strikes depends on the context. Some in the labor movement consider no-strike clauses to be an unnecessary detriment to unions in the collective bargaining process. Occasionally, workers decide to strike without the sanction of a labor union, either because the union refuses to endorse such a tactic, or because the workers involved are non-unionized. Strikes without formal union authorization are also known as wildcat strikes. In many countries, wildcat strikes do not enjoy the same legal protections as recognized union strikes, and may result in penalties for the union members who participate, or for their union. The same often applies in the case of strikes conducted without an official ballot of the union membership, as is required in some countries such as the United Kingdom. A strike may consist of workers refusing to attend work or picketing outside the workplace to prevent or dissuade people from working in their place or conducting business with their employer. Less frequently, workers may occupy the workplace, but refuse to work. This is known as a sit-down strike. A similar tactic is the work-in, where employees occupy the workplace but still continue work, often without pay, which attempts to show they are still useful, or that worker self-management can be successful. For instance, this occurred with factory occupations in the *Biennio Rosso* strikes – the "two red years" of Italy from 1919 to 1920. Another unconventional tactic is work-to-rule (also known as an *Italian strike*, in Italian: *Sciopero bianco*), in which workers perform their tasks exactly as they are required to but no better. For example, workers might follow all safety regulations in such a way that it impedes their productivity or they might refuse to work overtime. Such strikes may in some cases be a form of "partial strike" or "slowdown". During the development boom of the 1970s in Australia, the Green ban was developed by certain unions described by some as more socially conscious. This is a form of strike action taken by a trade union or other organized labor group for environmentalist or conservationist purposes. This developed from the black ban, strike action taken against a particular job or employer in order to protect the economic interests of the strikers. United States labor law also draws a distinction, in the case of private sector employers covered by the National Labor Relations Act, between "economic" and "unfair labor practice" strikes. An employer may not fire, but may permanently replace, workers who engage in a strike over economic issues. On the other hand, employers who commit unfair labor practices (ULPs) may not replace employees who strike over them, and must fire any strikebreakers they have hired as replacements in order to reinstate the striking workers. Strikes may be specific to a particular workplace, employer, or unit within a workplace, or they may encompass an entire industry, or every worker within a city or country. Strikes that involve all workers, or a number of large and important groups of workers, in a particular community or region are known as general strikes. Under some circumstances, strikes may take place in order to put pressure on the State or other authorities or may be a response to unsafe conditions in the workplace. A sympathy strike is a strike action in which one group of workers refuses to cross a picket line established by another as a means of supporting the striking workers. Sympathy strikes, once the norm in the construction industry in the United States, have been made much more difficult to conduct, due to decisions of the National Labor Relations Board permitting employers to establish separate or "reserved" gates for particular trades, making it an unlawful secondary boycott for a union to establish a picket line at any gate other than the one reserved for the employer it is picketing. Sympathy strikes may be undertaken by a union as an organization, or by individual union members choosing not to cross a picket line. A jurisdictional strike in United States labor law refers to a concerted refusal to work undertaken by a union to assert its members' right to particular job assignments and to protest the assignment of disputed work to members of another union or to unorganized workers. A student strike involves students (sometimes supported by faculty) refusing to attend classes. In some cases, the strike is intended to draw media attention to the institution so that the grievances that are causing the students to strike can be aired before the public; this usually damages the institution's (or government's) public image. In other cases, especially in government-supported institutions, the student strike can cause a budgetary imbalance and have actual economic repercussions for the institution. A hunger strike is a deliberate refusal to eat. Hunger strikes are often used in prisons as a form of political protest. Like student strikes, a hunger strike aims to worsen the public image of the target. A "sickout", or (especially by uniformed police officers) "blue flu", is a type of strike action in which the strikers call in sick. This is used in cases where laws prohibit certain employees from declaring a strike. Police, firefighters, air traffic controllers, and teachers in some U.S. states are among the groups commonly barred from striking usually by state and federal laws meant to ensure the safety or security of the general public. Newspaper writers may withhold their names from their stories as a way to protest actions of their employer. Activists may form "flying squad" groups for strikes or other actions to disrupt the workplace or another aspect of capitalist production: supporting other strikers or unemployed workers, participating in protests against globalization, or opposing abusive landlords. Legal prohibitions ------------------ ### Canada On 30 January 2015, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that there is a constitutional right to strike. In this 5–2 majority decision, Justice Rosalie Abella ruled that "[a]long with their right to associate, speak through a bargaining representative of their choice, and bargain collectively with their employer through that representative, the right of employees to strike is vital to protecting the meaningful process of collective bargaining…" [paragraph 24]. This decision adopted the dissent by Chief Justice Brian Dickson in a 1987 Supreme Court ruling on a reference case brought by the province of Alberta. The exact scope of this right to strike remains unclear. Prior to this Supreme Court decision, the federal and provincial governments had the ability to introduce "back to work legislation", a special law that blocks the strike action (or a lockout) from happening or continuing. Canadian governments could also have imposed binding arbitration or a new contract on the disputing parties. Back to work legislation was first used in 1950 during a railway strike, and as of 2012 had been used 33 times by the federal government for those parts of the economy that are regulated federally (grain handling, rail and air travel, and the postal service), and in more cases provincially. In addition, certain parts of the economy can be proclaimed "essential services" in which case all strikes are illegal. Examples include when the government of Canada passed back to work legislation during the 2011 Canada Post lockout and the 2012 CP Rail strike, thus effectively ending the strikes. In 2016, the government's use of back to work legislation during the 2011 Canada Post lockout was ruled unconstitutional, with the judge specifically referencing the Supreme Court of Canada's 2015 decision *Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v Saskatchewan*. ### People's Republic of China and the former Soviet Union In some Marxist–Leninist states, such as the People's Republic of China, striking was illegal and viewed as counter-revolutionary. In 1976, China signed the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which guaranteed the right to unions and striking, but Chinese officials declared that they had no interest in allowing these liberties. In June 2008, the municipal government in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone introduced draft labor regulations, which a labor rights advocacy group says would, if implemented and enforced, virtually restore Chinese workers' right to strike. In the Soviet Union, strikes occurred throughout the existence of the USSR, most notably in the 1930s. After World War II, they diminished both in number and in scale. Trade unions in the Soviet Union served in part as a means to educate workers about the country's economic system. Vladimir Lenin referred to trade unions as "Schools of Communism". ### France In France, the right to strike is recognized and guaranteed by the Constitution. A "minimum service" during strikes in public transport was a promise of Nicolas Sarkozy during his campaign for the French presidential election. A law "on social dialogue and continuity of public service in regular terrestrial transports of passengers" was adopted on 12 August 2007, and it took effect on 1 January 2008. This law, among other measures, forces certain categories of public transport workers (such as train and bus drivers) to declare to their employer 48 hours in advance if they intend to go on strike. Should they go on strike without having declared their intention to do so beforehand, they leave themselves open to sanctions. Unions oppose this law, arguing these 48 hours are used not only to pressure the workers but also to keep files on the more militant workers, who will more easily be undermined in their careers by the employers. They also argue this law prevents the more hesitant workers from making the decision to join the strike the day before, once they have been convinced to do so by their colleagues and more particularly the union militants, who maximize their efforts in building the strike (by handing out leaflets, organizing meetings, discussing the demands with their colleagues) in the last few days preceding the strike. This law makes it also more difficult for the strike to spread rapidly to other workers, as they are required to wait at least 48 hours before joining the strike. This law also makes it easier for the employers to organize the production as it may use its human resources more effectively, knowing beforehand who is going to be at work and not, thus undermining, albeit not very much, the effects of the strike. However, this law has not had much effect as strikes in public transport still occur in France, and at times the workers refuse to comply by the rules of this law. The public transport industry – public or privately owned – remains very militant in France and keen on taking strike action when their interests are threatened by the employers or the government. The public transport workers in France, in particular the "Cheminots" (employees of the national French railway company) are often seen as the most radical "vanguard" of the French working class. This law has not, in the opinion of many, changed this fact. ### Italy In Italy, the right to strike is guaranteed by the Constitution (article 40). The law number 146 of 1990 and law number 83 of 2000 regulate the strike actions. In particular, they impose limitations for the strikes of workers in public essential services, i.e., the ones that "guarantee the personality rights of life, health, freedom and security, movements, assistance and welfare, education, and communications". These limitations provide a minimum guarantee for these services and punish violations. Similar limitations are applied to workers in the private sector whose strike can affect public services. The employer is explicitly forbidden to apply sanctions to employees participating to the strikes, with the exception of the aforementioned essential services cases. The government, under exceptional circumstances, can impose the *precettazione* of the strike, i.e., can force the postponement, cancellation or duration reduction of a national-wide strike. The prime minister has to justify the decision of applying the*precettazione* in front of the parliament. For local strikes, *precettazione* can also be applied by a decision of the prefect. The employees refusing to work after the *precettazione* takes effect may be subject of a sanction or even a penal action (for a maximum of 4 years of prison) if the illegal strike causes the suspension of an essential service. *Precettazione* has been rarely applied, usually after several days of strikes affecting transport or fuel services or extraordinary events. Recent cases include the cancellation of the 2015 strike of the company providing transportation services in Milan during Expo 2015, and the 2007 *precettazione* to stop the strike of the truck drivers that was causing food and fuel shortage after several days of strike. ### United Kingdom Legislation was enacted in the aftermath of the 1919 police strikes, forbidding British police from both taking industrial action, and discussing the possibility with colleagues. In January 1951 during the Labour Attlee ministry, Attorney-General Hartley Shawcross left his name to a Parliamentary principle in a defense of his conduct regarding an illegal strike: that the Attorney-General "is not to be put, and is not put, under pressure by his colleagues in the matter" of whether or not to establish criminal proceedings. The Industrial Relations Act 1971 was repealed through the Trade Union and Labour Relations Act 1974, sections of which were repealed by the Employment Act 1982. The Code of Practice on Industrial Action Ballots and Notices, and sections 22 and 25 of the Employment Relations Act 2004, which concern industrial action notices, commenced on 1 October 2005. The Police Federation, which was created at the time to deal with employment grievances and to provide representation to police officers, attempted to put pressure on the Blair ministry and at the time repeatedly threatened strike action. Prison officers have gained and lost the right to strike over the years; in the 2010s, despite it being illegal, they walked out on 15 November 2016, and again on 14 September 2018. ### United States The Railway Labor Act bans strikes by United States airline and railroad employees except in narrowly defined circumstances. The National Labor Relations Act generally permits strikes, but provides a mechanism to enjoin from striking workers in industries in which a strike would create a national emergency. As of 2021[update], the federal government most recently invoked these statutory provisions to obtain an injunction requiring the International Longshore and Warehouse Union to return to work in 2002 after having been locked out by the employer group, the Pacific Maritime Association. Some jurisdictions prohibit all strikes by public employees, under laws such as the "Taylor Law" in New York. Other jurisdictions impose strike bans only on certain categories of workers, particularly those regarded as critical to society: police, teachers and firefighters are among the groups commonly barred from striking in these jurisdictions. Some states, such as New Jersey, Michigan, Iowa or Florida, do not allow teachers in public schools to strike. Workers have sometimes circumvented these restrictions by falsely claiming inability to work due to illness – this is sometimes called a "sickout" or "blue flu", the latter receiving its name from the uniforms worn by police officers, who are traditionally prohibited from striking. The term "red flu" has sometimes been used to describe this action when undertaken by firefighters. Under federal law, federal employees who participate in a strike, or who assert the right to strike against the US government, are barred from retaining their employment. Often, specific regulations on strike actions exist for employees in prisons. The Code of Federal Regulations declares "encouraging others to refuse to work, or to participate in a work stoppage" by prisoners to be a "High Severity Level Prohibited Act" and authorizes solitary confinement for periods of up to a year for each violation. The California Code of Regulations states that "[p]articipation in a strike or work stoppage", "[r]efusal to perform work or participate in a program as ordered or assigned", and "[r]ecurring failure to meet work or program expectations within the inmate's abilities when lesser disciplinary methods failed to correct the misconduct" by prisoners is "serious misconduct" under §3315(a)(3)(L), leading to gang affiliation under CCR §3000. Postal workers involved in 1978 wildcat strikes in Jersey City, Kearny, New Jersey, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. were fired under the presidency of Jimmy Carter, and President Ronald Reagan fired air traffic controllers and the PATCO union after the air traffic controllers' strike of 1981. The West Virginia teacher's strike in 2018 inspired teachers in other states, including Oklahoma, Colorado, and Arizona, to take similar action. Jurisprudence and philosophy ---------------------------- Strike actions have also been discussed from the perspective of jurisprudence and philosophy, with issues being raised such as whether people have a right to strike, the interaction of strikes with other rights, civil order, coercion, justice and the interplay between striking and contracts. Strikebreakers -------------- A *strikebreaker* (sometimes derogatorily called a *scab*, *blackleg*, or *knobstick*) is a person who works despite an ongoing strike. Strikebreakers are usually individuals who are not employed by the company prior to the trade union dispute, but rather hired after or during the strike to keep the organization running. "Strikebreakers" may also refer to workers (union members or not) who cross picket lines to work. Irwin, Jones, McGovern (2008)[*full citation needed*] believe that the term "scab" is part of a larger metaphor involving strikes. They argue that the picket line is symbolic of a wound and those who break its borders to return to work are the scabs who bond that wound. Others have argued that the word is not a part of a larger metaphor but, rather, was an old-fashioned English insult whose meaning narrowed over time. "Blackleg" is an older word and is found in the 19th-century folk song "Blackleg Miner" which originated in Northumberland. The term does not necessarily owe its origins to this tune of unknown origin. ### Union strikebreaking The concept of *union strikebreaking* or *union scabbing* refers to any circumstance in which union workers themselves cross picket lines to work. Unionized workers are sometimes required to cross the picket lines established by other unions due to their organizations having signed contracts which include no-strike clauses. The no-strike clause typically requires that members of the union not conduct any strike action for the duration of the contract; such actions are called *sympathy* or *secondary strikes*. Members who honor the picket line in spite of the contract frequently face discipline, for their action may be viewed as a violation of provisions of the contract. Therefore, any union conducting a strike action typically seeks to include a provision of amnesty for all who honored the picket line in the agreement that settles the strike. No-strike clauses may also prevent unionized workers from engaging in solidarity actions for other workers even when no picket line is crossed. For example, striking workers in manufacturing or mining produce a product which must be transported. In a situation where the factory or mine owners have replaced the strikers, unionized transport workers may feel inclined to refuse to haul any product that is produced by strikebreakers, yet their own contract obligates them to do so. Historically the practice of union strikebreaking has been a contentious issue in the union movement, and a point of contention between adherents of different union philosophies. For example, supporters of industrial unions, which have sought to organize entire workplaces without regard to individual skills, have criticized craft unions for organizing workplaces into separate unions according to skill, a circumstance that makes union strikebreaking more common. Union strikebreaking is not unique to craft unions. Anti-strike action ------------------ Most strikes called by unions are somewhat predictable; they typically occur after the contract has expired. However, not all strikes are called by union organizations – some strikes have been called in an effort to pressure employers to recognize unions. Other strikes may be spontaneous actions by working people. Spontaneous strikes are sometimes called "wildcat strikes"; they were the key fighting point in May 1968 in France; most commonly, they are responses to serious (often life-threatening) safety hazards in the workplace rather than wage or hour disputes, etc. Whatever the cause of the strike, employers are generally motivated to take measures to prevent them, mitigate the impact, or to undermine strikes when they do occur. ### Strike preparation Companies which produce products for sale will frequently increase inventories prior to a strike. Salaried employees may be called upon to take the place of strikers, which may entail advance training. If the company has multiple locations, personnel may be redeployed to meet the needs of reduced staff. Companies may also take out strike insurance, to help offset the losses which a strike would cause. When established unions commence strike action, some companies may decline entirely to negotiate with the union, and respond to the strike by hiring replacement workers. For strikers, this may be concerning for multiple reasons. For example, they may fear that the strike will be lost. The length of time that the strike may last could cause many workers to cease striking, which would likely cause it to fail. They may also be concerned that they will lose their jobs entirely. Companies that hire strikebreakers typically use these concerns to attempt to convince union members to abandon the strike and cross the union's picket line. Unions faced with a strikebreaking situation may try to inhibit the use of strikebreakers by a variety of methods – establishing picket lines where strikebreakers enter the workplace; discouraging strike breakers from taking, or from keeping, strikebreaking jobs; raising the cost of hiring strikebreakers for the company; or employing public relations tactics. Companies may respond by increasing security forces and seeking court injunctions. Examining conditions in the late 1990s, John Logan, professor and director of Labor and Employment Studies at San Francisco State University, observed that union busting agencies helped to "transform economic strikes into a virtually suicidal tactic for US unions". Logan further observed, "as strike rates in the United States have plummeted to historic low levels, the demand for strike management firms has also declined." In the US, as established in the National Labor Relations Act there is a legally protected right for private sector employees to strike to gain better wages, benefits, or working conditions and they cannot be fired. Striking for economic reasons (like protesting workplace conditions or supporting a union's bargaining demands) allows an employer to hire permanent replacements. The replacement worker can continue in the job and then the striking worker must wait for a vacancy. But if the strike is due to unfair labor practices, the strikers replaced can demand immediate reinstatement when the strike ends. If a collective bargaining agreement is in effect, and it contains a "no-strike clause", a strike during the life of the contract could result in the firing of all striking employees which could result in dissolution of that union. Although this is legal it could be viewed as union busting. ### Strike breaking Some companies negotiate with the union during a strike; other companies may see a strike as an opportunity to eliminate the union. This is sometimes accomplished by the importation of replacement workers, strikebreakers or "scabs". Historically, strike breaking has often coincided with union busting. It was also called 'black legging' in the early twentieth century, during the Russian socialist movement. ### Union busting One method of inhibiting or ending a strike is firing union members who are striking which can result in elimination of the union. Although this has happened, it is rare due to laws regarding firing and "right to strike" having a wide range of differences in the US depending on whether union members are public or private sector. Laws also vary country to country. In the UK, "It is important to understand that there is no right to strike in UK law." Employees who strike risk dismissal, unless it is an official strike (one called or endorsed by their union) in which case they are protected from unlawful dismissal, and cannot be fired for at least 12 weeks. UK laws regarding work stoppages and strikes are defined within the Employment Relations Act 1999 and the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992. A significant case of mass-dismissals in the UK in 2005 involved the sacking of over 600 Gate Gourmet employees at Heathrow Airport. The sacking prompted a walkout by British Airways ground staff leading to cancelled flights and thousands of delayed passengers. The walkout was illegal under UK law and the T&GWU quickly brought it to an end. A subsequent court case ruled that demonstrations on a grass verge approaching the Gate Gourmet premises were not illegal, but limited the number and made the T&G responsible for their action. In 1962, US President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order #10988 which permitted federal employees to form trade unions but prohibited strikes (codified in 1966 at 5 U.S.C. 7311 – Loyalty and Striking). In 1981, after public sector union PATCO (Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization) went on strike illegally, President Ronald Reagan fired all of the controllers. His action resulted in the dissolution of the union. PATCO reformed to become the National Air Traffic Controllers Association. In the U.S., as established in the National Labor Relations Act there is a legally protected right for private sector employees to strike to gain better wages, benefits, or working conditions and they cannot be fired. Striking for economic reasons (i.e., protesting workplace conditions or supporting a union's bargaining demands) allows an employer to hire permanent replacements. The replacement worker can continue in the job and then the striking worker must wait for a vacancy. But if the strike is due to unfair labor practices (ULP), the strikers replaced can demand immediate reinstatement when the strike ends. If a collective bargaining agreement is in effect, and it contains a "no-strike clause", a strike during the life of the contract could result in the firing of all striking employees which could result in dissolution of that union. Amazon has used the Law firm Wilmerhale to legally end worker strikes at its locations. ### Lockout Another counter to a strike is a lockout, a form of work stoppage in which an employer refuses to allow employees to work. Two of the three employers involved in the Caravan park grocery workers strike of 2003–2004 locked out their employees in response to a strike against the third member of the employer bargaining group. Lockouts are, with certain exceptions, lawful under United States labor law. ### Violence Historically, some employers have attempted to break union strikes by force. One of the most famous examples of this occurred during the Homestead Strike of 1892. Industrialist Henry Clay Frick sent private security agents from the Pinkerton National Detective Agency to break the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers strike at a Homestead, Pennsylvania, steel mill. Two strikers were killed, twelve wounded, along with two Pinkertons killed and eleven wounded. In the aftermath, Frick was shot in the neck and then stabbed by Alexander Berkman, surviving the attack, while Berkman was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Films ----- ### Non-fiction * *Final Offer* – A look at the 1984 contract negotiations between General Motors and its union. * *Harlan County, USA*, Director: Barbara Kopple, US 1976–A documentary film about a very long and bitter strike of coal miners in Kentucky * *American Dream,* Director: Barbara Kopple, US 1990 – A documentary film about the unsuccessful 1985–1986 meatpacker's strike against Hormel Foods in Austin, Minnesota. * Jimmy Hoffa, a labor union leader who ran the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) union from 1958 until 1971, was portrayed by Robert Blake in the 1983 TV-film *Blood Feud*, Trey Wilson in the 1985 television miniseries *Robert Kennedy & His Times*, and by Jack Nicholson in the 1992 biographical film *Hoffa*. * *Newsies*, a Disney movie based on the Newsboys' Strike of 1899 directed by Kenny Ortega and music composed by Alan Menken. * *Bastard Boys*, A miniseries based on the 1998 Australian waterfront dispute. * *Made in Dagenham*, A film about the strike by female employees at the Ford Motor company in the UK. * *The Great Grunwick Strike 1976-1978* Director: Chris Thomas, Brent Trades Union Council (2007 film) ### Fiction * *Statschka* ("Strike"), Director: Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union 1924 * *Brüder* ("Brother"), Director: Werner Hochbaum, Germany 1929–On the general strike in the port of Hamburg, Germany in 1896/97 * *The Stars Look Down*, Director: Carol Reed, England 1939 – Film about a strike over safety standards at a coal mine in North-East England – based on the Cronin novel * *The Grapes of Wrath* a 1940 film by John Ford includes description of migrant workers striking, and its violent breaking by employers, assisted by the police. Based on the novel by John Steinbeck. * *Salt of the Earth*, Director: Herbert J. Biberman, US 1953–Fictionalized account of an actual zinc-miners' strike in Silver City, New Mexico, in which women took over the picket line to circumvent an injunction barring "striking miners" from company property. The striking women were largely played by real members of the strike, and one woman was deported to Mexico while filming. The union organizer Clinton Jencks (from Jencks v. United States fame) also participated. * *The Molly Maguires*, Director: Martin Ritt, 1970 film starring Sean Connery and Richard Harris. Frustrated by the failure of strike action to achieve their industrial objectives, a secret society among Pennsylvania coal miners sabotages the mine with explosives to try to get what their industrial action failed to obtain. A Pinkerton agent infiltrates them. * *F.I.S.T.*, Director: Norman Jewison, 1978 – loosely based on the Teamsters union and former president Jimmy Hoffa. * *Norma Rae*, Director: Martin Ritt, 1979. * *Matewan*, Director: John Sayles, 1987 – critically acclaimed account of a coal mine-workers' strike and attempt to unionize in 1920 in Matewan, a small town in the hills of West Virginia. * *Made in Dagenham*, 2010 – based on the strike at Fords plant in Dagenham, England, UK, which won equal pay for female workers. Other uses ---------- * Sometimes, "to go on strike" is used figuratively for machinery or equipment not working due to malfunction, e.g. "*My computer's on strike*". See also -------- * 1891 Australian shearers' strike * Decent work * Earth Strike * Fare strike * International comparisons of labor unions * Living wage * Minimum wage * Occupation of factories * Occupational safety and health * Seattle General Strike of 1919 * Sitdown strike * Sitting on a man * Stay away * Strike in Bangladesh * Syndicalism * The Burke Group * Workplace democracy Further reading --------------- * Norwood, Stephen H. *Strikebreaking and Intimidation.* Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8078-2705-3 * Montgomery, David. "Strikes in Nineteenth-Century America," *Social Science History* (1980) 4#1 pp. 81–104 in JSTOR, includes some comparative data * Silver, Beverly J. *Forces of Labor: Workers' Movements and Globalization Since 1870.* New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-52077-0

Strike action

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action

In celestial mechanics, an **orbit** is the curved trajectory of an object such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a natural satellite around a planet, or of an artificial satellite around an object or position in space such as a planet, moon, asteroid, or Lagrange point. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. For most situations, orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian mechanics, which explains gravity as a force obeying an inverse-square law. However, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of spacetime, with orbits following geodesics, provides a more accurate calculation and understanding of the exact mechanics of orbital motion. History ------- Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were described by European and Arabic philosophers using the idea of celestial spheres. This model posited the existence of perfect moving spheres or rings to which the stars and planets were attached. It assumed the heavens were fixed apart from the motion of the spheres and was developed without any understanding of gravity. After the planets' motions were more accurately measured, theoretical mechanisms such as deferent and epicycles were added. Although the model was capable of reasonably accurately predicting the planets' positions in the sky, more and more epicycles were required as the measurements became more accurate, hence the model became increasingly unwieldy. Originally geocentric, it was modified by Copernicus to place the Sun at the centre to help simplify the model. The model was further challenged during the 16th century, as comets were observed traversing the spheres. The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our Solar System are elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the Sun is not located at the center of the orbits, but rather at one focus. Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had previously been thought, but rather that the speed depends on the planet's distance from the Sun. Third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the Sun. For the planets, the cubes of their distances from the Sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the Sun, their orbital periods respectively about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship. Idealised orbits meeting these rules are known as Kepler orbits. Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to gravity were conic sections (this assumes that the force of gravity propagates instantaneously). Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits' sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that those bodies orbit their common center of mass. Where one body is much more massive than the other (as is the case of an artificial satellite orbiting a planet), it is a convenient approximation to take the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive body. Advances in Newtonian mechanics were then used to explore variations from the simple assumptions behind Kepler orbits, such as the perturbations due to other bodies, or the impact of spheroidal rather than spherical bodies. Joseph-Louis Lagrange developed a new approach to Newtonian mechanics emphasizing energy more than force, and made progress on the three-body problem, discovering the Lagrangian points. In a dramatic vindication of classical mechanics, in 1846 Urbain Le Verrier was able to predict the position of Neptune based on unexplained perturbations in the orbit of Uranus. Albert Einstein in his 1916 paper *The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity* explained that gravity was due to curvature of space-time and removed Newton's assumption that changes propagate instantaneously. This led astronomers to recognize that Newtonian mechanics did not provide the highest accuracy in understanding orbits. In relativity theory, orbits follow geodesic trajectories which are usually approximated very well by the Newtonian predictions (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds) but the differences are measurable. Essentially all the experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity theory to within experimental measurement accuracy. The original vindication of general relativity is that it was able to account for the remaining unexplained amount in precession of Mercury's perihelion first noted by Le Verrier. However, Newton's solution is still used for most short term purposes since it is significantly easier to use and sufficiently accurate. Planetary orbits ---------------- Within a planetary system, planets, dwarf planets, asteroids and other minor planets, comets, and space debris orbit the system's barycenter in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a barycenter is not gravitationally bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. Bodies that are gravitationally bound to one of the planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about a barycenter near or within that planet. Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the planetary orbits vary over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest orbital eccentricities are seen with Venus and Neptune. As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest. (More specific terms are used for specific bodies. For example, *perigee* and *apogee* are the lowest and highest parts of an orbit around Earth, while *perihelion* and *aphelion* are the closest and farthest points of an orbit around the Sun.) In the case of planets orbiting a star, the mass of the star and all its satellites are calculated to be at a single point called the barycenter. The paths of all the star's satellites are elliptical orbits about that barycenter. Each satellite in that system will have its own elliptical orbit with the barycenter at one focal point of that ellipse. At any point along its orbit, any satellite will have a certain value of kinetic and potential energy with respect to the barycenter, and the sum of those two energies is a constant value at every point along its orbit. As a result, as a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed as its potential energy decreases; as a planet approaches apoapsis, its velocity will decrease as its potential energy increases. ### Understanding orbits There are a few common ways of understanding orbits: * A force, such as gravity, pulls an object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line. * As the object is pulled toward the massive body, it falls toward that body. However, if it has enough tangential velocity it will not fall into the body but will instead continue to follow the curved trajectory caused by that body indefinitely. The object is then said to be orbiting the body. As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below). This is a 'thought experiment', in which a cannon on top of a tall mountain is able to fire a cannonball horizontally at any chosen muzzle speed. The effects of air friction on the cannonball are ignored (or perhaps the mountain is high enough that the cannon is above the Earth's atmosphere, which is the same thing). If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial speed, the trajectory of the ball curves downward and hits the ground (A). As the firing speed is increased, the cannonball hits the ground farther (B) away from the cannon, because while the ball is still falling towards the ground, the ground is increasingly curving away from it (see first point, above). All these motions are actually "orbits" in a technical sense—they are describing a portion of an elliptical path around the center of gravity—but the orbits are interrupted by striking the Earth. If the cannonball is fired with sufficient speed, the ground curves away from the ball at least as much as the ball falls—so the ball never strikes the ground. It is now in what could be called a non-interrupted or circumnavigating, orbit. For any specific combination of height above the center of gravity and mass of the planet, there is one specific firing speed (unaffected by the mass of the ball, which is assumed to be very small relative to the Earth's mass) that produces a circular orbit, as shown in (C). As the firing speed is increased beyond this, non-interrupted elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be non-interrupted elliptical orbits at slower firing speed; these will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite the firing point, below the circular orbit. At a specific horizontal firing speed called escape velocity, dependent on the mass of the planet and the distance of the object from the barycenter, an open orbit (E) is achieved that has a parabolic path. At even greater speeds the object will follow a range of hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the planet's gravity, and "going off into space" never to return. The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with subtypes: No orbit Suborbital trajectoriesRange of interrupted elliptical paths Orbital trajectories (or simply, orbits)* Range of elliptical paths with closest point opposite firing point * Circular path * Range of elliptical paths with closest point at firing point Open (or escape) trajectories* Parabolic paths * Hyperbolic paths It is worth noting that orbital rockets are launched vertically at first to lift the rocket above the atmosphere (which causes frictional drag), and then slowly pitch over and finish firing the rocket engine parallel to the atmosphere to achieve orbit speed. Once in orbit, their speed keeps them in orbit above the atmosphere. If e.g., an elliptical orbit dips into dense air, the object will lose speed and re-enter (i.e. fall). Occasionally a space craft will intentionally intercept the atmosphere, in an act commonly referred to as an aerobraking maneuver. Newton's laws of motion ----------------------- ### Newton's law of gravitation and laws of motion for two-body problems In most situations, relativistic effects can be neglected, and Newton's laws give a sufficiently accurate description of motion. The acceleration of a body is equal to the sum of the forces acting on it, divided by its mass, and the gravitational force acting on a body is proportional to the product of the masses of the two attracting bodies and decreases inversely with the square of the distance between them. To this Newtonian approximation, for a system of two-point masses or spherical bodies, only influenced by their mutual gravitation (called a two-body problem), their trajectories can be exactly calculated. If the heavier body is much more massive than the smaller, as in the case of a satellite or small moon orbiting a planet or for the Earth orbiting the Sun, it is accurate enough and convenient to describe the motion in terms of a coordinate system that is centered on the heavier body, and we say that the lighter body is in orbit around the heavier. For the case where the masses of two bodies are comparable, an exact Newtonian solution is still sufficient and can be had by placing the coordinate system at the center of the mass of the system. ### Defining gravitational potential energy Energy is associated with gravitational fields. A stationary body far from another can do external work if it is pulled towards it, and therefore has gravitational *potential energy*. Since work is required to separate two bodies against the pull of gravity, their gravitational potential energy increases as they are separated, and decreases as they approach one another. For point masses, the gravitational energy decreases to zero as they approach zero separation. It is convenient and conventional to assign the potential energy as having zero value when they are an infinite distance apart, and hence it has a negative value (since it decreases from zero) for smaller finite distances. ### Orbital energies and orbit shapes When only two gravitational bodies interact, their orbits follow a conic section. The orbit can be open (implying the object never returns) or closed (returning). Which it is depends on the total energy (kinetic + potential energy) of the system. In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, the speed is always less than the escape velocity. Since the kinetic energy is never negative if the common convention is adopted of taking the potential energy as zero at infinite separation, the bound orbits will have negative total energy, the parabolic trajectories zero total energy, and hyperbolic orbits positive total energy. An open orbit will have a parabolic shape if it has the velocity of exactly the escape velocity at that point in its trajectory, and it will have the shape of a hyperbola when its velocity is greater than the escape velocity. When bodies with escape velocity or greater approach each other, they will briefly curve around each other at the time of their closest approach, and then separate, forever. All closed orbits have the shape of an ellipse. A circular orbit is a special case, wherein the foci of the ellipse coincide. The point where the orbiting body is closest to Earth is called the perigee, and is called the periapsis (less properly, "perifocus" or "pericentron") when the orbit is about a body other than Earth. The point where the satellite is farthest from Earth is called the apogee, apoapsis, or sometimes apifocus or apocentron. A line drawn from periapsis to apoapsis is the **line-of-apsides**. This is the major axis of the ellipse, the line through its longest part. ### Kepler's laws Bodies following closed orbits repeat their paths with a certain time called the period. This motion is described by the empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as follows: 1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of that ellipse. [This focal point is actually the barycenter of the Sun-planet system; for simplicity, this explanation assumes the Sun's mass is infinitely larger than that planet's.] The planet's orbit lies in a plane, called the **orbital plane**. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits about particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or periselene and aposelene respectively). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron. 2. As the planet moves in its orbit, the line from the Sun to the planet sweeps a constant area of the orbital plane for a given period of time, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time." 3. For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant. ### Limitations of Newton's law of gravitation Note that while bound orbits of a point mass or a spherical body with a Newtonian gravitational field are closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or non-Newtonian effects (such as caused by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects, thereby changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two-body motion. The two-body solutions were published by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the three-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies. ### Approaches to many-body problems Rather than an exact closed form solution, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two forms: One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations of motion of the moons, planets, and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for celestial navigation. Still, there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-Newtonian methods. The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the sum of all the forces acting on a body will equal the mass of the body times its acceleration (*F = ma*). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions and velocities from initial values of position and velocity corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the positions and velocities of the objects a short time in the future, then repeat the calculation ad nauseam. However, tiny arithmetic errors from the limited accuracy of a computer's math are cumulative, which limits the accuracy of this approach. Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large assemblages of objects have been simulated. Newtonian analysis of orbital motion ------------------------------------ The following derivation applies to such an elliptical orbit. We start only with the Newtonian law of gravitation stating that the gravitational acceleration towards the central body is related to the inverse of the square of the distance between them, namely F 2 = − G m 1 m 2 r 2 {\displaystyle F\_{2}=-{\frac {Gm\_{1}m\_{2}}{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle F_{2}=-{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}} where *F*2 is the force acting on the mass *m*2 caused by the gravitational attraction mass *m*1 has for *m*2, *G* is the universal gravitational constant, and *r* is the distance between the two masses centers. From Newton's Second Law, the summation of the forces acting on *m*2 related to that body's acceleration: F 2 = m 2 A 2 {\displaystyle F\_{2}=m\_{2}A\_{2}} {\displaystyle F_{2}=m_{2}A_{2}} where *A*2 is the acceleration of *m*2 caused by the force of gravitational attraction *F*2 of *m*1 acting on *m*2. Combining Eq. 1 and 2: − G m 1 m 2 r 2 = m 2 A 2 {\displaystyle -{\frac {Gm\_{1}m\_{2}}{r^{2}}}=m\_{2}A\_{2}} {\displaystyle -{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}=m_{2}A_{2}} Solving for the acceleration, *A*2: A 2 = F 2 m 2 = − 1 m 2 G m 1 m 2 r 2 = − μ r 2 {\displaystyle A\_{2}={\frac {F\_{2}}{m\_{2}}}=-{\frac {1}{m\_{2}}}{\frac {Gm\_{1}m\_{2}}{r^{2}}}=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle A_{2}={\frac {F_{2}}{m_{2}}}=-{\frac {1}{m_{2}}}{\frac {Gm_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}}} where μ {\displaystyle \mu \,} {\displaystyle \mu \,} is the standard gravitational parameter, in this case G m 1 {\displaystyle Gm\_{1}} {\displaystyle Gm_{1}}. It is understood that the system being described is *m*2, hence the subscripts can be dropped. We assume that the central body is massive enough that it can be considered to be stationary and we ignore the more subtle effects of general relativity. When a pendulum or an object attached to a spring swings in an ellipse, the inward acceleration/force is proportional to the distance A = F / m = − k r . {\displaystyle A=F/m=-kr.} {\displaystyle A=F/m=-kr.} Due to the way vectors add, the component of the force in the x ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {x} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {x} }}} or in the y ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} directions are also proportionate to the respective components of the distances, r x ″ = A x = − k r x {\displaystyle r''\_{x}=A\_{x}=-kr\_{x}} {\displaystyle r''_{x}=A_{x}=-kr_{x}}. Hence, the entire analysis can be done separately in these dimensions. This results in the harmonic parabolic equations x = A cos ⁡ ( t ) {\displaystyle x=A\cos(t)} {\displaystyle x=A\cos(t)} and y = B sin ⁡ ( t ) {\displaystyle y=B\sin(t)} {\displaystyle y=B\sin(t)} of the ellipse. In contrast, with the decreasing relationship A = μ / r 2 {\displaystyle A=\mu /r^{2}} {\displaystyle A=\mu /r^{2}}, the dimensions cannot be separated. The location of the orbiting object at the current time t {\displaystyle t} t is located in the plane using vector calculus in polar coordinates both with the standard Euclidean basis and with the polar basis with the origin coinciding with the center of force. Let r {\displaystyle r} r be the distance between the object and the center and θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta be the angle it has rotated. Let x ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {x} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {x} }}} and y ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} be the standard Euclidean bases and let r ^ = cos ⁡ ( θ ) x ^ + sin ⁡ ( θ ) y ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}=\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}=\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} and θ ^ = − sin ⁡ ( θ ) x ^ + cos ⁡ ( θ ) y ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}=-\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}=-\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}} be the radial and transverse polar basis with the first being the unit vector pointing from the central body to the current location of the orbiting object and the second being the orthogonal unit vector pointing in the direction that the orbiting object would travel if orbiting in a counter clockwise circle. Then the vector to the orbiting object is O ^ = r cos ⁡ ( θ ) x ^ + r sin ⁡ ( θ ) y ^ = r r ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {O} }}=r\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+r\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}=r{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {O} }}=r\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+r\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}=r{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} We use r ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {r}}} {\dot r} and θ ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}} {\dot \theta } to denote the standard derivatives of how this distance and angle change over time. We take the derivative of a vector to see how it changes over time by subtracting its location at time t {\displaystyle t} t from that at time t + δ t {\displaystyle t+\delta t} t+\delta t and dividing by δ t {\displaystyle \delta t} \delta t . The result is also a vector. Because our basis vector r ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} moves as the object orbits, we start by differentiating it. From time t {\displaystyle t} t to t + δ t {\displaystyle t+\delta t} t+\delta t, the vector r ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} keeps its beginning at the origin and rotates from angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta to θ + θ ˙   δ t {\displaystyle \theta +{\dot {\theta }}\ \delta t} \theta +{\dot \theta }\ \delta t which moves its head a distance θ ˙   δ t {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}\ \delta t} {\dot \theta }\ \delta t in the perpendicular direction θ ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} {\hat {{\boldsymbol \theta }}} giving a derivative of θ ˙ θ ^ {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} {\dot \theta }{\hat {{\boldsymbol \theta }}}. r ^ = cos ⁡ ( θ ) x ^ + sin ⁡ ( θ ) y ^ δ r ^ δ t = r ˙ = − sin ⁡ ( θ ) θ ˙ x ^ + cos ⁡ ( θ ) θ ˙ y ^ = θ ˙ θ ^ θ ^ = − sin ⁡ ( θ ) x ^ + cos ⁡ ( θ ) y ^ δ θ ^ δ t = θ ˙ = − cos ⁡ ( θ ) θ ˙ x ^ − sin ⁡ ( θ ) θ ˙ y ^ = − θ ˙ r ^ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}&=\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}\\{\frac {\delta {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}{\delta t}}={\dot {\mathbf {r} }}&=-\sin(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {y} }}={\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\\{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}&=-\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}\\{\frac {\delta {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}}{\delta t}}={\dot {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}&=-\cos(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {x} }}-\sin(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {y} }}=-{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}&=\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}\\{\frac {\delta {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}{\delta t}}={\dot {\mathbf {r} }}&=-\sin(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {y} }}={\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\\{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}&=-\sin(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}+\cos(\theta ){\hat {\mathbf {y} }}\\{\frac {\delta {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}}{\delta t}}={\dot {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}&=-\cos(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {x} }}-\sin(\theta ){\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {y} }}=-{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\end{aligned}}} We can now find the velocity and acceleration of our orbiting object. O ^ = r r ^ O ˙ = δ r δ t r ^ + r δ r ^ δ t = r ˙ r ^ + r [ θ ˙ θ ^ ] O ¨ = [ r ¨ r ^ + r ˙ θ ˙ θ ^ ] + [ r ˙ θ ˙ θ ^ + r θ ¨ θ ^ − r θ ˙ 2 r ^ ] = [ r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 ] r ^ + [ r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ ] θ ^ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\hat {\mathbf {O} }}&=r{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\\{\dot {\mathbf {O} }}&={\frac {\delta r}{\delta t}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+r{\frac {\delta {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}{\delta t}}={\dot {r}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+r\left[{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\right]\\{\ddot {\mathbf {O} }}&=\left[{\ddot {r}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\right]+\left[{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}+r{\ddot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\right]\\&=\left[{\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}\right]{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+\left[r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}\right]{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\hat {\mathbf {O} }}&=r{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\\{\dot {\mathbf {O} }}&={\frac {\delta r}{\delta t}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+r{\frac {\delta {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}}{\delta t}}={\dot {r}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+r\left[{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\right]\\{\ddot {\mathbf {O} }}&=\left[{\ddot {r}}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\right]+\left[{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}+r{\ddot {\theta }}{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\right]\\&=\left[{\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}\right]{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}+\left[r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}\right]{\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}\end{aligned}}} The coefficients of r ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} and θ ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {\theta }}}} {\hat {{\boldsymbol \theta }}} give the accelerations in the radial and transverse directions. As said, Newton gives this first due to gravity is − μ / r 2 {\displaystyle -\mu /r^{2}} {\displaystyle -\mu /r^{2}} and the second is zero. | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 = − μ r 2 {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}}} {\ddot r}-r{\dot \theta }^{2}=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(1)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ = 0 {\displaystyle r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}=0} r{\ddot \theta }+2{\dot r}{\dot \theta }=0 | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(2)** | Equation (2) can be rearranged using integration by parts. r θ ¨ + 2 r ˙ θ ˙ = 1 r d d t ( r 2 θ ˙ ) = 0 {\displaystyle r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}={\frac {1}{r}}{\frac {d}{dt}}\left(r^{2}{\dot {\theta }}\right)=0} {\displaystyle r{\ddot {\theta }}+2{\dot {r}}{\dot {\theta }}={\frac {1}{r}}{\frac {d}{dt}}\left(r^{2}{\dot {\theta }}\right)=0} We can multiply through by r {\displaystyle r} r because it is not zero unless the orbiting object crashes. Then having the derivative be zero gives that the function is a constant. | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | r 2 θ ˙ = h {\displaystyle r^{2}{\dot {\theta }}=h} r^{2}{\dot \theta }=h | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(3)** | which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's second law (A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, *h*, is the angular momentum per unit mass. In order to get an equation for the orbit from equation (1), we need to eliminate time. (See also Binet equation.) In polar coordinates, this would express the distance r {\displaystyle r} r of the orbiting object from the center as a function of its angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta . However, it is easier to introduce the auxiliary variable u = 1 / r {\displaystyle u=1/r} u=1/r and to express u {\displaystyle u} u as a function of θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta . Derivatives of r {\displaystyle r} r with respect to time may be rewritten as derivatives of u {\displaystyle u} u with respect to angle. u = 1 r {\displaystyle u={1 \over r}} {\displaystyle u={1 \over r}} θ ˙ = h r 2 = h u 2 {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}={\frac {h}{r^{2}}}=hu^{2}} {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}={\frac {h}{r^{2}}}=hu^{2}} (reworking (3)) δ u δ θ = δ δ t ( 1 r ) δ t δ θ = − r ˙ r 2 θ ˙ = − r ˙ h δ 2 u δ θ 2 = − 1 h δ r ˙ δ t δ t δ θ = − r ¨ h θ ˙ = − r ¨ h 2 u 2        or        r ¨ = − h 2 u 2 δ 2 u δ θ 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}&={\frac {\delta }{\delta t}}\left({\frac {1}{r}}\right){\frac {\delta t}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {\dot {r}}{r^{2}{\dot {\theta }}}}=-{\frac {\dot {r}}{h}}\\{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}&=-{\frac {1}{h}}{\frac {\delta {\dot {r}}}{\delta t}}{\frac {\delta t}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {\ddot {r}}{h{\dot {\theta }}}}=-{\frac {\ddot {r}}{h^{2}u^{2}}}\ \ \ {\text{ or }}\ \ \ {\ddot {r}}=-h^{2}u^{2}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}&={\frac {\delta }{\delta t}}\left({\frac {1}{r}}\right){\frac {\delta t}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {\dot {r}}{r^{2}{\dot {\theta }}}}=-{\frac {\dot {r}}{h}}\\{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}&=-{\frac {1}{h}}{\frac {\delta {\dot {r}}}{\delta t}}{\frac {\delta t}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {\ddot {r}}{h{\dot {\theta }}}}=-{\frac {\ddot {r}}{h^{2}u^{2}}}\ \ \ {\text{ or }}\ \ \ {\ddot {r}}=-h^{2}u^{2}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}\end{aligned}}} Plugging these into (1) gives r ¨ − r θ ˙ 2 = − μ r 2 − h 2 u 2 δ 2 u δ θ 2 − 1 u ( h u 2 ) 2 = − μ u 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}&=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}}\\-h^{2}u^{2}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{u}}\left(hu^{2}\right)^{2}&=-\mu u^{2}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\ddot {r}}-r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}&=-{\frac {\mu }{r^{2}}}\\-h^{2}u^{2}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}-{\frac {1}{u}}\left(hu^{2}\right)^{2}&=-\mu u^{2}\end{aligned}}} | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | δ 2 u δ θ 2 + u = μ h 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}+u={\frac {\mu }{h^{2}}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}+u={\frac {\mu }{h^{2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(4)** | So for the gravitational force – or, more generally, for *any* inverse square force law – the right hand side of the equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the dependent variable). The solution is: u ( θ ) = μ h 2 − A cos ⁡ ( θ − θ 0 ) {\displaystyle u(\theta )={\frac {\mu }{h^{2}}}-A\cos(\theta -\theta \_{0})} {\displaystyle u(\theta )={\frac {\mu }{h^{2}}}-A\cos(\theta -\theta _{0})} where *A* and *θ*0 are arbitrary constants. This resulting equation of the orbit of the object is that of an ellipse in Polar form relative to one of the focal points. This is put into a more standard form by letting e ≡ h 2 A / μ {\displaystyle e\equiv h^{2}A/\mu } {\displaystyle e\equiv h^{2}A/\mu } be the eccentricity, letting a ≡ h 2 / μ ( 1 − e 2 ) {\displaystyle a\equiv h^{2}/\mu \left(1-e^{2}\right)} {\displaystyle a\equiv h^{2}/\mu \left(1-e^{2}\right)} be the semi-major axis. Finally, letting θ 0 ≡ 0 {\displaystyle \theta \_{0}\equiv 0} \theta _{0}\equiv 0 so the long axis of the ellipse is along the positive *x* coordinate. r ( θ ) = a ( 1 − e 2 ) 1 + e cos ⁡ θ {\displaystyle r(\theta )={\frac {a\left(1-e^{2}\right)}{1+e\cos \theta }}} {\displaystyle r(\theta )={\frac {a\left(1-e^{2}\right)}{1+e\cos \theta }}} When the two-body system is under the influence of torque, the angular momentum *h* is not a constant. After the following calculation: δ r δ θ = − 1 u 2 δ u δ θ = − h m δ u δ θ δ 2 r δ θ 2 = − h 2 u 2 m 2 δ 2 u δ θ 2 − h u 2 m 2 δ h δ θ δ u δ θ ( δ θ δ t ) 2 r = h 2 u 3 m 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\delta r}{\delta \theta }}&=-{\frac {1}{u^{2}}}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {h}{m}}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\\{\frac {\delta ^{2}r}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}&=-{\frac {h^{2}u^{2}}{m^{2}}}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}-{\frac {hu^{2}}{m^{2}}}{\frac {\delta h}{\delta \theta }}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\\\left({\frac {\delta \theta }{\delta t}}\right)^{2}r&={\frac {h^{2}u^{3}}{m^{2}}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\delta r}{\delta \theta }}&=-{\frac {1}{u^{2}}}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}=-{\frac {h}{m}}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\\{\frac {\delta ^{2}r}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}&=-{\frac {h^{2}u^{2}}{m^{2}}}{\frac {\delta ^{2}u}{\delta \theta ^{2}}}-{\frac {hu^{2}}{m^{2}}}{\frac {\delta h}{\delta \theta }}{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\\\left({\frac {\delta \theta }{\delta t}}\right)^{2}r&={\frac {h^{2}u^{3}}{m^{2}}}\end{aligned}}} we will get the Sturm-Liouville equation of two-body system. | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | δ δ θ ( h δ u δ θ ) + h u = μ h {\displaystyle {\frac {\delta }{\delta \theta }}\left(h{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\right)+hu={\frac {\mu }{h}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\delta }{\delta \theta }}\left(h{\frac {\delta u}{\delta \theta }}\right)+hu={\frac {\mu }{h}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(5)** | Relativistic orbital motion --------------------------- The above classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics assumes that the more subtle effects of general relativity, such as frame dragging and gravitational time dilation are negligible. Relativistic effects cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS satellites.). Orbital planes -------------- The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two-dimensional in a plane fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two-dimensional plane into the required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved. The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are expressed as three angles. Orbital period -------------- The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit. Specifying orbits ----------------- Six parameters are required to specify a Keplerian orbit about a body. For example, the three numbers that specify the body's initial position, and the three values that specify its velocity will define a unique orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards) in time. However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly different. The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his laws. The Keplerian elements are six: * Inclination (*i*) * Longitude of the ascending node (Ω) * Argument of periapsis (ω) * Eccentricity (*e*) * Semimajor axis (*a*) * Mean anomaly at epoch (*M*0). In principle, once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backward indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by other forces than simple gravity from an assumed point source (see the next section), and thus the orbital elements change over time. Orbital perturbations --------------------- An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes the parameters of the orbit over time. ### Radial, prograde and transverse perturbations A small radial impulse given to a body in orbit changes the eccentricity, but not the orbital period (to first order). A prograde or retrograde impulse (i.e. an impulse applied along the orbital motion) changes both the eccentricity and the orbital period. Notably, a prograde impulse at periapsis raises the altitude at apoapsis, and vice versa and a retrograde impulse does the opposite. A transverse impulse (out of the orbital plane) causes rotation of the orbital plane without changing the period or eccentricity. In all instances, a closed orbit will still intersect the perturbation point. ### Orbital decay If an orbit is about a planetary body with a significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body. The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During a solar maximum, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred kilometres higher than during a solar minimum. Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also experience orbital decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's magnetic field. As the wire cuts the magnetic field it acts as a generator, moving electrons from one end to the other. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire. Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket engines which change the kinetic energy of the body at some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated. Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the Sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite for one such proposed use. Orbital decay can occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting. The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit, the orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along with the satellite's motion. The near bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result, the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the Solar System are undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example and is expected to either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years. Orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration, such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely. ### Oblateness The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally, concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point sources. However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the body. In the general case, the gravitational potential of a rotating body such as, e.g., a planet is usually expanded in multipoles accounting for the departures of it from spherical symmetry. From the point of view of satellite dynamics, of particular relevance are the so-called even zonal harmonic coefficients, or even zonals, since they induce secular orbital perturbations which are cumulative over time spans longer than the orbital period. They do depend on the orientation of the body's symmetry axis in the space, affecting, in general, the whole orbit, with the exception of the semimajor axis. ### Multiple gravitating bodies The effects of other gravitating bodies can be significant. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's. One approximate result is that bodies will usually have reasonably stable orbits around a heavier planet or moon, in spite of these perturbations, provided they are orbiting well within the heavier body's Hill sphere. When there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body problems have no closed form solution, although some special cases have been formulated. ### Light radiation and stellar wind For smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction of motion of the body, and over time can be significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun. Strange orbits -------------- Mathematicians have discovered that it is possible in principle to have multiple bodies in non-elliptical orbits that repeat periodically, although most such orbits are not stable regarding small perturbations in mass, position, or velocity. However, some special stable cases have been identified, including a planar figure-eight orbit occupied by three moving bodies. Further studies have discovered that nonplanar orbits are also possible, including one involving 12 masses moving in 4 roughly circular, interlocking orbits topologically equivalent to the edges of a cuboctahedron. Finding such orbits naturally occurring in the universe is thought to be extremely unlikely, because of the improbability of the required conditions occurring by chance. Astrodynamics ------------- Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun). Earth orbits ------------ * Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits with altitudes up to 2,000 km (0–1,240 miles). * Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,240 miles) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 kilometers (22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. These are "most commonly at 20,200 kilometers (12,600 mi), or 20,650 kilometers (12,830 mi), with an orbital period of 12 hours." * Both geosynchronous orbit (GSO) and geostationary orbit (GEO) are orbits around Earth matching Earth's sidereal rotation period. All geosynchronous and geostationary orbits have a semi-major axis of 42,164 km (26,199 mi). All geostationary orbits are also geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous orbits are geostationary. A geostationary orbit stays exactly above the equator, whereas a geosynchronous orbit may swing north and south to cover more of the Earth's surface. Both complete one full orbit of Earth per sidereal day (relative to the stars, not the Sun). * High Earth orbit: Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,240 miles). Scaling in gravity ------------------ The gravitational constant *G* has been calculated as: * (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 (kg/m3)−1s−2. Thus the constant has dimension density−1 time−2. This corresponds to the following properties. Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence velocities are halved and orbital periods and other travel times related to gravity remain the same. For example, when an object is dropped from a tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the Earth. Scaling of distances while keeping the masses the same (in the case of point masses, or by adjusting the densities) gives similar orbits; if distances are multiplied by 4, gravitational forces and accelerations are divided by 16, velocities are halved and orbital periods are multiplied by 8. When all densities are multiplied by 4, orbits are the same; gravitational forces are multiplied by 16 and accelerations by 4, velocities are doubled and orbital periods are halved. When all densities are multiplied by 4, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar; masses are divided by 2, gravitational forces are the same, gravitational accelerations are doubled. Hence velocities are the same and orbital periods are halved. In all these cases of scaling. if densities are multiplied by 4, times are halved; if velocities are doubled, forces are multiplied by 16. These properties are illustrated in the formula (derived from the formula for the orbital period) G T 2 ρ = 3 π ( a r ) 3 , {\displaystyle GT^{2}\rho =3\pi \left({\frac {a}{r}}\right)^{3},} {\displaystyle GT^{2}\rho =3\pi \left({\frac {a}{r}}\right)^{3},} for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis *a*, of a small body around a spherical body with radius *r* and average density *ρ*, where *T* is the orbital period. See also Kepler's Third Law. Patents ------- The application of certain orbits or orbital maneuvers to specific useful purposes has been the subject of patents. Tidal locking ------------- Some bodies are tidally locked with other bodies, meaning that one side of the celestial body is permanently facing its host object. This is the case for Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon system. See also -------- * Ephemeris is a compilation of positions of naturally occurring astronomical objects as well as artificial satellites in the sky at a given time or times. * Free drift * Klemperer rosette * List of orbits * Molniya orbit * Orbit determination * Orbital spaceflight * Perifocal coordinate system * Polar orbit * Radial trajectory * Rosetta orbit * VSOP model Further reading --------------- * Abell, George O.; Morrison, David & Wolff, Sidney C. (1987). *Exploration of the Universe* (Fifth ed.). Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 9780030051432. * Linton, Christopher (2004). *From Eudoxus to Einstein: A History of Mathematical Astronomy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-45379-0. * Milani, Andrea; Gronchi, Giovanni F. (2010). *Theory of Orbit Determination*. Cambridge University Press. Discusses new algorithms for determining the orbits of both natural and artificial celestial bodies. * Swetz, Frank; Fauvel, John; Johansson, Bengt; Katz, Victor; Bekken, Otto (1995). *Learn from the Masters*. MAA. ISBN 978-0-88385-703-8.

Orbit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit

**Venezuela** (/ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə/; American Spanish: [beneˈswela] ()), officially the **Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela** (Spanish: *República Bolivariana de Venezuela*), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It has a territorial extension of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi), and its population was estimated at 29 million in 2022. The capital and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas. The continental territory is bordered on the north by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Colombia, Brazil on the south, Trinidad and Tobago to the north-east and on the east by Guyana. The Venezuelan government maintains a claim against Guyana to Guayana Esequiba. Venezuela is a federal presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District and federal dependencies covering Venezuela's offshore islands. Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America; the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north and in the capital. The territory of Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples. In 1811, it became one of the first Spanish-American territories to declare independence from the Spanish and to form part, as a department, of the first federal Republic of Colombia (historiographically known as Gran Colombia). It separated as a full sovereign country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, remaining dominated by regional military dictators until the mid-20th century. Since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments, as an exception where most of the region was ruled by military dictatorships, and the period was characterized by economic prosperity. Economic shocks in the 1980s and 1990s led to major political crises and widespread social unrest, including the deadly Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992, and the impeachment of a President for embezzlement of public funds charges in 1993. The collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 Venezuelan presidential election, the catalyst for the Bolivarian Revolution, which began with a 1999 Constituent Assembly, where a new Constitution of Venezuela was imposed. The government's populist social welfare policies were bolstered by soaring oil prices, temporarily increasing social spending, and reducing economic inequality and poverty in the early years of the regime. However, poverty began to increase in the 2010s. The 2013 Venezuelan presidential election was widely disputed leading to widespread protest, which triggered another nationwide crisis that continues to this day. Venezuela has experienced democratic backsliding, shifting into an authoritarian state. It ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties and has high levels of perceived corruption. Venezuela is a developing country having the world's largest known oil reserves and has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil. Previously, the country was an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities such as coffee and cocoa, but oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The excesses and poor policies of the incumbent government led to the collapse of Venezuela's entire economy. The country struggles with record hyperinflation, shortages of basic goods, unemployment, poverty, disease, high child mortality, malnutrition, severe crime and corruption. These factors have precipitated the Venezuelan migrant crisis where more than three million people have fled the country. By 2017, Venezuela was declared to be in default regarding debt payments by credit rating agencies. The crisis in Venezuela has contributed to a rapidly deteriorating human rights situation, including increased abuses such as torture, arbitrary imprisonment, extrajudicial killings and attacks on human rights advocates. Venezuela is a charter member of the UN, Organization of American States (OAS), Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), ALBA, Mercosur, Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) and Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI). Etymology --------- According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, an expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited the Venezuelan coast. The stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, Italy, so he named the region *Veneziola*, or "Little Venice". The Spanish version of *Veneziola* is *Venezuela*. Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work *Summa de geografía*, he states that the crew found indigenous people who called themselves the *Veneciuela.* Thus, the name "Venezuela" may have evolved from the native word. Previously, the official name was *Estado de Venezuela* (1830–1856), *República de Venezuela* (1856–1864), *Estados Unidos de Venezuela* (1864–1953), and again *República de Venezuela* (1953–1999). History ------- ### Pre-Columbian history Cult image sculpted in ceramic, Los Roques Archipelago.Petroglyph in the Waraira Repano National Park. Evidence exists of human habitation in the area now known as Venezuela from about 15,000 years ago. Leaf-shaped tools from this period, together with chopping and plano-convex scraping implements, have been found exposed on the high riverine terraces of the Rio Pedregal in western Venezuela. Late Pleistocene hunting artifacts, including spear tips, have been found at a similar series of sites in northwestern Venezuela known as "El Jobo"; according to radiocarbon dating, these date from 13,000 to 7,000 BC. It is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest; it has been estimated at one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historical groups such as the Kalina (Caribs), Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, and Timoto–Cuicas. The Timoto–Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks. Their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops. Regional crops included potatoes and ullucos. They left behind works of art, particularly anthropomorphic ceramics, but no major monuments. They spun vegetable fibers to weave into textiles and mats for housing. They are credited with having invented the arepa, a staple in Venezuelan cuisine. After the conquest, the population dropped markedly, mainly through the spread of new infectious diseases from Europe. Two main north–south axes of pre-Columbian population were present, who cultivated maize in the west and manioc in the east. Large parts of the *llanos* were cultivated through a combination of slash and burn and permanent settled agriculture. ### Colonization In 1498, during his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco Delta and landed in the Gulf of Paria. Amazed by the great offshore current of freshwater which deflected his course eastward, Columbus expressed in a letter to Isabella and Ferdinand that he must have reached Heaven on Earth (terrestrial paradise): > Great signs are these of the Terrestrial Paradise... for I have never read or heard of such a large quantity of fresh water being inside and in such close proximity to salt water; the very mild temperateness also corroborates this; and if the water of which I speak does not proceed from Paradise then it is an even greater marvel, because I do not believe such a large and deep river has ever been known to exist in this world. > > Spain's colonization of mainland Venezuela started in 1522, establishing its first permanent South American settlement in the present-day[update] city of Cumaná. #### German colonization In the 16th century, the king of Spain granted a concession in Venezuela to the Welser family of German bankers and merchants. Klein-Venedig became the most extensive initiative in the German colonization of the Americas from 1528 to 1546. The Welser family of Augsburg and Nuremberg were bankers to the Habsburgs and financiers of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, who was also King of Spain and had borrowed heavily from them to pay bribes for his Imperial election. In 1528, Charles V granted the Welsers the right to explore, rule and colonize the territory, as well as to seek the mythical golden town of El Dorado. The first expedition was led by Ambrosius Ehinger, who established Maracaibo in 1529. After the deaths of first Ehinger (1533), then Nikolaus Federmann, and Georg von Speyer (1540), Philipp von Hutten persisted in exploring of the interior. In absence of von Hutten from the capital of the province, the crown of Spain claimed the right to appoint a governor. On Hutten's return to the capital, Santa Ana de Coro, in 1546, the Spanish governor Juan de Carvajal had Hutten and Bartholomeus VI. Welser executed. Subsequently, Charles V revoked Welser's concession. The Welsers transported German miners to the colony, in addition to 4,000 African slaves to plant sugar cane plantations. Many of the German colonists died from tropical diseases, to which they had no immunity, or through frequent wars with the indigenous inhabitants. ### Late 15th century to early 17th century Native *caciques* (leaders) such as Guaicaipuro (c. 1530–1568) and Tamanaco (died 1573) attempted to resist Spanish incursions, but the newcomers ultimately subdued them; Tamanaco was put to death by order of Caracas' founder, Diego de Losada. In the 16th century, during the Spanish colonization, indigenous peoples such as many of the Mariches, themselves descendants of the Kalina, were converted to Roman Catholicism. Some of the resisting tribes or leaders are commemorated in place names, including Caracas, Chacao and Los Teques. The early colonial settlements focused on the northern coast, but in the mid-18th century, the Spanish pushed farther inland along the Orinoco River. Here, the Ye'kuana (then known as the Makiritare) organized serious resistance in 1775 and 1776. Spain's eastern Venezuelan settlements were incorporated into New Andalusia Province. Administered by the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo from the early 16th century, most of Venezuela became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the early 18th century, and was then reorganized as an autonomous Captaincy General starting in 1777. The town of Caracas, founded in the central coastal region in 1567, was well-placed to become a key location, being near the coastal port of La Guaira whilst itself being located in a valley in a mountain range, providing defensive strength against pirates and a more fertile and healthy climate. ### Independence and 19th century After a series of unsuccessful uprisings, Venezuela, under the leadership of Francisco de Miranda, a Venezuelan marshal who had fought in the American Revolution and the French Revolution, declared independence as the First Republic of Venezuela on 5 July 1811. This began the Venezuelan War of Independence. A devastating earthquake that struck Caracas in 1812, together with the rebellion of the Venezuelan *llaneros*, helped bring down the republic. Simón Bolívar, new leader of the independentist forces, launched his Admirable Campaign in 1813 from New Granada, retaking most of the territory and being proclaimed as *El Libertador* ("The Liberator"). A second Venezuelan republic was proclaimed on 7 August 1813, but lasted only a few months before being crushed at the hands of royalist caudillo José Tomás Boves and his personal army of *llaneros*. The end of the French invasion of homeland Spain in 1814 allowed the preparation of a large expeditionary force to the American provinces under general Pablo Morillo, with the goal to regain the lost territory in Venezuela and New Granada. As the war reached a stalemate on 1817, Bolívar reestablished the Third Republic of Venezuela on the territory still controlled by the patriots, mainly in the Guayana and Llanos regions. This republic was short-lived as only two years later, during the Congress of Angostura of 1819, the union of Venezuela with New Granada was decreed to form the Republic of Colombia (historiographically Republic of Gran Colombia). The war continued for some years, until full victory and sovereignty was attained after Bolívar, aided by José Antonio Páez and Antonio José de Sucre, won the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June 1821. On 24 July 1823, José Prudencio Padilla and Rafael Urdaneta helped seal Venezuelan independence with their victory in the Battle of Lake Maracaibo. New Granada's congress gave Bolívar control of the Granadian army; leading it, he liberated several countries and founded the Republic of Colombia (Gran Colombia). Sucre, who won many battles for Bolívar, went on to liberate Ecuador and later become the second president of Bolivia. Venezuela remained part of Gran Colombia until 1830, when a rebellion led by Páez allowed the proclamation of a newly independent Venezuela, on 22 September; Páez became the first president of the new State of Venezuela. Between one-quarter and one-third of Venezuela's population was lost during these two decades of warfare (including perhaps one-half of the Venezuelans of European descent), which by 1830, was estimated at 800,000. The colors of the Venezuelan flag are yellow, blue, and red: the yellow stands for land wealth, the blue for the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain, and the red for the blood shed by the heroes of independence. Slavery in Venezuela was abolished in 1854. Much of Venezuela's 19th-century history was characterized by political turmoil and dictatorial rule, including the Independence leader José Antonio Páez, who gained the presidency three times and served a total of 11 years between 1830 and 1863. This culminated in the Federal War (1859–1863), a civil war in which hundreds of thousands died in a country with a population of not much more than a million people. In the latter half of the century, Antonio Guzmán Blanco, another *caudillo*, served a total of 13 years between 1870 and 1887, with three other presidents interspersed. In 1895, a longstanding dispute with Great Britain about the territory of Guayana Esequiba, which Britain claimed as part of British Guiana and Venezuela saw as Venezuelan territory, erupted into the Venezuela Crisis of 1895. The dispute became a diplomatic crisis when Venezuela's lobbyist, William L. Scruggs, sought to argue that British behavior over the issue violated the United States' Monroe Doctrine of 1823, and used his influence in Washington, D.C., to pursue the matter. Then, U.S. president Grover Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the doctrine that did not just simply forbid new European colonies, but declared an American interest in any matter within the hemisphere. Britain ultimately accepted arbitration, but in negotiations over its terms was able to persuade the U.S. on many of the details. A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the issue and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana. In 1899, Cipriano Castro, assisted by his friend Juan Vicente Gómez, seized power in Caracas, marching an army from his base in the Andean state of Táchira. Castro defaulted on Venezuela's considerable foreign debts and declined to pay compensation to foreigners caught up in Venezuela's civil wars. This led to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903, in which Britain, Germany and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months before international arbitration at the new Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague was agreed. In 1908, another dispute broke out with the Netherlands, which was resolved when Castro left for medical treatment in Germany and was promptly overthrown by Juan Vicente Gómez (1908–1935). ### 20th century The discovery of massive oil deposits in Lake Maracaibo during World War I proved to be pivotal for Venezuela and transformed the basis of its economy from a heavy dependence on agricultural exports. It prompted an economic boom that lasted into the 1980s; by 1935, Venezuela's per capita gross domestic product was Latin America's highest. Gómez benefited handsomely from this, as corruption thrived, but at the same time, the new source of income helped him centralize the Venezuelan state and develop its authority. He remained the most powerful man in Venezuela until his death in 1935, although at times he ceded the presidency to others. The *gomecista* dictatorship (1935–1945) system largely continued under Eleazar López Contreras, but from 1941, under Isaías Medina Angarita, was relaxed. Angarita granted a range of reforms, including the legalization of all political parties. After World War II, immigration from Southern Europe (mainly from Spain, Italy, Portugal, and France) and poorer Latin American countries markedly diversified Venezuelan society. In 1945, a civilian-military coup overthrew Medina Angarita and ushered in a three-year period of democratic rule (1945–1948) under the mass membership party Democratic Action, initially under Rómulo Betancourt, until Rómulo Gallegos won the 1947 Venezuelan presidential election (generally believed to be the first free and fair elections in Venezuela). Gallegos governed until overthrown by a military junta led by the triumvirate Luis Felipe Llovera Páez [es], Marcos Pérez Jiménez, and Gallegos' Defense Minister, Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, in the 1948 Venezuelan *coup d'état*. The most powerful man in the military *junta* (1948–1958) was Pérez Jiménez (though Chalbaud was its titular president) and was suspected of being behind the death in office of Chalbaud, who died in a bungled kidnapping in 1950. When the junta unexpectedly lost the election it held in 1952, it ignored the results and Pérez Jiménez was installed as president, where he remained until 1958. The military dictator Pérez Jiménez was forced out on 23 January 1958. In an effort to consolidate a young democracy, the three major political parties (Acción Democrática (AD), COPEI and Unión Republicana Democrática (URD), with the notable exception of the Communist Party of Venezuela), signed the Puntofijo Pact power-sharing agreement. The two first parties would dominate the political landscape for four decades. During the presidencies of Rómulo Betancourt (1959–1964, his second term) and Raúl Leoni (1964–1969) in the 1960s, substantial guerilla movements occurred, including the Armed Forces of National Liberation and the Revolutionary Left Movement, which had split from AD in 1960. Most of these movements laid down their arms under Rafael Caldera's first presidency (1969–1974); Caldera had won the 1968 election for COPEI, being the first time a party other than Democratic Action took the presidency through a democratic election. The new democratic order had its antagonists. Betancourt suffered an attack planned by the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo in 1960, and the leftists excluded from the Pact initiated an armed insurgency by organizing themselves in the Armed Forces of National Liberation, sponsored by the Communist Party and Fidel Castro. In 1962 they tried to destabilize the military corps, with failed revolts in Carúpano and Puerto Cabello. At the same time, Betancourt promoted a foreign policy, the Betancourt Doctrine, in which he only recognized elected governments by popular vote.[*need quotation to verify*] The election in 1973 of Carlos Andrés Pérez coincided with an oil crisis, in which Venezuela's income exploded as oil prices soared; oil industries were nationalized in 1976. This led to massive increases in public spending, but also increases in external debts, which continued into the 1980s when the collapse of oil prices during the 1980s crippled the Venezuelan economy. As the government started to devalue the currency in February 1983 to face its financial obligations, Venezuelans' real standards of living fell dramatically. A number of failed economic policies and increasing corruption in government led to rising poverty and crime, worsening social indicators, and increased political instability. In the 1980s, the Presidential Commission for State Reform (COPRE) emerged as a mechanism of political innovation. Venezuela was preparing for the decentralization of its political system and the diversification of its economy, reducing the large size of the State. The COPRE operated as an innovation mechanism, also by incorporating issues into the political agenda that were generally excluded from public deliberation by the main actors of the Venezuelan democratic system. The most discussed topics were incorporated into the public agenda: decentralization, political participation, municipalization, judicial order reforms and the role of the State in a new economic strategy. The social reality of the country made the changes difficult to apply. Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis. Hundreds of people were killed by Venezuelan security forces and the military in the *Caracazo* riots of 1989 during the presidency of Carlos Andrés Pérez (1989–1993, his second term) and after the implementation of economic austerity measures. Hugo Chávez, who in 1982 had promised to depose the bipartisanship governments, used the growing anger at economic austerity measures to justify a coup d'état attempt in February 1992; a second coup d'état attempt occurred in November. President Carlos Andrés Pérez (re-elected in 1988) was impeached under embezzlement charges in 1993, leading to the interim presidency of Ramón José Velásquez (1993–1994). Coup leader Chávez was pardoned in March 1994 by president Rafael Caldera (1994–1999, his second term), with a clean slate and his political rights reinstated, allowing Chávez to win and maintain the presidency continuously from 1999 until his death in 2013. Chávez won the elections of 1998, 2000, 2006 and 2012 and the presidential referendum of 2004. The only gaps in his presidency occurred during the two-day de facto government of Pedro Carmona Estanga in 2002 and when Diosdado Cabello Rondón acted as interim president for a few hours. ### Bolivarian government: 1999–present The Bolivarian Revolution refers to a left-wing populism social movement and political process in Venezuela led by Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, who founded the Fifth Republic Movement in 1997 and the United Socialist Party of Venezuela in 2007. The "Bolivarian Revolution" is named after Simón Bolívar, an early 19th-century Venezuelan and Latin American revolutionary leader, prominent in the Spanish American wars of independence in achieving the independence of most of northern South America from Spanish rule. According to Chávez and other supporters, the "Bolivarian Revolution" seeks to build a mass movement to implement Bolivarianism—popular democracy, economic independence, equitable distribution of revenues, and an end to political corruption—in Venezuela. They interpret Bolívar's ideas from a populist perspective, using socialist rhetoric. #### Hugo Chávez: 1999–2013 A collapse in confidence in the existing parties led to Chávez being elected president in 1998 and the subsequent launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 constituent assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela. Chávez also initiated Bolivarian missions, programs aimed at helping the poor. In April 2002, Chávez was briefly ousted from power in the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt following popular demonstrations by his opponents, but Chavez returned to power after two days as a result of demonstrations by poor Chávez supporters in Caracas and actions by the military. Chávez also remained in power after an all-out national strike that lasted from December 2002 to February 2003, including a strike/lockout in the state oil company PDVSA. Capital flight before and during the strike led to the reimposition of currency controls (which had been abolished in 1989), managed by the CADIVI agency. In the subsequent decade, the government was forced into several currency devaluations. These devaluations have done little to improve the situation of the Venezuelan people who rely on imported products or locally produced products that depend on imported inputs while dollar-denominated oil sales account for the vast majority of Venezuela's exports. According to Sebastian Boyd writing at Bloomberg News, the profits of the oil industry have been lost to "social engineering" and corruption, instead of investments needed to maintain oil production. Chávez survived several further political tests, including an August 2004 recall referendum. He was elected for another term in December 2006 and re-elected for a third term in October 2012. However, he was never sworn in for his third period, due to medical complications. Chávez died on 5 March 2013 after a nearly two-year fight with cancer. The presidential election that took place on Sunday, 14 April 2013, was the first since Chávez took office in 1999 in which his name did not appear on the ballot.[*self-published source?*] #### Nicolás Maduro ##### 2013–2018 Poverty and inflation began to increase into the 2010s. Nicolás Maduro was elected in 2013 after the death of Chavez. Chavez picked Maduro as his successor and appointed him vice president in 2013. Maduro was elected president in a shortened[*clarification needed*] election in 2013 following Chavez's death. Nicolás Maduro has been the president of Venezuela since 14 April 2013, when he won the second presidential election after Chávez's death, with 50.61% of the votes against the opposition's candidate Henrique Capriles Radonski, who had 49.12% of the votes. The Democratic Unity Roundtable contested his election as fraud and as a violation of the constitution. An audit of 56% of the vote showed no discrepancies, and the Supreme Court of Venezuela ruled that under Venezuela's Constitution, Nicolás Maduro was the legitimate president and was invested as such by the Venezuelan National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional). Opposition leaders and some international media consider the government of Maduro to be a dictatorship. Since February 2014, hundreds of thousands of Venezuelans have protested over high levels of criminal violence, corruption, hyperinflation, and chronic scarcity of basic goods due to policies of the federal government. Demonstrations and riots have resulted in over 40 fatalities in the unrest between Chavistas and opposition protesters and opposition leaders, including Leopoldo López and Antonio Ledezma were arrested. Human rights groups condemned the arrest of Leopoldo López. In the 2015 Venezuelan parliamentary election, the opposition gained a majority. Venezuela devalued its currency in February 2013 due to rising shortages in the country, which included those of milk, flour, and other necessities. This led to an increase in malnutrition, especially among children. Venezuela's economy had become strongly dependent on the exportation of oil, with crude accounting for 86% of exports, and a high price per barrel to support social programs. Beginning in 2014 the price of oil plummeted from over $100/bbl to $40/bbl a year and a half later. This placed pressure on the Venezuelan economy, which was no longer able to afford vast social programs. To counter the decrease in oil prices, the Venezuelan Government began taking more money from PDVSA, the state oil company, to meet budgets, resulting in a lack of reinvestment in fields and employees. Venezuela's oil production decreased from its height of nearly 3 to 1 million barrels (480 to 160 thousand cubic metres) per day. In 2014, Venezuela entered an economic recession. In 2015, Venezuela had the world's highest inflation rate with the rate surpassing 100%, which was the highest in the country's history. In 2017, Donald Trump's administration imposed more economic sanctions against Venezuela's state-owned oil company PDVSA and Venezuelan officials. Economic problems, as well as crime and corruption, were some of the main causes of the 2014–present Venezuelan protests. Since 2014, roughly 5.6 million people have fled Venezuela. In January 2016, President Maduro decreed an "economic emergency", revealing the extent of the crisis and expanding his powers. In July 2016, Colombian border crossings were temporarily opened to allow Venezuelans to purchase food and basic household and health items in Colombia. In September 2016, a study published in the Spanish-language *Diario Las Américas* indicated that 15% of Venezuelans are eating "food waste discarded by commercial establishments". Close to 200 riots had occurred in Venezuelan prisons by October 2016, according to Una Ventana a la Libertad, an advocacy group for better prison conditions. The father of an inmate at Táchira Detention Center in Caracas alleged that his son was cannibalized by other inmates during a month-long riot, a claim corroborated by an anonymous police source but denied by the Minister of Correctional Affairs. In 2017, Venezuela experienced a constitutional crisis in the country. In March 2017, opposition leaders branded President Maduro a dictator after the Maduro-aligned Supreme Tribunal, which had been overturning most National Assembly decisions since the opposition took control of the body, took over the functions of the assembly, pushing a lengthy political standoff to new heights. The Supreme Court backed down and reversed its decision on 1 April 2017. A month later, President Maduro announced the 2017 Venezuelan Constituent Assembly election and on 30 August 2017, the 2017 Constituent National Assembly was elected into office and quickly stripped the National Assembly of its powers. In December 2017, President Maduro declared that leading opposition parties would be barred from taking part in the following year's presidential vote after they boycotted mayoral polls. ##### Since 2018 Maduro won the 2018 election with 67.8% of the vote. The result was challenged by countries including Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, France and the United States who deemed it fraudulent and moved to recognize Juan Guaidó as president. Other countries including Cuba, China, Russia, Turkey, and Iran continued to recognize Maduro as president, although China, facing financial pressure over its position, reportedly began hedging its position by decreasing loans given, cancelling joint ventures, and signaling willingness to work with all parties. A Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokeswoman denied the reports, describing them as "false information". In January 2019 the Permanent Council of the Organization of American States (OAS) approved a resolution "to not recognize the legitimacy of Nicolas Maduro's new term as of the 10th of January of 2019". In August 2019, United States President Donald Trump signed an executive order to impose a total economic embargo against Venezuela. In March 2020, the Trump administration indicted Maduro and several Venezuelan officials, including the Chief Justice of the Supreme Tribunal, on charges of drug trafficking, narcoterrorism, and corruption. In June 2020, a report by the US organisation Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights documented enforced disappearances in Venezuela that occurred in the years 2018 and 2019. During the period, 724 enforced disappearances of political detainees were reported. The report stated that Venezuelan security forces subjected victims, who had been disappeared, to illegal interrogation processes accompanied by torture and cruel or inhuman treatment. The report stated that the Venezuelan government strategically used enforced disappearances to silence political opponents and other critical voices it deemed a threat. Geography --------- Venezuela is located in the north of South America; geologically, its mainland rests on the South American Plate. It has a total area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi) and a land area of 882,050 km2 (340,560 sq mi), making Venezuela the 33rd largest country in the world. The territory it controls lies between latitudes 0° and 16°N and longitudes 59° and 74°W. Shaped roughly like a triangle, the country has a 2,800 km (1,700 mi) coastline in the north, which includes numerous islands in the Caribbean and the northeast borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Most observers describe Venezuela in terms of four fairly well defined topographical regions: the Maracaibo lowlands in the northwest, the northern mountains extending in a broad east–west arc from the Colombian border along the northern Caribbean coast, the wide plains in central Venezuela, and the Guiana Highlands in the southeast. The northern mountains are the extreme northeastern extensions of South America's Andes mountain range. Pico Bolívar, the nation's highest point at 4,979 m (16,335 ft), lies in this region. To the south, the dissected Guiana Highlands contain the northern fringes of the Amazon Basin and Angel Falls, the world's highest waterfall, as well as *tepuis*, large table-like mountains. The country's center is characterized by the *llanos*, which are extensive plains that stretch from the Colombian border in the far west to the Orinoco River delta in the east. The Orinoco, with its rich alluvial soils, binds the largest and most important river system of the country; it originates in one of the largest watersheds in Latin America. The Caroní and the Apure are other major rivers. Venezuela borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Aruba, and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela has territorial disputes with Guyana, formerly United Kingdom, largely concerning the Essequibo area and with Colombia concerning the Gulf of Venezuela. In 1895, after years of diplomatic attempts to solve the border dispute, the dispute over the Essequibo River border flared up. It was submitted to a "neutral" commission (composed of British, American, and Russian representatives and without a direct Venezuelan representative), which in 1899 decided mostly against Venezuela's claim. ### Climate Venezuela is entirely located in the tropics over the Equator to around 12° N. Its climate varies from humid low-elevation plains, where average annual temperatures range as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F), to glaciers and highlands (the *páramos*) with an average yearly temperature of 8 °C (46.4 °F). Annual rainfall varies from 430 mm (16.9 in) in the semiarid portions of the northwest to over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in the Orinoco Delta of the far east and the Amazonian Jungle in the south. The precipitation level is lower in the period from August through April. These periods are referred to as hot-humid and cold-dry seasons. Another characteristic of the climate is this variation throughout the country by the existence of a mountain range called "Cordillera de la Costa" which crosses the country from east to west. The majority of the population lives in these mountains. The country falls into four horizontal temperature zones based primarily on elevation, having tropical, dry, temperate with dry winters, and polar (alpine tundra) climates, amongst others. In the tropical zone—below 800 m (2,625 ft)—temperatures are hot, with yearly averages ranging between 26 and 28 °C (78.8 and 82.4 °F). The temperate zone ranges between 800 and 2,000 m (2,625 and 6,562 ft) with averages from 12 to 25 °C (53.6 to 77.0 °F); many of Venezuela's cities, including the capital, lie in this region. Colder conditions with temperatures from 9 to 11 °C (48.2 to 51.8 °F) are found in the cool zone between 2,000 and 3,000 m (6,562 and 9,843 ft), especially in the Venezuelan Andes, where pastureland and permanent snowfield with yearly averages below 8 °C (46 °F) cover land above 3,000 meters (9,843 ft) in the *páramos*. The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F) in Machiques, and the lowest temperature recorded was −11 °C (12 °F), it has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas (Mérida state), even though no official reports exist, lower temperatures in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada de Mérida are known. ### Biodiversity and conservation Venezuela lies within the Neotropical realm; large portions of the country were originally covered by moist broadleaf forests. One of 17 megadiverse countries, Venezuela's habitats range from the Andes Mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive *llanos* plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east. They include xeric scrublands in the extreme northwest and coastal mangrove forests in the northeast. Its cloud forests and lowland rainforests are particularly rich. Animals of Venezuela are diverse and include manatees, three-toed sloth, two-toed sloth, Amazon river dolphins, and Orinoco Crocodiles, which have been reported to reach up to 6.6 m (22 ft) in length. Venezuela hosts a total of 1,417 bird species, 48 of which are endemic. Important birds include ibises, ospreys, kingfishers, and the yellow-orange Venezuelan troupial, the national bird. Notable mammals include the giant anteater, jaguar, and the capybara, the world's largest rodent. More than half of Venezuelan avian and mammalian species are found in the Amazonian forests south of the Orinoco. For the fungi, an account was provided by R.W.G. Dennis which has been digitized and the records made available on-line as part of the Cybertruffle Robigalia database. That database includes nearly 3,900 species of fungi recorded from Venezuela, but is far from complete, and the true total number of fungal species already known from Venezuela is likely higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. Among plants of Venezuela, over 25,000 species of orchids are found in the country's cloud forest and lowland rainforest ecosystems. These include the *flor de mayo* orchid (*Cattleya mossiae*), the national flower. Venezuela's national tree is the araguaney, whose characteristic lushness after the rainy season led novelist Rómulo Gallegos to name it "*[l]a primavera de oro de los araguaneyes*" (the golden spring of the araguaneyes). The tops of the tepuis are also home to several carnivorous plants including the marsh pitcher plant, Heliamphora, and the insectivorous bromeliad, Brocchinia reducta. Venezuela is among the top 20 countries in terms of endemism. Among its animals, 23% of reptilian and 50% of amphibian species, including the Trinidad poison frog, are endemic. Although the available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Venezuela: 1334 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country. Some 38% of the over 21,000 plant species known from Venezuela are unique to the country. Venezuela is one of the 10 most biodiverse countries on the planet, yet it is one of the leaders of deforestation due to economic and political factors. Each year, roughly 287,600 hectares of forest are permanently destroyed and other areas are degraded by mining, oil extraction, and logging. Between 1990 and 2005, Venezuela officially lost 8.3% of its forest cover, which is about 4.3 million ha. In response, federal protections for critical habitat were implemented; for example, 20% to 33% of forested land is protected. Venezuela had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.78/10, ranking it 19th globally out of 172 countries. The country's biosphere reserve is part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention. In 2003, 70% of the nation's land was under conservation management in over 200 protected areas, including 43 national parks. Venezuela's 43 national parks include Canaima National Park, Morrocoy National Park, and Mochima National Park. In the far south is a reserve for the country's Yanomami tribes. Covering 32,000 square miles (82,880 square kilometres), the area is off-limits to farmers, miners, and all non-Yanomami settlers. Venezuela was one of the few countries that did not enter an INDC at COP21. Many terrestrial ecosystems are considered endangered, specially the dry forest in the northern regions of the country and the coral reefs in the Caribbean coast. There are some 105 protected areas in Venezuela, which cover around 26% of the country's continental, marine and insular surface. ### Hydrography The country is made up of three river basins: the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin. On the Atlantic side it drains most of Venezuela's river waters. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin whose surface area, close to one million km2, is greater than that of the whole of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country. The size of this basin - similar to that of the Danube - makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of some 33,000 m³/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world, and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Rio or Brazo Casiquiare is unique in the world, as it is a natural derivation of the Orinoco that, after some 500 km in length, connects it to the Negro River, which in turn is a tributary of the Amazon. The Orinoco receives directly or indirectly rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan rivers that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan and Cuyuní basins. Finally, there is the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro and others. Other basins are the Gulf of Paria and the Esequibo River. The second most important watershed is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are usually short and of scarce and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and drains into the Maracaibo Lake basin. Among the rivers that reach the Maracaibo lake basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers. A minimum drains to the Lake Valencia basin. Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, Arauca, Caura, Meta, Barima, Portuguesa, Ventuari and Zulia, among others. The country's main lakes are Lake Maracaibo -the largest in South America- open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other noteworthy bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon in the Andes. Navigation in Lake Maracaibo through the natural channel is useful for the mobilization of oil resources. ### Relief The Venezuelan natural landscape is the product of the interaction of tectonic plates that since the Paleozoic have contributed to its current appearance. On the formed structures, seven physical-natural units have been modeled, differentiated in their relief and in their natural resources. The relief of Venezuela has the following characteristics: coastline with several peninsulas and islands, adenas of the Andes mountain range (north and northwest), Lake Maracaibo (between the chains, on the coast); Orinoco river delta, region of peneplains and plateaus (tepui, east of the Orinoco) that together form the Guyanas massif (plateaus, southeast of the country). The oldest rock formations in South America are found in the complex basement of the Guyanas highlands and in the crystalline line of the Maritime and Cordillera massifs in Venezuela. The Venezuelan part of the Guyanas Altiplano consists of a large granite block of gneiss and other crystalline Archean rocks, with underlying layers of sandstone and shale clay. The core of granite and cordillera is, to a large extent, flanked by sedimentary layers from the Cretaceous, folded in an anticline structure. Between these orographic systems there are plains covered with tertiary and quaternary layers of gravel, sands and clayey marls. The depression contains lagoons and lakes, among which is that of Maracaibo, and presents, on the surface, alluvial deposits from the Quaternary, on layers of the Cretaceous and Tertiary particularly important; because of them oil infiltrations emerge. * The coasts They present a landscape with intermountain depressions (separated by mountains), mountainous areas, a massif and an island group. * Lara-Falcón-Yaracuy System The reliefs of mountain ranges contrast with those of the peninsula, coastal plains and intermountain depressions. * Lake Maracaibo Basin The basin of the lake and the plains of the Gulf of Venezuela make up two plains: the northern one, drier, and the southern one, humid and with swamps. * The Andes The corpulent volumes of mountain ranges and mountain ranges predominate, as well as intramontane valleys (located within the mountains). * The plains They form extensive sedimentary basins, with a predominantly flat relief, except the eastern Llanos, which show plateaus, and the Unare depression, formed by the erosion of the mesa. * Guiana Shield It exhibits a varied relief, shaped by different rocks, orogenic events and erosion over millions of years. That is why here there are peneplains, mountain ranges, foothills and the characteristic tepuis. * Orinoco Delta With few contrasts, it builds a complex system of lands and waters, with varied sedimentary contributions and innumerable channels and islands. ### Valleys The valleys are undoubtedly the most important type of landscape in the Venezuelan territory, not because of their spatial extension, but because they are the environment where most of the country's population and economic activities are concentrated. On the other hand, there are valleys throughout almost all the national space, except in the great sedimentary basins of the Llanos and the depression of the Maracaibo Lake, except also in the Amazonian peneplains. By their modeling, the valleys of the Venezuelan territory belong mainly to two types: valleys of fluvial type and valleys of glacial type. Much more frequent, the former largely dominate the latter, which are restricted to the highest parts of the Andes. Moreover, most glacial valleys are relics of a past geologic epoch, which culminated some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. They are frequently retouched today by fluvial events. Consequently, any attempt to categorize the Venezuelan valleys, based exclusively on the characteristics of their modeling, would be quite elementary. The deep and narrow Andean valleys are very different from the wide depressions of Aragua and Carabobo, in the Cordillera de la Costa, or from the valleys nestled in the Mesas de Monagas. These examples indicate that the configuration of the local relief is decisive in identifying regional types of valleys. Likewise, due to their warm climate, the Guayana valleys are distinguished from the temperate or cold Andean valleys by their humid environment. Both are, in turn, different from the semi-arid depressions of the states of Lara and Falcón. The Andean valleys, essentially agricultural, precociously populated but nowadays in loss of speed, do not confront the same problems of space occupation as the strongly urbanized and industrialized valleys of the central section of the Cordillera de la Costa. On the other hand, the unpopulated and practically untouched Guiana valleys are another category this area is called the Lost World (*Mundo Perdido*). The Andean valleys are undoubtedly the most impressive of the Venezuelan territory because of the energy of the encasing reliefs, whose summits often dominate the valley bottoms by 3,000 to 3,500 meters of relative altitude. They are also the most picturesque in terms of their style of habitat, forms of land use, handicraft production and all the traditions linked to these activities. these activities ### Deserts Venezuela has a great diversity of landscapes and climates, including arid and dry areas. The main desert in the country is in the state of Falcon near the city of Coro. It is now a protected park, the Médanos de Coro National Park. The park is the largest of its kind in Venezuela, covering 91 square kilometres. The landscape is dotted with cacti and other xerophytic plants that can survive in humidity-free conditions near the desert. Desert wildlife includes mostly lizards, iguanas and other reptiles. Although less frequent, the desert is home to some foxes, giant anteaters and rabbits. There are also some native bird populations, such as the sparrowhawk, tropical mockingbird, scaly dove and crested quail. Other desert areas in the country include part of the Guajira Desert in the Guajira Municipality in the north of Zulia State and facing the Gulf of Venezuela, the Médanos de Capanaparo in the Santos Luzardo National Park in Apure State, the Medanos de la Isla de Zapara in Zulia State, the so-called Hundición de Yay in the Andrés Eloy Blanco Municipality of Lara State, and the Urumaco Formation also in Falcón State. Government and politics ----------------------- Following the fall of Marcos Pérez Jiménez in 1958, Venezuelan politics were dominated by the Third Way Christian democratic COPEI and the center-left social democratic Democratic Action (AD) parties; this two-party system was formalized by the *puntofijismo* arrangement. Economic crises in the 1980s and 1990s led to a political crisis which resulted in hundreds dead in the Caracazo riots of 1989, two attempted coups in 1992, and impeachment of President Carlos Andrés Pérez for corruption in 1993. A collapse in confidence in the existing parties saw the 1998 election of Hugo Chávez, who had led the first of the 1992 coup attempts, and the launch of a "Bolivarian Revolution", beginning with a 1999 Constituent Assembly to write a new Constitution of Venezuela. The opposition's attempts to unseat Chávez included the 2002 Venezuelan *coup d'état* attempt, the Venezuelan general strike of 2002–2003, and the Venezuelan recall referendum, 2004, all of which failed. Chávez was re-elected in December 2006 but suffered a significant defeat in 2007 with the narrow rejection of the 2007 Venezuelan constitutional referendum, which had offered two packages of constitutional reforms aimed at deepening the Bolivarian Revolution. Two major blocs of political parties are in Venezuela: the incumbent leftist bloc United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), its major allies Fatherland for All (PPT) and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), and the opposition bloc grouped into the electoral coalition Mesa de la Unidad Democrática. This includes A New Era (UNT) together with allied parties Project Venezuela, Justice First, Movement for Socialism (MAS) and others. Hugo Chávez, the central figure of the Venezuelan political landscape since his election to the presidency in 1998 as a political outsider, died in office in early 2013, and was succeeded by Nicolás Maduro (initially as interim president, before narrowly winning the 2013 Venezuelan presidential election). The Venezuelan president is elected by a vote, with direct and universal suffrage, and is both head of state and head of government. The term of office is six years, and (as of 15 February 2009) a president may be re-elected an unlimited number of times. The president appoints the vice president and decides the size and composition of the cabinet and makes appointments to it with the involvement of the legislature. The president can ask the legislature to reconsider portions of laws he finds objectionable, but a simple parliamentary majority can override these objections. The president may ask the National Assembly to pass an enabling act granting the ability to rule by decree in specified policy areas; this requires a two-thirds majority in the Assembly. Since 1959, six Venezuelan presidents have been granted such powers. The unicameral Venezuelan parliament is the *Asamblea Nacional* ("National Assembly"). The number of members is variable – each state and the Capital district elect three representatives plus the result of dividing the state population by 1.1% of the total population of the country. Three seats are reserved for representatives of Venezuela's indigenous peoples. For the 2011–2016 period the number of seats is 165. All deputies serve five-year terms. The voting age in Venezuela is 18 and older. Voting is not compulsory. The legal system of Venezuela belongs to the Continental Law tradition. The highest judicial body is the Supreme Tribunal of Justice or *Tribunal Supremo de Justicia*, whose magistrates are elected by parliament for a single two-year term. The National Electoral Council (*Consejo Nacional Electoral*, or *CNE*) is in charge of electoral processes; it is formed by five main directors elected by the National Assembly. Supreme Court president Luisa Estela Morales said in December 2009 that Venezuela had moved away from "a rigid division of powers" toward a system characterized by "intense coordination" between the branches of government. Morales clarified that each power must be independent adding that "one thing is separation of powers and another one is division". ### Suspension of constitutional rights The 2015 parliamentary elections were held on 6 December 2015 to elect the 164 deputies and three indigenous representatives of the National Assembly. In 2014, a series of protest and demonstrations began in Venezuela, attributed[*by whom?*] to inflation, violence and shortages in Venezuela. The protests were largely peaceful. The government has accused the protest of being motivated by fascists, opposition leaders, capitalism and foreign influence, President Maduro acknowledged PSUV defeat, but attributed the opposition's victory to an intensification of an economic war. Despite this, Maduro said "I will stop by hook or by crook the opposition coming to power, whatever the costs, in any way". In the following months, Maduro fulfilled his promise of preventing the democratically and constitutionally elected National Assembly from legislating. The first steps taken by PSUV and government were the substitution of the entire Supreme court a day after the Parliamentary Elections contrary to the Constitution of Venezuela, acclaimed as a fraud by the majority of the Venezuelan and international press. The *Financial Times* described the function of the Supreme Court in Venezuela as "rubber stamping executive whims and vetoing legislation". The PSUV government used this violation to suspend several elected opponents, ignoring again the Constitution of Venezuela. Maduro said that "the Amnesty law (approved by the Parliament) will not be executed" and asked the Supreme Court to declare it unconstitutional before the law was known. On 16 January 2016, Maduro approved an unconstitutional economic emergency decree, relegating to his own figure the legislative and executive powers, while also holding judiciary power through the fraudulent designation of judges the day after the election on 6 December 2015. From these events, Maduro effectively controls all three branches of government. On 14 May 2016, constitutional guarantees were in fact suspended when Maduro decreed the extension of the economic emergency decree for another 60 days and declared a State of Emergency, which is a clear violation of the Constitution of Venezuela in the Article 338th: "The approval of the extension of States of emergency corresponds to the National Assembly." Thus, constitutional rights in Venezuela are considered suspended in fact by many publications and public figures. On 14 May 2016, the Organization of American States was considering the application of the Inter-American Democratic Charter sanctions for non-compliance to its own constitution. In March 2017, the Venezuelan Supreme Court took over law making powers from the National Assembly but reversed its decision the following day. ### Foreign relations Throughout most of the 20th century, Venezuela maintained friendly relations with most Latin American and Western nations. Relations between Venezuela and the United States government worsened in 2002, after the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt during which the U.S. government recognized the short-lived interim presidency of Pedro Carmona. In 2015, Venezuela was declared a national security threat by U.S. president Barack Obama. Correspondingly, ties to various Latin American and Middle Eastern countries not allied to the U.S. have strengthened. For example, according to Matt Wilgress in the *Morning Star*, Palestinian foreign minister Riyad al-Maliki declared in 2015 that Venezuela was his country's "most important ally". Venezuela seeks alternative hemispheric integration via such proposals as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas trade proposal and the newly launched Latin American television network teleSUR. Venezuela is one of five nations in the world—along with Russia, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria—to have recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Venezuela was a proponent of OAS's decision to adopt its Anti-Corruption Convention and is actively working in the Mercosur trade bloc to push increased trade and energy integration. Globally, it seeks a "multi-polar" world based on strengthened ties among undeveloped countries. On 26 April 2017, Venezuela announced its intention to withdraw from the OAS. Venezuelan Foreign Minister Delcy Rodríguez said that President Nicolás Maduro plans to publicly renounce Venezuela's membership on 27 April 2017. It will take two years for the country to formally leave. During this period, the country does not plan on participating in the OAS. Venezuela is involved in a long-standing disagreement about the control of the Guayana Esequiba area. Venezuela may suffer a deterioration of its power in international affairs if the global transition to renewable energy is completed. It is ranked 151 out of 156 countries in the index of Geopolitical Gains and Losses after energy transition (GeGaLo). ### Military The Bolivarian National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) are the overall unified military forces of Venezuela. It includes over 320,150 men and women, under Article 328 of the Constitution, in 5 components of Ground, Sea and Air. The components of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces are: the Venezuelan Army, the Venezuelan Navy, the Venezuelan Air Force, the Venezuelan National Guard, and the Venezuelan National Militia. As of 2008[update], a further 600,000 soldiers were incorporated into a new branch, known as the Armed Reserve. The president of Venezuela is the commander-in-chief of the national armed forces. The main roles of the armed forces are to defend the sovereign national territory of Venezuela, airspace, and islands, fight against drug trafficking, to search and rescue and, in the case of a natural disaster, civil protection. All male citizens of Venezuela have a constitutional duty to register for the military service at the age of 18, which is the age of majority in Venezuela. ### Law and crime Murder rate (murder per 100,000 citizens) from 1998 to 2018. **Sources:** OVV, PROVEA, UN **\*** UN line between 2007 and 2012 is simulated missing data.Number of kidnappings in Venezuela 1989–2011 **Source:** **CICPC** **\*** Express kidnappings may not be included in data In Venezuela, a person is murdered every 21 minutes. Violent crimes have been so prevalent in Venezuela that the government no longer produces the crime data. In 2013, the homicide rate was approximately 79 per 100,000, one of the world's highest, having quadrupled in the past 15 years with over 200,000 people murdered. By 2015, it had risen to 90 per 100,000. The country's body count of the previous decade mimics that of the Iraq War and in some instances had more civilian deaths even though the country is at peacetime. The capital Caracas has one of the greatest homicide rates of any large city in the world, with 122 homicides per 100,000 residents. In 2008, polls indicated that crime was the number one concern of voters. Attempts at fighting crime such as Operation Liberation of the People were implemented to crack down on gang-controlled areas but, of reported criminal acts, less than 2% are prosecuted. In 2017, the *Financial Times* noted that some of the arms procured by the government over the previous two decades had been diverted to paramilitary civilian groups and criminal syndicates. Venezuela is especially dangerous for foreign travelers and investors who are visiting. The United States Department of State and the Government of Canada have warned foreign visitors that they may be subjected to robbery, kidnapping for a ransom or sale to terrorist organizations and murder, and that their own diplomatic travelers are required to travel in armored vehicles. The United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office has advised against all travel to Venezuela. Visitors have been murdered during robberies and criminals do not discriminate among their victims. Former Miss Venezuela 2004 winner Mónica Spear and her ex-husband were murdered and their 5-year-old daughter was shot while vacationing in Venezuela, and an elderly German tourist was murdered only a few weeks later. There are approximately 33 prisons holding about 50,000 inmates. They include; El Rodeo outside of Caracas, Yare Prison in the northern state of Miranda, and several others. Venezuela's prison system is heavily overcrowded; its facilities have capacity for only 14,000 prisoners. ### Human rights Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have increasingly criticized Venezuela's human rights record, with the former organization noting in 2017 that the Chavez and subsequently the Maduro government have increasingly concentrated power in the executive branch, eroded constitutional human rights protections and allowed the government to persecute and repress its critics and opposition. Other persistent concerns as noted by the report included poor prison conditions, the continuous harassment of independent media and human rights defenders by the government. In 2006, the Economist Intelligence Unit rated Venezuela a "hybrid regime" and the third least democratic regime in Latin America on the Democracy Index. The Democracy index downgraded Venezuela to an authoritarian regime in 2017, citing continued increasingly dictatorial behaviors by the Maduro government. ### Corruption Corruption in Venezuela is high by world standards and was so for much of the 20th century. The discovery of oil worsened political corruption, and by the late 1970s, Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso's description of oil as "the Devil's excrement" had become a common expression in Venezuela. Venezuela has been ranked one of the most corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index since the survey started in 1995. The 2010 ranking placed Venezuela at number 164, out of 178 ranked countries in government transparency. By 2016, the rank had increased to 166 out of 178. Similarly, the World Justice Project ranked Venezuela 99th out of 99 countries surveyed in its 2014 Rule of Law Index. This corruption is shown with Venezuela's significant involvement in drug trafficking, with Colombian cocaine and other drugs transiting Venezuela towards the United States and Europe. In the period 2003–2008 Venezuelan authorities seized the fifth-largest total quantity of cocaine in the world, behind Colombia, the United States, Spain and Panama. In 2006, the government's agency for combating illegal drug trade in Venezuela, *ONA*, was incorporated into the office of the vice-president of the country. However, many major government and military officials have been known for their involvement with drug trafficking; especially with the October 2013 incident of men from the Venezuelan National Guard placing 1.3 tons of cocaine on a Paris flight knowing they would not face charges. Administrative divisions ------------------------ Venezuela is divided into 23 states (*estados*), a capital district (*distrito capital*) corresponding to the city of Caracas, and the Federal Dependencies (*Dependencias Federales*, a special territory). Venezuela is further subdivided into 335 municipalities (*municipios*); these are subdivided into over one thousand parishes (*parroquias*). The states are grouped into nine administrative regions (*regiones administrativas*), which were established in 1969 by presidential decree. The country can be further divided into ten geographical areas, some corresponding to climatic and biogeographical regions. In the north are the Venezuelan Andes and the Coro region, a mountainous tract in the northwest, holds several sierras and valleys. East of it are lowlands abutting Lake Maracaibo and the Gulf of Venezuela. The Central Range runs parallel to the coast and includes the hills surrounding Caracas; the Eastern Range, separated from the Central Range by the Gulf of Cariaco, covers all of Sucre and northern Monagas. The Insular Region includes all of Venezuela's island possessions: Nueva Esparta and the various Federal Dependencies. The Orinoco Delta, which forms a triangle covering Delta Amacuro, projects northeast into the Atlantic Ocean. Additionally, the country maintains a historical claim on the territory it calls Guyana Esequiba, which is equivalent to about 160,000 square kilometers and corresponds to all the territory administered by Guyana west of the Esequibo River. In 1966 the British and Venezuelan governments signed the Geneva Agreement to resolve the conflict peacefully. In addition to this agreement, the Port of Spain Protocol of 1970 set a deadline to try to resolve the issue, without success to date. | | | --- | | *Bolívar* *Amazonas* *Apure* *Zulia* *Táchira* *Barinas* *Mérida* *Trujillo* *Lara* *Portuguesa* *Guárico* *Cojedes* *Yaracuy* *Falcón* *Carabobo* *Aragua* *Miranda* *D. C.* *Vargas* *Anzoátegui* *Sucre* *Nueva Esparta* *Monagas* *Delta Amacuro* *Federal Dependencies* *Trinidad and Tobago* *Guyana* *Colombia* *Brazil* **Caribbean Sea** **Atlantic Ocean** | | State | Capital | State | Capital | |  Amazonas | Puerto Ayacucho |  Mérida | Mérida | |  Anzoátegui | Barcelona |  Miranda | Los Teques | |  Apure | San Fernando de Apure |  Monagas | Maturín | |  Aragua | Maracay |  Nueva Esparta | La Asunción | |  Barinas | Barinas |  Portuguesa | Guanare | |  Bolívar | Ciudad Bolívar |  Sucre | Cumaná | |  Carabobo | Valencia |  Táchira | San Cristóbal | |  Cojedes | San Carlos |  Trujillo | Trujillo | |  Delta Amacuro | Tucupita |  Yaracuy | San Felipe | |  Caracas | Caracas |  Zulia | Maracaibo | |  Falcón | Coro |  Vargas | La Guaira | |  Guárico | San Juan de los Morros |  Federal Dependencies1 | El Gran Roque | |  Lara | Barquisimeto | | | 1 *The Federal Dependencies are not states. They are just special divisions of the territory.* | ### Largest cities |    Largest cities or towns in Venezuela | | --- | | | Rank | Name | State | Pop. | Rank | Name | State | Pop. | | | CaracasCaracasMaracaiboMaracaibo | 1 | Caracas | Capital District | 2,904,376 | 11 | Ciudad Bolívar | Bolívar | 342,280 | ValenciaValenciaBarquisimetoBarquisimeto | | 2 | Maracaibo | Zulia | 1,906,205 | 12 | San Cristóbal | Táchira | 263,765 | | 3 | Valencia | Carabobo | 1,396,322 | 13 | Cabimas | Zulia | 263,056 | | 4 | Barquisimeto | Lara | 996,230 | 14 | Los Teques | Miranda | 252,242 | | 5 | Ciudad Guayana | Bolívar | 706,736 | 15 | Puerto la Cruz | Anzoátegui | 244,728 | | 6 | Maturín | Monagas | 542,259 | 16 | Punto Fijo | Falcón | 239,444 | | 7 | Barcelona | Anzoátegui | 421,424 | 17 | Mérida | Mérida | 217,547 | | 8 | Maracay | Aragua | 407,109 | 18 | Guarenas | Miranda | 209,987 | | 9 | Cumaná | Sucre | 358,919 | 19 | Ciudad Ojeda | Zulia | 203,435 | | 10 | Barinas | Barinas | 353.851 | 20 | Guanare | Portuguesa | 192,644 | Economy ------- Venezuela has a market-based mixed economy dominated by the petroleum sector, which accounts for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of exports, and more than half of government revenues. Per capita GDP for 2016 was estimated to be US$15,100, ranking 109th in the world. Venezuela has the least expensive petrol in the world because the consumer price of petrol is heavily subsidized. The private sector controls two-thirds of Venezuela's economy. A part of the Venezuelan economy depends on remittances. The Central Bank of Venezuela is responsible for developing monetary policy for the Venezuelan bolívar which is used as currency. The president of the Central Bank of Venezuela serves as the country's representative in the International Monetary Fund. The U.S.-based conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation, cited in *The Wall Street Journal*, claims Venezuela has the weakest property rights in the world, scoring only 5.0 on a scale of 100; expropriation without compensation is not uncommon. As of 2011, more than 60% of Venezuela's international reserves was in gold, eight times more than the average for the region. Most of Venezuela's gold held abroad was located in London. On 25 November 2011, the first of US$11 billion of repatriated gold bullion arrived in Caracas; Chávez called the repatriation of gold a "sovereign" step that will help protect the country's foreign reserves from the turmoil in the U.S. and Europe. However government policies quickly spent down this returned gold and in 2013 the government was forced to add the dollar reserves of state owned companies to those of the national bank to reassure the international bond market. Annual variation of real GDP according to the Central Bank of Venezuela (2016 preliminary) Manufacturing contributed 17% of GDP in 2006. Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry products such as steel, aluminium and cement, with production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana, near the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world and the provider of about three-quarters of Venezuela's electricity. Other notable manufacturing includes electronics and automobiles, as well as beverages, and foodstuffs. Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3% of GDP, 10% of the labor force, and at least a quarter of Venezuela's land area. The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture. In 2012, total food consumption was over 26 million metric tonnes, a 94.8% increase from 2003. Since the discovery of oil in the early 20th century, Venezuela has been one of the world's leading exporters of oil, and it is a founding member of OPEC. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of agricultural commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports and government revenues. The 1980s oil glut led to an external debt crisis and a long-running economic crisis, which saw inflation peak at 100% in 1996. As (by 1998) per capita GDP fell to the same level as 1963, down a third from its 1978 peak. The 1990s also saw Venezuela experience a major banking crisis in 1994. The recovery of oil prices after 2001 boosted the Venezuelan economy and facilitated social spending. With social programs such as the Bolivarian Missions, Venezuela initially made progress in social development in the 2000s, particularly in areas such as health, education, and poverty. Many of the social policies pursued by Chávez and his administration were jump-started by the Millennium Development Goals, eight goals that Venezuela and 188 other nations agreed to in September 2000. The sustainability of the Bolivarian Missions has been questioned due to the Bolivarian state's overspending on public works and because the Chávez government did not save funds for future economic hardships like other OPEC nations; with economic issues and poverty rising as a result of their policies in the 2010s. In 2003 the government of Hugo Chávez implemented currency controls after capital flight led to a devaluation of the currency. This led to the development of a parallel market of dollars in the subsequent years. The fallout of the 2008 global financial crisis saw a renewed economic downturn. Despite controversial data shared by the Venezuelan government showing that the country had halved malnutrition following one of the UN's Millennium Development Goals, shortages of staple goods began to occur in Venezuela and malnutrition began to increase. In early 2013, Venezuela devalued its currency due to growing shortages in the country. The shortages included, and still include, necessities such as toilet paper, milk, and flour. Fears rose so high due to the toilet paper shortage that the government occupied a toilet paper factory, and continued further plans to nationalize other industrial aspects like food distribution. Venezuela's bond ratings have also decreased multiple times in 2013 due to decisions by the president Nicolás Maduro. One of his decisions was to force stores and their warehouses to sell all of their products, which led to even more shortages in the future. In 2016, consumer prices in Venezuela increased 800% and the economy declined by 18.6%, entering an economic depression. Venezuela's outlook was deemed negative by most bond-rating services in 2017. For 2018 an inflation rate of 1,000,000 percent was projected, putting Venezuela in a similar situation to that in Germany in 1923 or Zimbabwe in the late 2000s. ### Tourism Tourism has been developed considerably in recent decades, particularly because of its favorable geographical position, the variety of landscapes, the richness of plant and wildlife, the artistic expressions and the privileged tropical climate of the country, which affords each region (especially the beaches) throughout the year. Margarita Island is one of the top tourist destinations for enjoyment and relaxation. It is an island with a modern infrastructure, bordered by beaches suitable for extreme sports, and features castles, fortresses and churches of great cultural value. Los Roques Archipelago is made up of a set of islands and keys that constitute one of the main tourist attractions in the country. With exotic crystalline beaches, Morrocoy is a national park, formed by small keys very close to the mainland, which have grown rapidly as one of the greatest tourist attractions in the Venezuelan Caribbean. Canaima National Park extends over 30,000 km2 to the border with Guyana and Brazil, due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. About 65% of the park is occupied by rock plateaus called tepuis. These constitute a unique biological environment, also presenting great geological interest. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1,002 m) form spectacular landscapes. The state of Mérida, for the beauty of its Andean landscapes and its pleasant climate, is one of the main tourist centers of Venezuela. It has an extensive network of hotels not only in its capital city, but also throughout the state. Starting from the same city of Mérida, is the longest and highest cable car in the world, which reaches the Pico Espejo of 4,765 m. Many visitors also travel through the southern moors, where may hotels and restaurants are located. ### Shortages Shortages in Venezuela have been prevalent following the enactment of price controls and other policies during the economic policy of the Hugo Chávez government. Under the economic policy of the Nicolás Maduro government, greater shortages occurred due to the Venezuelan government's policy of withholding United States dollars from importers with price controls. Shortages occur in regulated products, such as milk, various types of meat, coffee, rice, oil, flour, butter, and other goods including basic necessities like toilet paper, personal hygiene products, and even medicine. As a result of the shortages, Venezuelans must search for food, wait in lines for hours and sometimes settle without having certain products. Maduro's government has blamed the shortages on "bourgeois criminals" hoarding goods. A drought, combined with a lack of planning and maintenance, has caused a hydroelectricity shortage. To deal with lack of power supply, in April 2016 the Maduro government announced rolling blackouts and reduced the government workweek to only Monday and Tuesday. A multi-university study found that, in 2016 alone, about 75% of Venezuelans lost weight due to hunger, with the average losing about 8.6 kg (19 lbs) due to the lack of food. By late-2016 and into 2017, Venezuelans had to search for food on a daily basis, occasionally resorting to eating wild fruit or garbage, wait in lines for hours and sometimes settle without having certain products. By early 2017, priests began telling Venezuelans to label their garbage so needy individuals could feed on their refuse. In March 2017, Venezuela, with the largest oil reserves in the world, began having shortages of gasoline in some regions with reports that fuel imports had begun. ### Petroleum and other resources Venezuela has the largest oil reserves, and the eighth largest natural gas reserves in the world. Compared to the preceding year another 40.4% in crude oil reserves were proven in 2010, allowing Venezuela to surpass Saudi Arabia as the country with the largest reserves of this type. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around and beneath Lake Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela (both in Zulia), and in the Orinoco River basin (eastern Venezuela), where the country's largest reserve is located. Besides the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere, Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits (extra-heavy crude oil, bitumen and tar sands) approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil. The electricity sector in Venezuela is one of the few to rely primarily on hydropower, and includes the Guri Dam, one of the largest in the world. In the first half of the 20th century, U.S. oil companies were heavily involved in Venezuela, initially interested only in purchasing concessions. In 1943 a new government introduced a 50/50 split in profits between the government and the oil industry. In 1960, with a newly installed democratic government, Hydrocarbons Minister Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso led the creation of OPEC, the consortium of oil-producing countries aiming to support the price of oil. In 1973, Venezuela voted to nationalize its oil industry outright, effective 1 January 1976, with Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) taking over and presiding over a number of holding companies; in subsequent years, Venezuela built a vast refining and marketing system in the U.S. and Europe. In the 1990s PDVSA became more independent from the government and presided over an *apertura* (opening) in which it invited in foreign investment. Under Hugo Chávez a 2001 law placed limits on foreign investment. The state oil company PDVSA played a key role in the December 2002 – February 2003 national strike which sought President Chávez' resignation. Managers and skilled highly paid technicians of PDVSA shut down the plants joined the strike, and petroleum production and refining by PDVSA almost ceased. Activities eventually were slowly restarted by returning and substitute oil workers. As a result of the strike, around 40% of the company's workforce (around 18,000 workers) were dismissed. Transport --------- Venezuela is connected to the world primarily via air (Venezuela's airports include the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Maiquetía, near Caracas and La Chinita International Airport near Maracaibo) and sea (with major sea ports at La Guaira, Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello). In the south and east the Amazon rainforest region has limited cross-border transport; in the west, there is a mountainous border of over 2,213 kilometres (1,375 mi) shared with Colombia. The Orinoco River is navigable by oceangoing vessels up to 400 kilometres (250 mi) inland, and connects the major industrial city of Ciudad Guayana to the Atlantic Ocean. Venezuela has a limited national railway system, which has no active rail connections to other countries. The government of Hugo Chávez tried to invest in expanding it, but Venezuela's rail project is on hold due to Venezuela not being able to pay the $7.5 billion[*clarification needed*] and owing China Railway nearly $500 million. Several major cities have metro systems; the Caracas Metro has been operating since 1983. The Maracaibo Metro and Valencia Metro were opened more recently. Venezuela has a road network of nearly 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi) in length, placing the country around 45th in the world; around a third of roads are paved. Demographics ------------ Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America; the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north, especially in the capital Caracas, which is also the largest city. About 93% of the population lives in urban areas in northern Venezuela; 73% live less than 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the coastline. Though almost half of Venezuela's land area lies south of the Orinoco, only 5% of Venezuelans live there. The largest and most important city south of the Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana, which is the sixth most populous conurbation. Other major cities include Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay, Maracaibo, Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz, Mérida and San Cristóbal. According to a 2014 study by sociologists of the Central University of Venezuela, over 1.5 million Venezuelans, or about 4% to 6% of the country's population, have left Venezuela since 1999 following the Bolivarian Revolution. ### Ethnicity The people of Venezuela come from a variety of ancestries. It is estimated that the majority of the population is of pardo, or mixed, ethnic ancestry. Nevertheless, in the 2011 census, which Venezuelans were asked to identify themselves according to their customs and ancestry, the term *pardo* was excluded from the answers. The majority claimed to be moreno or white—51.6% and 43.6%, respectively. Practically half of the population claimed to be *moreno*, a term used throughout Ibero-America that in this case means "dark-skinned" or "brown-skinned", as opposed to having a lighter skin (this term connotes skin color or tone, rather than facial features or descent). Ethnic minorities in Venezuela consist of groups that descend mainly from African or indigenous peoples; 2.8% identified themselves as "black" and 0.7% as *afrodescendiente* (Afro-descendant), 2.6% claimed to belong to indigenous peoples, and 1.2% answered "other races". Among indigenous people, 58% were Wayúu, 7% Warao, 5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 3% Cumanágoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima and 1% Yanomami; the remaining 9% consisted of other indigenous nations. According to an autosomal DNA genetic study conducted in 2008 by the University of Brasília (UNB), the composition of Venezuela's population is 60.60% of European contribution, 23% of indigenous contribution, and 16.30% of African contribution. Moreno (Mestizo) population of Venezuela in 2011White population of Venezuela in 2011Amerindian population of Venezuela in 2011Black and Afrodescendant population of Venezuela in 2011 During the colonial period and until after the Second World War, many of the European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands and Spain with a relevant amount of Galicians and Asturians. These immigrants from Spain had a significant cultural impact on the cuisine and customs of Venezuela. These influences on Venezuela have led to the nation being called the 8th island of the Canaries. With the start of oil exploitation in the early 20th century, companies from the United States began establishing operations in Venezuela, bringing with them U.S. citizens. Later, during and after the war, new waves of immigrants from other parts of Europe, the Middle East, and China began; many were encouraged by government-established immigration programs and lenient immigration policies. During the 20th century, Venezuela, along with the rest of Latin America, received millions of immigrants from Europe. This was especially true post-World War II, as a consequence of war-ridden Europe. During the 1970s, while experiencing an oil-export boom, Venezuela received millions of immigrants from Ecuador, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic. Due to the belief that this immigration influx depressed wages, some Venezuelans opposed European immigration. The Venezuelan government, however, were actively recruiting immigrants from Eastern Europe to fill a need for engineers. Millions of Colombians, as well as Middle Eastern and Haitian populations would continue immigrating to Venezuela into the early 21st century. According to the *World Refugee Survey 2008*, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Venezuela hosted a population of refugee and asylum seekers from Colombia numbering 252,200 in 2007, and 10,600 new asylum seekers entered Venezuela in 2007. Between 500,000 and one million illegal immigrants are estimated to be living in the country. The total indigenous population of the country is estimated at 500 thousand people (2.8% of the total), distributed among 40 indigenous peoples. There are three uncontacted tribes living in Venezuela. The Constitution recognizes the multi-ethnic, pluri-cultural, and multilingual character of the country and includes a chapter devoted to indigenous peoples' rights, which opened up spaces for their political inclusion at national and local level in 1999. Most indigenous peoples are concentrated in eight states along Venezuela's borders with Brazil, Guyana, and Colombia, and the majority groups are the Wayuu in the west, the Warao in the east, the Yanomami installed in the south, and the Pemon which are mostly in the southeast of Venezuela. ### Languages Although most residents are monolingual Spanish speakers, many languages are spoken in Venezuela. In addition to Spanish, the Constitution recognizes more than thirty indigenous languages, including Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, and many others for the official use of the indigenous peoples, mostly with few speakers – less than 1% of the total population. Wayuu is the most spoken indigenous language, with 170,000 speakers. Immigrants, in addition to Spanish, speak their own languages. Chinese (400,000), Portuguese (254,000), and Italian (200,000) are the most-spoken languages in Venezuela after the official language of Spanish. Arabic is spoken by Lebanese and Syrian colonies on Isla de Margarita, Maracaibo, Punto Fijo, Puerto la Cruz, El Tigre, Maracay, and Caracas. Portuguese is spoken not only by the Portuguese community in Santa Elena de Uairén but also by much of the population due to its proximity to Brazil. The German community speaks their native language, while the people of Colonia Tovar speak mostly an Alemannic dialect of German called *alemán coloniero*. English is the most widely used foreign language in demand and is spoken by many professionals, academics, and members of the upper and middle classes as a result of the oil exploration by foreign companies, in addition to its acceptance as a lingua franca. Culturally, English is common in southern towns like El Callao, and the native English-speaking influence is evident in folk and calypso songs from the region. English was brought to Venezuela by Trinidadian and other British West Indies immigrants. A variety of Antillean Creole is spoken by a small community in El Callao and Paria. Italian language teaching is guaranteed by the presence of a consistent number of private Venezuelan schools and institutions, where Italian language courses and Italian literature are active. Other languages spoken by large communities in the country are Basque and Galician, among others. ### Religion Religion in Venezuela (2011)   Catholic (71%)  Protestant (17%)  No religion (7%)  Other religion (3%)  No answer (1%) According to a 2011 poll (GIS XXI), 88% of the population is Christian, primarily Roman Catholic (71%), and the remaining 17% Protestant, primarily Evangelicals (in Latin America Protestants are usually called *"evangélicos"*). 8% of Venezuelans are irreligious (atheist 2% and agnostic and 6% indifferent). Almost 3% of the population follow another religion (1% of these people practice Santería). There are small but influential Muslim, Druze, Buddhist, and Jewish communities. The Muslim community of more than 100,000 is concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent living in Nueva Esparta state, Punto Fijo and the Caracas area. Venezuela is home of the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East, the Druze community are estimated around 60,000, and concentrated among persons of Lebanese and Syrian descent (a former vice president is Druze, showing the small group's influence). Buddhism in Venezuela is practiced by over 52,000 people. The Buddhist community is made up mainly of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean people. There are Buddhist centers in Caracas, Maracay, Mérida, Puerto Ordáz, San Felipe, and Valencia. The Jewish community has shrunk in recent years due to rising economic pressures and antisemitism in Venezuela, with the population declining from 22,000 in 1999 to less than 7,000 in 2015. ### Health Venezuela has a national universal health care system. The current government has created a program to expand access to health care known as Misión Barrio Adentro, although its efficiency and work conditions have been criticized. It has been reported that many Misión Barrio Adentro clinics have been closed, and (as of December 2014) it is estimated that 80% of Barrio Adentro establishments in Venezuela are abandoned. Infant mortality in Venezuela was 19 deaths per 1,000 births for 2014 which was lower than the South American average (To compare: The U.S. figure was 6 deaths per 1,000 births in 2013 and the Canadian figure was 4.5 deaths per 1,000 live births). Child malnutrition (defined as stunting or wasting in children under the age of five) was 17%. Delta Amacuro and Amazonas had the nation's highest rates. According to the United Nations, 32% of Venezuelans lacked adequate sanitation, primarily those living in rural areas. Diseases ranging from diphtheria, plague, malaria, typhoid fever, yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D were present in the country. Obesity was prevalent in approximately 30% of the adult population in Venezuela. Venezuela had a total of 150 sewage treatment plants; however, 13% of the population lacked access to drinking water, but this number had been dropping. During the economic crisis observed under President Maduro's presidency, medical professionals were forced to perform outdated treatments on patients. ### Education The literacy rate of the adult population was already at 91.1% by 1998. In 2008, 95.2% of the adult population was literate. The net primary school enrollment rate was at 91% and the net secondary school enrollment rate was at 63% in 2005. Venezuela has a number of universities, of which the most prestigious are the Central University of Venezuela (UCV) founded in Caracas in 1721, the University of Zulia (LUZ) founded in 1891, the University of the Andes (ULA) founded in Mérida State in 1810, the Simón Bolívar University (USB) founded in Miranda State in 1967, and the University of the East (UDO) founded in Sucre State in 1958. Currently, many Venezuelan graduates seek a future abroad because of the country's troubled economy and heavy crime rate. In a study titled "Venezolana Community Abroad: A New Method of Exile" by Thomas Páez, Mercedes Vivas, and Juan Rafael Pulido of the Central University of Venezuela, over 1.35 million Venezuelan college graduates have left the country since the beginning of the Bolivarian Revolution. It is believed that nearly 12% of Venezuelans live abroad, with Ireland becoming a popular destination for students. According to Claudio Bifano, president of the Venezuelan Academy of Physical, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences, more than half of all medical graduates had left Venezuela in 2013. By 2018, over half of all Venezuelan children had dropped out of school, with 58% of students quitting nationwide while areas near bordering countries saw more than 80% of their students leave. Nationwide, about 93% of schools do not meet the minimum requirements to operate and 77% do not have utilities such as food, water or electricity. Culture ------- The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot made up of three main groups: The Indigenous Venezuelans, the Africans, and the Spanish. The first two cultures were in turn differentiated according to their tribes. Acculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, led to the Venezuelan culture of the present day, which is similar in many ways to the culture of the rest of Latin America, but still has its own unique characteristics. However, the Africans also brought in many musical influences, especially introduction of the drum. The Spanish influence predominantes due to the colonization process and the socioeconomic structure it created, and in particular came from the regions of Andalusia and Extremadura (the places of origin of most of the settlers in the Caribbean during the colonial era). Spanish influences can be seen in the country's architecture, music, religion, and language. Spanish influences can also be seen in the bullfights that take place in Venezuela, and in certain gastronomical features. Venezuela was also enriched by immigration streams of Indian and European origin in the 19th century, especially from France. Most recently, immigration from the United States, Spain, Italy, and Portugal has further enriched the already complex cultural mosaic (especially in large oil-producing cities). ### Architecture Carlos Raúl Villanueva was the most important Venezuelan architect of the modern era; he designed the Central University of Venezuela, (a World Heritage Site) and its Aula Magna. Other notable architectural works include the Capitolio, the Baralt Theatre, the Teresa Carreño Cultural Complex, and the General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge. In Venezuela, prehistoric man began to build useful architecture from approximately 1000 B.C. to the 15th century A.D., in the period known as the "Neo-Indian". Neo-Indian architecture consisted of incipient constructions, such as agricultural terraces and vaults lined by stones, called mintoyes, which were used as tombs and silos for the storage of agricultural products. In the western plains there is evidence of artificial constructions associated with agriculture, consisting of embankments, raised fields, camellones or causeways that functioned as water retaining walls in flooded areas and made it possible, among other things, to cross them on foot. Six stations of megalithic assemblages composed of menhirs, or vertical rocks in a row, have also been recorded. In some of those that have been found there are detailed artistic representations of the Venezuelan indigenous people, with petroglyphic engravings. The most worked material in this period was stone. The Indo-Hispanic architecture is the one that begins to develop from the year 1498 A.D., year in which the colonizers arrive to Venezuelan coasts. In the 15th century, two types of architectures were projected, the one worked by the Venezuelan aborigines, and the one built by the Spaniards in Venezuelan territory. The Venezuelan indigenous architecture was worked in two different spaces, the water and the jungle. To the water architecture, correspond the palafitos, which were common dwellings of the Wayúu and Warao tribes. They were small dwellings, supported on wooden stilts, built on the calm waters of lakes and lagoons. Historians say that when Amerigo Vespucci arrived on Venezuelan shores and observed the stilt houses on Lake Maracaibo, he called the place "Little Venice", from which the name Venezuela was derived some time later. Today, although the number of indigenous communities has decreased, those that still exist preserve the architecture of their ancestors in the territories of the eastern coast of Lake Maracaibo and in the Orinoco delta can still be found these palafittes. Venezuelan colonial architecture is built from the 16th century, when Venezuela began to be a dependent colony of the Spanish Empire, until 1810, when the process of Venezuelan independence began. The architecture of this period is characterized by its discreet modesty. The explanation lies in the socioeconomic conditions of the country. Venezuela did not offer then to the colonizers the immense riches kept by nature for later times. An apparently not very rich province could not afford the luxury of constructing high-cost buildings in imitation of the great viceroyalties that existed at the time, and the colonial society did not offer a picture as prosperous as that of other Latin American countries. The simplification of technical problems, the renunciation of most of the decorative elements and variegated ostentations of fanciful baroque, the impossibility of using expensive materials and the consequent lack of craftsmen, contributed to establish a modest but well-defined physiognomy of the colonial architecture of Venezuela. During the colonial period, there were eventually confrontations between the Spanish conquerors and the barbarians that sailed along the Venezuelan coasts, in order to take over the provinces located on the coasts of the country. At that time, the kingdoms of Europe were facing an economic crisis, so English, Dutch, Portuguese and French armed crews arrived in Venezuela, with the purpose of appropriating the territories of the province and plundering the coastal cities. The Venezuelan coasts and islands were the scene of combats produced by corsairs and pirates, so Spain was obliged to maintain its empire, building castles, bastions, barracks and fortifications that protected the cities of the province. Christian temples from the colonial era were constituted by an almost invariable, arrangement consisting of a rectangular plan, three naves separated by arches of alfarje roofing composed of religious architecture in colonial times. The Venezuelan society dedicated a great amount of resources to erect religious monuments comparable to those of other countries of the continent. The XVII century was of reconstruction of the Catholic churches that had been destroyed by the earthquake of 1641. In the 18th century, specifically between 1728 and 1785, the prosperity that Venezuela enjoyed due to the opening of the Compañía Guipuzcoana was also reflected in the construction of new architecture, especially of a religious nature. ### Art Venezuelan art was initially dominated by religious motifs. However, in the late 19th century, artists began emphasizing historical and heroic representations of the country's struggle for independence. This move was led by Martín Tovar y Tovar. Modernism took over in the 20th century. Notable Venezuelan artists include Arturo Michelena, Cristóbal Rojas, Armando Reverón, Manuel Cabré; the kinetic artists Jesús Soto, Gego and Carlos Cruz-Diez; and contemporary artists such as Marisol and Yucef Merhi. ### Literature Venezuelan literature originated soon after the Spanish conquest of the mostly pre-literate indigenous societies. It was originally dominated by Spanish influences. Following the rise of political literature during the Venezuelan War of Independence, Venezuelan Romanticism, notably expounded by Juan Vicente González, emerged as the first important genre in the region. Although mainly focused on narrative writing, Venezuelan literature was advanced by poets such as Andrés Eloy Blanco and Fermín Toro. Major writers and novelists include Rómulo Gallegos, Teresa de la Parra, Arturo Uslar Pietri, Adriano González León, Miguel Otero Silva, and Mariano Picón Salas. The great poet and humanist Andrés Bello was also an educator and intellectual (He was also a childhood tutor and mentor of Simón Bolívar). Others, such as Laureano Vallenilla Lanz and José Gil Fortoul, contributed to Venezuelan Positivism. ### Music The indigenous musical styles of Venezuela are exemplified by groups like Un Sólo Pueblo and Serenata Guayanesa. The national musical instrument is the cuatro. Traditional musical styles and songs mainly emerged in and around the *llanos* region, including, "Alma llanera" (by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez and Rafael Bolívar Coronado), "Florentino y el diablo" (by Alberto Arvelo Torrealba), "Concierto en la llanura" by Juan Vicente Torrealba, and "Caballo viejo" (by Simón Díaz). The Zulian gaita is also a very popular genre, generally performed during Christmas. The national dance is the joropo. Venezuela has always been a melting pot of cultures and this can be seen in the richness and variety of its musical styles and dances: calipso, bambuco, fulía, cantos de pilado de maíz, cantos de lavanderas, sebucán, and maremare. Teresa Carreño was a world-famous 19th century piano virtuoso. Recently, great classical music performances have come out of Venezuela. The Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra, under the leadership of its principal conductor Gustavo Dudamel and José Antonio Abreu, has hosted a number of excellent concerts in many European concert halls, most notably at the 2007 London Proms, and has received several honors. The orchestra is the pinnacle of El Sistema, a publicly financed, voluntary music education program now being emulated in other countries. In the early 21st century, a movement known as "Movida Acústica Urbana" featured musicians trying to save some national traditions, creating their own original songs but using traditional instruments. Some groups following this movement are Tambor Urbano, Los Sinverguenzas, C4Trío, and Orozco Jam. Afro-Venezuelan musical traditions are most intimately related to the festivals of the "black folk saints" San Juan and St. Benedict the Moor. Specific songs are related to the different stages of their festivals and processions, when the saints start their yearly "*paseo"* – stroll – through the community to dance with their people. ### Sport The origins of baseball in Venezuela are unclear, although it is known that the sport was being played in the country by the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, North American immigrants who came to Venezuela to work in the nation's oil industry helped to popularize the sport in Venezuela. During the 1930s, baseball's popularity continued to rise in the country, leading to the foundation of the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League (LVBP) in 1945, and the sport would soon become the nation's most popular. The immense popularity of baseball in the country makes Venezuela a rarity among its South American neighbors—association football is the dominant sport in the continent. However, football, as well as basketball, are among the more popular sports played in Venezuela. Venezuela hosted the 2012 Basketball World Olympic Qualifying Tournament and the 2013 FIBA Basketball Americas Championship, which took place in the Poliedro de Caracas. Although not as popular in Venezuela as the rest of South America, football, spearheaded by the Venezuela national football team is gaining popularity as well. The sport is also noted for having an increased focus during the World Cup. According to the CONMEBOL alphabetical rotation policy established in 2011, Venezuela is scheduled to host the Copa América every 40 years. Venezuela is also home to former Formula 1 driver, Pastor Maldonado. At the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix, he claimed his first pole and victory, and became the first and only Venezuelan to have done so in Formula 1 history. Maldonado has increased the reception of Formula 1 in Venezuela, helping to popularize the sport in the country. In the 2012 Summer Olympics, Venezuelan Rubén Limardo won a gold medal in fencing. In the Winter Sports, Cesar Baena had represented the country since 2008 in Nordic Skiing, making history in the continent when been the first South American skier ever compete in a FIS Cross Country Ski World Cup on Düsseldorf 2009. ### Cuisine Venezuelan cuisine is influenced by its European (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French), West African, and indigenous traditions. Venezuelan cuisine varies greatly from one region to another. Food staples include corn, rice, plantains, yams, beans and several meats. Potatoes, tomatoes, onions, eggplants, squashes, spinach and zucchini are also common side dishes in the Venezuelan diet. Ají dulce and papelón are found in most recipes. Worcestershire sauce is also used frequently in stews. Venezuela is also known for having a large variety of white cheese (queso blanco), usually named by geographical region. See also -------- * Index of Venezuela-related articles * Outline of Venezuela * Crime in Venezuela * Operation Gideon (2020) Bibliography ------------ **Articles** * Cannon, Barry (21 June 2004). "Venezuela, April 2002: Coup or Popular Rebellion? The Myth of a United Venezuela". *Bulletin of Latin American Research*. **23** (3): 285–302. doi:10.1111/j.0261-3050.2004.00109.x. S2CID 56445250. **Books** * Aalgaard, Wendy (2004). *Venezuela in Pictures*. Lerner Pub Group. ISBN 978-0-8225-1172-4. * Aponte, Pedro Rafael (2008). *The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960*. University of Pittsburgh. ISBN 978-1-109-05320-3. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2015. * Carroll, Rory. *Comandante: Hugo Chávez's Venezuela* (Penguin Books, 2014). * Chasteen, John Charles (2001). *Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America*. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05048-6. * Chávez, Hugo (2004). *Cumpliendo las metas del milenio* (PDF) (in Spanish). CDBpublicaciones. ISBN 978-980-6456-12-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. * Coronil, Fernando (1988). *The magical state: nature, money, and modernity in Venezuela*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-11602-0. * Cortés, Carlos E. (2013). *Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia*. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-1683-6. Retrieved 30 June 2015. * Crow, JA (1980). *Epic of Latin America*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04107-3. * Dickey, John Marcus (1892). *Christopher Columbus and his monument Columbia: being a concordance of choice tributes to the great Genoese, his grand discovery, and his greatness of mind and purpose*. Rand, McNally & Co. ISBN 978-1-4460-2044-9. Retrieved 1 July 2015. * Dydynski, Krzysztof; Beech, Charlotte (2004). *Venezuela*. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-1-74104-197-2. * Ewell, Judith (1984). *Venezuela: A Century of Change*. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-0-905838-36-6. * Fichner-Ratus, Lois (2012). *Understanding Art* (10th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-111-83695-5. * *Georgia Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments*. Int'l Business Publications, USA. 2013. ISBN 978-1-4387-7443-5. * Gibson, Karen Bush (2006). *Venezuela: A Question and Answer Book*. ISBN 978-0-7368-6413-8. * Gott, Richard (2005). *Hugo Chávez and the Bolivarian Revolution*. Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-533-3. * Gregory, Desmond (1992). *Brute New World: The Rediscovery of Latin America in the Early 19th Century*. British American Press. ISBN 978-1-85043-567-9. Retrieved 30 June 2015. * Heritage, Andrew (December 2002). *Financial Times World Desk Reference*. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7894-8805-3. * Jozsa, Frank P. Jr. (2013). *Baseball beyond Borders: From Distant Lands to the Major Leagues*. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-9245-3. * Kelly, Janet; Palma, Perdo A. (2006). "Chapter 10: The Syndrome of Economic Decline and the Quest for Change". In McCoy, Jennifer L.; Myers, David J. (eds.). *The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela*. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8428-3. * Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). *Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology*. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46158-3. * López Maya, Margarita (2005). "Venezuela 2002–2003: Polarisation, Confrontation, and Violence". In Goumbri, Olivia Burlingame (ed.). *The Venezuela Reader: The Building of a People's Democracy*. Washington, D.C.: Epica Task Force. ISBN 978-0-918346-35-3. * Márquez, Laureano; Eduardo, Sanabria (2018). "La democracia pierde energía". *Historieta de Venezuela: De Macuro a Maduro* (1st ed.). Gráficas Pedrazas. ISBN 978-1-7328777-1-9. * Massabié, Germán (2008). *Venezuela: A Petro-State Using Renewable Energies*. Springer. ISBN 978-3-531-15994-2. * McBeth, B. S. (2002). *Juan Vicente Gómez and the Oil Companies in Venezuela, 1908–1935*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89218-6. * Ng, Yumi (2004). *Welcome to Venezuela*. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8368-3123-8. Retrieved 2 July 2015. * Nichols, Elizabeth Gackstetter; Morse, Kimberley J. (2010). *Venezuela*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-569-3. * Salas, Miguel Tinker (2 August 2004). "Culture, Power, and Oil: The Experience of Venezuelan Oil Camps and the Construction of Citizenship". In Gilbert G. Gonzalez; Raul A. Fernandez; Vivian Price; David Smith; Linda Trinh Võ (eds.). *Labor Versus Empire: Race, Gender, Migration*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93528-3. * Salas, Miguel Tinker (2015). *Venezuela: What Everyone Needs to KnowRG*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-978328-1. * Schincariol, Vitor Eduardo. *Society and Economy in Venezuela: An Overview of the Bolivarian Period (1998-2018).* (2020). * Stoan, Stephen K. (1974). *Pablo Morillo and Venezuela, 1815–1820*. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-0219-7. * Straka, Tomás, Guillermo Guzmán Mirabal, and Alejandro E. Cáceres. *Historical Dictionary of Venezuela* (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017). * Tarver, H. Michael; Frederick, Julia C. (2006). *The History of Venezuela*. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6260-7. Retrieved 2 July 2015. * Thomas, Hugh (2005). *Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan*. Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50204-0. * Wardrope, William (2003). *Venezuela*. Gareth Stevens Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8368-2369-1. * Wilpert, Gregory. *Changing Venezuela by taking power: the history and policies of the Chavez government* (2007) online * Warhol, Tom (2006). *Tundra*. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2193-1. * Wunder, Sven (2003). *Oil wealth and the fate of the forest: a comparative study of eight tropical countries*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98667-7. * Yergin, Daniel (1991). *The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power*. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-1012-6. * Zakaria, Fareed (1999). *From Wealth to Power*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01035-9. * Zamora, Margarita (1993). *Reading Columbus*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08297-7. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010. **Talks and interviews** * Lander, Edgardo (April 2014). "*The Modern History of Venezuela (9 parts)*". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017. 7°N 65°W / 7°N 65°W / 7; -65

Venezuela

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela

**Aquarius** (**♒︎**) (Greek: Υδροχόος, romanized: *Ydrochóos*, Latin for "water-bearer") is the eleventh astrological sign in the zodiac, originating from the constellation Aquarius. Under the tropical zodiac, the Sun is in the Aquarius sign between about January 20 and about February 18. Myth ---- The water carrier represented by the constellation Aquarius is Ganymede, a beautiful Phrygian youth. Ganymede was the son of Tros, king of Troy (according to Lucian, he was also the son of Dardanus). While tending to his father's flocks on Mount Ida, Ganymede was spotted by Zeus. The king of gods fell in love with him and flew down to the mountain in the form of a large bird, whisking Ganymede away to the heavens. Ever since, the boy has served as cupbearer to the gods. Ovid has Orpheus sing the tale in his *Metamorphoses*. AQUARIUS: DEFINITION AND FACTS- Aquarius is the second last zodiac sign in the Astrology, represented by the symbol of the water bearer, a man holding a water pitcher. Holding a water pitcher with full balance, it requires more and steady concentration, fixity of purpose, and this sign contains both these qualities. People born under this sign have a purpose, based on some philosophy or simple life principles. They have an interest in helping friends, or community at large. People born between January 20 and February 18 are classified as Aquarians. Those born under this sign are known for their independence, originality, and humanitarianism. It is an air and fixed sign. People born under this sign are known for their independent and unconventional nature. They value their freedom and are resistant to conformity. As per Vedic astrology, the ruling planet of Aquarius is Saturn, the significator of hard working and technology. Aquarians are known for their good ability to adept new technology and try for innovation. Saturn’s slow and deep qualities are not directed to physical causes like Capricorn, instead it has a mental and philosophical slant, capable of deep thought. Uranus is also considered as ruling planet of Aquarius zodiac sign in the western astrology. Some traits of Uranus are also seems in Aquarians. Sometimes they can be unpredictable and do rebellious behavior, but they are also known for their deep sense of compassion and desire to make a positive difference in the world. Aquarians are generous, introvert, serious, philosophical, humanitarian, always helpful to others, intelligent, having good memory and good ability to understand & analyze facts. They are often seen as forward-thinking and innovative. They are great teachers, writers and speakers, provided this sign is not afflicted. Aquarians are unique individuals with a strong sense of purpose and a desire to make a positive impact on the world. Aquarians have little confidence generally. They are also shy and timid. They feel uncomfortable with new audience. The qualities of leadership are not very developed in Aquarians. They like to keep themselves as followers. They have a high level of ability to give advice and perform tasks. This is the reason why seniors like Aquarians as subordinates. They can be unpredictable and can have a rebellious streak, but they are also loyal and devoted to their organization. They are also friendly and approachable. Generally, Aquarians have the quality of tolerance and patience. They are truthful, independent, unconventional, patient and intellectual. Instead of acquiring material resources, they emphasizes on spiritual purification. Generally, they are not very selfish or greedy. They are usually not angry, but when they are angry, it is to the extreme. The anger of Aquarians does not end soon, but generally, they do not have a sense of revenge. In the relationship, they are also loyal, supportive and devoted to their friends and loved ones. They are generally easygoing and adaptable, but can sometimes be detached or aloof and resistant to change. Aquarians get agitated in adverse circumstances and their nature becomes irritable. They are interested in religion, philosophy, astrology, tantra-mantra along with literature. These types of qualities start being reflected in them from childhood and youth. Ruled by Saturn/Uranus Nature Fixed Sign Element Air Planet of Luck Venus Planet of Career Mars Planet of Money Jupiter Planet of Love The Sun Likes Freedom, Help to others, Spiritual, Innovation, Changes, Dreams, New Technology etc. Dislikes Show offs, Pressure on mind, Emotionally dealing, Conflicts, Lavishness, Carelessness etc. Positive Traits Generous, Philosophical, Forward-thinking, Progressive, Unconventional, Rational, innovative, Independent, Intellectual, Humanitarian, Supportive, loyal, friendly, Original etc. Negative Traits Unpredictable, Introvert, Perverse, Rude, Unemotional, Rebellious, Aloof, Obstinate, Sarcastic etc. When reading the personality description of these traits above, please keep in mind that the ones discussed here are mainly indicative of the influence of their element, and the influence of their ruling planet. The position of other celestial bodies at the very moment of their birth could change, or temper them to vast extent. Gallery ------- * See also -------- * Astronomical symbols * Chinese zodiac * Circle of stars * Cusp (astrology) * Elements of the zodiac

Aquarius (astrology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarius_(astrology)

In ancient Greek religion, **Hera** (/ˈhɛrə, ˈhɪərə/; Greek: Ἥρα, translit. **Hḗrā**; Ἥρη, *Hḗrē* in Ionic and Homeric Greek) is the goddess of marriage, women and family, and the protector of women during childbirth. In Greek mythology, she is queen of the twelve Olympians and Mount Olympus, sister and wife of Zeus, and daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. One of her defining characteristics in myth is her jealous and vengeful nature in dealing with any who offend her, especially Zeus' numerous adulterous lovers and illegitimate offspring. Her iconography usually presents her as a dignified, matronly figure, upright or enthroned, crowned with a *polos* or diadem, sometimes veiled as a married woman. She is the patron goddess of lawful marriage. She presides over weddings, blesses and legalises marital unions, and protects women from harm during childbirth. Her sacred animals include the cow, cuckoo and the peacock. She is sometimes shown holding a pomegranate, as an emblem of immortality. Her Roman counterpart is Juno. Etymology --------- The name of Hera has several possible and mutually exclusive etymologies; one possibility is to connect it with Greek ὥρα *hōra*, season, and to interpret it as ripe for marriage and according to Plato ἐρατή *eratē*, "beloved" as Zeus is said to have married her for love. According to Plutarch, Hera was an allegorical name and an anagram of *aēr* (ἀήρ, "air"). So begins the section on Hera in Walter Burkert's *Greek Religion*. In a note, he records other scholars' arguments "for the meaning Mistress as a feminine to *Heros*, Master." John Chadwick, a decipherer of Linear B, remarks "her name may be connected with *hērōs*, ἥρως, 'hero', but that is no help since it too is etymologically obscure." A. J. van Windekens, offers "young cow, heifer", which is consonant with Hera's common epithet βοῶπις (*boōpis*, "cow-eyed"). R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. Her name is attested in Mycenaean Greek written in the Linear B syllabic script as 𐀁𐀨 *e-ra*, appearing on tablets found in Pylos and Thebes, as well in the Cypriotic dialect in the dative *e-ra-i*. Andreas Willi addresses some additional possibilities: "M. Peters, starts from the verbal root… ‘to catch, take’... and posits a related root noun… with the meaning ‘(violent) taking’ > ‘rape’ > ‘booty’... This root noun would have served as the basis for an exocentric derivative… ‘belonging/relating to the rape, of the rape’ whose feminine… would have meant ‘she of the rape… Formally this theory is unobjectionable (especially if the postulated noun were, despite the divergent semantics, reflected in Homeric… ‘to gratify’ < ‘to pay tribute’...), but it seems most uncertain whether in the eyes of a (Proto-)Greek a raped (booty) woman could have become one of the legitimate wives who are protected by Hera. Moreover, the derivation presupposes that Hera herself must have been imagined as a ‘raped girl’ at some point… The PIE... could be originally either (a) ‘the female who is attached/coupled’ or (b) ‘the female who attaches herself’... both socially and physically or emotionally." Cult ---- Hera may have been the first deity to whom the Greeks dedicated an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary, at Samos about 800 BCE. It was replaced later by the Heraion of Samos, one of the largest of all Greek temples (altars were in front of the temples under the open sky). There were many temples built on this site, so the evidence is somewhat confusing, and archaeological dates are uncertain. The temple created by the Rhoecus sculptors and architects was destroyed between 570 and 560 BCE. This was replaced by the Polycratean temple of 540–530 BCE. In one of these temples, we see a forest of 155 columns. There is also no evidence of tiles on this temple suggesting either the temple was never finished or that the temple was open to the sky. Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication to Hera is less certain, were of the Mycenaean type called "house sanctuaries". Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th centuries BCE, which show that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the Aegean: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from Armenia, Babylon, Iran, Assyria, Egypt, testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims. Compared to this mighty goddess, who also possessed the earliest temple at Olympia and two of the great fifth and sixth-century temples of Paestum, the termagant of Homer and the myths is an "almost... comic figure", according to Burkert. Though the greatest and earliest free-standing temple to Hera was the Heraion of Samos, in the Greek mainland Hera was especially worshipped as "Argive Hera" (*Hera Argeia*) at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of Argos and Mycenae, where the festivals in her honor called *Heraia* were celebrated. "The three cities I love best," the ox-eyed Queen of Heaven declares in the *Iliad*, book iv, "are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets." There were also temples to Hera in Olympia, Corinth, Tiryns, Perachora and the sacred island of Delos. In Magna Graecia, two Doric temples to Hera were constructed at Paestum, about 550 BCE and about 450 BCE. One of them, long called the *Temple of Poseidon* was identified in the 1950s as a temple of Hera. In Euboea, the festival of the Great Daedala, sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty-year cycle. Hera's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor. The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her cult, the Heraion of Samos and the Heraion of Argos in the Argolis, were the very earliest monumental Greek temples constructed, in the 8th century BCE. ### Importance According to Walter Burkert, both Hera and Demeter have many characteristic attributes of Pre-Greek Great Goddesses. In the same vein, British scholar Charles Francis Keary suggests that Hera had some sort of "Earth Goddess" worship in ancient times, connected to her possible origin as a Pelasgian goddess (as mentioned by Herodotus). According to Homeric Hymn II to Delian Apollo, Hera detained Eileithyia to prevent Leto from going into labor with Artemis and Apollo, since the father was Zeus. The other goddesses present at the birthing on Delos sent Iris to bring her. As she stepped upon the island, the divine birth began. In the myth of the birth of Heracles, it is Hera herself who sits at the door, delaying the birth of Heracles until her protégé, Eurystheus, had been born first. The Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo makes the monster Typhaon the offspring of archaic Hera in her Minoan form, produced out of herself, like a monstrous version of Hephaestus, and whelped in a cave in Cilicia. She gave the creature to Python to raise. In the Temple of Hera, Olympia, Hera's seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in the *Iliad*, in which she declares to Zeus, "I am Cronus' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods." ### Matriarchy There has been considerable scholarship, reaching back to Johann Jakob Bachofen in the mid-nineteenth century, about the possibility that Hera, whose early importance in Greek religion is firmly established, was originally the goddess of a matriarchal people, presumably inhabiting Greece before the Hellenes. In this view, her activity as goddess of marriage established the patriarchal bond of her own subordination: her resistance to the conquests of Zeus is rendered as Hera's "jealousy", the main theme of literary anecdotes that undercut her ancient cult. However, it remains a controversial claim that an ancient matriarchy or a cultural focus on a monotheistic Great Goddess existed among the ancient Greeks or elsewhere. The claim is generally rejected by modern scholars as insufficiently evidenced. ### Youth Hera was most known as the matron goddess, *Hera Teleia*; but she presided over weddings as well. In myth and cult, fragmentary references and archaic practices remain of the sacred marriage of Hera and Zeus. At Plataea, there was a sculpture of Hera seated as a bride by Callimachus, as well as the matronly standing Hera. Hera was also worshipped as a virgin: there was a tradition in Stymphalia in Arcadia that there had been a triple shrine to Hera the Girl (Παις [Pais]), the Adult Woman (Τελεια [Teleia]), and the Separated (Χήρη [Chḗrē] 'Widowed' or 'Divorced'). In the region around Argos, the temple of Hera in Hermione near Argos was to Hera the Virgin. At the spring of Kanathos, close to Nauplia, Hera renewed her virginity annually, in rites that were not to be spoken of (*arrheton*). Robert Graves interprets this as a representation of the new moon (Hebe), full moon (Hera), and old moon (Hecate), respectively personifying the Virgin (Spring), the Mother (Summer), and the destroying Crone (Autumn). Emblems ------- In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's chariot was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of Alexander. Alexander's tutor, Aristotle, refers to it as "the Persian bird." The peacock motif was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, which European painters focused on. A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with "their" bird, was the cuckoo, which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus. Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in "cattle-rich" Euboea. On Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see Bull (mythology)). Her familiar Homeric epithet *Boôpis*, is always translated "cow-eyed". In this respect, Hera bears some resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian deity Hathor, a maternal goddess associated with cattle. Scholar of Greek mythology Walter Burkert writes in *Greek Religion*, "Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos." ### Epithets Hera bore several epithets in the mythological tradition, including: * Ἀλέξανδρος (*Alexandros*) 'Protector of Men' (*Alexandros*) (among the Sicyonians) * Αἰγοφάγος (*Aigophágos*) 'Goat-Eater' (among the Lacedaemonians) * Ἀκραῖα (*Akráia*) '(She) of the Heights' * Ἀμμωνία (*Ammonia*) * Ἄνθεια (*Antheia*), meaning flowery * Ἀργεία (*Argéia*) '(She) of Argos' * Βασίλεια (*Basíleia*) 'Queen' * Βουναία (*Bounáia*) '(She) of the Mound' (in Corinth) * Βοῶπις (*Boṓpis*) 'Cow-Eyed' or 'Cow-Faced' * Λευκώλενος (*Leukṓlenos*) 'White-Armed' * Παῖς (*Pais*) 'Child' (in her role as virgin) * Παρθένος (*Parthénos*) 'Virgin' * Τελεία (*Teléia*) (as goddess of marriage) * Χήρη (*Chḗrē*) 'Widowed' * Τελχινία (*Telchinia*), Diodorus Siculus write that she was worshiped by the Ialysians and the Cameirans (both were on the island of Rhodes). She was named like that because according to a legend, Telchines (Τελχῖνες) were the first inhabitants of the island and also the first who created statues of gods. * Ζυγία (*Zygia*), as the presider over marriage. Her husband Zeus had also the epithet Zygius (Ζυγίος). These epithets describing them as presiding over marriage. Mythology --------- ### Birth Hera is the daughter of the youngest Titan Cronus and his wife, and sister, Rhea. Cronus was fated to be overthrown by one of his children; to prevent this, he swallowed all of his newborn children whole until Rhea tricked him into swallowing a stone instead of her youngest child, Zeus. Zeus grew up in secret and when he grew up he tricked his father into regurgitating his siblings, including Hera. Zeus then led the revolt against the Titans, banished them, and divided the dominion over the world with his brothers Poseidon and Hades. However, other traditions indicate that, like Zeus and Poseidon, Hera may not have been swallowed by Cronus. Pausanias states that she was nursed as an infant by the three daughters of the river Asterion: Euboia, Prosymna, and Akraia. Furthermore, in the Iliad, Hera states she was given by her mother to Tethys to be raised: "I go now to the ends of the generous earth on a visit to the Ocean, whence the gods have risen, and Tethys our mother who brought me up kindly in their own house, and cared for me and took me from Rheia, at that time when Zeus of the wide brows drove Kronos underneath the earth and the barren water." ### Marriage with Zeus Hera is the goddess of marriage and childbirth rather than motherhood, and much of her mythology revolves around her marriage with her brother Zeus. She is charmed by him and she seduces him; he cheats on her and has many children with other goddesses and mortal women; she is intensely jealous and vindictive towards his children and their mothers; he is threatening and violent to her. In the *Iliad*, Zeus implies their marriage was some sort of elopement, as they lay secretly from their parents. Pausanias records a tale of how they came to be married in which Zeus transformed into a cuckoo to woo Hera. She caught the bird and kept it as her pet; this is why the cuckoo is seated on her sceptre. According to a scholion on Theocritus' *Idylls* when Hera was heading toward Mount Thornax alone, Zeus created a terrible storm and transformed himself into a cuckoo who flew down and sat on her lap. Hera covered him with her cloak. Zeus then transformed back and took hold of her; because she was refusing to sleep with him due to their mother, he promised to marry her. In one account Hera refused to marry Zeus and hid in a cave to avoid him; an earthborn man named Achilles convinced her to give him a chance, and thus the two had their first sexual intercourse. A variation goes that Hera had been reared by a nymph named Macris on the island of Euboea, but Zeus stole her away, where Mt. Cithaeron, in the words of Plutarch, "afforded them a shady recess". When Macris came to look for her ward, the mountain-god Cithaeron drove her away, saying that Zeus was taking his pleasure there with Leto. According to Callimachus, their wedding feast lasted three hundred years. The Apples of the Hesperides that Heracles was tasked by Eurystheus to take were a wedding gift by Gaia to the couple. After a quarrel with Zeus, Hera left him and retreated to Euboea, and no word from Zeus managed to sway her mind. Cithaeron, the local king, then advised Zeus to take a wooden statue of a woman, wrap it up, and pretend to marry it. Zeus did as told, claiming "she" was Plataea, Asopus's daughter. Hera, once she heard the news, disrupted the wedding ceremony and tore away the dress from the figure only to discover it was but a lifeless statue, and not a rival in love. The queen and her king were reconciled, and to commemorate this the people there celebrated a festival called Daedala. During the festival, a re-enactment of the myth was celebrated, where a wooden statue of Hera was chosen, bathed in the river Asopus and then raised on a chariot to lead the procession like a bride, and then ritually burned. According to Diodorus Siculus, Alcmene, the mother of Heracles, was the very last mortal woman Zeus ever slept with; following the birth of Heracles, he ceased to beget humans altogether. ### Heracles Hera is the stepmother and enemy of Heracles. The name Heracles means "Glory of Hera". In Homer's *Iliad*, when Alcmene was about to give birth to Heracles, Zeus announced to all the gods that on that day a child by Zeus himself, would be born and rule all those around him. Hera, after requesting Zeus to swear an oath to that effect, descended from Olympus to Argos and made the wife of Sthenelus (son of Perseus) give birth to Eurystheus after only seven months, while at the same time preventing Alcmene from delivering Heracles. This resulted in the fulfillment of Zeus's oath in that it was Eurystheus rather than Heracles. In Pausanias' recounting, Hera sent witches (as they were called by the Thebans) to hinder Alcmene's delivery of Heracles. The witches were successful in preventing the birth until Historis, daughter of Tiresias, thought of a trick to deceive the witches. Like Galanthis, Historis announced that Alcmene had delivered her child; having been deceived, the witches went away, allowing Alcmene to give birth. Hera's wrath against Zeus' son continues and while Heracles is still an infant, Hera sends two serpents to kill him as he lies in his cot. Heracles throttles the snakes with his bare hands and is found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were a child's toy. One account of the origin of the Milky Way is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day. Her milk also created a white flower, the lily. Unlike any Greeks, the Etruscans instead pictured a full-grown bearded Heracles at Hera's breast: this may refer to his adoption by her when he became an Immortal. He had previously wounded her severely in the breast. When Heracles reached adulthood, Hera drove him mad, which led him to murder his family and this later led to him undertaking his famous labours. Hera assigned Heracles to labour for King Eurystheus at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost all of Heracles' twelve labours more difficult. When he fought the Lernaean Hydra, she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him. Later Hera stirred up the Amazons against him when he was on one of his quests. When Heracles took the cattle of Geryon, he shot Hera in the right breast with a triple-barbed arrow: the wound was incurable and left her in constant pain, as Dione tells Aphrodite in the *Iliad*, Book V. Afterwards, Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much that Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of Eurystheus, the cattle were sacrificed to Hera. Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice the Cretan Bull to Hera. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the Marathonian Bull. Some myths state that in the end, Heracles befriended Hera by saving her from Porphyrion, a giant who tried to rape her during the Gigantomachy, and that she even gave her daughter Hebe as his bride. Whatever myth-making served to account for an archaic representation of Heracles as "Hera's man" it was thought suitable for the builders of the Heraion at Paestum to depict the exploits of Heracles in bas-reliefs. ### Leto and the Twins: Apollo and Artemis When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she convinced the nature spirits to prevent Leto from giving birth on terra-firma, the mainland, any island at sea, or any place under the sun. Poseidon gave pity to Leto and guided her to the floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island where Leto was able to give birth to her children. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. The island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods bribed Hera with a beautiful necklace nobody could resist and she finally gave in. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Some versions say Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo for nine days. Another variation states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Later, Tityos attempted to rape Leto at the behest of Hera. He was slain by Artemis and Apollo. This account of the birth of Apollo and Artemis is contradicted by Hesiod in Theogony, as the twins are born prior to Zeus’ marriage to Hera. ### Io and Argus The myth of Io has many forms and embellishments. Generally, Io was a priestess of Hera at the Heraion of Argos. Zeus lusted after her and either Hera turned Io into a heifer to hide her from Zeus, or Zeus did so to hide her from Hera but was discovered. Hera had Io tethered to an olive-tree and set Argus Panoptes (lit. 'all-seeing') to watch over her, but Zeus sent Hermes to kill him. Infuriated, Hera then sent a gadfly (Greek *oistros*, compare oestrus) to pursue and constantly sting Io, who fled into Asia and eventually reached Egypt. There Zeus restored her to human form and she gave birth to his son Epaphus. ### Judgment of Paris A prophecy stated that a son of the sea-nymph Thetis, with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast, would become greater than his father. Possibly for this reason, Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king, Peleus son of Aeacus, either upon Zeus' orders, or because she wished to please Hera, who had raised her. All the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles) and brought many gifts. Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited and was stopped at the door by Hermes, on Zeus' order. She was annoyed at this, so she threw from the door a gift of her own: a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "To the fairest"). Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple. The goddesses quarreled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. They chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, they appeared before Paris to have him choose. The goddesses undressed before him, either at his request or for the sake of winning. Still, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they resorted to bribes. Hera offered Paris political power and control of all of Asia, while Athena offered wisdom, fame, and glory in battle, and Aphrodite offered the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was Helen, who was, unfortunately for Paris, already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. The other two goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen's abduction by Paris, they brought about the Trojan War. ### *The Iliad* Hera plays a substantial role in *The Iliad*, appearing in several books throughout the epic poem. She hates the Trojans because of Paris' decision that Aphrodite was the most beautiful goddess, and so supports the Greeks during the war. Throughout the epic, Hera makes many attempts to thwart the Trojan army. In books 1 and 2, Hera declares that the Trojans must be destroyed. Hera persuades Athena to aid the Achaeans in battle and she agrees to assist with interfering on their behalf. In book 5, Hera and Athena plot to harm Ares, who had been seen by Diomedes in assisting the Trojans. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares' mother, saw Ares' interference and asked Zeus, Ares' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares' body, and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. In book 8, Hera tries to persuade Poseidon to disobey Zeus and help the Achaean army. He refuses, saying he doesn't want to go against Zeus. Determined to intervene in the war, Hera and Athena head to the battlefield. However, seeing the two flee, Zeus sent Iris to intercept them and make them return to Mount Olympus or face grave consequences. After prolonged fighting, Hera sees Poseidon aiding the Greeks and giving them the motivation to keep fighting. In book 14 Hera devises a plan to deceive Zeus. Zeus set a decree that the gods were not allowed to interfere in the mortal war. Hera is on the side of the Achaeans, so she plans a Deception of Zeus where she seduces him, with help from Aphrodite, and tricks him into a deep sleep, with the help of Hypnos, so that the Gods could interfere without the fear of Zeus. In book 21, Hera continues her interference with the battle as she tells Hephaestus to prevent the river from harming Achilles. Hephaestus sets the battlefield ablaze, causing the river to plead with Hera, promising her he will not help the Trojans if Hephaestus stops his attack. Hephaestus stops his assault and Hera returns to the battlefield where the gods begin to fight amongst themselves. ### Minor stories #### Semele and Dionysus When Hera learned that Semele, daughter of Cadmus King of Thebes, was pregnant by Zeus, she disguised herself as Semele's nurse and persuaded the princess to insist that Zeus show himself to her in his true form. When he was compelled to do so, having sworn by Styx, his thunder and lightning destroyed Semele. Zeus took Semele's unborn child, Dionysus, and completed its gestation sewn into his own thigh. In another version, Dionysus was originally the son of Zeus by either Demeter or Persephone. Hera sent her Titans to rip the baby apart, from which he was called Zagreus ("Torn in Pieces"). Zeus rescued the heart; or, the heart was saved, variously, by Athena, Rhea, or Demeter. Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of Semele—hence Dionysus became known as "the twice-born". Certain versions imply that Zeus gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her. Hera tricked Semele into asking Zeus to reveal his true form, which killed her. Dionysus later managed to rescue his mother from the underworld and have her live on Mount Olympus. #### Lamia Lamia was a lovely queen of Libya, whom Zeus loved and slept with. Hera in jealousy robbed Lamia of her children, either by kidnapping and hiding them away, killing them, or causing Lamia herself to kill her own offspring. Lamia became disfigured from the torment, transforming into a terrifying being who hunted and killed the children of others. #### Gerana Gerana was a queen of the Pygmies who boasted she was more beautiful than Hera. The wrathful goddess turned her into a crane and proclaimed that her bird descendants should wage eternal war on the Pygmy folk. #### Cydippe Cydippe, a priestess of Hera, was on her way to a festival in the goddess' honor. The oxen which were to pull her cart were overdue and her sons, Biton and Cleobis, pulled the cart the entire way (45 stadia, 8 kilometers). Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and Hera, and so asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person. Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep. This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon as proof when trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life. #### Tiresias Tiresias was a priest of Zeus, and as a young man, he encountered two snakes mating and hit them with a stick. He was then transformed into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of Hera, married, and had children, including Manto. After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes; depending on the myth, either she made sure to leave the snakes alone this time, or, according to Hyginus, trampled on them and became a man once more. As a result of his experiences, Zeus and Hera asked him to settle the question of which sex, male or female, experienced more pleasure during intercourse. Zeus claimed it was women; Hera claimed it was men. When Tiresias sided with Zeus, Hera struck him blind. Since Zeus could not undo what she had done, he gave him the gift of prophecy. An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by Athena after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, Chariclo, begged her to undo her curse, but Athena could not; she gave him a prophecy instead. #### Chelone At the marriage of Zeus and Hera, a nymph named Chelone was disrespectful or refused to attend the wedding. Zeus thus turned her into a tortoise. #### The Golden Fleece Hera hated Pelias because he had killed Sidero, his step-grandmother, in one of the goddess's temples. She later convinced Jason and Medea to kill Pelias. The Golden Fleece was the item that Jason needed to get his mother freed. #### Ixion When Zeus had pity on Ixion and brought him to Olympus and introduced him to the gods, instead of being grateful, Ixion grew lustful for Hera. Zeus found out about his intentions and made a cloud in the shape of Hera, who was later named Nephele, and tricked Ixion into coupling with it. From their union came Centaurus. So Ixion was expelled from Olympus and Zeus ordered Hermes to bind Ixion to a winged fiery wheel that was always spinning. Therefore, Ixion was bound to a burning solar wheel for all eternity, first spinning across the heavens, but in later myth transferred to Tartarus. ### Children | Name | Father | Functions | Explanation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Angelos | Zeus | An underworld goddess | Her story only survives in scholia on Theocritus' Idyll 2. She was raised by nymphs. One day she stole Hera's anointments and gave them away to Europa. To escape her mother's wrath, she tried to hide. Hera eventually ceased prosecuting her, and Zeus ordered the Cabeiroi to cleanse Angelos. They performed the purification rite in the waters of the Acherusia Lake in the Underworld. Consequently, she received the world of the dead as her realm of influence, and was assigned the epithet *katachthonia* ("she of the underworld"). | | Ares | Zeus | God of war | According to Hesiod's *Theogony*, he was a son of Zeus and Hera. | | Arge | Zeus | A nymph | A nymph daughter of Zeus and Hera. | | Charites | Not named | Goddesses of grace and beauty | Though usually considered as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, or Dionysus and Coronis according to Nonnus, the poet Colluthus makes them the daughters of Hera, without naming a father. | | Eileithyia | Zeus | Goddess of childbirth | In *Theogony* and other sources, she is described as a daughter of Hera by Zeus. Although, the meticulously accurate mythographer Pindar in *Seventh Nemean Ode* mentions Hera as Eileithyia's mother but makes no mention of Zeus. | | Eleutheria | Zeus | Personification of liberty | Eleutheria is the Greek counterpart of Libertas (Liberty), daughter of Jupiter (Zeus) and Juno (Hera) as cited in Hyginus, *Fabulae* Preface. | | Enyo | Zeus | A war goddess | She was responsible for the destruction of cities and an attendant of Ares, though Homer equates Enyo with Eris. | | Eris | Zeus | Goddess of discord | She appears in Homer's *Iliad* Book IV, equated with Enyo as the sister of Ares and so presumably the daughter of Zeus and Hera. Alternatively, Hesiod refers to Eris as the daughter of Nyx in both *Works and Days* and *Theogony*. | | Hebe | Zeus | Goddess of youth | She was a daughter of Zeus and Hera. In a rare alternative version, Hera alone produced Hebe after being impregnated by eating lettuce. | | Hephaestus | Zeus | God of fire and the forge | Attested by the Greek poet Hesiod, Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to Athena with Metis, so she gave birth to Hephaestus without union with Zeus (though Homer has Hephaestus refer to "father Zeus"). Hera was then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from Mount Olympus. In a version of the myth, Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne that did not allow her to leave once she sat on it. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he repeatedly refused. Dionysus got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given Aphrodite as his wife. | | Pasithea | Dionysus (?) | One of the Graces | Although in other works Pasithea doesn't seem to be born to Hera, Nonnus made the Grace Hera's daughter. Elsewhere in the book, Pasithea's father is said to be Dionysus, but it's unclear whether those two together are meant to be Pasithea's parents. | | Prometheus | Eurymedon | God of forethought | Although usually Prometheus is said to be the son of Iapetus by his wife Clymene or Asia, Hellenistic poet Euphorion made Prometheus the son of Hera by the giant Eurymedon, who raped the young goddess while she was still living with her parents. | | Typhon | – | Serpent-monster | Typhon is presented both as the son of Hera (in Homeric *Pythian Hymn to Apollo*) and as the son of Gaia (in Hesiod's *Theogony*). According to the *Homeric Hymn to Apollo* (6th century BCE), Typhon was the parthenogenous child of Hera, whom she bore alone as a revenge at Zeus who had given birth to Athena. Hera prayed to Gaia to give her a son as strong as Zeus, then slapped the ground and became pregnant. Hera gave the infant Typhon to the serpent Python to raise, and Typhon grew up to become a great bane to mortals. The b scholia to *Iliad* 2.783, however, has Typhon born in Cilicia as the offspring of Cronus. Gaia, angry at the destruction of the Giants, slanders Zeus to Hera. So Hera goes to Cronus and he gives her two eggs smeared with his own semen, telling her to bury them, and that from them would be born one who would overthrow Zeus. Hera, angry at Zeus, buries the eggs in Cilicia "under Arimon", but when Typhon is born, Hera, now reconciled with Zeus, informs him. | Genealogy --------- | Hera's family tree  | | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus | | Gaia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus' genitals | | | | | | | | | Cronus | | Rhea | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | **HERA** | | Poseidon | | Hades | | Demeter | | Hestia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |     a | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |      b | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ares | | Hephaestus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Metis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Athena | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Leto | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Apollo | | Artemis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Maia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hermes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Semele | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dionysus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dione | | | | | | | | | | | | |     a | | | | | | | |      b | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aphrodite | | | Art and events -------------- * Barberini Hera - a Roman sculpture of Hera/Juno * Hera Borghese - a sculpture related to Hera * Hera Farnese - a sculpture of Hera's head * Heraea Games - games dedicated to Hera—the first sanctioned (and recorded) women's athletic competition to be held in the stadium at Olympia. See also --------  Ancient Greece portal  Myths portal icon Religion portal * Auðumbla, a primeval cow in Norse mythology * Parvati

Hera

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera

The ***Organisation internationale de la Francophonie*** (**OIF**; sometimes shortened to the **Francophonie**, French: *La Francophonie* [la fʁɑ̃kɔfɔni], sometimes also called **International Organisation of La Francophonie** in English) is an international organization representing countries and regions where French is a lingua franca or customary language, where a significant proportion of the population are francophones (French speakers), or where there is a notable affiliation with French culture. The organization comprises 88 member states and governments; of these, 54 states and governments are full members, 7 are associate members and 27 are observers. The term *francophonie* (with a lowercase "f"), or *francosphere* (often capitalized in English), also refers to the global community of French-speaking peoples, comprising a network of private and public organizations promoting equal ties among countries where French people or France played a significant historical role, culturally, militarily, or politically. The modern organisation was created in 1970. Its motto is **égalité*, *complémentarité*, *solidarité** ("equality, complementarity, and solidarity"), a deliberate allusion to France's motto *liberté, égalité, fraternité*. Starting as a small group of French-speaking countries, the Francophonie has since evolved into a global organization whose numerous branches cooperate with its member states in the fields of culture, science, economy, justice, and peace. History ------- The convention which created the Agency for Cultural and Technical Co-operation (*Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique*) was signed on 20 March 1970 by the representatives of the 21 states and governments under the influence of African Heads of State, Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal, Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia, Hamani Diori of Niger and Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia. Based on the sharing of the French language, the missions of this new intergovernmental organization are the promotion of the cultures of its members and the intensification of the cultural and technical cooperation between them, as well as the solidarity and the connection between them through dialogue. The Francophonie project ceaselessly evolved since the creation of the Agency for Cultural and Technical Co-operation, it became the intergovernmental Agency of the Francophonie (*Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie*) in 1998 to remind its intergovernmental status. Finally in 2005, the adoption of a new Charter of the Francophonie (*la Charte de la Francophonie*) gives the name to the Agency of international Organisation of the Francophonie (*Organisation internationale de la Francophonie*). Structure --------- ### Executive Secretariat (Secretaries-General) The position of Secretary-General was created in 1997 at the seventh leaders' summit held in Hanoi. Canadian Jean-Louis Roy was secretary of the *Agence de coopération culturelle et technique* from 1989 until the formal creation of the *Agence intergouvernementale de la Francophonie* in 1997 with former Secretary-General of the United Nations Boutros Boutros-Ghali as the first secretary-general of *La Francophonie*. Abdou Diouf, the former president of the Republic of Senegal, became Secretary General on January 1, 2003. He was reelected on 29 September 2006, for a second mandate during the Summit of the Francophonie of Bucharest, and elected again in 2010 at the Summit of the Francophonie of Montreux for another mandate which ran until 31 December 2014. At the 2014 summit in Dakar, former Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean was chosen to lead the organization starting in January 2015. The Secretary General of the Francophonie is elected during the Summit, and serves as the spokesperson and the official representative internationally of the political actions of the Francophonie. The Secretary General is responsible for proposing priority areas for multilateral Francophonie actions. Their job is to facilitate Francophone multilateral cooperation and to ensure that programs and activities of all operating agencies work in harmony. The Secretary General carries out their four-year mandate under the authority of the three main institutions of the Francophonie: the Summits, the Ministerial Conference and the Permanent Council. | No. | Image | Name | Country | Birth | Death | Start | End | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | | Boutros Boutros-Ghali |  Egypt | 14 November 1922 | 16 March 2016(2016-03-16) (aged 93) | 16 November 1997 | 31 December 2002 | Secretary-General of the United Nations (1992–1996), Minister of Foreign Affairs of Egypt (1977, 1978–1979), Minister of State for Foreign Affairs of Egypt (1977–1991) | | 2 | | Abdou Diouf |  Senegal | 7 September 1935 (age 86) | *Living* | 1 January 2003 | 31 December 2014 | President of Senegal (1981–2000), Prime Minister of Senegal (1970–1980) | | 3 | | Michaëlle Jean |  Canada | 6 September 1957 (age 64) | *Living* | 5 January 2015 | 2 January 2019 | Governor General of Canada (2005–2010) | | 4 | | Louise Mushikiwabo |  Rwanda | 2 May 1961 (age 60) | *Living* | 3 January 2019 | *incumbent* | Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Rwanda (2009–2018) | ### Summits The Summit, the highest authority in the Francophonie, is held every two years and gathers the heads of states and governments of all member states of the OIF around certain themes of discussion. It is chaired by the head of state or government of the host country and this person assumes that responsibility until the next summit. By enabling the heads of state and government to hold a dialogue on all international issues of the day, the summit serves to develop strategies and goals of the Francophonie so as to ensure the organisation's influence on the world scene. | No. | Country/Region | City | Dates | Host | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **I** |  France | Paris (Versailles) | 17–19 February 1986 | President François Mitterrand | | 41 countries and governments were represented. The conference was an effort to establish ongoing consultations on major issues of the day. It affirmed the role of the French language as a modern tool for progress and intercultural dialogue and sought to convey Francophone solidarity through concrete programs with broad appeal. | | **II** |  Quebec, Canada | Quebec City | 2–4 September 1987 | Prime Minister Brian Mulroney | | Established areas of cooperation and the strengthening of solidarity among the countries and governments that participated in the Paris Summit. La Francophonie's priority areas were confirmed as agriculture, energy, scientific and technological development, language, communication and culture. The Institute of Energy and Environment of La Francophonie, based in Quebec City, and the Francophone Business Forum, a non-governmental organization of French-speaking business people, were created. | | **III** |  Senegal | Dakar | 24–26 May 1989 | President Abdou Diouf | | Meeting agreed to initiatives in education and training, the environment, and legal and judicial cooperation and confirmed the role of the Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique as the principal operating agency and the key instrument of La Francophonie as a multilateral organization. During the summit, French President François Mitterrand announced the cancellation of the debt of thirty-five African countries to France. The establishment of Senghor University in Alexandria, Egypt, was also agreed to. | | **IV** |  France | Paris | 19–21 November 1991 | President François Mitterrand | | Nearly 50 countries and governments from all five continents attended. The Ministerial Conference of La Francophonie and the Permanent Council of La Francophonie were created, and the role of the ACCT as the secretariat of all of the organization's institutions was confirmed. | | **V** |  Mauritius | Port Louis | 16–18 October 1993 | President Veerasamy Ringadoo | | Leaders importance of economic issues, calling for increased cooperation among Francophone business communities. | | **VI** |  Benin | Cotonou | 2–4 December 1995 | President Nicéphore Soglo | | Summit agreed to create the position of Secretary General and transform the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation (ACCT) into the Intergovernmental Agency of La Francophonie (AIF) and to establish the position of chief executive to manage it. The heads of state and government decided to focus the operating agencies' activities on the five major cooperation programs of La Francophonie: (1) freedom, democracy and development; (2) culture and communications; (3) knowledge and progress; (4) economics and development; and (5) La Francophonie in the world. This summit also underscored the promotion of cultural diversity as more legitimate and necessary than ever, ascribing it a role in promoting peace. | | **VII** |  Vietnam | Hanoi | 14–16 November 1997 | President Trần Đức Lương | | Revised Charter was implemented and Boutros Boutros-Ghali was appointed the first secretary general. The summit's main theme was economic cooperation, however the Heads of State and Government also agreed to focus their efforts on peace and conflict prevention in member countries. In addition, they resolved to cooperate with the international community in protecting human rights. | | **VIII** | New Brunswick, Canada | Moncton | 3–5 September 1999 | Prime Minister Jean Chrétien | | The summit's main theme was youth. Two secondary themes, the economy and new technologies, were also discussed. In Moncton, the heads of state and government also decided to hold three sectoral conferences in preparation for the following summit: (1) a symposium assessing democratic practices, rights and freedoms in the French-speaking world, to be held in Bamako, Mali; (2) a ministerial conference on culture in Cotonou, Benin; and (3) the first Women of La Francophonie conference in Luxembourg. | | **IX** |  Lebanon | Beirut | 18–20 October 2002 | President Émile Lahoud | | The main theme of the summit was "Dialogue of Cultures". Issues relating to the Middle East were addressed. The heads of state and government made a commitment to implement the Bamako Declaration on democracy, good governance and human rights. The summit also indicated support for UNESCO's cultural diversity principle that entrenches the right of states and governments to maintain, establish and develop policies in support of culture and cultural diversity. Senegal's former president Abdou Diouf was elected Secretary General. | | **X** |  Burkina Faso | Ouagadougou | 26–27 November 2004 | President Blaise Compaoré | | The summit's main theme was "La Francophonie: A Space of Solidarity for Sustainable Development". A ministerial conference on conflict prevention and human security was held concurrently in St. Boniface, Manitoba, and adopted the very first ten-year strategic framework for La Francophonie, which henceforth defines its four main missions: (1) promoting the French language and cultural and linguistic diversity; (2) promoting peace, democracy and human rights; (3) supporting education, training, higher education and research and (4) developing cooperation to ensure sustainable development and solidarity. | | **XI** |  Romania | Bucharest | 28–29 September 2006 | President Traian Băsescu | | The summit's main theme was “Information Technologies in Education”. The heads of state and government passed five resolutions on (1) the Global Digital Solidarity Fund; (2) dumping of toxic waste in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire; (3) international migration and development; (4) the positioning of a UN force in the Central African Republic; and (5) climate change. The Ministerial Conference of La Francophonie approved a guide on the use of the French language in international organizations. Abdou Diouf was re-elected for a four-year term. | | **XII** |  Quebec, Canada | Quebec City | 17–19 October 2008 | Prime Minister Stephen Harper | | Held as part of the 400th anniversary celebration of the founding of Quebec City. The world financial and food crises were discussed and environmental talks were held. Heads of state and government expressed their support for the initiative to hold a global summit on the financial crisis and the reform of the international economic system. They also pointed out that the financial crisis should not overshadow the food crisis and be resolved at the expense of developing countries. | | **XIII** |  Switzerland | Montreux | 22–24 October 2010 | President Doris Leuthard | | Issues discussed included climate change, food and economic crises, and problems related to biodiversity, water and forests. Montreux Declaration on the vision and future of the Francophonie was agreed calling for the organization to take a role in global governance and to support sustainable development, food security and biodiversity and combat climate change and to also support French language and education. Resolutions were passed on: (1) piracy; (2) counterfeit or expired pharmaceuticals; (3) transborder crime in Africa; (4) terrorism; (5) flood-affected countries; (6) the reconstruction of Haiti; (7) countries in crisis, crisis recovery and peacebuilding and finally, (8) the 10th anniversary of the Bamako Declaration, entrenching the political role of La Francophonie. The Summit also confirmed the re-election of Abdou Diouf for a third four-year term. | | **XIV** |  Democratic Republic of the Congo | Kinshasa | 12–14 October 2012 | President Joseph Kabila | | The theme of the summit was “La Francophonie, Economic and Environment Issues in the face of Global Governance”. Resolutions were passed on (1) the situation in Mali; (2) the situation in the DRC; (3) piracy in the Gulf of Guinea; (4) good governance of the extractive and forest industries ; and (5) crisis situations, crisis recovery and peacebuilding in La Francophonie. | | **XV** |  Senegal | Dakar | 29–30 November 2014 | President Macky Sall | | The summit's main theme was “Women and Youth in La Francophonie: Agents for Peace and Development”. Michaëlle Jean was elected Secretary-General. Heads of State and Government readdmited Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar and Mali, and to accept membership applications from Costa Rica, Mexico and Kosovo as observers of La Francophonie. Resolutions were passed on Maternal, Newborn and Child Health; the Ongoing Ebola Virus Epidemic in West Africa and the Risks of It Spreading through the Francophonie; Crisis Situations, Crisis Recovery and Peacebuilding in La Francophonie; Terrorism; the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions; Education and Training of Women and Youth in the Digital Age; Financial and Banking Education; Counterfeit Drugs and Medical Products; and the Promotion of Sustainable Tourism in Small Island Developing States. | | **XVI** |  Madagascar | Antananarivo | 26–27 November 2016 | Prime Minister Olivier Solonandrasana | | The theme of the summit was “Shared Growth and Responsible Development: Conditions for Stability Around the World and within the Francophonie". The Summit addressed crisis and consolidation of peace in the Francophone world including questions of security and responding to Daesh [ISIS] and its affiliates in Africa, the promotion of gender equality, the empowerment of women and girls, the prevention of extremism, and the vocational and technical training, energy, the promotion of linguistic diversity, the situation of children, local development, environment, dialogue between cultures as a factor of sustainable development, road safety and the blue economy. Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau raised the issue of LGBT rights. The Canadian province of Ontario was granted observer status in the organisation. | | **XVII** |  Armenia | Yerevan | 11–12 October 2018 | Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan | | Michaëlle Jean sought a second four-year term as Secretary-General but was defeated by Rwandan foreign minister Louise Mushikiwabo, who was French President Macron's personal choice. This unilateral decision by the French President was strongly criticized by four former French cabinet members responsible for the francophonie dossier who also criticized the deplorable human rights record of Rwanda under Paul Kagame and Mushikiwabo. Saudi Arabia withdrew its application for observer status after its bid was opposed due to criticisms of the lack of human rights in the country and concerns over the disappearance of journalist Jamal Khashoggi, while Ghana was promoted from associate to full membership. The American state of Louisiana was granted observer status. The summit adopted declarations on the organisation's budget, equality between men and women, and other issues. | | **XVIII** |  Tunisia | Djerba | 19—20 November 2022 | Prime Minister Najla Bouden | | Summit was scheduled for 2020, the 50th anniversary of the OIF, but it was delayed. Its objective was to become a "space for solidarity that is better governed, more inclusive, digital, innovative, sustainable and prosperous for its people" by 2030. This was to be achieved by promoting: (1) the influence of French speakers ; (2) the use of French ; (3) cultural and linguistic diversity ; (4) the OIF as a space for peace, stability, democracy, and human rights ; and (5) the OIF as a hub for cooperation and innovation. French President Macron emphasised 3 areas to support "the ambition for the French language and multilingualism", which were: (1) learning ; (2) communicating ; and (3) creating. Louise Mushikiwabo was re-elected as Secretary General. | | **XIX** |  France | Villiers-Saint-Denis | 2024 | President Emmanuel Macron | | ### Ministerial Conference The Ministerial Conference of the Francophonie gathers the foreign or francophone affairs ministers of member states and governments every year to ensure the political continuity of the Summit. This conference ensures that the decisions made during the previous Summits are carried out and to plan the next Summit. It also recommends new members and observers to the Summit. ### Permanent Council The Permanent Council of the Francophonie gathers the Ambassadors of the member countries, chaired by the General Secretary of the Francophonie and under the authority of the Ministerial Conference, its main task is to plan Summits. This conference also supervises the execution of the Summit decisions made by the ministerial conferences on a day-to-day basis, about the examination of the propositions of the budget distribution. ### Parliamentary Assembly The objectives of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Francophonie (APF) are to represent to the French-speaking authorities, the interests of the French-speaking communities, to promote the democracy, the rule of law and the respect of human rights. Furthermore, it follows the execution by the operators of the Francophonie of action plans elaborated by the Conference of the members using French as a common language It also favours the cooperation and strengthens the solidarity within the French-speaking communities, mainly towards the parliaments of the South. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Francophonie is constituted by member sections representing 77 parliaments or interparliamentary organizations. The Secretary General is the French senator Jacques Legendre. ### Agency of the Francophonie The Agency of the Francophonie is the main operator of the cultural, scientific, technical, economic and legal cooperation programs decided at the Summits. It is also the legal seat of the Secretary General and is used by him as an administrative support. The agency also contributes to the development of the French language and to the promotion of the diverse languages and cultures of its members, while encouraging mutual understanding between them and the Francophonie. For this reason, it is a place of exchange and dialogue and its simultaneous in Francophone countries. The Agency's headquarters are in Paris and it has three regional branches in Libreville, Gabon; Lomé, Togo; and Hanoi, Vietnam. Members ------- Mauritania's membership was suspended on 26 August 2008, pending democratic elections, after a military coup d'état. Madagascar's membership was suspended in April 2009 due to an unconstitutional transfer of power on 17 March 2009. Mali's membership was also suspended in March 2012 due to a coup d'état, and then the Central African Republic was suspended for instances of la Francophonie at the 88th session of the CPF[*clarification needed*] (March 2012), as well as Guinea-Bissau on 18 April 2012 for the same reason. Thailand, an observer nation, was suspended in 2014 following the 2013–14 political crisis. In 2018, Louisiana became the first US state to join, as an observer. In 2021, the government of Nova Scotia announced its intention to apply for observer status. Although Algeria has one of the largest French-speaking communities in the world, it is not a member of the organisation. Operating agencies ------------------ The International Organization of the Francophonie relies on five operating agencies to carry out its mandate: l’Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF); TV5Monde; l’Association Internationale des Maires Francophones (AIMF); l'Association des Fonctionnaires Francophones des Organisations Internationales (AFFOI); and l’Université Senghor d’Alexandrie. ### Association of Francophone Universities (AUF) Established in 1961 in Montreal, the Association of Francophone Universities gathers institutions of higher education and research among the Francophone countries of Africa, the Arab world, Southeast Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Caribbean. Its mission is to contribute to the construction and consolidation of a scientific space in French. It supports the French language, cultural and linguistic diversity, law and democracy, and the environment and sustainable development. It also provides an important mobility program for the students, the researchers and the professors. Its mission is to support the French language and the linguistic diversity within International Organisations. Every year the association coordinates the day of French language within International Organisations. It also organizes seminaries to increase awareness about the importance of linguistic, cultural and conceptual diversity. The president is the French international civil servant Dominique Hoppe. ### TV5Monde, the French-speaking international television TV5Monde is the first international French language television network, available in many countries. On television and online the audience of TV5Monde has grown rapidly. TV5 is one of the three largest television networks in the world (along with the BBC and CNN), and is considered one of the greatest achievements of the Francophonie. It provides wide access to original television programmes in French, and contributes to the development of the language and French-speaking cultures. It broadcasts the different forms of the French language spoken around the world, with all their accents. It reaches beyond native speakers of French; the majority of those who can receive it and part of its audience comprise viewers for whom French is not the mother tongue. Thanks to subtitles in various languages, it provides access to the Francophonie to non-French speakers - it is translated into 12 languages. ### International Association of French-speaking Mayors The International Association of French-speaking Mayors was created in Quebec City in 1979 Jean Pelletier and Jacques Chirac, then the respective mayors of Quebec City and Paris with an initial group of 20 founder-cities. It is an operating agency for urban development gathering 48 countries or governments. The goal is to establish close cooperation in all areas of municipal activities. Its missions are to strengthen local democracy, building municipal capacities, and to support the populations. The association pursues its actions in the domains of health, culture, youth and education, urban development, training, and municipal infrastructures. The association is presided by Anne Hidalgo (Paris' mayor) since 2009, with Pierre Baillet as permanent secretary. ### Senghor University of Alexandria The project of creating a French-speaking university in the service of African development was presented and adopted following the Dakar Summit in 1989. The Senghor University in Alexandria, Egypt is a private postgraduate institution that trains managers and high-level trainers in areas that are a priority for development in Francophone Africa. It directs the capacities of the managers and trainers to the action and the exercise of responsibilities in certain domains for the development: the project management, the financial institutions, the environment, the nutrition-health and of the cultural heritage. The Senghor University regularly organizes seminaries to help its students and of the public specialized in the domains of its action, by collaborating with the other operators and the institutions of the Francophonie. Missions -------- The International Organization of the Francophonie leads political actions and multilateral cooperation according to the missions drawn by the Summits of the Francophonie. The Summits gather the Heads of states and governments of the member countries of the International Organization of the Francophonie where they discuss international politics, world economy, French-speaking cooperation, human rights, education, culture and democracy. Actions of the International Organization of the Francophonie are scheduled over a period of four years and funded by contributions from its members. The *Charte de la Francophonie* defines the role and missions of the organization. The current charter was adopted in Antananarivo, on 23 November 2005. The summit held in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso on 26–27 November 2004 saw the adoption of a strategic framework for the period 2004–2014. The four missions drawn by the Summit of the Francophonie are: 1. Promoting French language and cultural and linguistic diversity. 2. Promoting peace, democracy and human rights. 3. Supporting education, training, higher education and scientific research. 4. Expand cooperation for sustainable development. ### French language, cultural and linguistic diversity The primary mission of the organization is the promotion of the French language as an international language and the promotion of worldwide cultural and linguistic diversity in the era of economic globalization. In this regard, countries that are members of the Francophonie have contributed largely to the adoption by the UNESCO of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (20 October 2005). At the national level, there is the problem of promoting the French language within the context of its co-existence with other partner or international languages in most member countries, especially in Africa. Maintaining the relative importance of the status of French is an imperative that requires solidarity and the pooling of means and resources among countries committed to the French language within their respective societies. The Francophonie has been a pioneer in terms of the recognition of cultural diversity and dialogue of cultures. It must find ways of confronting the trend towards uniformity that accompanies globalization and fostering the preservation and development of cultural diversity. ### Peace, democracy and human rights Similar to the Commonwealth of Nations, the Francophonie has as its stated aims the promotion of democracy and human rights. Following the 3 November 2000 *Déclaration de Bamako*, the Francophonie has given itself the financial means to attain a number of set objectives in that regard. The Francophonie intends to contribute significantly to promoting peace, democracy and support for the rule of law and human rights by focusing on prevention. Political stability and full rights for all, the subject of the Bamako declaration, are considered key to sustainable development. The Francophonie has chosen to provide its member countries with access to the expertise of its extensive intergovernmental, institutional, academic and non-governmental network with a view to building national capacities, resolving conflict and providing support for ending crises. In recent years, some participating governments, notably the governments of Canada and Quebec, pushed for the adoption of a Charter in order for the organization to sanction member States that are known to have poor records when it comes to the protection of human rights and the practice of democracy. Such a measure was debated at least twice but was never approved. ### Supporting education, training, higher education and research The International Organization of the Francophonie aims at connecting the various peoples using French as a common language through their knowledge. Education, like access to autonomy and information for all, begins with all children having access to a full primary education free of any inequality. It involves an integrated approach of teaching and training from primary to secondary school that will lead to employment. Education policies must also give French an integral place alongside the partner languages. Last, the research potential of French-language academic streams must be promoted. ### Cooperation for sustainable development The Francophonie is committed to working towards sustainable development by supporting the improvement of economic governance, capacity building, cooperation and the search for common positions in major international negotiations. It's necessary to manage durably the natural resources, particularly the energy and the water, and politics are established to make sure of the conservation of these resources with effective anti-poverty campaigns. In 2013, the United Nations Volunteers programme received a financial contribution from the Federal Public Service (FPS) Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation of the Kingdom of Belgium for the years 2013 and 2014 to support the outreach to the francophone world and the promotion of volunteerism via its Online Volunteering service. Criticism of the organisation ----------------------------- ### Proliferation of non-Francophone member states and missions The membership of the OIF has climbed from 21 in 1970 to 88 member states and territories in 2018. This sharp increase in the number of member states, many of whom have only the remotest connection with the French language and culture, has been a matter of growing concern. In their 1996 study on the Francophone space, linguists Daniel Baggioni and Roland Breton pointed out, alluding to the applications of Bulgaria and Angola to join the OIF, that only politico-diplomatic criteria could explain these odd extensions of the OIF. Xavier Deniau, founder of the *Association des parlementaires de langue française* (now the Parliamentary assembly) and author of *La Francophonie*, expressed concern that the enlargement of the OIF to countries where French is practically nonexistent risks diluting the effectiveness of the organisation. Despite calls for a moratorium on the admission of new members, each new Sommet de la Francophonie has witnessed the admission of batches of new members that have little, if anything, to do with the French language: Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Dominican Republic, the United Arab Emirates, Estonia and Montenegro in 2010; Qatar and Uruguay in 2012; Mexico, Costa Rica and Kosovo in 2014. On that occasion, the Montreal daily Le Devoir, which reports extensively on the OIF and its summits, remarked that several members of this "merry madhouse" that the OIF had become did not even recognise Kosovo as a country. The “endless enlargement” of the Organisation accelerated following the arrival at the head of the OIF of former UN Secretary General Boutros-Ghali who declared early in his term in 1998 that French being in his opinion the language of solidarity, tolerance, respect for the individual, cultural diversity, universality and openness, the OIF needed to open itself to non francophones. The motivation of small and mid-size countries in joining the organisation appears to be a desire to increase their international visibility. In October 2018, the Irish Minister of State for European Affairs explained that Ireland's accession to the OIF with observer status was one of the steps set out in 'Global Ireland', the Government's initiative to double the scope and impact of Ireland's global footprint in the period to 2025. Following the arrival of Boutros-Ghali, the OIF had also seen a steady increase in the number of its missions and priority action areas — peace and conflict prevention, human rights, democracy, international cooperation, sustainable development, cultural and linguistic diversity, education and training, youth, gender equality, civil society — bringing a fundamental shift from the cultural to the political sphere. Jacques Legendre, the French senate's rapporteur on the Francophonie, expressed his concern that the OIF was becoming "a second-rate duplicate of the General Assembly of the UN". Many actors of the francophone sphere interested in the future of the organisation, including Former French ministers or secretaries of state for the Francophonie such as Pierre-André Wiltzer and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne, have been calling on the OIF to refocus on its fundamentals: language and culture. ### Disregard for human rights and fundamental freedoms Human rights and fundamental freedoms, despite having been declared "categorical imperatives" by Secretary General Boutros-Ghali in 1998, are routinely abused by many members states of the OIF. The deplorable track record of many OIF member states regarding human rights came to the fore during the 1999 Francophonie Summit in Moncton, Canada, when Canadian dailies loudly denounced the organisation's silence regarding widespread human rights abuses by member states ruled by "tyrants". It was pointed out that no less than 35 member states of the OIF had been accused of human rights violations by Amnesty International, while 15 member states were among the countries listed by Reporters Without Borders as systematically violating freedom of the press. Prime Minister Chrétien and President Chirac felt compelled to declare at the close of the summit that a human rights observatory would be established to tackle the problem. Given that during his 12-year tenure, President Chirac, dubbed *Papa Afrique* or *Chirac l'Africain*, had confided more than once that Africa was not ready for multipartism (*l'Afrique n'est pas mûre pour le multipartisme*) and was known for his close relationship with many entrenched African strongmen, calling Omar Bongo of Gabon, Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo, Denis Sassou Nguesso of the Republic of the Congo and Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso "personal friends", nothing came out of this declaration. The French daily *Le Monde* noted at the time that if respect for fundamental freedoms was to become a criterion for membership in the OIF, the organisation would simply cease to exist. French President Macron's surprise announcement in May 2018 that France officially backed the nomination of Louise Mushikiwabo, Rwanda's longtime foreign minister, as the next secretary general of the OIF was seen by many as a setback for the defense and promotion of human rights. An open letter signed by four former French ministers for international cooperation condemned this move, on one hand because it was taken unilaterally by the French president without consultation with the other member states of the organisation and on the other because it disregarded President Kagame's lamentable track record on human rights. "How will the Francophonie be able to promote freedom of the press, as part of its mission of advocating for human rights, if it's headed by one of the key leaders of a country that's trampled on media freedom and repressed journalists for 18 years?" asked Christophe Deloire, secretary general of Reporters Without Borders. See also -------- * Agence de coopération culturelle et technique * Minister responsible for La Francophonie (Canada) * Jeux de la Francophonie * International Francophonie Day (*Journée internationale de la Francophonie*) * Conseil international de la langue française * French immersion * Alliance française * Espace Francophone pour la Recherche, le Développement et l'Innovation * Journée internationale de la Francophonie (March 20) * Francophone * French colonial empire * Geographical distribution of French speakers * French in Africa * French in India * French in the United States * Franco-Canadian relations * French America * Vietnamese French * Lao French * Cambodian French * List of countries where French is an official language * List of international organisations which have French as an official language * List of French possessions and colonies * Three Linguistic Spaces Further reading --------------- * Glasze, Georg (2007): "The Discursive Constitution of a World-spanning Region and the Role of Empty Signifiers: the Case of Francophonia." In: Geopolitics (12)4: 656–679. (pdf: Wayback Machine*)* * Milhaud, Olivier (2006): "Post-Francophonie?". EspacesTemps.net. Post-Francophonie? 48°51′36″N 2°18′12″E / 48.86000°N 2.30333°E / 48.86000; 2.30333

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_internationale_de_la_Francophonie

**This article contains Persian text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **Tehran** (/tɛəˈræn, -ˈrɑːn, ˌteɪ-/; Persian: تهران *Tehrân* [tehˈɾɒːn] ()) is the capital and largest city of Iran and the largest city in Tehran Province. With a population of about 9.5 million people in the city and around 16 million in the larger metropolitan area of Greater Tehran, Tehran is the most populous city in Western Asia, and has the second-largest metropolitan area in the Middle East, after Cairo. It is ranked 24th in the world by metropolitan area population. In the classical antiquity, part of the territory of present-day Tehran was occupied by Rhages (now Ray), a prominent Median city destroyed in the medieval Arab, Turkic, and Mongol invasions. Modern Ray was absorbed into the metropolitan area of Greater Tehran. Tehran was first chosen as the capital of Iran by Agha Mohammad Khan of the Qajar dynasty in 1786, because of its proximity to Iran's territories in the Caucasus, then separated from Iran in the Russo-Iranian Wars, to avoid the vying factions of the previously ruling Iranian dynasties. The capital has been moved several times throughout history, however, and Tehran became the 32nd capital of Persia. Large-scale construction works began in the 1920s, and Tehran became a destination for mass migrations from all over Iran since the 20th century. Tehran is home to many historical sites, including the royal complexes of Golestan, Sa'dabad, and Niavaran, where the last two dynasties of the former Imperial State of Iran were seated. Tehran's landmarks include the Azadi Tower, a memorial built under the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty in 1971 to mark the 2,500th anniversary of the Persian Empire, the Milad Tower, the world's sixth-tallest self-supporting tower, completed in 2007, and the Tabiat Bridge, completed in 2014. Most of the population are Persian, with roughly 99% of them speaking the Persian language, alongside other ethnolinguistic groups in the city which became Persianized and assimilated. Tehran is served by Imam Khomeini International Airport, alongside the domestic Mehrabad Airport, a central railway station, Tehran Metro, a bus rapid transit system, trolleybuses, and a large network of highways. Plans to relocate the capital from Tehran to another area due to air pollution and earthquakes have not been approved so far. A 2016 survey of 230 cities across the globe by Mercer ranked Tehran 203rd for quality of life. According to the Global Destinations Cities Index in 2016, Tehran is among the top ten fastest growing destinations. Tehran City Council declared 6 October the Tehran Day in 2016, celebrating the date when in 1907 the city officially became the capital of Iran. Etymology --------- Various theories on the origin of the name Tehran have been put forward. Iranian linguist Ahmad Kasravi, in an article "Shemiran-Tehran", suggested that *Tehran* and *Kehran* mean "the warm place", and *Shemiran* means "the cool place". He listed cities with the same base and suffix and studied the components of the word in ancient Iranian languages, and came to the conclusion that Tehran and Kehran meant the same thing in different Iranian language families, as the consonants "t" and "k" are close to each other in such languages. He also provided evidence that cities named "Shemiran" were colder than those named "Tehran" or "Kehran". He considered other theories not considering the ancient history of Iranian languages such as "Tirgan" theory and "Tahran" theory folk etymology. Another theory is that "Tehran" derives from *Tiran/Tirgan*, "the abode of Tir", the Zoroastrian equivalent of Hermes). The ancient Parthian town of Tiran had a neighbour, Mehran ("abode of Mehr/Mithra", the Zoroastrian sun/justice angel). Both of these were mere villages in the suburbs of the great city of Ray/Rhages. Mehran still exists as a residential district in Greater Tehran, as well as Ray, which forms the southern suburbs of Tehran. The official City of Tehran website says that "Tehran" comes from the Persian words *tah* meaning "end", or "bottom", and *ran* meaning "[mountain] slope"—literally, the bottom of the mountain (ته کوه). Given Tehran's position at the foot of the Alborz mountains, this seems plausible. The most interesting toponymical theory of the name Tehran has been suggested by Zana Piranshahri (Dana Pishdar), the Iranian linguist residing in Norway. According to Dana Pishdar, the etymological root of the name Tehran should be searched for in the ancient Iranic languages such as Median and Avestan. Because in the pre-Islamic era, the city of Rey and the area of Tehran were the largest cities of the Media region, and also in Zoroastrian era, it was considered a holy city and was headquarters of a theocratic government similar to the modern Vatican state; this suggestion does not sound illogical. In the opinion of Dana Pishdar, the name of Tehran consists of the two lexical elements, *teh* and *ran*. According to Pishdar, *teh* in ancient Median languages means "honeyberry" and *ran* means "foothills". Honeyberry trees used to grow in the northern parts of Tehran province. It is also mentioned in the Dehkhoda dictionary and Dehkhoda explains it in this way: *teh* is a name that in Shemiranat and around Tehran is applied to the "honeyberry" tree. So according to Zana Piranshahri, the word *Tehran* means a place where the "honeyberry" tree grows. Also the suffix *ran* is visible in many of the names of districts and villages of modern Tehran that are not unrelated to each other, such as Shemiran, Niavaran, Jamaran, Qasran and Shahran. In the Avestan language and also in the book of Avesta *ran* has had the meaning of "foothills" and "plain," which is still related to the name of the Rey city. The Zoroastrian Medes called their largest and most important town Rhaga or Rey, meaning the town which is situated in the plain and on a foothill. Therefore, the words "Rey" and "Ran" mean foothills, and the toponymic reason for this is the geographical position of Rey and Tehran, because both are located on foothills and in a plain. In English, it was formerly spelt "Teheran". History ------- Archaeological remains from the ancient city of Ray suggest that settlement in Tehran dates back over 6,000 years. ### Classical era Tehran is in the historical Media region of (Old Persian: 𐎶𐎠𐎭 *Māda*) in northwestern Iran. By the time of the Median Empire, part of present-day Tehran was a suburb of the prominent Median city of Rhages (Old Persian: 𐎼𐎥𐎠 *Ragā*). In the Avesta's *Videvdat* (i, 15), Rhages is mentioned as the 12th sacred place created by Ohrmazd. In Old Persian inscriptions, Rhages appears as a province (Bistun 2, 10–18). From Rhages, Darius I sent reinforcements to his father Hystaspes, who was putting down a rebellion in Parthia (Bistun 3, 1–10). Some Middle Persian texts give Rhages as the birthplace of Zoroaster, although modern historians generally place the birth of Zoroaster in Khorasan Province. Mount Damavand, the highest peak of Iran, which is located near Tehran, is an important location in Ferdowsi's *Šāhnāme*, an Iranian epic poem based on the ancient legends of Iran. It appears in the epics as the homeland of the protoplast Keyumars, the birthplace of King Manuchehr, the place where King Fereydun bound the dragon fiend Aždahāk (Bivarasp), and the place where Arash shot his arrow. ### Medieval period In 641, during the reign of the Sasanian Empire, Yazdgerd III issued his last appeal to the nation from Rhages, before fleeing to Khorasan. Rhages was dominated by the Parthian House of Mihran, and Siyavakhsh—the son of Mehran, the son of Bahram Chobin—who resisted the seventh-century Muslim invasion of Iran. Because of this resistance, when the Arabs captured Rhages, they ordered the town destroyed and rebuilt anew by traitor aristocrat Farrukhzad. In the ninth century, Tehran was a well-known village, but less so than the city of Rhages, flourishing nearby. Rhages was described in detail by tenth-century Muslim geographers. Despite the interest that Arabian Baghdad displayed in Rhages, the number of Arabs in the city remained insignificant and the population mainly consisted of Iranians of all classes. The Oghuz Turks invaded Rhages in 1035 and again in 1042, but the city was recovered under the Seljuks and the Khwarezmians. Medieval writer Najm od Din Razi declared the population of Rhages about 500,000 before the Mongol invasion. In the 13th century, the Mongols invaded Rhages, laid the city to ruins, and massacred many of its inhabitants. Others escaped to Tehran. In July 1404, Castilian ambassador Ruy González de Clavijo visited Tehran on a journey to Samarkand, the capital of Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, the ruler of Iran at the time. He described it in his diary as an unwalled region. ### Early modern era Italian traveler Pietro della Valle passed through Tehran overnight in 1618, and in his memoirs called the city *Taheran*. English traveler Thomas Herbert entered Tehran in 1627, and mentioned it as *Tyroan*. Herbert stated that the city had about 3,000 houses. In the early 18th century, Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty ordered a palace and a government office built in Tehran, possibly to declare the city his capital; but he later moved his government to Shiraz. Eventually, Qajar king Agha Mohammad Khan chose Tehran as the capital of Iran in 1786. Agha Mohammad Khan's choice of his capital was based on a similar concern for the control of both northern and southern Iran. He was aware of the loyalties of the inhabitants of former capitals Isfahan and Shiraz to the Safavid and Zand dynasties respectively, and was wary of the power of the local notables in these cities. Thus, he probably viewed Tehran's lack of a substantial urban structure as a blessing, because it minimized the chances of resistance to his rule by the notables and by the general public. Moreover, he had to remain within close reach of Azerbaijan and Iran's integral northern and southern Caucasian territories—at that time not yet irrevocably lost per the treaties of Golestan and Turkmenchay to the neighboring Russian Empire—which would follow in the course of the 19th century. After 50 years of Qajar rule, the city still barely had more than 80,000 inhabitants. Up until the 1870s, Tehran consisted of a walled citadel, a roofed bazaar, and the three main neighborhoods of Udlajan, Chale-Meydan, and Sangelaj, where the majority resided. The first development plan of Tehran in 1855 emphasized traditional spatial structure. The second, under the supervision of Dar ol Fonun in 1878, included new city walls, in the form of a perfect octagon with an area of 19 square kilometers, mimicking the Renaissance cities of Europe. Tehran was 19.79 square kilometers, and had expanded more than fourfold. ### Late modern era Growing awareness of civil rights resulted in the Constitutional Revolution and the first constitution of Iran in 1906. On 2 June 1907, the parliament passed a law on local governance known as the *Baladie* (municipal law), providing a detailed outline of issues such as the role of councils within the city, the members' qualifications, the election process, and the requirements to be entitled to vote. The then-Qajar monarch Mohammad Ali Shah abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament with the help of the Russian-controlled Cossack Brigade on 23 June 1908. That was followed by the capture of the city by the revolutionary forces of Ali-Qoli Khan (Sardar Asad II) and Mohammad Vali Khan (Sepahsalar e Tonekaboni) on 13 July 1909. As a result, the monarch was exiled and replaced by his son Ahmad, and the parliament was re-established. After World War I, the constituent assembly elected Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty as the new monarch, who immediately suspended the Baladie law of 1907, replacing the decentralized and autonomous city councils with centralist approaches to governance and planning. From the 1920s to the 1930s, under the rule of Reza Shah, the city was essentially rebuilt from scratch. Several old buildings, including parts of the Golestan Palace, Tekye Dowlat, and Tupkhane Square, were replaced with modern buildings influenced by classical Iranian architecture, particularly the buildings of the National Bank, the police headquarters, the telegraph office, and the military academy. Changes to the urban fabric began with the street-widening act of 1933, which served as a framework for changes in all other cities. The Grand Bazaar was divided in half and many historic buildings were demolished and replaced by wide straight avenues, and the traditional texture of the city was replaced with intersecting cruciform streets that created large roundabouts in major public spaces such as the bazaar. As an attempt to create a network for easy transportation within the city, the old citadel and city walls were demolished in 1937, replaced by wide streets cutting through the urban fabric. The new city map of Tehran in 1937 was heavily influenced by modernist planning patterns of zoning and gridiron networks. During World War II, Soviet and British troops entered the city. In 1943, Tehran was the site of the Tehran Conference, attended by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. * Tupkhane Square in 1911Tupkhane Square in 1911 * Jalili Square (Khaiyam) street in Tehran in 1930Jalili Square (Khaiyam) street in Tehran in 1930 * University of Tehran's Faculty of Law in 1939University of Tehran's Faculty of Law in 1939 * National Bank of Iran, Sabze-Meydan, in the 1940sNational Bank of Iran, Sabze-Meydan, in the 1940s * The Tehran Conference in 1943The Tehran Conference in 1943 * The former Parliament Building in 1956The former Parliament Building in 1956 * Ferdowsi Avenue in 1960Ferdowsi Avenue in 1960 * Keshavarz Boulevard in 1970Keshavarz Boulevard in 1970 * Karimkhan Street in 1977Karimkhan Street in 1977 The establishment of the planning organization of Iran in 1948 resulted in the first socioeconomic development plan to cover from 1949 to 1955. These plans not only failed to slow the unbalanced growth of Tehran but with the 1962 land reforms that Reza Shah's son and successor Mohammad Reza Shah named the *White Revolution*, Tehran's chaotic growth was further accentuated. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Tehran developed rapidly under Mohammad Reza Shah. Modern buildings altered the face of Tehran and ambitious projects were planned for the following decades. To resolve the problem of social exclusion, the first comprehensive plan was approved in 1968. The consortium of Iranian architect Abd-ol-Aziz Farmanfarmaian and the American firm of Victor Gruen Associates identified the main problems blighting the city as high-density suburbs, air and water pollution, inefficient infrastructure, unemployment, and rural-urban migration. Eventually, the whole plan was marginalized by the 1979 Revolution and the subsequent Iran–Iraq War. Tehran's most famous landmark, the Azadi Tower, was built by the order of the Shah in 1971. It was designed by Hossein Amanat, an architect whose design won a competition, combining elements of classical Sassanian architecture with post-classical Iranian architecture. Formerly known as the *Shahyad Tower*, it was built to commemorate the 2,500th anniversary of the Imperial State of Iran. During the Iran–Iraq War in 1980 to 1988, Tehran was repeatedly targeted by airstrikes and Scud missile attacks. The 435-meter-high Milad Tower, one of the proposed development projects of pre-revolutionary Iran, was completed in 2007, and has become a famous landmark of Tehran. Tabiat Bridge a 270-meter pedestrian overpass, designed by award-winning architect Leila Araghian, was completed in 2014. Geography --------- ### Location and subdivisions The metropolis of Tehran is divided into 22 municipal districts, each with its own administrative center. Of the 22 municipal districts, 20 are located in Tehran County's Central District, while districts 1 and 20 are respectively located in the counties of Shemiranat and Ray. Although administratively separate, the cities of Ray and Shemiran are often considered part of Greater Tehran. Sulqan RD **Kan District** **Aftab District** Aftab RD Khalazir RD **Central District** Siyahrud RD Tehran *D-1* *(Shemiranat County)* *D-2* *D-3* *D-4* *D-5* *D-6* *D-7* *D-8* *D-9* *D-10* *D-11* *D-12* *D-13* *D-14* *D-15* *D-16* *D-17* *D-18* *D-19* *D-20* *(Ray County)* *D-21* *D-22* | Regions and municipal districts of Tehran | | --- | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **North**: District 1:  • Farmaniyeh  • Evin  • Darakeh  • Zaferaniyeh  • Mahmoodiyeh  • Velenjak  • Darband  • Golabdarreh  • Jamaran  • Dezashib  • Niavaran  • Darabad  • Tajrish  • Gheytariyeh  • Chizar  • Ozgol  • Aghdasiyeh  • Elahieh  • Jamshidiyeh  • Saadabad  • Kamraniyeh District 2:  • Farahzad  • Shahrara  • Gisha  • Punak-e   Bahtari  • Saadat Abad  • Sadeghieh  • Shahrak-e Gharb  • Tarasht  • Tohid District 3:  • Darus  • Davoodiyeh  • Ekhtiariyeh  • Golhak  • Vanak  • Jordan District 5:  • Bolvar-e   Ferdowsi  • Jannat Abad  • Ekbatan  • Punak District 6:  • Amir Abad  • Arjantin  • Yousef Abad  • Park-e Laleh | **East**: District 4:  • Khak Sefid  • Hakimiyeh  • Lavizan  • Ozgol  • Pasdaran  • Resalat  • Shams Abad  • Shemiran-e-No  • Tehranpars  • Zargande  • Narmak District 7:  • Abbas Abad  • Behjat   Abad  • Emam   Hossein  • Sabalan District 8:  • Mo'allem  • Narmak  • Samangan  • Nezam Abad District 13:  • Dowshan Tappe  • Niru Havaii  • Tehran-e-No  • Piroozi District 14:  • Chaharsad   Dastgah  • Dulab  • Esfahanak  • Khorasan  • Sad Dastgah | **Center**: District 10:  • Beryanak  • Haft Chenar  • Salsabil District 11:  • Dokhaniyat  • Lashkar  • Moniriyeh  • Sheikh Hadi District 12:  • Baharestan  • Bazar-e Tehran  • Ferdowsi  • Gorgan  • Park-e Shahrr  • Pich-e Shemiran District 17:  • Emamzade   Hasan  • Bagh Khazaneh  • Qal'e Morghi | **South**: District 15:  • Afsariyeh  • Bisim  • Khavaran  • Kiyanshahr  • Masoudiyeh  • Moshiriyeh District 16:  • Ali Abad  • Bagh-e Azari  • Khazane  • Yakhchi Abad  • Javadiyeh  • Nazi Abad District 19:  • Abdol Abad  • Khani Abad No  • Nemat Abad District 20:  • Dolat Abad  • Javanmard-e   Ghassab  • Ebn   Babviyeh  • Hazrat-e   Abdol-Azim  • Sizdah-e   Aban  • Rey | **West**: District 9:  • Jey  • Sar-Asyab  • Mehr Abad District 18:  • Khalije Fars  • Yaft Abad  • Shad Abad  • Shahrak-e   Vali-Asr  • Tolid Daru  • Ferdows District 21:  • Shahrak-e-Darya  • Bashgah-e   Naft  • Tehransar  • Shahrak-e-Pasdaran  • Shahrak-e-Azadi  • Vardavard District 22:  • Bagh-e   Haj-Seif  • Kan  • Kuy-e   Sazman-e   Barname  • Park Chitgar  • Peykanshahr  • Stadium-e   Azadi  • Shahrak-e   Cheshmeh  • Shahrak-e   Rah-Ahan  • Shahrak-e   Omid  • Shahid Baqeri  • Dehkade-ye-Olympic  • Daryache Chitgar  • Golestan | | | Municipal districts of Tehran | | --- | | | Name | Persian Name | County | Number ofMunicipal Regions | Area | Population | Population Density | Location within Tehran | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | District 1 | منطقه ۱ – Mantaqe ye Yek | Shemiranat County | 10 | 64.0 km² | 487,508 | 10,533/km² | | | District 2 | منطقه ۲ – Mantaqe ye Do | Tehran County | 9 | 64.0 km² | 701,303 | 14,964/km² | | | District 3 | منطقه ۳ – Mantaqe ye Se | Tehran County | 6 | 31.2 km² | 330,649 | 10,156/km² | | | District 4 | منطقه ۴ – Mantaqe ye Chahār | Tehran County | 9 | 61.4 km² | 919,001 | 14,943/km² | | | District 5 | منطقه ۵ – Mantaqe ye Panj | Tehran County | 7 | 52.9 km² | 858,346 | 18,320/km² | | | District 6 | منطقه ۶ – Mantaqe ye Šeŝ | Tehran County | 6 | 21.4 km² | 251,384 | 13,763/km² | | | District 7 | منطقه ۷ – Mantaqe ye Haft | Tehran County | 5 | 15.4 km² | 312,194 | 20,140/km² | | | District 8 | منطقه ۸ – Mantaqe ye Haŝt | Tehran County | 3 | 13.4 km² | 425,197 | 31,984/km² | | | District 9 | منطقه ۹ – Mantaqe ye Noh | Tehran County | 3 | 19.6 km² | 174,239 | 6,387/km² | | | District 10 | منطقه ۱۰ – Mantaqe ye Dah | Tehran County | 3 | 8.2 km² | 327,115 | 40,029/km² | | | District 11 | منطقه ۱۱ – Mantaqe ye Yāzdah | Tehran County | 4 | 12.6 km² | 307,940 | 25,743/km² | | | District 12 | منطقه ۱۲ – Mantaqe ye Davāzdah | Tehran County | 6 | 16.9 km² | 241,831 | 15,150/km² | | | District 13 | منطقه ۱۳ – Mantaqe ye Sizdah | Tehran County | 4 | 12.8 km² | 248,952 | 14,726/km² | | | District 14 | منطقه ۱۴ – Mantaqe ye Ĉahārdah | Tehran County | 6 | 24.3 km² | 515,795 | 21,370/km² | | | District 15 | منطقه ۱۵ – Mantaqe ye Pānzdah | Tehran County | 6 | 35.4 km² | 641,279 | 23,186/km² | | | District 16 | منطقه ۱۶ – Mantaqe ye Ŝānzdah | Tehran County | 6 | 18.1 km² | 268,406 | 16,238/km² | | | District 17 | منطقه ۱۷ – Mantaqe ye Hefdah | Tehran County | 3 | 8.2 km² | 273,231 | 33,276/km² | | | District 18 | منطقه ۱۸ – Mantaqe ye Heĵdah | Tehran County | 5 | 37.5 km² | 419,882 | 11,029/km² | | | District 19 | منطقه ۱۹ – Mantaqe ye Nuzdah | Tehran County | 3 | 20.3 km² | 261,027 | 12,809/km² | | | District 20 | منطقه ۲۰ – Mantaqe ye Bist | Ray County | 5 | 23.0 km² | 365,259 | 16,365/km² | | | District 21 | منطقه ۲۱ – Mantaqe ye Bist-o-Yek | Tehran County | 3 | 51.6 km² | 186,821 | 3,646/km² | | | District 22 | منطقه ۲۲ – Mantaqe ye Bist-o-Do | Tehran County | 4 | 54.0 km² | 176,347 | 3,025/km² | | | | * Tehran and Mount Tochal in the winter of 2006Tehran and Mount Tochal in the winter of 2006 * View of Tehran at night from TajrishView of Tehran at night from Tajrish * Elahieh, an upper-class residential and commercial district in northern TehranElahieh, an upper-class residential and commercial district in northern Tehran * Ekhtiarieh, an old residential area in northern TehranEkhtiarieh, an old residential area in northern Tehran * Tehran from GheytariehTehran from Gheytarieh * Bucharest Street in Abbas Abad, north-central TehranBucharest Street in Abbas Abad, north-central Tehran * Resalat Tunnel in TehranResalat Tunnel in Tehran * Sattarkhan street in TehranSattarkhan street in Tehran * Jordan viewJordan view * Kamranieh alleyKamranieh alley * Velenjak north-western TehranVelenjak north-western Tehran * Pasdaran StreetPasdaran Street Northern Tehran is the wealthiest part of the city, consisting of various districts such as Zafaraniyeh, Jordan, Elahiyeh, Pasdaran, Kamranieh, Ajodanieh, Farmanieh, Darrous, Niavaran, Jamaran, Aghdasieh, Mahmoodieh, Velenjak, Qeytarieh, Ozgol and Ekhtiarieh. While the center of the city houses government ministries and headquarters, commercial centers are located further north. ### Climate The northern area of Tehran has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: *Csa*), with a cold semi-arid climate (*BSk*) elsewhere, with hot dry summers and cool rainy winters. Tehran's climate is largely defined by its geographic location, with the towering Alborz mountains to its north and the country's central desert to the south. It can be generally described as mild in spring and autumn, hot and dry in summer, and cold and wet in winter. As the city has a large area, with significant differences in elevation among various districts, the weather is often cooler in the hilly north than in the flat southern part of Tehran. For instance, the 17.3 km (10.7 mi) Valiasr Street runs from Tehran's railway station at 1,117 m (3,665 ft) elevation above sea level in the south of the city to Tajrish Square at 1712.6 m (5612.3 ft) elevation above sea level in the north. However, the elevation can even rise up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at the end of Velenjak in northern Tehran. The sparse texture, the existence of old gardens, orchards, green spaces along the highways and the lack of industrial activities in the north of the city have helped the air in the northern areas to be 2 to 3 degrees Celsius cooler than the southern areas of the city. The main direction of the prevailing wind in Tehran is northwest to southeast. Other air currents that blow in the area of Tehran are: 1. Tochal breeze: With the rapid cooling of the Alborz mountain range at night, a local high-pressure center is formed on Mount Tochal, and this cold current flows down the mountain due to its weight and high pressure; Thus, a gentle breeze blows into the city from the north at night. 2. Southern and southeastern regional winds: these winds blow from the desert plains in the hot months of the year. 3. Western winds: These winds are among the planetary winds that affect the city of Tehran more or less throughout the year and can be called the prevailing wind. Air currents have a great effect on Tehran's weather. The prevailing wind blowing from the west causes the west of the city to always be exposed to fresh air; Although this wind brings smoke and pollution from the western industrial areas, its strong wind can take the polluted air out of the city of Tehran. In most years, winter provides half of Tehran's total annual rainfall. March is the rainiest month of the year and about one-fifth of the annual rainfall occurs in it. Summer is also the least rainy season and September is the driest month of the year in Tehran. The average annual rainfall of the city is sometimes very different in the north and south regions. There are between 205 and 213 days of clear to partly cloudy weather in Tehran. One of the most intense rains in Tehran happened on 21 April 1962 and this rain lasted for 10 hours. Meteorology also announced that the amount of rainfall on that one day in Tehran was equivalent to six years. Summer is hot and dry with little rain, but relative humidity is generally low, making the heat tolerable. Average high temperatures are between 31 °C (88 °F) and 38 °C (100 °F) during summer months, and it can sometimes rise up to 40 °C (104 °F) during heat waves. Average low temperatures in summer are between 18 °C (64 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F), and it can occasionally drop to below 14 °C (57 °F)  in the mountainous north of the city at night. Winter is cold and occasionally snowy, with an average of 12.3 snow days annually in central Tehran and more than 23.7 snow days annually in northern Tehran. During the winter months, average high temperatures are between 3 °C (37 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F) and average low temperatures are between −5 °C (23 °F) and 1 °C (34 °F), and it can occasionally drop to below −10 °C (14 °F)  during cold waves. Most of the annual precipitation occurs from late autumn to mid-spring. March is the wettest month with an average precipitation of 39.6 millimetres (1.56 in). The hottest month is July, with a mean minimum temperature of 24 °C (75 °F) and a mean maximum temperature of 36.7 °C (98.1 °F), and the coldest is January, with a mean minimum temperature of −0.4 °C (31.3 °F) and a mean maximum temperature of 7.9 °C (46.2 °F). The highest recorded temperature was 43 °C (109 °F) on 3 July 1958 and the lowest recorded temperature was −15 °C (5 °F) on 8 January 1969. | Climate data for Tehran Mehrabad, altitude: 1190.8 m (1951–2010, extremes 1951–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.6(67.3) | 24.4(75.9) | 30.3(86.5) | 33.4(92.1) | 37.0(98.6) | 42.2(108.0) | 43.0(109.4) | 42.0(107.6) | 38.0(100.4) | 33.4(92.1) | 26.4(79.5) | 21.0(69.8) | 43.0(109.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.9(46.2) | 10.6(51.1) | 15.7(60.3) | 22.2(72.0) | 28.0(82.4) | 34.0(93.2) | 36.7(98.1) | 35.7(96.3) | 31.6(88.9) | 24.5(76.1) | 16.3(61.3) | 10.1(50.2) | 22.8(73.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.8(38.8) | 6.0(42.8) | 10.7(51.3) | 16.8(62.2) | 22.1(71.8) | 27.5(81.5) | 30.3(86.5) | 29.5(85.1) | 25.5(77.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 11.6(52.9) | 5.9(42.6) | 17.4(63.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | −0.4(31.3) | 1.4(34.5) | 5.7(42.3) | 11.4(52.5) | 16.3(61.3) | 21.1(70.0) | 24.0(75.2) | 23.4(74.1) | 19.4(66.9) | 13.5(56.3) | 6.8(44.2) | 1.8(35.2) | 12.0(53.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −15.0(5.0) | −13.0(8.6) | −8.0(17.6) | −4.0(24.8) | 2.4(36.3) | 5.0(41.0) | 14.0(57.2) | 13.0(55.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 2.8(37.0) | −7.2(19.0) | −13.0(8.6) | −15.0(5.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 34.6(1.36) | 33.2(1.31) | 39.6(1.56) | 31.9(1.26) | 14.8(0.58) | 3.0(0.12) | 2.2(0.09) | 1.7(0.07) | 1.2(0.05) | 10.7(0.42) | 26.1(1.03) | 33.7(1.33) | 232.7(9.18) | | Average precipitation days | 9.0 | 8.6 | 10.7 | 10.8 | 8.8 | 3.1 | 2.1 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 5.3 | 7.2 | 8.6 | 76.6 | | Average snowy days | 5.1 | 2.9 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 2.7 | 12.3 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 64 | 56 | 47 | 40 | 33 | 25 | 26 | 26 | 27 | 36 | 49 | 62 | 41 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 168.8 | 179.8 | 203.0 | 220.6 | 287.0 | 346.3 | 345.9 | 333.6 | 302.8 | 249.9 | 202.9 | 168.9 | 3,009.5 | | Average ultraviolet index | 2 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 5 | | Source 1: Iran Meteorological Organization (records (temperatures), (precipitation), (humidity), (days with precipitation ), (sunshine) | | Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV) | | Climate data for Tehran-Shomal (north of Tehran), altitude: 1549.1 m (1988–2010, extremes and precipitation 1988-2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 17.2(63.0) | 23.5(74.3) | 29.0(84.2) | 32.4(90.3) | 34.6(94.3) | 40.4(104.7) | 41.8(107.2) | 40.6(105.1) | 36.4(97.5) | 31.2(88.2) | 23.6(74.5) | 19.6(67.3) | 41.8(107.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 6.1(43.0) | 8.6(47.5) | 13.8(56.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 25.5(77.9) | 31.6(88.9) | 34.4(93.9) | 33.6(92.5) | 29.5(85.1) | 22.8(73.0) | 14.5(58.1) | 8.6(47.5) | 20.8(69.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.3(36.1) | 4.4(39.9) | 9.2(48.6) | 14.9(58.8) | 19.8(67.6) | 25.6(78.1) | 28.5(83.3) | 27.6(81.7) | 23.4(74.1) | 17.2(63.0) | 9.9(49.8) | 4.8(40.6) | 15.6(60.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.5(29.3) | 0.2(32.4) | 4.6(40.3) | 9.8(49.6) | 14.2(57.6) | 19.7(67.5) | 22.6(72.7) | 21.6(70.9) | 17.3(63.1) | 11.7(53.1) | 5.3(41.5) | 0.9(33.6) | 10.5(51.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | −13.0(8.6) | −11.0(12.2) | −8.0(17.6) | −2.4(27.7) | 0.0(32.0) | 12.0(53.6) | 15.4(59.7) | 10.6(51.1) | 8.8(47.8) | 2.6(36.7) | −8.3(17.1) | −9.6(14.7) | −13.0(8.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 56.6(2.23) | 64.2(2.53) | 70.1(2.76) | 54.9(2.16) | 25.6(1.01) | 3.9(0.15) | 5.0(0.20) | 3.9(0.15) | 3.7(0.15) | 24.5(0.96) | 53.8(2.12) | 61.1(2.41) | 427.3(16.83) | | Average precipitation days | 12.3 | 10.9 | 12.3 | 10.0 | 8.9 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 5.8 | 8.6 | 10.7 | 89.1 | | Average snowy days | 8.9 | 6.6 | 2.5 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.6 | 4.9 | 23.7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 67 | 59 | 53 | 44 | 39 | 30 | 31 | 31 | 33 | 44 | 57 | 66 | 46 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 135.8 | 146.4 | 185.1 | 215.0 | 274.6 | 322.8 | 331.8 | 327.5 | 292.6 | 245.5 | 171.5 | 135.8 | 2,784.4 | | Source 1: | | Source 2: | In February 2005, heavy snow covered all parts of the city. Snow depth was recorded as 15 cm (6 in) in the southern part of the city and 100 cm (39 in) in the northern part of city. One newspaper reported that it had been the worst weather in 34 years. Ten thousand bulldozers and 13,000 municipal workers were deployed to keep the main roads open. On 5 and 6 January 2008, a wave of heavy snow and low temperatures covered the city in a thick layer of snow and ice, forcing the Council of Ministers to officially declare a state of emergency and close down the capital from 6 January through 7 January. On 3 February 2014, Tehran received heavy snowfall, specifically in the northern parts of the city, with a depth of 2 metres (6.6 ft). In one week of successive snowfalls, roads were made impassable in some areas, with the temperature ranging from −8 °C (18 °F)  to  −16 °C (3 °F). On 3 June 2014, a severe thunderstorm with powerful microbursts created a haboob, engulfing the city in sand and dust and causing five deaths, with more than 57 injured. This event also knocked down numerous trees and power lines. It struck between 5:00 and 6:00 p.m., dropping temperatures from 33 °C (91 °F)  to 19 °C (66 °F)  within an hour. The dramatic temperature drop was accompanied by wind gusts reaching nearly 118 kilometres per hour (73 mph) . ### Environmental issues A plan to move the capital has been discussed many times in prior years, due mainly to the environmental issues of the region. Tehran is one of the world's most polluted cities and is also located near two major fault lines. The city suffers from severe air pollution, 80% of it due to cars. The remaining 20% is due to industrial pollution. Other estimates suggest that motorcycles alone account for 30% of air and 50% of noise pollution in Tehran. Tehran is also considered one of the strongest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the Middle East. Enhanced concentration of carbon dioxide over the city (that are likely originated from the anthropogenic urban sources in the city) is easily detectable from satellite observations throughout the year. In 2010, the government announced that "for security and administrative reasons, the plan to move the capital from Tehran has been finalized." There are plans to relocate 163 state firms and several universities from Tehran to avoid damages from a potential earthquake. The officials are engaged in a battle to reduce air pollution. It has, for instance, encouraged taxis and buses to convert from petrol engines to engines that run on compressed natural gas. Furthermore, the government has set up a "Traffic Zone" covering the city centre during peak traffic hours. Entering and driving inside this zone is only allowed with a special permit. There have also been plans to raise people's awareness of the hazards of pollution. One method that is being employed is the installation of Pollution Indicator Boards all around the city to monitor the level of particulate matter (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Demographics ------------ Tehran's Population History| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1554 | 1,000 | —     | | 1626 | 3,000 | +1.54% | | 1797 | 15,000 | +0.95% | | 1807 | 50,000 | +12.79% | | 1812 | 60,000 | +3.71% | | 1834 | 80,000 | +1.32% | | 1867 | 147,256 | +1.87% | | 1930 | 250,000 | +0.84% | | 1940 | 540,087 | +8.01% | | 1956 | 1,560,934 | +6.86% | | 1966 | 2,719,730 | +5.71% | | 1976 | 4,530,223 | +5.23% | | 1986 | 6,058,207 | +2.95% | | 1991 | 6,497,238 | +1.41% | | 1996 | 6,758,845 | +0.79% | | 2006 | 7,711,230 | +1.33% | | 2011 | 8,244,759 | +1.35% | | 2016 | 8,737,510 | +1.17% | The city of Tehran had a population of 7,711,230 in 2,286,787 households at the time of the 2006 National Census. The following census in 2011 counted 8,154,051 people in 2,624,511 households. The latest census in 2016 showed a population of 8,693,706 people in 2,911,065 households. With its cosmopolitan atmosphere, Tehran is home to diverse ethnic and linguistic groups from all over the country. The present-day dominant language of Tehran is the Tehrani variety of the Persian language, and the majority of people in Tehran identify themselves as Persians. However, before, the native language of the Tehran–Ray region was not Persian, which is linguistically Southwest Iranian and originates in Fars, but a now extinct Northwestern Iranian language. Iranian Azeris form the second-largest ethnic group of the city, comprising about 10-15% of the total population, while ethnic Mazanderanis are the third-largest, comprising about 5% of the total population. Tehran's other ethnic communities include Kurds, Armenians, Georgians, Bakhtyaris, Talysh, Baloch, Assyrians, Arabs, Jews, and Circassians. According to a 2010 census conducted by the Sociology Department of the University of Tehran, in many districts of Tehran across various socio-economic classes in proportion to population sizes of each district and socio-economic class, 63% of the people were born in Tehran, 98% knew Persian, 75% identified themselves as ethnic Persian, and 13% had some degree of proficiency in a European language. Tehran saw a drastic change in its ethnic-social composition in the early 1980s. After the political, social, and economic consequences of the 1979 Revolution and the years that followed, a number of Iranian citizens, mostly Tehranis, left Iran. The majority of Iranian emigrations have left for the United States, Germany, Sweden, and Canada. With the start of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), the second wave of inhabitants fled the city, especially during the Iraqi air offensives on the capital. With most major powers backing Iraq at the time, economic isolation gave yet more reason for many inhabitants to leave the city (and the country). Having left all they had and have struggled to adapt to a new country and build a life, most of them never came back when the war was over. During the war, Tehran also received a great number of migrants from the west and the southwest of the country bordering Iraq. The unstable situation and the war in neighbouring Afghanistan and Iraq prompted a rush of refugees into the country who arrived in their millions, with Tehran being a magnet for much seeking work, who subsequently helped the city to recover from war wounds, working for far less pay than local construction workers. Many of these refugees are being repatriated with the assistance of the UNHCR, but there are still sizable groups of Afghan and Iraqi refugees in Tehran who are reluctant to leave, being pessimistic about the situation in their own countries. Afghan refugees are mostly Dari-speaking Tajik and Hazara, speaking a variety of Persian, and Iraqi refugees are mainly Mesopotamian Arabic-speakers who are often of Iranian and Persian ethnic heritage. ### Religion The majority of Tehranis are officially Twelver Shia Muslims, which has also been the state religion since the 16th-century Safavid conversion. Other religious communities in the city include followers of the Sunni and Mystic branches of Islam, various Christian denominations, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Baháʼí Faith. As per a 2003 survey, 60% of Tehranis consider religion to be "very important", 25% "important" and 13% "not important", while 41% of Tehranis identify as "very pious", 41% as "pious" and 16% as "not pious." A 2016 survey found out that, among Tehranis, 53.5% consider religion to be "very important / important", 31.1% to be "rather important", 10.5% to be "not very important" and 4.8% to be "not at all important." There are many religious centres scattered around the city, from old to newly built centres, including mosques, churches, synagogues, and Zoroastrian fire temples. The city also has a very small third-generation Indian Sikh community with a local gurdwara that was visited by the Indian Prime Minister in 2012. * Tehran's Shah MosqueTehran's Shah Mosque * Tehran's Greek Orthodox Church of Virgin MaryTehran's Greek Orthodox Church of Virgin Mary * Saint Mary Armenian Apostolic Church, TehranSaint Mary Armenian Apostolic Church, Tehran * St. Joseph Assyrian Catholic (Chaldean Catholic) Church, TehranSt. Joseph Assyrian Catholic (Chaldean Catholic) Church, Tehran * Assyrian Church of the East of Mar Sarkis, TehranAssyrian Church of the East of Mar Sarkis, Tehran * Tehran's Yusef Abad SynagogueTehran's Yusef Abad Synagogue * Adrian Fire Temple, TehranAdrian Fire Temple, Tehran Economy ------- Tehran is the economic centre of Iran. About 30% of Iran's public-sector workforce and 45% of its large industrial firms are located in the city, and almost half of these workers are employed by the government. Most of the remainder of workers are factory workers, shopkeepers, laborers, and transport workers. Few foreign companies operate in Tehran, due to the government's complex international relations. But prior to the 1979 Revolution, many foreign companies were active in Iran. Tehran's present-day modern industries include the manufacturing of automobiles, electronics and electrical equipment, weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical products. It is also a leading centre for the sale of carpets and furniture. The oil refining companies of Pars Oil, Speedy, and Behran are based in Tehran. Tehran relies heavily on private cars, buses, motorcycles, and taxis, and is one of the most car-dependent cities in the world. The Tehran Stock Exchange, which is a full member of the World Federation of Exchanges (WFE) and a founding member of the Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges, has been one of the world's best-performing stock exchanges in recent years. ### Shopping Tehran has a wide range of shopping centers, and is home to over 60 modern shopping malls. The city has a number of commercial districts, including those located at Valiasr, Davudie, and Zaferanie. The largest old bazaars of Tehran are the Grand Bazaar and the Bazaar of Tajrish. Iran Mall is the largest mall in the world in area. Most of the international branded stores and upper-class shops are in the northern and western parts of the city. Tehran's retail business is growing with several newly built malls and shopping centres. * Iran MallIran Mall * Tiraje Mall in western TehranTiraje Mall in western Tehran * Kourosh Mall in Shahid Sattari ExpresswayKourosh Mall in Shahid Sattari Expressway * Tehran's Old Grand BazaarTehran's Old Grand Bazaar * OPAL Shopping CenteOPAL Shopping Cente * Hyperstar, Tehran's subsidiary of CarrefourHyperstar, Tehran's subsidiary of Carrefour List of modern and most-visited Shopping Malls in Tehran Province: * Mega Mall * Bamland Shopping Center * Palladium Shopping Center * Sam Center * Iran Mall * Kourosh Mall * Tirajeh Shopping Center * Modern Elahiyeh Shopping Center * Donyaye Noor Shopping Centre * Tandis Shopping Center * Ava Centre * Atlas Mall * Goldis Mall * OPAL Shopping Center * Rosha Department Store * Sivan Center * Arg Shopping Center * Nasr Shopping Center * Galleria Shopping Center * Charso Mall * Mirdamad Shopping Center * Royal Address Complex * Platin Shopping Center * Sana Shopping Center * Sepid Shopping Center Tehran * Najm Khavar Mianeh * Parsian Shopping Center * Artemis Shopping Center * Heravi Center Shopping Mall * Tuba shopping center * Lale Shopping Center * Andisheh Shopping Center * Sky Center * Lotus Mall * Saba Shopping Mall * Seven Center Shopping Mall * Kasa Shopping * Platin Shopping Center ### Tourism Tehran, as one of the main tourist destinations in Iran, has a wealth of cultural attractions. It is home to royal complexes of Golestan, Saadabad and Niavaran, which were built under the reign of the country's last two monarchies. There are several historic, artistic, and scientific museums in Tehran, including the * National Museum * Malek Museum * Cinema Museum at Ferdows Garden * Abgineh Museum * Museum of the Qasr Prison * Carpet Museum * Reverse Glass Painting Museum (vitray art) * Safir Office Machines Museum Also the Museum of Contemporary Art, which hosts works of famous artists such as Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, and Andy Warhol. The Iranian Imperial Crown Jewels, one of the largest jewel collections in the world, are also on display at Tehran's National Jewelry Museum. A number of cultural and trade exhibitions take place in Tehran, which are mainly operated by the country's International Exhibitions Company. Tehran's annual International Book Fair is known to the international publishing world as one of the most important publishing events in Asia. * Tabiat BridgeTabiat Bridge * Golestan PalaceGolestan Palace * Niavaran ComplexNiavaran Complex * Sa'dabad ComplexSa'dabad Complex * Masoudie, BaharestanMasoudie, Baharestan * National Museum of IranNational Museum of Iran * Museum of Contemporary ArtMuseum of Contemporary Art * Carpet Museum of IranCarpet Museum of Iran * Museum of the Qasr PrisonMuseum of the Qasr Prison * Abgineh MuseumAbgineh Museum **Hotel** * Espinas Palace Hotel * Parsian Azadi Hotel * Fereshteh Pasargad Hotel * Laleh International Hotel * Parsian Enghelab Hotel * Parsian Esteghlal International Hotel * Parsian Evin Hotel * Ibis Hotel * Espinas International Hotel * Persian Plaza Hotel * Hanna Boutique Hotel * Homa Hotel * Rexan Hotel * Tehran Heritage Hostel * Tehran Grand 1 Hotel * Iran Cozy Hotel * Pamchal Hotel * Amatis Hotel * Hotel Markazi Iran * Marlik Hotel * Ferdowsi Grand Hotel * Atana Hotel * Valiasr Hotel * Taj Mahal Hotel * Morvarid Hotel * Hally Hotel * Howeyzeh hotel * Atlas Hotel * Amir Hotel * Espinas Palace HotelEspinas Palace Hotel * Parsian Esteghlal International HotelParsian Esteghlal International Hotel * Ferdowsi Grand HotelFerdowsi Grand Hotel * Homa HotelHoma Hotel * Laleh International HotelLaleh International Hotel * Parsian Azadi HotelParsian Azadi Hotel Infrastructure -------------- ### Highways and streets Following the Islamic Revolution in 1979, the political system changed from constitutional monarchy to Islamic republic. Then the construction of political power in the country needed to change so that new spectrums of political power decision-making centers emerged in Iran. Motives, desires and actions of these new political power decision-making centers in Iran, made them rename streets and public places throughout the country, especially Tehran. For example Shahyad square changed to Azadi square and Pahlavi street changed to Valiasr street. The metropolis of Tehran is equipped with a large network of highways and interchanges. * Valiasr StreetValiasr Street * Hemmat ExpresswayHemmat Expressway * Modarres ExpresswayModarres Expressway * Kordestan Expressway interchange with Resalat and Hakim expresswaysKordestan Expressway interchange with Resalat and Hakim expressways A number of streets in Tehran are named after international figures, including: * Henri Corbin Street, central Tehran * Simon Bolivar Boulevard, northwestern Tehran * Edward Browne Street, near the University of Tehran * Gandhi Street, northern Tehran * Mohammad Ali Jenah Expressway, western Tehran * Iqbal Lahori Street, eastern Tehran * Patrice Lumumba Street, western Tehran * Nelson Mandela Boulevard, northern Tehran * Bobby Sands Street, western side of the British Embassy ### Cars According to the head of Tehran Municipality's Environment and Sustainable Development Office, Tehran was designed to have a capacity of about 300,000 cars, but more than five million cars are on the roads. The automotive industry has recently developed, but international sanctions influence the production processes periodically. According to local media, Tehran has more than 200,000 taxis plying the roads daily, with several types of taxi available in the city. Airport taxis have a higher cost per kilometer as opposed to regular green and yellow taxis in the city. ### Buses Buses have served the city since the 1920s. Tehran's transport system includes conventional buses, trolleybuses, and bus rapid transit (BRT). The city's four major bus stations include the South Terminal, the East Terminal, the West Terminal, and the northcentral Beyhaghi Terminal. The trolleybus system was opened in 1992, using a fleet of 65 articulated trolleybuses built by Czech Republic's Škoda. This was the first trolleybus system in Iran. In 2005, trolleybuses were operating on five routes, all starting at Imam Hossein Square. Two routes running northeastwards operated almost entirely in a segregated busway located in the middle of the wide carriageway along Damavand Street, stopping only at purpose-built stops located about every 500 metres along the routes, effectively making these routes trolleybus-BRT (but they were not called such). The other three trolleybus routes ran south and operated in mixed traffic. Both route sections were served by limited-stop services and local (making all stops) services. A 3.2-kilometer extension from Shoosh Square to Rah Ahan Square was opened in March 2010. Visitors in 2014 found that the trolleybus system had closed, apparently sometime in 2013. However, it reopened in March 2016, operating on a single 1.8-km route between Meydan-e-Khorasan (Khorasan Square) and Bozorgrah-e-Be'sat. Around 30 vehicles had been refurbished and returned to service. Extensions were planned. Tehran's bus rapid transit (BRT) was officially inaugurated in 2008. It has 10 lines with some 215 stations in different areas of the city. As of 2011[update], the BRT system had a network of 100 kilometres (62 miles), transporting 1.8 million passengers on a daily basis. ### Bicycle **Bdood** is a dockless bike-sharing company in Iran. Founded in 2017, it is available in the central and northwest regions of the capital city of Tehran. The company has plans to expand across the city in the future. In the first phase, the application covers the flat areas of Tehran and they would be out of use in poor weather conditions. Riders can use 29 parking lots for the bikes across Enqelab Avenue, Keshavarz Boulevard, Beheshti Street and Motahhari Avenue in which the bikes are available 24/7 for riders. ### Railway and subway Tehran has a central railway station that connects services round the clock to various cities in the country, along with a Tehran–Europe train line also running. The feasibility study and conceptual planning of the construction of Tehran's subway system were started in the 1970s. The first two of the eight projected metro lines were opened in 2001. List of Tehran Metro Lines| Line | Opening | Length | Stations | Type | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **1** | 2001 | 70 km (43 mi) | 32 | Metro | | **2** | 2000 | 26 km (16 mi) | 22 | Metro | | **3** | 2012 | 37 km (23 mi) | 24 | Metro | | **4** | 2008 | 22 km (14 mi) | 22 | Metro | | **5** | 1999 | 43 km (27 mi) | 11 | Commuter rail | | **6** | 2019 | 9 km (5.6 mi) | 3 | Metro | | **7** | 2017 | 13.5 km (8.4 mi) | 8 | Metro | | **Metro Subtotal:** | **177.5 km (110 mi)** | **111** | | | **Total:** | **220.5 km (137 mi)** | **122** | | ### Airport Tehran is served by the international airports of Mehrabad and Imam Khomeini. Mehrabad Airport, an old airport in western Tehran that doubles as a military base, is mainly used for domestic and charter flights. Imam Khomeini Airport, located 50 kilometres (31 miles) south of the city, handles the main international flights. ### Parks and green spaces There are over 2,100 parks within the metropolis of Tehran, with one of the oldest being Jamshidie Park, which was first established as a private garden for Qajar prince Jamshid Davallu, and was then dedicated to the last empress of Iran, Farah Pahlavi. The total green space within Tehran stretches over 12,600 hectares, covering over 20 percent of the city's area. The Parks and Green Spaces Organization of Tehran was established in 1960, and is responsible for the protection of the urban nature present in the city. Tehran's Birds Garden is the largest bird park in Iran. There is also a zoo located on the Tehran–Karaj Expressway, housing over 290 species within an area of about five hectares. In 2009, the Ab-o-Atash Park ("Water and Fire park") was founded. Its main features are an open water fountain area for cooling in the hot climate, fire towers, and an amphitheatre. ### Energy #### Water Fresh water resources of Tehran Province in 2017   Groundwater (37%)  Sewage treatment (63%) Greater Tehran with its population of more than 13 million is supplied by surface water from the Lar dam on the Lar River in the Northeast of the city, the Latyan dam on the Jajrood River in the North, the Karaj River in the Northwest, as well as by groundwater in the vicinity of the city. #### Solar Energy Solar panels have been installed in Tehran's Pardisan Park for green electricity production, said Masoumeh Ebtekar, head of the Department of Environment. According to the national energy roadmap, the government plans to promote green technology to increase the nominal capacity of power plants from 74 gigawatts to over 120 gigawatts by the end of 2025. Education --------- Tehran is the largest and most important educational center in Iran. There are a total of nearly 50 major colleges and universities in Greater Tehran. Since the establishment of Dar ol Fonun by the order of Amir Kabir in the mid-19th century, Tehran has amassed a large number of institutions of higher education. Some of these institutions have played crucial roles in the unfolding of Iranian political events. Samuel M. Jordan, whom Jordan Avenue in Tehran was named after, was one of the founding pioneers of the American College of Tehran, which was one of the first modern high schools in the Middle East. Among major educational institutions located in Tehran, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), University of Tehran, Sharif University of Technology, and Tehran University of Medical Sciences are the most prestigious. Other major universities located in Tehran include Tehran University of Art, Allameh Tabatabaei University, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Shahid Beheshti University (Melli University), Kharazmi University, Iran University of Science and Technology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology, Iran's Polymer and Petrochemical Institute, Shahed University, and Tarbiat Modarres University. Sharif University of Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran University of Science and Technology and K. N. Toosi University of Technology also located in Tehran are nationally well known for taking in the top undergraduate Engineering and Science students; and internationally recognized for training competent under graduate students. It has probably the highest percentage of graduates who seek higher education abroad. Tehran is also home to Iran's largest military academy, and several religious schools and seminaries. Culture ------- ### Architecture The oldest surviving architectural monuments of Tehran are from the Qajar and Pahlavi eras. In Greater Tehran, monuments dating back to the Seljuk era remain as well; notably the Toqrol Tower in Ray. Rashkan Castle, dating back to the ancient Parthian Empire, of which some artifacts are housed at the National Museum; and the Bahram fire temple, which remains since the Sassanian Empire. Tehran only had a small population until the late 18th century but began to take a more considerable role in Iranian society after it was chosen as the capital city. Despite the regular occurrence of earthquakes during the Qajar period and after, some historic buildings remain from that era. Tehran is Iran's primate city, and is considered to have the most modernized infrastructure in the country. However, the gentrification of old neighbourhoods and the demolition of buildings of cultural significance have caused concerns. * Hasanabad SquareHasanabad Square * A view of the building of the City Theater of TehranA view of the building of the City Theater of Tehran * The Courthouse of TehranThe Courthouse of Tehran * Police House,the National GardenPolice House, the National Garden * Cossack House,the National GardenCossack House, the National Garden Previously a low-rise city due to seismic activity in the region, modern high-rise developments in Tehran have been built in recent decades in order to service its growing population. There have been no major quakes in Tehran since 1830. Tehran International Tower is the tallest skyscraper in Iran. It is 54-stories tall and located in the northern district of Yusef Abad. The Azadi Tower, a memorial built under the reign of the Pahlavi dynasty, has long been the most famous symbol of Tehran. Originally constructed in commemoration of the 2,500th year of the foundation of the Imperial State of Iran, it combines elements of the architecture of the Achaemenid and Sassanid eras with post-classical Iranian architecture. The Milad Tower, which is the sixth tallest tower and the 24th-tallest freestanding structure in the world, is the city's other famous landmark tower. Leila Araghian's Tabiat Bridge, the largest pedestrian overpass in Tehran, was completed in 2014 and is also considered a landmark. ### Theater Under the reign of the Qajars, Tehran was home to the royal theatre of Tekye Dowlat, located to the southeast of the Golestan Palace, in which traditional and religious performances were observed. It was eventually demolished and replaced with a bank building in 1947, following the reforms during the reign of Reza Shah. Before the 1979 Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become the most famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes in the Middle East, with the Roudaki Hall of Tehran constructed to function as the national stage for opera and ballet. The hall was inaugurated in October 1967 and named after prominent Persian poet Rudaki. It is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company. The City Theater of Tehran, one of Iran's biggest theatre complexes, which contains several performance halls, was opened in 1972. It was built at the initiative and presidency of empress Farah Pahlavi, and was designed by architect Ali Sardar Afkhami, constructed within five years. The annual events of Fajr Theater Festival and Tehran Puppet Theater Festival take place in Tehran. ### Cinema The first movie theater in Tehran was established by Mirza Ebrahim Khan in 1904. Until the early 1930s, there were 15 theaters in Tehran Province and 11 in other provinces. In present-day Tehran, most of the movie theatres are located downtown. The complexes of Kourosh Cinema, Mellat Gallery and Cineplex, Azadi Cinema, and Cinema Farhang are among the most popular cinema complexes in Tehran. Several film festivals are held in Tehran, including Fajr Film Festival, Children and Youth Film Festival, House of Cinema Festival, Mobile Film and Photo Festival, Nahal Festival, Roshd Film Festival, Tehran Animation Festival, Tehran Short Film Festival, and Urban Film Festival. ### Concerts There are a variety of concert halls in Tehran. An organization like the Roudaki Culture and Art Foundation has five different venues where more than 500 concerts take place this year. Vahdat Hall, Roudaki Hall, Ferdowsi Hall, Hafez Hall and Azadi Theater are the top five venues in Tehran, where classical, pop, traditional, rock or solo concerts take place. ### Sports Football and volleyball are the city's most popular sports, while wrestling, basketball, and futsal are also major parts of the city's sporting culture. 12 ski resorts operate in Iran, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak, all within one to three hours from the city of Tehran. Tochal's resort is the world's fifth-highest ski resort at over 3,730 meters (12,240 feet) above sea level at its highest point. It is also the world's nearest ski resort to a capital city. The resort was opened in 1976, shortly before the 1979 Revolution. It is equipped with an 8-kilometre-long (5 mi) gondola lift that covers a huge vertical distance. There are two parallel chair ski lifts in Tochal that reach 3,900 meters (12,800 feet) high near Tochal's peak (at 4,000 m/13,000 ft), rising higher than the gondola's seventh station, which is higher than any of the European ski resorts. From the Tochal peak, there are views of the Alborz range, including the 5,610-metre-high (18,406 ft) Mount Damavand, a dormant volcano. The Azadi Stadium is the largest football stadium in West Asia. Tehran is the site of the national stadium of Azadi, the biggest stadium by capacity in West Asia, where many of the top matches of Iran's Premier League are held. The stadium is a part of the Azadi Sport Complex, which was originally built to host the 7th Asian Games in September 1974. This was the first time the Asian Games were hosted in West Asia. Tehran played host to 3,010 athletes from 25 countries/NOCs, which was at the time the highest number of participants since the inception of the Games. That followed hosting the 6th AFC Asian Cup in June 1976, and then the first West Asian Games in November 1997. The success of the games led to the creation of the West Asian Games Federation (WAGF), and the intention of hosting the games every two years. The city had also hosted the final of the 1968 AFC Asian Cup. Several FIVB Volleyball World League courses have also been hosted in Tehran. #### Football clubs The first football club of Tehran, *Iran Club*, was founded in 1920 and dissolved within two years in 1923. Today, Tehran's oldest existing football club is Rah Ahan, which was founded in 1937. Persepolis and Esteghlal, which are the city's biggest clubs and two of the biggest clubs in Asia, compete in the Tehran derby. Tehran is also home to the F.C. Ararat Tehran, a popular Armenian football team based at the Ararat Stadium. The following table lists Tehran's six major football clubs. | Club | Sport | Founded | League | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ararat F.C. | Association football | 1944 | Tehran Province League | | Esteghlal F.C. | Association football | 1945 | Iran Pro League (IPL) | | Steel Azin F.C. | Association football | 2007 | Iran Football's 3rd Division | | Persepolis F.C. | Association football | 1967 | Iran Pro League (IPL) | | Paykan F.C. | Association football | 1967 | Iran Pro League (IPL) | Smaller clubs based in Tehran are listed below. | Club | Sport | League | | --- | --- | --- | | Baadraan F.C. | Association football | Azadegan League | | Parseh F.C. | Association football | Azadegan League | | Niroo Zamini F.C. | Association football | 2nd Division | | Kaveh F.C. | Association football | 2nd Division | | Moghavemat F.C. | Association football | 2nd Division | | Oghab F.C. | Association football | 3rd Division | | Entezam F.C. | Association football | 3rd Division | | Naftoon F.C. | Association football | 3rd Division | ### Food There are many restaurants and cafes in Tehran, both modern and classic, serving both Iranian and cosmopolitan cuisine. Pizzerias, sandwich bars, and kebab shops make up the majority of food shops in Tehran. * A restaurant in DarbandA restaurant in Darband * A pizzeria in Kamyab Street, TehranA pizzeria in Kamyab Street, Tehran * A Japanese restaurant in TehranA Japanese restaurant in Tehran * Shemroon Cafe, in Tehran's Iranian Art MuseumShemroon Cafe, in Tehran's Iranian Art Museum * 30 Tir food street30 Tir food street ### Graffiti Many styles of graffiti are seen in Tehran. Some are political and revolutionary slogans painted by governmental organizations, and some are works of art by ordinary citizens, representing their views on both social and political issues. However, unsanctioned street art is forbidden in Iran, and such works are usually short-lived. During the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests, many graffiti works were created by people supporting the Green Movement. They were removed from the walls by the paramilitary Basij forces. In recent years, Tehran Municipality has been using graffiti in order to beautify the city. Several graffiti festivals have also taken place in Tehran, including the one organized by the Tehran University of Art in October 2014. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Tehran is twinned with: * Turkey Ankara, Turkey * Brazil Brasília, Brazil * Hungary Budapest, Hungary * Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan * Sudan Khartoum, Sudan * United Kingdom London, England, United Kingdom * United States Los Angeles, United States * United States New York City, United States * Philippines Manila, Philippines * South Africa Pretoria, South Africa * Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina * Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia * Armenia Yerevan, Armenia ### Cooperation agreements Tehran cooperates with: * Turkey Istanbul, Turkey * France Paris, France * South Korea Seoul, South Korea Panoramic views --------------- A panoramic view of Tehran at night A panoramic view of Tehran during the dayA panoramic view of Tehran during the day in springA panoramic view of Tehran during the dayA panoramic view of Tehran on a clean day See also -------- * Iran International Exhibitions Company * Islamic City Council of Tehran * List of people from Tehran * Tehran City Council (1968–1979) | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Preceded byShiraz | **Capital of Iran (Persia)** 1795–current | **Incumbent** |

Tehran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran

The **Aegean Sea** is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some 215,000 square kilometres. In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn connects to the Black Sea, by the straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, respectively. The Aegean Islands are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,639m to the west of Karpathos. The Thracian Sea and the Sea of Crete are main subdivisions of the Aegean Sea. The Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups, including the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, the Sporades, the Saronic islands and the North Aegean Islands, as well as Crete and its surrounding islands. The Dodecanese, located to the southeast, includes the islands of Rhodes, Kos, and Patmos; the islands of Delos and Naxos are within the Cyclades to the south of the sea. Lesbos is part of the North Aegean Islands. Euboea, the second-largest island in Greece, is located in the Aegean, despite being administered as part of Central Greece. Nine out of twelve of the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea, along with the Turkish provinces of Edirne, Canakkale, Balıkesir, Izmir, Aydın and Muğla to the east of the sea. Various Turkish islands in the sea are Imbros, Tenedos, Cunda Island, and the Foça Islands. The Aegean Sea has been historically important, especially in regards to the civilization of Ancient Greece, who inhabited the area around the coast of the Aegean and the Aegean islands. The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and Asia. Along with the Greeks, Thracians lived among the northern coast. The Romans conquered the area under the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire held it against advances by the First Bulgarian Empire. The Fourth Crusade weakened Byzantine control of the area, and it was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years, until it was replaced by modern Turkey. The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. Of particular interest are the richly coloured sediments in the region of the islands of Santorini and Milos, in the south Aegean. Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include Athens, Thessaloniki, Volos, Kavala and Heraklion in Greece, and İzmir and Bodrum in Turkey. A number of issues concerning sovereignty within the Aegean Sea are disputed between Greece and Turkey. The Aegean dispute has had a large effect on Greek-Turkish relations since the 1970s. Issues include the delimitation of territorial waters, national airspace, exclusive economic zones and flight information regions. Name and etymology ------------------ Late Latin authors referred the name *Aegaeus* to Aegeus, who was said to have jumped into that sea to drown himself (rather than throwing himself from the Athenian acropolis, as told by some Greek authors). He was the father of Theseus, the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. Aegeus had told Theseus to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur. When Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions, and Aegeus thought his son had died, so he drowned himself in the sea. The sea was known in Latin as *Mare Aegaeum* under the control of the Roman Empire. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name *Archipelago* (Greek: αρχιπέλαγος, meaning "main sea" or "chief sea"), a name that held on in many European countries until the early modern period. In South Slavic languages, the Aegean is called ***White Sea*** (Bulgarian: Бяло море, romanized: *Byalo more*; Macedonian: Бело море, romanized: *Belo more*; Serbo-Croatian: *Belo more* / Бело море). The Turkish name for the sea is *Ege Denizi*, which is derived from the Greek name. Geography --------- The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea and covers about 214,000 square kilometres (83,000 sq mi) in area, measuring about 670 kilometres (420 mi) longitudinally and 390 kilometres (240 mi) latitudinal. The sea's maximum depth is 3,639 metres (11,939 ft), located at a point west of Karpathos. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, generally from west to east: Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The Anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea, while the Greek mainland marks the west. Several seas are contained within the Aegean Sea; the Thracian Sea is a section of the Aegean located to the north, the Icarian Sea to the east, the Myrtoan Sea to the west, while the Sea of Crete is the southern section. The Greek regions that border the sea, in alphabetical order, are Attica, Central Greece, Central Macedonia, Crete, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace, North Aegean, Peloponnese, South Aegean, and Thessaly. The historical region of Macedonia also borders the sea, to the north. The Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to Greece, can be divided into seven groups: 1. Northeastern Aegean Islands, which lie in the Thracian Sea 2. East Aegean Islands (*Euboea*) 3. Northern Sporades 4. Cyclades 5. Saronic Islands (or *Argo-Saronic Islands*) 6. Dodecanese (or *Southern Sporades*) 7. Crete Many of the Aegean islands or island chains, are geographically extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. The bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabello, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west with the Argolic Gulf, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Gulf of Çandarlı, Gulf of İzmir, Gulf of Kuşadası, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf. The Aegean sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara by the Dardanelles, also known from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea. It ultimately connects with the Black Sea through the Bosphoros strait, upon which lies the city of Istanbul. The Dardanelles and the Bosphoros are known as the Turkish Straits. ### Extent According to the International Hydrographic Organization, the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows: * On the south: A line running from Cape Aspro (28°16′E) in Asia Minor, to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of Rhodes, through the island to Cape Prasonisi, the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33′N) in Skarpanto [Karpathos], through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape Apolitares in Antikithera Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in Kithera Island, through Kithera to the Northwest point (Cape Karavugia) and thence to Cape Santa Maria (36°28′N 22°57′E / 36.467°N 22.950°E / 36.467; 22.950) in the Morea. * In the Dardanelles: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles. ### Hydrography Aegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of 23–30 metres (75–98 ft), then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of 5–15 cm/s (2–6 in/s). The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece. The physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait. Analysis of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed three distinct water masses: * **Aegean Sea Surface Water** – 40–50 metres (130–160 ft) thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21–26 °C and winter temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the north to 16 °C (61 °F) in the south. * **Aegean Sea Intermediate Water** – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40 to 50 m to 200–300 metres (660–980 ft) with temperatures ranging from 11 to 18 °C. * **Aegean Sea Bottom Water** – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a very uniform temperature (13–14 °C) and salinity (3.91–3.92%). ### Climate The climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey, which is to say, predominantly Mediterranean. According to the Köppen climate classification, most of the Aegean is classified as Hot-summer Mediterranean (*Csa*), with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water. This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean, and within the Aegean islands. In the north of the Aegean Sea, the climate is instead classified as Cold semi-arid *(BSk)*, which feature cooler summers than Hot-summer Mediterranean climates. The Etesian winds are a dominant weather influence in the Aegean Basin. The below table lists climate conditions of some major Aegean cities: **Climate characteristics of some major cities on the Aegean coast**| City | Mean temperature (daily high) | Mean total rainfall | | --- | --- | --- | | January | July | January | July | | °C | °F | °C | °F | mm | in | days | mm | in | days | | Alexandroupoli | 8.4 | 47.1 | 30.1 | 86.2 | 60.4 | 2.38 | 6.8 | 17.6 | 0.69 | 2.5 | | Bodrum | 15.1 | 59.2 | 34.2 | 93.6 | 134.1 | 5.28 | 12.3 | 1.3 | 0.05 | 1.5 | | Heraklion | 15.2 | 59.4 | 28.6 | 83.5 | 91.5 | 3.6 | 10.1 | 1.0 | 0.04 | 0.1 | | Izmir | 12.4 | 54.3 | 33.2 | 91.8 | 132.7 | 5.22 | 12.6 | 1.7 | 0.07 | 0.4 | | Thessaloniki | 9.3 | 48.7 | 32.5 | 90.5 | 35.2 | 1.39 | 8.8 | 27.3 | 1.07 | 3.8 | | Source: World Meteorological Organization, Turkish State Meteorological Service | ### Population Numerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast, as well as on towns on the Aegean islands. The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Turkey. The most populated of the Aegean islands is Crete, followed by Euboea and Rhodes. Biogeography and ecology ------------------------ ### Protected Areas Greece has established several marine protected areas along its coasts. According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean (MedPAN), four Greek MPAs are participating in the Network. These include Alonnisos Marine Park, while the Missolonghi–Aitoliko Lagoons and the island of Zakynthos are not on the Aegean. History ------- ### Ancient history The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (about 18,000 years ago) sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared around 9,000 years ago, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that. The subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term *Aegean civilization*. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands, flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 BC before a period of decline, finally ending at around 1100 BC. It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind massive building complexes, tools, stunning artwork, writing systems, and a massive network of trade. The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. The most notable Minoan palace is that of Knossos, followed by that of Phaistos. The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland, becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC. It is believed that the site of Mycenae, which sits close to the Aegean coast, was the center of Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean, including the Aegean, was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as *wanax*. The civilization of Mycenaean Greeks perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the so-called Greek Dark Ages. It is undetermined what cause the collapse of the Mycenaeans. During the Greek Dark Ages, writing in the Linear B script ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned. ### Ancient Greece The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century BC. Greece became divided into small self-governing communities, and adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes, of which Athens, Sparta, and Corinth were closest to the Aegean Sea. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks emigrated to form colonies in Magna Graecia (Southern Italy and Sicily), Asia Minor and further afield. The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history, when on September 20, 480 B.C. the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the Xerxes II of Persia at the Battle of Salamis. Thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the Achaemenid Empire. The Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control, albeit briefly, of the Kingdom of Macedonia. Philip II and his son Alexander the Great led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule, but also the destruction of the Achaemenid Empire. After Alexander the Great's death, his empire was divided among his generals. Cassander became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean, roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece. The Kingdom of Lysimachus had control over the sea's eastern coast. Greece had entered the Hellenistic period. ### Roman rule The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin, including the Aegean, in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the Punic Wars. During Roman rule, the land around the Aegean Sea fell under the provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Thracia, Asia and Creta et Cyrenica (island of Crete) ### Medieval period The Fall of the Western Roman Empire allowed its successor state, the Byzantine Empire, to continue Roman control over the Aegean Sea. However, their territory would later be threatened by the Early Muslim conquests initiated by Muhammad in the 7th century. Although the Rashidun Caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean sea, its conquest of the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt, the Levant, and North Africa left the Byzantine Empire weakened. The Umayyad Caliphate expanded the territorial gains of the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering much of North Africa, and threatened the Byzantine Empire's control of Western Anatolia, where it meets the Aegean Sea. During the 820s, Crete was conquered by a group of Berbers Andalusians exiles led by Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, and it became an independent Islamic state. The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos, but the reconquest was not completed and was soon reversed. Later attempts by the Byzantine Empire to recover the island were without success. For the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. Crete returned to Byzantine rule under Nikephoros Phokas, who launched a huge campaign against the Emirate of Crete in 960 to 961. Meanwhile, the Bulgarian Empire threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to the south. Under Presian I and his successor Boris I, the Bulgarian Empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast. Simeon I of Bulgaria led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion, and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the Aegean. The Byzantines later regained control. The Second Bulgarian Empire achieved similar success along, again, the northern and western coasts, under Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. The Seljuq Turks, under the Seljuk Empire, invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which they annexed almost all the territories of Anatolia, including the east coast of the Aegean Sea, during the reign of Alp Arslan, the second Sultan of the Seljuk Empire. After the death of his successor, Malik Shah I, the empire was divided, and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I, who founded the Sultanate of Rum. The Byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the Aegean. After Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade, the area around the Aegean sea was fragmented into multiple entities, including the Latin Empire, the Kingdom of Thessalonica, the Empire of Nicaea, the Principality of Achaea, and the Duchy of Athens. The Venetians created the maritime state of the Duchy of the Archipelago, which included all the Cyclades except Mykonos and Tinos. The Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine rump state, managed to effect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. Byzantine successes were not to last; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast, but before their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been weakened from internal conflict. By the late 14th century the Byzantine Empire had lost all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could exercise power around their capital, Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire then gained control of all the Aegean coast with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669. ### Modern Period The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onward. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following World War I, when it was replaced by modern Turkey. During the war, Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the Aegean. By the 1930s, Greece and Turkey had about resumed their present-day borders. In the Italo-Turkish War of 1912, Italy captured the Dodecanese islands, and had occupied them since, reneging on the 1919 Venizelos–Tittoni agreement to cede them to Greece. The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 as part of the Balkans Campaign of World War II. The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek puppet state, which would permit the Italian annexation of the Sporades and the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea, to be administered as a part of the Italian Aegean Islands. The German invasion resulted in the Axis occupation of Greece. The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944, and by the end of the month, they had withdrawn from mainland Greece. Greece was then liberated by Allied troops. Economy and politics -------------------- Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays. In ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland, and to some extent, the coastal areas of Anatolia. Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. Of the main islands in the Aegean Sea, two belong to Turkey – Bozcaada (Tenedos) and Gökçeada (Imbros); the rest belong to Greece. Between the two countries, there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space, including the size of territorial waters, air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf. These issues are known as the Aegean dispute. ### Transport Multiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts of the Aegean Sea. The port of Piraeus in Athens is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe and the third largest in the world, servicing about 20 million passengers annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs, Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the Eastern Mediterranean. Piraeus is also the commercial hub of Greek shipping. Piraeus bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind Aghioi Theodoroi and Thessaloniki. The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services. As of 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus, making it one of the busiest ports in Greece. In 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 TEU's. Paloukia, on the island of Salamis, is a major passenger port. ### Fishing Fish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export, and Greece has Europe's largest fishing fleet. Fish captured include sardines, mackerel, grouper, grey mullets, sea bass, and seabream. There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones; with respect to pelagic fisheries, the catches from the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated, respectively, by anchovy, horse mackerels, and boops. For demersal fisheries, the catches from the northern and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated by grey mullets and pickerel (*Spicara smaris*) respectively. The industry has been impacted by the Great Recession.[*clarification needed*] Overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern, threatening grouper, and seabream populations, resulting in perhaps a 50% decline of fish catch. To address these concerns, Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government. Although some species are defined as protected or threatened under EU legislation, several illegal species such as the molluscs *Pinna nobilis*, *Charonia tritonis* and *Lithophaga lithophaga*, can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around Greece. ### Tourism The Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations. Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in Greece, especially since the second half of the 20th century. A total of five UNESCO World Heritage sites are located the Aegean Islands; these include the Monastery of Saint John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on Patmos, the Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos in Samos, the Nea Moni of Chios, the island of Delos, and the Medieval City of Rhodes. Greece is one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018, and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product. The islands of Santorini, Crete, Lesbos, Delos, and Mykonos are common tourist destinations. An estimated 2 million tourists visit Santorini annually. However, concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years, such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding. Alongside Greece, Turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists, contributing to tourism in Turkey. The phrase "Blue Cruise" refers to recreational voyages along the Turkish Riviera, including across the Aegean. The ancient city of Troy, a World Heritage Site, is on the Turkish coast of the Aegean. Greece and Turkey both take part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education. The certification is awarded for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria. As of 2015, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in Greece. Southern Aegean beaches on the Turkish coast include Muğla, with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag, along with İzmir and Aydın, who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively. See also -------- * Exclusive economic zone of Greece * Geography of Turkey * List of Greek place names 1. ↑ "Drainage Basin of the Mediterranean Sea" (PDF). Second Assessment of Ocean (Report). UNECE. November 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. 2. ↑ "EMODnet Digital Bathymetry (DTM)". European Union. Retrieved 23 September 2022. 3. 1 2 "Aegean Sea | Mediterranean Sea". *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Retrieved 14 June 2019. 4. ↑ Hyginus, Fab. 43; Serv. Verg. A. 3.74; Scriptores rerum mythicarum Latini, ed. Bode, i. p. 117 (Second Vatican Mythographer 125). 5. ↑ Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke: (1961), Volumes 28–31, p.74 (in Serbian) 6. ↑ "Aegean Sea | Mediterranean Sea". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Retrieved 18 October 2017. 7. ↑ Administratively, the Greek Dodecanese also contains Kastellorizo, situated further east outside the Aegean proper. 8. ↑ "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. p. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 October 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2021. 9. ↑ Aksu, A.E.; Yaşar, D.; Mudie, P.J.; Gillespie, H. (April 1995). "Late glacial-Holocene paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic evolution of the Aegean Sea: micropaleontological and stable isotopic evidence". *Marine Micropaleontology*. **25** (1): 1–28. Bibcode:1995MarMP..25....1A. doi:10.1016/0377-8398(94)00026-J. 10. ↑ Yagar, D., 1994. Late glacial-Holocene evolution of the Aegean Sea. Ph.D. Thesis, Inst. Mar. Sci. Technol., Dokuz Eyltil Univ., 329 pp. (Unpubl.)[*unreliable source?*] 11. ↑ "World Weather Information Service – Europe". *worldweather.wmo.int*. Retrieved 16 June 2019. 12. ↑ "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Retrieved 4 May 2019. 13. ↑ "MPAtlas » Greece". *www.mpatlas.org*. Retrieved 16 June 2019. 14. ↑ Tjeerd H. van Andel; Judith C. Shackleton (Winter 1982). "Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic Coastlines of Greece and the Aegean". *Journal of Field Archaeology*. **9** (4): 445–454. doi:10.1179/009346982791504454. JSTOR 529681. 15. ↑ Tracey Cullen, *Aegean Prehistory: A Review* (American Journal of Archaeology. Supplement, 1); Oliver Dickinson, *The Aegean Bronze Age* (Cambridge World Archaeology). 16. ↑ "Ancient Crete – Classics – Oxford Bibliographies – obo". *www.oxfordbibliographies.com*. Retrieved 17 June 2019. 17. ↑ Herodotus (2007). *Histories. Book VIII*. Bowie, Angus M. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57328-3. OCLC 159628612. 18. ↑ "Presentation". www.olp.gr. Archived from the original Archived 20 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 19. ↑ "Piraeus by Maritime Database". *www.maritime-database.com*. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019. 20. ↑ "ANEK Lines – Piraeus". www.anek.gr. Archived from the original on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 21. ↑ "Container terminal". www.olp.gr. Archived from the original Archived 20 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008. 22. ↑ "Maritime transport – Goods (gross weight) – Annual data – All ports – by direction". Eurostat. 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2011. [*verification needed*] 23. ↑ Forelle, Charles; Kantchev, Georgi; Kelly, Mark (20 August 2015). "A Way of Life Drowned by Greece's Crisis". *The Wall Street Journal*. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 16 June 2019. 24. ↑ Stergiou, Pollard (August 1994). "A spatial analysis of the commercial fisheries catches from the Greek Aegean Sea". *Fisheries Research*. **20** (2–3): 109–135. doi:10.1016/0165-7836(94)90078-7. 25. ↑ "As stocks deplete, Greek fishermen scrap boats and livelihoods". Reuters. 3 July 2018. Retrieved 16 June 2019. 26. ↑ "Fisheries". *Archipelagos*. Retrieved 16 June 2019. 27. ↑ Bramwell, Bill (2004). *Coastal Mass Tourism: Diversification and Sustainable Development in Southern Europe*. Channel View Publications. ISBN 1845413733. 28. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The Historic Centre (Chorá) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the Island of Pátmos". *whc.unesco.org*. Retrieved 8 September 2016. 29. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos". *UNESCO World Heritage Centre*. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 30. ↑ "Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni of Chios". UNESCO. Retrieved 30 September 2012. 31. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Delos". *whc.unesco.org*. Retrieved 7 September 2016. 32. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Medieval City of Rhodes". *whc.unesco.org*. Retrieved 7 September 2016. 33. ↑ "Tourism Ministry statistics impress". Retrieved 30 January 2019. 34. ↑ "Αλέξανδρος Βασιλικός: Ο τουρισμός είναι υπόθεση όλων μας". *Marketing Greece*. 5 February 2019. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 35. ↑ Smith, Helena (28 August 2017). "Santorini's popularity soars but locals say it has hit saturation point". *The Guardian*. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 36. ↑ Smith, Oliver (6 June 2018). "Overwhelmed: Greece the latest country to be overrun by tourists". *Traveller*. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 37. ↑ Gülcan, Yaprak; Kuştepeli, Yeşim; Akgüngör, Sedef (October 2009). "Public Policies and Development of the Tourism Industry in the Aegean Region". *European Planning Studies*. **17** (10): 1509–1523. doi:10.1080/09654310903141722. S2CID 154452680. 38. ↑ Holliday, Taylor (2 July 2006). "Where to Raise the Sails, or Just a Glass". *The New York Times*. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 39. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Archaeological Site of Troy". *UNESCO World Heritage Centre*. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 40. ↑ "FEE – Foundation for Environmental Education". 15 August 2008. Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 41. ↑ "Blue Flag Beaches in Turkey | Go Turkey Tourism". *www.goturkeytourism.com*. Retrieved 15 June 2019. 42. ↑ D'Alessandro, W.; Bellomo, S.; Brusca, L.; Kyriakopoulos, K.; Calabrese, S.; Daskalopoulou, K. (April 2017). "The impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on groundwater quality in an active volcanic/geothermal system under semi-arid climatic conditions: The case study of Methana peninsula (Greece)". *Journal of Geochemical Exploration*. **175**: 110–119. Bibcode:2017JCExp.175..110D. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.01.003.

Aegean Sea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea

**Marines**, or **naval infantry**, are typically a military force trained to operate in littoral zones in support of naval operations. Historically, tasks undertaken by marines have included helping maintain discipline and order aboard the ship (reflecting the pressed nature of the ship's company and the risk of mutiny), the boarding of vessels during combat or capture of prize ships, and providing manpower for raiding ashore in support of the naval objectives. In most countries, the marines are an integral part of that state's navy. The exact term "marine" does not exist in many languages other than English. In French-speaking countries, two terms exist which could be translated as "marine", but do not translate exactly: *troupes de marine* and *fusiliers-marins*; similar pseudo-translations exist elsewhere, e.g. *fuzileiros navais* in Portuguese (lit. 'Naval fusiliers'). The word *marine* means "navy" in many European languages such as Dutch, French, German, Italian and Norwegian. History ------- In the earliest day of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship. The oarsmen of Ancient Greek and Ancient Roman ships had to be capable of fighting the rowers of opposing ships hand-to-hand; though hoplites began appearing on Greek ships specifically for the boarding of enemy ships. The Roman Republic was the first to understand the importance of professional soldiers dedicated to melee combat onboard of ships. During the First Punic War, Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians and could not hope to match them in naval tactics, which required great fleet maneuverability and tactical experience. The Romans therefore employed a novel weapon which changed sea warfare to their advantage — they equipped their ships with the *corvus*, a long pivoting plank with a beak-like spike on the underside for hooking onto enemy ships, possibly developed earlier by the Syracusans against the Athenians during the Sicilian Expedition of the Peloponnesian War. Using it as a boarding bridge, Roman infantrymen were able to invade an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a *centuria*. Crewmen could sign on as naval infantry (called *Marinus*), rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as *milites* ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation with the army was required, were the adjectives *classiarius* or *classicus* added. The Roman Navy's two fleet legions, I *Adiutrix* and II *Adiutrix*, were among the first distinct naval infantry units. The first organized marine corps was created in Venice by the Doge Enrico Dandolo when he created the first regiment of ten companies spread on several ships. That corps participated in the conquest of Byzantium (1203-1204), later officially called "Fanti da Mar" (sea infantry) in 1550. Later, Spanish King Carlos I assigned the naval infantry of the *Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles* (Naples Sea Old Companies) to the Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons) in 1537, progenitors of the current Spanish Navy Marines (Infantería de Marina) corps, making them the oldest marine corps still in active service in the world. Etymology --------- The English noun *marine* is from the adjective *marine*, meaning "of the sea", via French *marin* ("of the sea") from Latin *marinus* ("of the sea") itself from mare ("sea"), from Proto-Indo-European *\*móri* ("body of water, lake") (cognate with Old English *mere* ("sea, lake"), Dutch *meer*, German *Meer*, all from Proto-Germanic *\*mari*). The word *marine* was originally used for the marine-type forces of England; however, in many European languages the word *marine* or *marina* means "navy" – for example, in Dutch, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish, and Norwegian. Because of this use of "marine" to mean "navy", exact one-word translations for the English term "Marines" do not exist in many other languages, which can lead to misunderstandings when translating, with the notable exception of the Dutch word *marinier*. Typically, marine forces in non-English speaking countries have names that translate in English to *naval infantry* or *coastal infantry*. In French-speaking countries, two phrases exist which could be translated as marine, "*troupes de marine*" and "*fusiliers-marins*"; similar phrases exist elsewhere, e.g., in Portuguese *Fuzileiros Navais*. Roles ----- The principal role of marine troops is military operations in the littoral zone; operating from ships they are trained to land on and secure key points to around 85 km (or 50 miles) inland, or as far as ship borne logistics can provide. Marine units primarily deploy from warships using boats, landing craft, hovercraft, amphibious vehicles or helicopters. Specialist units are also trained in combat diving/combat swimming and parachuting. As well as amphibious operations, marine troops are used in a variety of other, naval roles. Stationed at naval bases or forming marine detachments on board naval ships, they also conduct small scale raiding, maritime boarding operations, security of naval vessels and bases, riverine and coastal missions, mess duty, and field day operations. In addition to their primary roles, they perform other tasks, including special operations and land warfare, separate from naval operations; ceremonial duties and miscellaneous other tasks as directed by governments. By country ---------- ### Algeria The Marine Fusilier Regiments are the marine infantry regiments of the Algerian Navy and they are specialised in amphibious warfare. The RFM have about 7000 soldiers in their ranks. Established in 1985. ### Argentina The Argentine Marine Corps (*Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina* or IMARA) is a part of the Argentine Navy. Argentine marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the navy. The Argentine Marine Corps dates from 1827 when a single infantry battalion was raised. This was expanded in 1880, but seven years later, the corps was merged with the existing coast artillery, to form a Naval Artillery Regiment. A series of reorganizations followed until responsibility for coastal defense was passed to the Argentine Army in 1898. Between 1935 and 1938 the marines reappeared in the form of five battalions of Marine Infantry, serving both on board ship and in coastal defense fortifications. In 1968, the Infanteria de Marina was reorganized as a separate corps within the Navy. ### Australia The marine and naval infantry designations are not applied to Australian Defence Force units, although some Australian Army units specialise in amphibious warfare, including 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment which has provided an amphibious light infantry role from 2012. ### Bahamas The Royal Bahamas Defence Force (RBDF) is the navy of The Bahamas. Since the Bahamas does not have an army or an air force, its navy composes the entirety of its armed forces. The RBDF Commando Squadron is a sizable force of 500 Special Marine Commandos. ### Bangladesh The Special warfare Driving and Salvage (SWADS) is special operations force of the Bangladesh Navy. SWADS is trained for the role of naval infantry and it consists of elite soldiers specially chosen form the national armed forces branches. They receive special training in the United States, South Korea and Turkey. ### Bolivia The Bolivian Naval Force includes about 2,000 naval infantry personnel and marines. These are organized into seven small battalions. ### Brazil The Corps of Naval Fusiliers (*Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais*) is subordinate to the Brazilian Navy. The marine corps is composed of an operational brigade and some guard and ceremonial duty battalions. The main unit is the brigade-sized *Divisão Anfíbia* (Amphibious Division). Officers´ ranks and titles are the same as for the rest of the Navy. ### Cambodia During the 1970-75 Cambodian Civil War the Cambodian Marine Corps were active but were effectively disbanded by the end of the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. The Royal Cambodian Navy created a force of 2,000 marines in 2007. ### Canada Canada had a history of participating in amphibious operations such as the Normandy landings and the Allied invasion of Sicily. Even though Canada does not have a marine corps, it has units that can carry out Marines-type operations, such as an amphibious-operations trained company of the 3rd Battalion of the Royal 22nd Regiment, JTF2 that specializes in combat diving and amphibious reconnaissance, the Naval Tactical Operations Group that specializes in maritime interdiction, and the Naval Security Team that can provide force protection for amphibious forces. ### Chile The Chilean Marine Corps is a branch of the Chilean Navy. Specialized in amphibious assaults, the corps is built around four detachments based along Chile's long coasts at Viña del Mar, Talcahuano, Punta Arenas, and Iquique. There are also a number of independent companies and platoons, for security protection at naval bases, other shore installations and the Ministry of Defense. The Viña del Mar and Talcahuano detachments contribute to the Amphibious Expeditionary Brigade (Brigada Anfibia Expedicionaria). There is as a group of Marine Infantry commandos (Grupo de Comandos IM), which together with the group of naval tactical divers (Agrupación de Buzos Tácticos) are part of the Navy's Special Operations Command (Comando de Operaciones Especiales). ### China (PRC) The People's Liberation Army Navy Marine Corps (PLANMC) is a service branch of the PRC navy and is therefore under the command of the PLAN Headquarters. The PLANMC are divided into six brigades. The majority of the PLANMC's personnel is based in the South China Sea. ### Colombia The Colombian Marine Corps is a part of the Colombian Navy. The modern marine corps dates from the establishment of two rifle companies in 1936. While remaining a small force, the corps saw service during the civil war between Conservatives and Liberals of 1946–58 and provided volunteers for service in the Korean War. By the 1960s it had been expanded to a battalion of marine infantry plus five independent companies. ### Croatia Croatian Navy formed naval infantry companies during the Croatian War of Independence (1991-5), esp. on islands (Hvar: Zvir Company, Korčula: Mixed Detachment etc.) and one in Pula (Vanga Company, saw action in relieving Siege of Dubrovnik and in Operation Maslenica). As they were all dissolved during 2000s, a new naval infantry company, ~160-strong (*Satnija mornaričko-desantnog pješaštva*) was formed again in 2018 as a part of the Navy Flotilla and is located in Ploče. ### Cuba The Cuban Revolutionary Navy (*Marina de Guerra Revolucionaria* or MGR) maintains a small marine battalion called the Desembarco de Granma. ### Denmark The Guard Hussar Regiment (*Gardehusarregimentet* or GHR) maintains a marine squadron (only by name) based in Almegårds Kaserne on the Baltic island Bornholm. The squadron is a part of the 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion and trains conscripts. ### Ecuador The Ecuadorian Navy maintains a Naval Infantry Corps (*Cuerpo de Infantería de Marina*) headquartered in Guayaquil. Formed on 12 November 1962, it is organised into two security battalions, one in the Amazon River area and the other on the Pacific coast. There is also a commando battalion based on the Galápagos Islands. ### Egypt The 111th Independent Mechanized Brigade (formerly the 130th Marine Amphibious Brigade) of the Egyptian Army can conduct amphibious assault operations. There is also the 153rd Commando Group with three Marine Commandos Battalions (515th, 616th, 818th) controlling 12 Marine Commandos Companies. ### El Salvador The El Salvador Navy included two 600-man Marine Infantry Battalions (*Batallon de Infanteria de Marina* or BIM), and a 300-man Naval Commando Force. The BIMs were located at La Unión and Usulután. The Salvadoran Marine Corps uses green pixelated and green woodland uniforms. ### Finland The Finnish Uusimaa Brigade (*Nylands Brigad*) in Ekenäs is the home of the Finnish Marines — the *Kustjägarna* (in Swedish) / *Rannikkojääkärit* (in Finnish) / or "Coastal Jaegers" (in English). The Brigade is part of the Finnish Navy, and the only Swedish-speaking unit within the Finnish Defence Forces. ### France The *Fusiliers Marins* (Naval Fusiliers) and *Commandos Marine* (Naval Commandos) are naval personnel. The *fusiliers marins* protect vessels and installations, provide the navy with military training, augment boarding-landing parties and support operations of the Commandos Marine. The *Commandos Marine* (Naval Commandos) are a seven company Commando formation whose roots can be traced to the Second World War. The Commandos Marine have evolved to be broadly comparable to the British Special Boat Service, with whom they exchange officers. *Troupes de Marine* ("Marine Troops"), are a branch of the French Army, renamed from the Troupes Coloniales who served in France's overseas territories to maintain or expand French interests. The modern Troupes de Marine have units permanently based in Africa, in addition they man bases in the French Overseas Territories. They now provide the ground combat elements of French amphibious task forces and are specifically trained for that purpose. The 9th Marine Brigade (9e Brigade Légère Blindée de Marine (9 BLBMa)) is twinned with the 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines, organising the exchange of officers and sharing training and exercises. ### Germany The Sea Battalion (*Seebataillon*) is a land formation of the German Navy. It was formed in Eckernförde on 1 April 2014, succeeding the Naval Protection Force. ### Greece The Greek 32nd Marine Brigade "Moravas" and the Amphibious Raider Squadrons (known as MAK) of the 13th Special Operations Command are amphibious infantry and maritime operations units maintained by the Hellenic Army and supported by the Hellenic Navy. ### Honduras The Honduran Navy established at least one 600-man marine infantry battalion (*Batallón de Infantería de Marina* or BIM) in 1982. ### India The Indian Army has amphibious units under the Jodhpur-based corps. The MARCOS are the special forces of Indian Navy similar to the US Navy Seals. ### Indonesia In Indonesia, the main amphibious warfare force and naval infantry of the Indonesian National Armed Forces is the Indonesian Marine Corps of the Indonesian Navy. The Marine commandant reports to the Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Navy. ### Iran Since the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the number of marines in the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (IRIN) has expanded to 2,600 personnel, in two marine brigades, each composed of three battalions. Their mission is to provide security throughout the Arabian Sea and free waters, as well as securing routes for Iranian ships in the Gulf of Aden. The Navy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGCN) maintains several units that may perform marine-type functions. It also has a Takavar naval commando battalion, called Sepah Navy Special Force (SNSF). They are tasked with providing security in the Persian Gulf and Strait of Hormuz, as well as conducting anti-piracy missions to assist Iranian ships. ### Iraq The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 1,500 sailors and 800 marines designed to protect the shoreline and inland waterways from insurgent infiltration. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion. The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by 2010. ### Israel Upon its revival in the 1980s the Givati Brigade was intended to serve as the amphibious infantry brigade of the Israel Defense Forces, but this was not put into effect. Currently the 35th Paratroopers Brigade is the only brigade that has amphibious abilities as part of its Depth Warfare arsenal together with parachuting and air assault. ### Italy The San Marco Marine Brigade is the marine infantry unit of the Italian Navy (*Marina Militare*). It traces its roots back to 1550 with the formation of *Fanti da Mar* in the Republic of Venice. The Serenissima Regiment is the amphibious infantry unit of the Italian Army (*Esercito Italiano*). Its soldiers are called *Lagunari* and they are the Italian Army Marines. ### Japan Japan Ground Self-Defense Force Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade – Japanese marines tasked with offensive amphibious assault to retake islands. ### Korea, South The Republic of Korea Marine Corps is the marine corps of South Korea. It was founded as a reconnaissance force just prior to the start of the Korean War. The ROKMC has seen action in several major conflicts. Though theoretically it is under the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations for all practical purposes it operates as an independent branch of the military. ### Korea, North The Korean People's Army's Light Infantry Training Guidance Bureau has two or more amphibious light infantry/sniper brigades. These brigades are believed deployed to Wonsan on the east coast and Namp'o and Tasa-ri on the west coast. In organization and manpower, they are reduced versions of the regular light infantry brigades with a total strength of approximately 5,000 men organized into ten battalions. Each battalion has about 400 men organized into five companies each. Some amphibious brigade personnel are trained as frogmen. ### Lebanon Lebanon maintains an elite but very small in number "Navy Commando" regiment. Trained internationally and armed with mostly American and French made equipment and weaponry. ### Maldives The Maldives National Defence Force maintains a frontline ground combat force known as the MNDF Marine Corps. It is divided into Marine Deployment Units (MDUs) which acts as the force projection element MNDF. The MNDF Marine Corps, as a naval unit, works closely with the coast guard of the country. ### Mexico The Mexican Naval Infantry (Spanish: *Infantería de Marina*) of the Mexican Navy is responsible for port security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe, and patrolling major waterways. The marines have light arms, heavy weapons and armored amphibious vehicles. The Navy ceded most of its riverine responsibilities to the Army, reducing the size of the marine force, and deploying them back aboard ships where they play a vital role in drug interdiction and boarding of suspect vessels in territorial waters. ### Morocco The Royal Moroccan Marines are a naval infantry force subordinated to the Royal Moroccan Navy trained in landing missions and sabotage. The force is between 1,500 and 2,000 troops strong, organized in three battalion-strength units. Among its roles are guarding the southern coast against infiltration by Polisario Front guerrillas. ### Myanmar The Myanmar Navy raised a naval infantry battalion of 800 men in 1964, followed by a second battalion in 1967. Two more battalions may have also been raised. They were deployed mainly to the Arakan and Tenasserim areas, and to the Irrawaddy delta, to assist in counter-insurgency operations, but also performed other security duties. ### Namibia Namibian Marine Corps is a battalion-sized infantry unit of the Namibian Navy under the command of a naval captain. Its officers and men are part of the navy and use naval ranks, though insignia is adopted from the Brazilian Marine Corps. The corps is primarily made up of a Rapid Reaction Unit, an Operation Dive team, an operational boat team, and a Special Operations Commando Unit. ### Netherlands The Royal Netherlands Navy naval infantry unit is the Netherlands Marine Corps (*Korps Mariniers*), founded in 1665 as an infantry regiment to the Dutch Navy. They saw their first amphibious action in 1667 raiding the English coast during the Raid on the Medway. Their Latin motto is Qua Patet Orbis ("As Far as the World Extends"). Today, it is a brigade approximately 2300 marines strong, consisting of two marine infantry battalions (plus one infantry company which is stationed in Aruba), one amphibious combat support battalion and one logistical battalion. Dutch Marines train in all possible geographical and climate conditions for their role. Enlisted marine recruit training lasts 33 weeks, and marine officers train up to 18 months (including naval academy time). It has its own Special Forces branch known as Netherlands Maritime Special Operations Forces (NLMARSOF). ### Norway The Coastal Ranger Command (*Kystjegerkommandoen* or KJK) of the Norwegian Navy is an amphibious infantry unit trained to operate in littoral combat theatres, as naval infantry and coastal artillery. There is also an SBS type naval commando unit, the *Marinejegerkommandoen*. ### Pakistan The Pakistan Marines division of the Pakistan Navy was re-established on April 14, 1990, with about 3,600 men. The marines are based at PNS Qasim naval base. ### Paraguay The Paraguayan Marine Corps (*Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales*) is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company-sized brigades. In limited cadre form, the marine corps dates from the late 19th century, although it only achieved significant existence when the three-battalion sized *Regimiento de Infanteria de Marina Riachuelo* was created in the final stages of the Chaco War of 1932–1935. ### Peru The Peruvian Naval Infantry (*Infantería de Marina del Perú*) consists of around 3,000 naval infantrymen and includes an amphibious brigade of three battalions and local security units with two transport ships, four tank landing ships, and about forty Chaimite armored personnel carriers. Since 1982, IMAP detachments have been deployed, under army command, in counter-insurgency operations. ### Philippines The Philippine Marine Corps (**PMC**) (*Hukbong Kawal Pandagat ng Pilipinas*) is the marine corps of the Philippines. It is a naval infantry force under the command of the Philippine Navy. PMC primarily conducts amphibious and expeditionary warfare, as well as special operation missions. It has a strength of about 9,500 men organized into three maneuver brigades, a Combat Service and Support Brigade (CSSB), and independent units such as the Marine Special Operations Group (MARSOG) and the Marine Security and Escort Group (MSEG). Formed on November 7, 1950, the Philippine Marine Corps is considered the first and foremost unit to be involved in any amphibious or seaborne clashes. ### Poland The Polish Navy maintains several naval infantry units responsible for port and coastal security. The Polish Army maintains the 7th Coastal Defense Brigade, which bears traditions of the disbanded 7th Coastal Defence Division (the Blue Berets), therefore it is sometimes referred to as the Marines of Poland. As of 2010[update] there are no plans by the Polish Army to create an active marine unit. Therefore, the 7th Brigade carries out only limited-scale exercises of amphibious assaults. ### Portugal The third-oldest marine corps in the world was founded as the *Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal* in 1618. The Portuguese Navy still maintains this Elite Naval Infantry, which is currently known as the *Corpo de Fuzileiros*. The Corpo de Fuzileiros, meaning literally "Corps of Fusiliers”, is the Elite Infantry and Special Forces unit of the Portuguese Navy. ### Romania The 307th Marine Battalion (*Batalionul 307 Infanterie Marină*) is the light infantry/reconnaissance unit of the Romanian Naval Forces. It is located in Babadag, Tulcea County, and was formed in the mid-1970s for the defence of the Danube Delta and Romanian Black Sea shore. ### Russia The Russian Naval Infantry (Морская пехота) are the amphibious forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The Russian Navy also has the Russian commando frogmen, an elite unit for underwater reconnaissance and special operations. ### Saudi Arabia The Royal Saudi Navy maintains two, 1,500-man marine brigades consisting of three battalions each. The brigades are assigned to the Western Fleet headquartered in Jeddah and the Eastern Fleet headquartered in Jubail. ### South Africa South Africa has not had a dedicated marine branch of its military since the apartheid era. A close analogue would be the South African Navy's Maritime Reaction Squadron, a marine-type unit of four companies. Members are marines and use naval ranks. They are trained in infantry combat up to company sized operations. They are also used for crowd control and conduct peacekeeping operations. During peacekeeping operations they are meant to augment an army infantry battalion. Their role is very similar to the now disbanded South Africa Marine Corps from the apartheid era. The 4 Special Forces Regiment of the South African Special Forces provides South Africa its seaward Special Forces capability. ### Spain The Spanish Navy Marines (*Infantería de Marina*) are the oldest existing marine force in the world, as they were established on February 27, 1537, by Charles I when he permanently assigned the *Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles* (Naples Sea Old Companies) to the *Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo* (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons). Their red trouser stripes mark the *Infanteria de Marina* as part of the Royal Household Corps and were given by Charles III to the marines in reward for their fierce defence of the Castillo del Morro of Havana, Cuba, in 1762. ### Sri Lanka The Sri Lanka Navy established its Sri Lanka Marine Corps in November 2016, and the first group of members were assisted in training by the 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit of the United States Marine Corps. The unit became functional after the first group of members consisting of 6 officers and 158 sailors graduated from training on the 27th of February, 2017. ### Sweden The Swedish Amphibious Corps (*Svenska amfibiekåren*) is an arm of the Swedish Navy. The corps consists of two regiments each comprising one amphibious battalion, tasked with reconnaissance, amphibious assaults, and combat on, over, and under the surface of the sea. ### Syria The Fouj Al-Mughawayr Al-Bahir (فوج المغاوير البحر meaning "Marines Regiment") is a unit based in Latakia Governorate. It has participated in operations in the Syrian Civil War. ### Taiwan (ROC) The Taiwanese (Republic of China) Marine Corps is responsible for amphibious combat, counter-landing, reinforcement of Taiwan and surrounding islands (such as Kinmen, Wuchiu, Matsu Islands, Pratas Island, etc.), and defense of Naval facilities. It also functions as a rapid reaction force (special service company) and a strategic reserve. ### Thailand Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC) is the naval infantry subbranch of the Royal Thai Navy. The Royal Thai Marine Corps was founded in 1932, when the first battalion was formed with the assistance of the United States Marine Corps. It was expanded to a regiment in 1940 and was in action against communist guerrillas throughout the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s, the United States Marine Corps assisted in its expansion into a brigade. The Royal Thai Marine Corps saw action on the Malaysian border in the 1970s and has now been increased to four brigades. ### Tonga The Royal Tongan Marines is a sub-unit of the Tongan Maritime Force, which itself is a branch of the Tonga Defence Services. It is a single battalion-sized group composed of a Headquarters Company and three Light Infantry Companies. ### Turkey The Amphibious Marine Infantry Brigade Command is the marine force of the Turkish Naval Forces and consists of 4,500 men based in Foça near İzmir. ### Ukraine The Ukrainian Marines was founded in 1993 from a unit of the former Soviet Naval Infantry. It serves as a coastal defense force of the Ukrainian Navy. Also known by its official name, the "Ukrainian Naval Infantry", the sub-branch of the Navy is based in Mykolaiv. ### United Kingdom The Royal Marines (RM) were formed in 1664 and are part of HM Naval Service. They include an amphibious brigade (which includes commando-trained units and individual personnel from the British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force), a naval security unit responsible for guarding the UK's naval nuclear weapons and other security duties, a landing craft and boat-training group which is also a parent unit for three landing craft units deployed on amphibious warfare ships; and a naval musical branch. The RM has close international ties with allied marine forces, particularly the United States Marine Corps and the Netherlands Marine Corps/Korps Mariniers. "Marine" is also used as a rank in the Royal Marines, being equivalent to an army private. The Royal Marines Reserve (RMR) is the volunteer reserve force used to augment the regular Royal Marines in times of war or national crisis. ### United States The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is currently the only marine combined-arms force in the world. Created in 1775, it was originally intended only to guard naval vessels during the American Revolutionary War. The USMC is a component part of the US Department of the Navy in the military command structure, with its own representative on the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The corps’ major functions include the seizure or defense of advanced naval bases and land operations essential to a naval campaign, providing detachments and organizations for service on armed vessels of the Navy and security detachments for the protection of naval property at naval stations and bases, and such other duties since the president may direct and develop those phases of amphibious operations that pertain to the tactics, technique, and equipment used by landing forces. It also has other missions, including providing personnel as security guards at US diplomatic missions, and providing helicopter transportation for the President of the United States aboard Marine One. The United States Marine Corps Reserve (USMCR) is the reserve force of the United States Marine Corps. ### Uruguay The Uruguayan Marine Corps (*Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales* or FUSNA) is a battalion-sized organization. However, given its small size, it's not a separate corps within the Navy, but regular naval officers are posted to the Marines as to any other Navy unit. ### Venezuela The Venezuelan Marine Corps (*Infantería de Marina*) is a subdivision of the Venezuelan Navy. Headquartered in Meseta de Mamo, Vargas, the estimated numerical strength of this unit is approximately 8,000 men and women. Its mission is to "enlist and direct its units in order to form the disembarking force and/or support of amphibious or special operations; executing naval safeguarding and environmental policing, as well as actively participating in the national development". ### Vietnam The Vietnam People's Navy maintains a naval infantry force. It once stood at eleven brigades each of several battalions. Currently the Vietnam People's Navy maintains two naval infantry brigades. Historical marine forces ------------------------ ### Ancient Greece The ancient Greek states did not possess specialized marine infantry; instead, they used hoplites and archers as an onboard contingent (*epibatai*). ### Ancient Rome The Roman Navy used regular infantry as marines. Naval personnel were trained for raiding and also provided the troops for at least two legions (I *Adiutrix* and II *Adiutrix*) for service on land. The various provincial fleets were usually provided with marines from the adjacent legions. ### Australia Several of the Colonial navies of Australia raised volunteer naval infantry and naval militia brigades in the second half of the 19th century. Following the Federation of Australia they were combined into the Commonwealth Naval Militia. With the formation of the Royal Australian Navy in 1911 they were renamed the Royal Australian Naval Brigade. At its peak in 1915 it numbered 2,817 officers and men. The Naval Brigade was disbanded in 1920 and volunteers were absorbed into the Royal Australian Naval Reserve. ### Austrian/Austro-Hungarian Empire Though overshadowed by its Prussian counterpart, the Marinier-Korps, as well as naval powers like the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Italians, Austria-Hungary maintained a small regiment of naval infantrymen dating back to Venetian times alongside the then Austrian Imperial Navy's “Corps of Sailors” (*Matrosencorps*). However, in 1868, as part of his naval reforms, then Commander Wilhelm von Tegetthoff abolished the Naval Infantry Regiment and the Naval Artillery Corps in favor of an enlarged and all-encompassing *Matrosencorps* as no marines had served aboard a ship for 10 years, and so from that point on, sailors not serving on active warships received infantry drills and took up naval infantry duties. ### Byzantine Empire For several centuries, the Byzantine navy used the descendants of the Mardaites, who were settled in southern Anatolia and Greece, as marines and rowers for its ships. Emperor Basil I also established a separate marine regiment, 4,000 strong, for the central Imperial Fleet based at Constantinople. These were professional troops, and were counted among the elite *tagmata*. In the 1260s, when emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos rebuilt the navy, he recruited the *Tzakones* (settlers from Laconia) and the *Gasmouloi* (men of mixed Greek-Latin descent) as special marine troops. Despite the progressive decline and virtual disappearance of the navy, they remained active until the late Palaiologan period. ### Denmark-Norway *Marineregimentet* (The Marine Regiment) was the naval infantry of the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy. ### Dutch Republic The corps was founded on 10 December 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War by the unofficial leader of the republic, Johan de Witt, and Admiral Michiel de Ruyter as the Regiment de Marine. Its leader was Willem Joseph Baron van Ghent. The Dutch had successfully used ordinary soldiers in ships at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War. It was the fifth European marine unit formed, being preceded by the Spanish Marines (1537), the Portuguese Marines (1610), the French Marines (1622) and the English Royal Marines (1664). Like Britain, the Netherlands has had several periods when its Marines were disbanded. The Netherlands itself was under French occupation or control from 1810 until 1813. A new marine unit was raised on 20 March 1801 during the time of the Batavian Republic and on 14 August 1806 the *Korps Koninklijke Grenadiers van de Marine* was raised under King Louis Bonaparte. The modern *Korps Mariniers* dates from 1814, receiving its current name in 1817. The battle honors on the *Korps Mariniers*' colors are: Raid on the Medway (1667), Kijkduin (1673), Sennefe (1674), Spain, Dogger Bank (1781), West Indies, Algiers (1816), Atjeh, Bali, Rotterdam (1940), Java Sea (1942), Java and Madoera (1947–1948), New Guinea (1962) and Cambodia (1992–1993). ### Estonia The *Meredessantpataljon*, was a short-lived infantry battalion of the Estonian Navy. The battalion was created in 1919 from the crews of the Estonian surface warships and was based in Tallinn. The unit was mainly used on the Southern Front during the Estonian War of Independence. The unit was operational from March to June in 1919. ### France The Troupes de marine were founded in 1622 (as *compagnies ordinaires de la mer*) as land forces under the control of the Secretary of State of the Navy, notably for operations in French Canada. The *Compagnies de la Mer* were transformed in line infantry regiments by Napoleon, but became once more marine forces in 1822 (for the artillery) and 1831 (for the infantry). These *Troupes de marines* were in the 19th century the main overseas and colonial forces of the French military. In 1900 they were put under the orders of the War Ministry and took the name of *Troupes Coloniales* (Colonial Forces). In 1958 the designation of *Troupes Coloniales* was changed to *Troupes d'Outre-Mer* (Overseas Forces) but in 1961 it reverted to the original *Troupes de marine*. Throughout these changes in title, these troops continued to be part of the French Army. ### Gran Colombia The Federation of Gran Colombia Marines were formed in 1822 and were disbanded in 1829, Personnel were mostly from Venezuela. ### Germany * German Empire: During the German Imperial era, three ‘sea battalions’ or *Seebataillone* based at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven and Tsingtao were maintained. These units served intermittently as colonial intervention forces. The *III Seebataillon* at the imperial navy's east Asian station at Tsingtao was the only all-German unit with permanent status in a protectorate/colony. The battalion fought at the Siege of Tsingtao. * East Germany: The East German army's Nr29. Regiment ("Ernst Moritz Arndt") was a Motorized Rifle Regiment intended for amphibious operations in the Baltic Sea; while the *Volksmarine Kampfschwimmer*: Combat swimmer units were intended for support of amphibious operations and for raiding. ### Iran * At the time of the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Imperial Iranian Navy had three battalions of marines. ### Iraq * The old Ba'athist-era Iraqi Navy maintained several marine companies. * The Iraqi Republican Guard maintained a Marine Brigade as part of its 8th As Saiqa Special Forces Division. The brigade was equipped with Brazilian-made Engesa EE-11 Urutu wheeled armored personnel carriers. ### Fascist Italy The Blackshirt militia maintained an independent *Marine Group* with four MVSN battalions (24th, 25th, 50th and 60th). The Decima Flottiglia MAS was an Italian flotilla, with commando frogman unit, of the Regia Marina (Italian Royal Navy). The 3rd Marine Infantry Division "San Marco" was an italian division raised by Mussolini's Italian Social Republic. ### Imperial Japan During the feudal period, the Japanese used Ashigaru soldiers or regular Yumi archers as soldiers to protect ships from pirates. In 1873, a short-lived marine corps was added to the newly created Imperial Japanese Navy, using Britain's Royal Marines as a model. Considered unsuitable in its original form, the force was disbanded in 1878. The Imperial Japanese Navy's Land Forces maintained several combat units: * Special Naval Landing Forces were the Empire of Japan's marine corps. * The IJN also maintained the Guard Forces (*keibitai*) and Defense Units (*bobitai*), both of whom also received amphibious assault and beach defence training. However, their performance was poor or average when they were used as assault troops. * The Imperial Japanese Army's 3,500 man Sea-Landing Brigades (1st to 4th) were used to conduct amphibious assaults on an island, but afterwards they stayed to garrison that island. ### The Khmer Republic The Cambodian Marine Corps, or Corps de Fusiliers-Marins Khmères (CFMK), was the marine corps of the Khmer Republic of 1970–1975 under the Khmer National Navy as part of the Khmer National Armed Forces. They took part in the Cambodian Civil War against the Khmer Rouge but was dissolved along with the rest of the Khmer National Armed Forces when the Khmer Republic were defeated and capitulated to the Khmer Rouge. ### Ottoman Empire The role of Ottoman naval infantry originated in Orhan's conquest of the Karasi Beylik and the capture of its fleet. From then on, Janissaries and Azaps were sometimes deployed as marines during the 14th Century. The Deniz azaps were used during the 16th Century; while troops called Levend (Bahriyeli) were raised on and off over the centuries – over 50,000 of them by the late 18th century. The last raised units were the *Ta'ifat al Ru'sa* (corsair captains militia) recruited from among the North African Arabs and indigenous Berbers. Ottoman marines were part of the Ottoman navy. ### Portuguese Empire Portugal raised numerous companies of Special Marines (*Fuzileiros Especiais*) and African Special Marines (*Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos*), both at home and in the African colonies of Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique, for service in Africa during the Portuguese Colonial Wars. The African Special Marines were all-black units. ### Russian Empire The Imperial Russian Navy used several regiments of marine equipage troops that fought as much on land as they served in ship detachments. One battalion was formed within the Guard, and served on the Imperial family's ships. ### Spain The oldest naval infantry. Created 27 February 1537 as Tercio de Armada by Carlos I (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 1519–1556). Miguel de Cervantes, famous writer, was a member of naval infantry at Lepanto Battle. ### Soviet Union The Soviet Navy had a number of small battalion-sized naval infantry and coastal defence units that mostly served in the ports and bases before the Second World War. During the war, and building on the visuals of the mutinied sailors of Petrograd in 1917, the Stavka ordered formation of naval infantry brigades from surplus ship crew or shore duty sailors. ### South Africa The South Africa Marine Corps was set up as a subbranch of the South African Navy in 1979, with the primary purpose of protecting harbours. The Marines were disbanded in 1989, following a major restructuring of the Navy at the end of the South African Border War. ### United Arab Emirates In 2011 the UAE Marine Battalion was merged in the United Arab Emirates Presidential Guard. ### United Kingdom * The Royal Marines date from the establishment of a Maritime Regiment of Foot in 1664. The *Marine Regiments for Sea* were formed in 1702 but by 1713 they had been disbanded or taken into the army as regiments of foot. In 1755, a permanent corps of marine companies was established for direct service under the Admiralty, and this force has an unbroken descent to the Royal Marines of today. * The Royal Navy has since its beginning formed naval landing parties of seamen for action ashore, this being later formalised into the Naval Brigades. These brigades would often dismount guns from their parent vessels for use ashore, these guns often being the only artillery available. The most famous example of this form of land service was provided by the guns accompanying the forces relieving Ladysmith. * The Corps of Colonial Marines was raised from former American slaves as auxiliary units of the Royal Marines for service in the Americas: Two of these units were raised and subsequently disbanded. The first was a small unit which existed from 1808 to 12 October 1810, the second was more substantial and existed from May 1814 to 20 August 1816. * The Royal Naval Division was part of the Royal Navy in the First World War. In 1914, the shortage of ground forces for the Western Front led to the creation of the Division, composed of two brigades of sailors and a brigade formed by the Royal Marines. The Division was part of the Royal Navy but for command purposes was integrated into the army's command structure. The sailors were initially disappointing as infantry, but eventually developed into one of the better divisions. The Division participated in the defence of the Belgian city of Antwerp in late 1914, and then served with heavy casualties at the Battle of Gallipoli. At different times the Division included various army units. The division ceased to exist after the end of the First World War. * Gooch's Marines, the 61st Foot, raised in the American colonies for the War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739. This was a 3,000 man American regiment of the British Army that served alongside British Marines. Among its officers was Lawrence Washington, half-brother of George Washington. It was disbanded as a regiment in 1742 and the remaining independent companies were merged with another regiment in 1746. ### United States * American Colonial Marines were State Marines raised for the various state navies that came into existence shortly before the Revolutionary War. * The Continental Marines were the marine force of the American Colonies during American Revolutionary War. The corps was formed by the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, and was disbanded in 1783. The Continental Marines' first and only Commandant was Captain Samuel Nicholas. * Hillet Marine River Regiment of the Union Army during the American Civil War, this regiment consisted of 10 rifle companies, a Cavalry Battalion of 5 companies, and an artillery battalion of three batteries, all of whom operated from Mississippi River gunboats as part of the Mississippi River Squadron. * The Republic of Texas Marine Corps – Although a marine corps was suggested in the "Act and Decree Establishing a Navy," passed on November 25, 1835, it was not until acting governor James W. Robinson strongly urged the swift formation of such an organization in his message to the General Council on January 14, 1836, that steps were actually taken to commission officers of marines and recruit enlisted personnel. Before the end of the Republic of Texas and annexation to the United States, more than 350 men served with the Texas Marine Corps, and at least eighteen officers were commissioned to command them. The Texas Marine Corps served under the direction of the Navy Department of the Republic, and the duties of the corps were specifically ordained in fifteen articles passed by the Texas Congress on December 13, 1836. Marines served under their own officers aboard ship and ashore but were subject to the orders of the senior naval officer present. The uniform of the Texas Marine came from discontinued USMC stocks, changing only the buttons and cap devices to those of Texas configuration. * The Confederate Marines were a branch of the Confederate States Navy and was established by the Confederate Congress on 16 March 1861; they were mainly (80%) defectors from the US Marines. ### Vietnam Vietnamese dynasties had a long tradition of utilizing marines. This tradition went back no later than the Annam Protectorate of Tang dynasty when the governors built boats and trained marines to fight off pirates and invaders. The successive Vietnamese dynasties made full use of their marines' superiority at river and sea to launch successful campaigns against their northward and southward neighbors alike. The forerunner of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps (VNMC) was established by Ngo Dinh Diem, then prime minister of what was then the State of Vietnam on October 13, 1954. The VNMC became defunct on 1 May 1975 after the fall of Saigon. ### Yugoslavia The 12th Naval Infantry Brigade (*12. brigada mornaričko desantne pješadije*) of the Yugoslavian Navy consisted of 900 to 2,000 men in three battalions. A multi-ethnic unit, the brigade was broken up during the dissolution of the Yugoslav federation and saw little action. See also -------- * List of marines and naval infantry forces * Combat diver * Air force infantry * Navy

Marines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marines

The **Apple Watch** is a line of smartwatches produced by Apple Inc. It incorporates fitness tracking, health-oriented capabilities, and wireless telecommunication, and integrates with iOS and other Apple products and services. The Apple Watch was released in April 2015, and quickly became the best-selling wearable device: 4.2 million were sold in the second quarter of fiscal 2015, and more than 101 million people were estimated to use an Apple Watch as of December 2020. Apple has introduced a new generation of the Apple Watch with improved internal components each September—each labeled by Apple as a 'Series', with certain exceptions. Each Series has been initially sold in multiple variants defined by the watch casing's material, color, and size (except for the budget watches Series 1 and SE, available only in aluminum, and the Ultra, available only in 49 mm uncolored titanium), and beginning with Series 3, by the option in the aluminum variants for LTE cellular connectivity, which comes standard with the other materials. The band included with the watch can be selected from multiple options from Apple, and watch variants in aluminum co-branded with Nike and in stainless steel co-branded with Hermès are also offered, which include exclusive bands, colors, and digital watch faces carrying those companies' branding. The Apple Watch operates in conjunction with the user's iPhone for functions such as configuring the watch and syncing data with iPhone apps, but can separately connect to a Wi-Fi network for data-reliant purposes, including communications, app use, and audio streaming. LTE-equipped models can also perform these functions over a mobile network, and can make and receive phone calls independently when the paired iPhone is not nearby or is powered-off, substantially reducing the need for an iPhone after initial setup. The oldest iPhone model that is compatible with any given Apple Watch depends on the version of system software installed on each device. As of September 2022[update], new Apple Watches come with watchOS 9 preinstalled and require an iPhone running iOS 16, which is available for the iPhone 8 and later. Development ----------- The goal of the Apple Watch was to complement an iPhone and add new functions, and to free people from their phones. Kevin Lynch was hired by Apple to make wearable technology for the wrist. He said: "People are carrying their phones with them and looking at the screen so much. People want that level of engagement. But how do we provide it in a way that's a little more human, a little more at the moment when you're with somebody?" Apple's development process was held under wraps until a *Wired* article revealed how some internal design decisions were made. Rumors as far back as 2011 speculated that Apple was developing a wearable variation of the iPod that would curve around the user's wrist, and feature Siri integration. In February 2013, *The New York Times* and *The Wall Street Journal* reported that Apple was beginning to develop an iOS-based smartwatch with a curved display. That same month, *Bloomberg* reported that Apple's smartwatch project was "beyond the experimentation phase" with a team of about 100 designers. In July 2013, *Financial Times* reported that Apple had begun hiring more employees to work on the smartwatch, and that it was targeting a retail release in late 2014. Unveiling and release --------------------- In April 2014, Apple CEO Tim Cook told *The Wall Street Journal* that the company was planning to launch new products that year, but revealed no specifics. In June 2014, Reuters reported that production of a smartwatch product was expected to begin in July for an October release. During a September 2014 press event where the iPhone 6 was also presented, the new watch product was introduced by Tim Cook. After a video focusing on the design process, Cook reappeared on stage wearing an Apple Watch. In comparison to other Apple products and competing smartwatches, marketing of the Apple Watch promoted the device as a fashion accessory. Apple later focused on its health and fitness-oriented features, in an effort to compete with dedicated activity trackers. The watchOS 3 added fitness tracking for wheelchair users, social sharing in the Activity app, and a Breathe app to facilitate mindfulness. The device was not branded as "iWatch", which would have put it in line with its product lines such as iPod, iPhone, and iPad. In the United States, the "iWatch" trademark is owned by OMG Electronics – who was crowdfunding a device under the same name; it is owned in the European Union by Irish firm Probendi. In July 2015, Probendi sued Apple Inc. for trademark infringement, arguing that through keyword advertising on the Google search engine, it caused advertising for the Apple Watch to appear on search results pages when users searched for the trademarked term "iWatch". ### Release Pre-orders for the Apple Watch began on April 10, 2015, with the official release on April 24. Initially, it was not available at the Apple Store; customers could make appointments for demonstrations and fitting, but the device was not in-stock for walk-in purchases and had to be reserved and ordered online. *CNET* felt that this distribution model was designed to prevent Apple Store locations from having long line-ups due to the high demand. The first ever retail store to display the Apple Watch to the public was Colette in Paris. Later on, selected models were available in limited quantities at luxury boutiques and authorized resellers. On June 4, 2015, Apple announced that it planned to stock Apple Watch models at its retail locations. On August 24, 2015, Best Buy announced that it would begin stocking Apple Watch at its retail stores by the end of September. Both T-Mobile US and Sprint also announced plans to offer Apple Watch through their retail stores. In September 2015, Apple launched a new subset of Apple Watch, with a stainless steel body and leather band, in collaboration with Hermès. The following year, Apple launched another subset of Apple Watches in collaboration with Nike dubbed "Apple Watch Nike+". Both subsets featured cosmetic customization, but otherwise functioned like standard Apple Watches. Apple Watch went on sale in India in November 2015. The device also launched in Chile, the Philippines, Indonesia, and South Africa. Specifications -------------- ### Design and materials Each series of Apple Watch is offered in multiple variants, distinguished by the casing's material, color, and size, with special bands and digital watch faces available for certain variants co-branded with Nike and Hermès, which are also sometimes accompanied by other unique extras, like stainless steel charging pucks, premium packaging, and exclusive color basic bands. Originally at launch, the Apple Watch was marketed as one of three "collections", designating the case material. In order of increasing cost, the collections were: * Apple Watch Sport (Aluminium case) * Apple Watch (Stainless steel case) * Apple Watch Edition (Originally released as an 18kt gold casing with newer materials in later models) Starting with Series 1/Series 2, Apple dropped the "Sport" moniker from the branding (apart from the sport bands), and the Apple Watch was available with either an aluminum (lowest cost) or stainless steel case. "Apple Watch Edition" branding still exists, but now refers to watch casings made from ceramic or titanium. Apple did not explicitly market the first-generation Apple Watch as being waterproof, stating that it can withstand splashes of water (such as rain and hand washing), but does not recommend submersion (IPX7). Apple introduced a higher level of water resistance with the release of the Apple Watch Series 2, and the device was explicitly advertised as being suitable for swimming and surfing. The Series 7 also includes an IP6X certification for dust resistance. ### Size Since the introduction of the Apple Watch, it has been available in two sizes, primarily affecting screen resolution and area. The smaller size at launch was 38 mm (1.5 in), referring to the approximate height of the watch case; the larger size was 42 mm (1.7 in). Starting with Series 4, the two nominal sizes changed to 40 mm (1.6 in) and 44 mm (1.7 in). The nominal sizes changed again with the introduction of Series 7: 41 mm (1.6 in) and 45 mm (1.8 in). The overall shape and width of the watch has not changed significantly since its release, so customizable bands and accessories are typically compatible with any Apple Watch of the same size class. Bands that fit the smaller size class (38 mm (1.5 in), 40 mm (1.6 in), and 41 mm (1.6 in) watches) and larger size class (42 mm (1.7 in), 44 mm (1.7 in), and 45 mm (1.8 in) watches) are generally interchangeable within the class. The casing of the watch includes a mechanism to allow the user to change the straps without special tools. ### Input and sensors For input, the Watch features a "digital crown" on one side which can be turned to scroll or zoom content on screen, and pressed to return to the home screen. Next to the crown (on the same side of the watch) is the Side Button, which can be used to display recently used apps and access Apple Pay, which is used for contactless payment. The Watch also prominently features a touchscreen; prior to Series 6/SE, the screen included Force Touch technology, which enabled the display to become pressure-sensitive and therefore capable of distinguishing between a tap and a press for displaying contextual menus. Force Touch has since been physically removed in Watch Series 6 and Watch SE, and has been disabled via software on Watch Series 5 and earlier on models supporting watchOS 7. Additional sensors integrated into the Watch include an accelerometer, gyroscope, and barometer, which are used to determine device orientation, user movement, and altitude. The back of all Apple Watches are equipped with a Heart Rate Monitor, which projects infrared and green light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) onto the user's skin and photodiodes measure the varying amount of light reflected. Because blood absorbs green light and reflects red light, the amounts of each type of reflected light are compared to determine heart rate. The Watch adjusts the sampling rate and LED brightness as needed. Starting with the Series 4, Apple added electrical sensors to the Digital Crown and back, allowing the Watch to take electrocardiogram (ECG) readings; the device won FDA clearance in October 2018, becoming the first consumer device capable of taking an ECG. A blood oxygen monitor was added with the Series 6 in 2020, albeit as a "wellness" device not capable of diagnosing a medical condition. The blood oxygen monitor added red LEDs to the back, allowing the watch to determine oxygen levels by measuring blood color. The Watch SE reverted to the capabilities of the Series 3, dropping the electrical sensors and blood oxygen monitor. ### Battery Apple rates the device's battery for 18 hours of mixed usage. Apple Watch is charged by means of inductive charging. If the watch's battery depletes to less than 10 percent, the user is alerted and offered to enable Low Power Mode, which allows the user to continually use the watch while some features are disabled. The watch then reverts to its original mode when the battery is sufficiently charged. ### Bands Apple Watch comes with an included band (strap) to attach it to the user's wrist. The proprietary band attachment mechanism allows swapping models by holding down the connectors on the bottom of the watch and sliding the band pieces out. Apple produces bands in a variety of materials and colors; however, third-party bands are still compatible when using Apple's design guidelines. Bands designed for the original Series 1-3 38 mm and 42 mm case sizes are compatible with the Series 4-6 40 mm and 44 mm cases, as well as the Series 7 41 mm and 45 mm cases, respectively. Starting with Apple Watch Series 5, Apple introduced the online Apple Watch Studio which allows customers to mix and match bands on purchase, eliminating the need to purchase a specific combination of case and band design, and allows for a simplification of packaging (since Apple Watch Series 4 in 2018). Hardware -------- ### First generation The 1st generation Apple Watch (colloquially referred to as Series 0) uses the single-core S1 system-on-chip. It does not have a built-in GPS chip, instead relying on a paired iPhone for location services. It features a new linear actuator hardware from Apple called the "Taptic Engine", providing realistic haptic feedback when an alert or a notification is received, and is used for other purposes by certain apps. The watch is equipped with a built-in heart rate sensor, which uses both infrared and visible-light LEDs and photodiodes. All versions of the first-generation Apple Watch have 8 GB of storage; the operating system allows the user to store up to 2 GB of music and 75 MB of photos. When the Apple Watch is paired with an iPhone, all music on that iPhone is also available to be controlled and accessed from the Apple Watch. Software support for the first Apple Watch ended with watchOS 4.3.2. ### Second generation (Series 1 and 2) The second generation Apple Watch has two models; the **Apple Watch Series 1** and **Apple Watch Series 2**. The Series 1 has a variant of the dual-core Apple S2 processor with GPS removed, known as the Apple S1P. It has a lower starting price than first generation. The Series 1 was sold only in Aluminium casings. The Series 2 has the dual-core Apple S2 processor, water resistance to 50 meters, a display twice as bright, at 1000 nits, and a GPS receiver. The Series 2 was sold in casings of anodized Aluminium, Stainless Steel and Ceramic. The Apple Watch Edition Series 2 is the first Apple Watch model to add the new White ceramic case color option. Both Yellow Gold and Rose Gold 18K gold case color options have been removed. The Apple Watch Nike+ Series 2 is the first Apple Watch model available as the Nike, Inc. collaborate special option. The Apple Watch Series 1 and Apple Watch Series 2 are the final Apple Watch models available with Yellow Gold and Rose Gold aluminum case color options.They have an advertised 18 hours of battery life. The software support for both Apple Watch Series 1 and Apple Watch Series 2 ended with watchOS 6.3. ### Third generation (Series 3) The **Apple Watch Series 3** features a faster processor, the dual-core S3, Bluetooth 4.2 (compared to 4.0 on older models), a built-in altimeter for measuring flights of stairs climbed, increased RAM size, and is available in a variant with LTE cellular connectivity. Siri is able to speak through the onboard speaker on Apple Watch Series 3 due to the increased processing speed of the Watch. Series 3 features LTE cellular connectivity for the first time in an Apple Watch, enabling users to make phone calls, iMessage and stream Apple Music and Podcasts directly on the watch, independent of an iPhone. The LTE model contains an eSIM and shares the same mobile number as the user's iPhone. The Apple Watch Series 3 is the first Apple Watch model to add the new Gold aluminum case color option to match the color introduced with the iPhone 8 in 2017. Both Yellow Gold and Rose Gold aluminum case color options have been removed. It is now available in Space Gray, Silver and Gold aluminum case color options, available in Space Black and Silver stainless steel case color options. The Apple Watch Edition Series 3 is the first and only Apple Watch model to add the new Gray ceramic case color option. It is available in White and Gray ceramic case color. The software support for the Apple Watch Series 3 ended with watchOS 8.8.1. ### Fourth generation (Series 4) The **Apple Watch Series 4** is the first predominant redesign of the Apple Watch, featuring larger displays with thinner bezels and rounded corners, and a slightly rounder, thinner chassis with a redesigned ceramic back. Internally there is a new S4 64-bit dual-core processor, capable of up to double the S3's performance, upgraded 16 GB storage, and a new electrical heart sensor. The microphone was moved to the opposite side between the side button and the digital crown to improve call quality. Other changes include the digital crown incorporating haptic feedback with the Apple Haptic Engine and includes the new Apple-designed W3 wireless chip. The ECG system has received clearance from the United States Food and Drug Administration, a first ever for a consumer device, and is supported by the American Heart Association. The Series 4 can also detect falls, and can automatically contact emergency services unless the user cancels the outgoing call. The watch received mostly positive reviews from critics. TechRadar gave it a score of 4.5/5, calling it one of the top smartwatches, while criticizing the short battery life. Digital Trends gave it a score of 5/5, calling it Apple's best product and praising the design, build quality, and software, among others, while criticizing the battery life. CNET gave it a score of 8.2/10, calling it the "best overall smartwatch around", while criticizing the battery life and lack of watch face options. T3 gave it a score of 5/5, calling it a "truly next-gen smartwatch" due to its thinner body and bigger screen compared to the Series 3, and health features. The Apple Series 4 is the first Apple Watch model to add the new Gold stainless steel color option to match the color introduced with the iPhone XS in 2018. It is now available in Space Gray, Silver and Gold aluminum case color options, available in Space Black, Silver and Gold stainless steel case color options. All the ceramic case color options have been removed until the launch of the Apple Watch Edition Series 5 in 2019. ### Fifth generation (Series 5 & SE (1st gen)) The **Apple Watch Series 5** was announced on September 10, 2019. Its principal improvements over its predecessor were the addition of a compass and an always-on display with a low-power display driver capable of refresh rates as low as once per second. Additional new features include International Emergency Calling, enabling emergency calls in over 150 countries, a more energy-efficient S5 processor, improved ambient light sensor, and storage doubled to 32 GB. The release of the Series 5 also brought back the "Edition" model, with a ceramic model absent from the previous generation. A new titanium model was also included in two colors: natural and Space Black. At its September 2020 product introduction event, Apple also announced the **Apple Watch SE**, a lower-cost model, similar to the iPhone SE. The SE incorporates the same always-on altimeter as the Series 6, but uses the previous-generation S5 processor and previous- (i.e. second) generation optical heart rate sensor; does not include ECG and blood oximeter sensors or an always-on display; and does not include ultra-wideband (UWB) or 5 GHz Wi-Fi communication capabilities. The Series 5 and above (including the SE model introduced in 2020) also incorporate enhanced hardware- and software-based battery and performance management functionality. Critics generally gave it a positive review. CNET gave it a score of 4/5, concluding, "The Apple Watch continues to be one of the best smartwatches, but it remains limited by being an iPhone accessory for now." Digital Trends gave it a score of 4.5/5. The Verge gave it a score of 9/10. The Apple Watch Series 5 is now available in Space Gray, Silver and Gold aluminum case color options, available in Space Black, Silver and Gold stainless steel case color options. The Apple Watch Edition Series 5 is the final Apple Watch model available with White ceramic case color option. It is the first Apple Watch model to add the new Natural and Space Black titanium case color options. It is now available in White ceramic case color option, available in Natural and Space Black titanium case color options. The 1st-generation Apple Watch SE is the final Apple Watch model available with Space Gray and Gold (introduced with iPhone 8 in 2017) case color options. It is now available with Space Gray, Silver and Gold case color options. The 1st-generation Apple Watch SE is no longer sold on Apple's official website as of the release of the Apple Watch SE 2nd-generation in 2022, which comes at the same price as the first one, but with some minor changes and more recent components. ### Sixth generation (Series 6) The **Apple Watch Series 6** was announced on September 15, 2020, during an Apple Special Event and began shipping on September 18. Its principal improvement over its predecessor is the inclusion of a sensor to monitor blood oxygen saturation. Additional features include a new S6 processor that is up to 20% faster than the S4 and S5, a 2.5× brighter always-on display, and an always-on altimeter. The S6 incorporates an updated, third generation optical heart rate sensor and also enhanced telecommunication technology, including support for ultra-wideband (UWB) via Apple's U1 chip, and the ability to connect to 5 GHz Wi-Fi networks. The Series 6 watch was updated with faster charging hardware such that it completes charging in ~1.5 hours. Force Touch hardware was removed, consistent with the removal of all Force Touch functionality from watchOS 7. The Apple Watch Series 6 is the final Apple Watch model available with Space Gray and Gold (introduced with the iPhone 8 in 2017) aluminum case color options. It is the first time adding the Product Red and Blue aluminum case color options. It is available in Space Gray, Silver, Gold, Blue and Product Red aluminum case color options, available in Graphite, Silver and Gold stainless steel case color options. The Gold stainless steel case color option is now in classic yellow gold and the Graphite stainless steel case color option is the new color replacing Space Black color before the introduction with the iPhone 12 Pro in 2020. The Apple Watch Edition Series 6 is now available in Natural and Space Black titanium case color options. The ceramic case option was removed. ### Seventh generation (Series 7) The **Apple Watch Series 7** was announced on September 14, 2021, during an Apple Special Event. Pre-orders opened on October 8, with earliest shipping dates starting on October 15. Enhancements relative to the prior-generation Series 6 watch include a more rounded design with a case 1 mm larger than the Series 6; a display that is 70% brighter indoors and approximately 20% larger; improved durability via a crack-resistant front crystal; IP6X certification for resistance to dust; 33% faster charging via improved internal electronics and an enhanced, USB-C based fast-charging cable; support for BeiDou (China's satellite navigation system); and the availability of an on-screen keyboard that can be tapped or swiped. The Series 7 is also equipped with new hardware that enables ultra-rapid, short-range wireless data transfer at 60.5 GHz, though Apple has not fully explained this new functionality. The Apple Watch Edition Series 7 is the final Apple Watch model to be available in Natural and Space Black titanium case color options. The Apple Watch Series 7 is now available in Midnight, Starlight, Blue, Green and Product Red aluminum case color option, available in Graphite, Silver and Gold (introduced with the Apple Watch Series 6 and the iPhone 12 Pro in 2020) stainless steel case color option. Both Space Gray and Gold (introduced with iPhone 8 in 2017) aluminum case color options have been removed. The Silver aluminum case color option was unavailable until the launch of the Apple Watch Series 8 in 2022. ### Eighth generation (Series 8, SE (2nd gen) & Ultra) The **Apple Watch Series 8**, the second-generation **Apple Watch SE**, and **Apple Watch Ultra** were announced on September 7, 2022, during an Apple Special Event. Pre-orders opened on the same day, with the Series 8 and 2nd gen SE shipping on September 16, while the Ultra shipped on September 23. Enhancements in the Series 8, relative to the prior-generation Series 7 watch, include a new temperature sensor and more precise accelerometers and gyroscopes capable of detecting the occurrence of a car crash. Aluminum case models are available in Midnight, Silver, Starlight and Product Red, and the stainless steel models are available in Silver, Graphite and Gold. The Blue and Green case colors are discontinued, and the Series 8 is not available with a titanium case. The Apple Watch Ultra is the first Apple Watch model to feature a new tough and rugged titanium casing in natural finish, a larger 49 mm case size, a flat sapphire front crystal, and an additional orange Action button located on the opposite side of the Digital Crown and Side Button. It is designed for extreme activities like endurance sports, elite athletics, trailblazing, adventure, ocean, and water sports. The 2nd-generation Apple Watch SE is available in Midnight, Silver and Starlight case color options. The Space Gray and Gold case color options have been discontinued. Software -------- Apple Watch runs watchOS, whose interface is based around a home screen with circular app icons, which can be changed to a list view in the devices settings. The OS can be navigated using the touchscreen or the crown on the side of the watch. During its debut, the first generation Apple Watch needed to be paired with an iPhone 5 or later running iOS 8.2 or later; this version of iOS introduced the Apple Watch app, which is used to pair the watch with an iPhone, customize settings and loaded apps, and highlight compatible apps from the App Store. The Apple Watch is capable of receiving notifications, messages, and phone calls via a paired iPhone. "Glances" allowed users to swipe between pages containing widget-like displays of information; however, this feature was replaced by a new Control Center. watchOS also supports Handoff to send content from Apple Watch to an iOS or macOS device, and act as a viewfinder for an iPhone camera, Siri is also available for voice commands, and is capable of responding with voice prompts on the Series 3 watches. Apple Watch also supports Apple Pay, and enables its use with older iPhone models that do not contain near-field communication (NFC) support. Apple Watch's default apps are designed to interact with their iOS counterparts, such as Mail, Phone, Calendar, Messages, Maps, Music, Photos, Reminders, Remote (which can control iTunes and Apple TV), Stocks, and Wallet. Using the Activity and Workout apps, a user can track their physical activity and send data back to the iPhone for use in its Health app and other HealthKit-enabled software. With watchOS 3, Reminders, Home, Find My Friends, Heart Rate, and Breathe were added to the stock apps. ### Version history At WWDC 2015, Tim Cook announced watchOS 2.0; described by *CNET* as a "significant revamp", it included a new software development kit that allows more direct access to the device's hardware, new watch faces, the ability to reply to an e-mail, and other features. WatchOS 2.0 was released in September 2015. Following the software update, some users experienced issues with lag. watchOS 3.0 was announced at WWDC 2016, with a priority on performance. Users are able to keep apps running in memory as well as receive background updates and refreshed information. Other updates include a new Dock invoked with the side button to replace the performance-laden Glances, an updated Control Center, and new reply options on Messages. Several new watch faces have also been added, including Minnie Mouse, along with the ability to switch watch faces from the lock screen simply by swiping. A new feature called SOS allows users to hold the dock button to make a call to the local emergency line and pull up the user's Medical ID. Another feature is Activity Sharing, which allows sharing of workouts with friends and even sending their heartbeats to one another. A new app called Breathe guides users through breathing exercises throughout the day, with visuals and haptic feedback. It was made available to the public in September 2016. watchOS 3.1 was released to the public in October 2016, and watchOS 3.2 was released in March 2017. Both updates added minor improvements and bug fixes. WatchOS 4.0 was announced at WWDC 2017 and released to the public in September 2017. WatchOS 4 features a proactive Siri watch face, personalized activity coaching, and an entirely redesigned music app. It also introduces Apple GymKit, a technology platform to connect workouts with cardio equipment. WatchOS 4.3 was released in March 2018. It introduced support for Nightstand mode in portrait orientation. It brought back the ability for music playing on the iPhone to be controlled using the Music app on the Apple Watch and also enabled control of playback and volume on Apple's HomePod. Other new features included a new charging animation and a new app loading animation. Activity data was added to the Siri watch face, and the battery complication more accurately reports battery life. watchOS 5.0 was first shown to the public at the San Jose WWDC developer conference held by Apple. It introduced an instant watch-to-watch walkie-talkie mode, all-new Podcasts app, raise-wrist-to-speak Siri, customizable Control Center, and the ability to access the notification center and control center from apps. Other features included support for WebKit to view web pages, six new watch faces, and new workout running features. It was released to the public in September 2018. On the newest release of watchOS beta the sleep feature was shown on screen, this would eliminate the need to use third-party apps. watchOS 6.0 was released to the public in September 2019. It introduced more native iOS apps such as voice memos, calculator, and a native watchOS app store. watchOS 6.0 also introduced new features such as the noise app that allows you to measure the sound around you in decibels, menstrual tracking, and new watch faces. Other features include Siri being able to tell users what music they are listening to, activity trends, and a new UI framework for developers. watchOS 7.0 was announced on June 22, 2020, at the WWDC, and released on September 16, 2020; new functionalities include sleep tracking, additional watch faces, handwashing detection and new workouts such as dancing. watchOS 8.0 was announced on June 7, 2021, at the WWDC, and released on September 20, 2021. It replaces the Breathe app with a new Mindfulness app, and adds a Focus mode as well as a Portrait Watch Face, updates to the Messages and Home apps, Contacts and Find My apps, and a redesigned Photos app. watchOS 9.0 was released to public on September 13, 2022. It enhances the Workout display with new views of metrics like Activity rings, Heart Rate Zones, Power, and Elevation. It also supports better sleep tracking and additional watch faces. ### Third-party apps In watchOS 1, third-party WatchKit applications run in the background on the iPhone as an application extension while a set of native user interface resources are installed on Apple Watch. Thus, watchOS apps must be bundled within their respective iOS app, and are synced to the watch either manually, or automatically upon installation of the phone app. With the release of watchOS 2, Apple made it mandatory for new watch apps to be developed with the watchOS 2 SDK from June 1, 2016, onwards; no third-party languages or SDKs can be used to develop apps. This allowed for developers to create native apps that are run on the watch itself, thus improving the responsiveness of third-party apps. In watchOS 5 and earlier, all watchOS apps are dependent apps – the watchOS app relies on an iOS companion app in order to function properly. In watchOS 6 or later, developers are able to create completely independent watchOS apps, and no longer require an app to be installed on the paired iPhone. This was assisted by the introduction of a separate App Store on the Apple Watch itself. Models ------ As of September 2021, eight generations and eight series of Apple Watch have been released. Apple Watch models have been divided into five "collections": Apple Watch (1st generation-present), Apple Watch Sport (1st generation), Apple Watch Nike+ (Series 2-present), Apple Watch Hermès (1st generation-Series 5, Series 6-present), and Apple Watch Edition (1st generation-Series 3, Series 5, Series 6-present). They are differentiated by combinations of cases, bands, and exclusive watch faces; Apple Watch comes with either aluminum or stainless steel cases, and various watch bands (only stainless steel was offered for Apple Watch 1st generation); Apple Watch Sport came with aluminum cases and sport bands or woven nylon bands; Apple Watch Nike+ comes with aluminum cases and Nike sport bands or sport loops; Apple Watch Hermès uses stainless steel cases and Hermès leather watch bands (also included is an exclusive Hermès orange sport band); and Apple Watch Edition came with ceramic cases and various bands (the 1st generation Apple Watch Edition used 18 karat yellow or rose gold). With the Series 5, the Edition tier was expanded with a new titanium case. Apple Watch Series 1 models were previously only available with aluminum cases and sport bands. As of Series 3, each Apple Watch model in aluminum, the least expensive casing, is available either with or without LTE cellular connectivity, while the models with the other casing materials available (stainless steel and sometimes ceramic and titanium) always include it. Each model through Series 3 comes in a 38- or 42-millimeter body, with the larger size having a slightly larger screen and battery. The Series 4 was updated to 40- and 44-millimeter models, respectively. The Series 7 has been updated to 41- and 45-millimeter models. Each model has various color and band options. Featured Apple-made bands include colored sport bands, sport loop, woven nylon band, classic buckle, modern buckle, leather loop, Milanese loop, and a link bracelet. Comparison of models -------------------- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Legend: |   Vintage |   Discontinued and unsupported |   Discontinued, but still supported |   Current or still sold | ### Support | Watch | Released with | Release date | Discontinued | Final supported OS | Support ended | Support lifespan | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **1st generation** | watchOS 1.0 (iOS 8.2) | April 24, 2015; 8 years ago (2015-04-24) | September 7, 2016; 6 years ago (2016-09-07) | watchOS 4.3.2 (iOS 11.4.1) | September 17, 2018; 4 years ago (2018-09-17) | **3 years, 4 months** | | **Series 1** | watchOS 3.0 (iOS 10.0) | September 12, 2016; 6 years ago (2016-09-12) | September 12, 2018; 4 years ago (2018-09-12) | watchOS 6.3 (iOS 13.7) | September 15, 2020; 2 years ago (2020-09-15) | **4 years** | | **Series 2** | watchOS 3.0 (iOS 10.0) | September 16, 2016; 6 years ago (2016-09-16) | September 12, 2017; 5 years ago (2017-09-12) | watchOS 6.3 (iOS 13.7) | September 15, 2020; 2 years ago (2020-09-15) | **3 years, 11 months** | | **Series 3** | watchOS 4.0 (iOS 11.0) | September 22, 2017; 5 years ago (2017-09-22) | September 7, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-07) | watchOS 8.8.1 (iOS 15.6.1) | September 13, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-13) | **4 years, 11 months** | | **Series 4** | watchOS 5.0 (iOS 12.0) | September 21, 2018; 4 years ago (2018-09-21) | September 10, 2019; 3 years ago (2019-09-10) | watchOS 9.0 (iOS 16.0) | (Current) | **4 years, 9 months +** | | **Series 5** | watchOS 6.0 (iOS 13.0) | September 20, 2019; 3 years ago (2019-09-20) | September 15, 2020; 2 years ago (2020-09-15) | **3 years, 9 months +** | | **SE (1st generation)** | watchOS 7.0 (iOS 14.0) | September 18, 2020; 2 years ago (2020-09-18) | September 7, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-07) | **2 years, 9 months +** | | **Series 6** | watchOS 7.0 (iOS 14.0) | September 18, 2020; 2 years ago (2020-09-18) | September 14, 2021; 21 months ago (2021-09-14) | **2 years, 9 months +** | | **Series 7** | watchOS 8.0 (iOS 15.0) | October 15, 2021; 20 months ago (2021-10-15) | September 7, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-07) | **1 year, 8 months +** | | **SE (2nd generation)** | watchOS 9.0 (iOS 16.0) | September 16, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-16) | In production | **9 months +** | | **Series 8** | watchOS 9.0 (iOS 16.0) | September 16, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-16) | In production | **9 months +** | | **Ultra** | watchOS 9.0 (iOS 16.0) | September 23, 2022; 9 months ago (2022-09-23) | In production | **9 months +** | 1. ↑ watch OS 4.3.2 requires iOS version 11.4, but higher version iOS can still pair with a watchOS 4 watch. 2. ↑ watch OS 6.3 requires iOS version 13.5, but iOS 14 can still pair with a watchOS 6 watch. 3. ↑ watch OS 8.7.1 requires iOS version 15.6, but iOS 16 can still pair with a watchOS 8 watch. | OS release | Model | | --- | --- | | Vintage | Unsupported | Vintage | Unsupported | Discontinued | Current | | 1st gen | Series 1 | Series 2 | Series 3 | Series 4 | Series 5 | SE (1st gen) | Series 6 | Series 7 | SE (2nd gen) | Series 8 | Ultra | | watchOS 1 | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 2 | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 3 | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 4 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 5 | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 6 | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 7 | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | | watchOS 8 | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | | watchOS 9 | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | | watchOS 10 | No | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ### Specifications | Specification | 1st generation | 2nd generation (Series 1) | 2nd generation (Series 2) | 3rd generation (Series 3) | 4th generation (Series 4) | 5th generation (Series 5) | 6th generation (SE 1st gen) | 6th generation (Series 6) | 7th generation (Series 7) | 8th generation (SE 2nd gen) | 8th generation (Series 8) | 8th generation (Ultra) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | System on chip (SoC) | Apple S1 | Apple S1P | Apple S2 | Apple S3 | Apple S4 | Apple S5 | Apple S6 | Apple S7 | Apple S8 | | Resistance | Water | IPX7 splash resistant (up to 1 meter) | ISO 22810:2010 water resistant (up to 50 meters) | ISO 22810 water resistant (up to 100 meters) and dive (up to 40 meters) | | Dust | — | IP6X dust resistant | — | IP6X dust resistant | | Connectivity | Cellular (LTE / UMTS) | No | Optional (eSIM) | Standard (eSIM) | | Wireless networking | Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n 2.4 GHz) | Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz) | Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n 2.4 GHz) | Wi-Fi (802.11 b/g/n 2.4 GHz & 5 GHz) | | Bluetooth | Bluetooth 4.0 | Bluetooth 4.2 | Bluetooth 5.0 | Bluetooth 5.3 | | Ultra Wideband | No | U1 chip | No | U1 chip | | Sensors | Optical heart sensor | 1st generation | 2nd generation | 3rd generation | 2nd generation | 3rd generation | | Electrical heart sensor (ECG/EKG) | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | | Blood oxygen sensor | No | Yes | No | Yes | | Temperature sensor | No | Yes | | Satellite Navigation | No | GPS and GLONASS | GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and QZSS | GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, QZSS, and BeiDou | GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and QZSS | GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, QZSS, and BeiDou | | Accelerometer | 16g | 32g | High-g | | Gyroscope | Yes | Improved | High dynamic range | | Ambient light sensor | Yes | | Altimeter | No | Yes | Always on | | Compass | No | Yes | | Input & Display | "Siri Speaks" and "Raise to Speak" | No | Yes | | Display type | OLED Retina | Second-generation OLED Retina | LTPO OLED Retina | LTPO OLED Always-on Retina | LTPO OLED Retina | LTPO OLED Always-on Retina | LTPO OLED Retina | LTPO OLED Always-On Retina | | Force Touch | Yes | No | | Brightness (nits) | 450 | 1000 | 2000 | | Pixel Density | 326 ppi | 338 ppi | | Small (38/40/41 mm case height) diagonal size & resolution | 38 mm: 1.337in272×340 pixels | 40 mm: 1.549in324×394 pixels | 41 mm: 1.691in352×430 pixels | 40 mm: 1.549in324×394 pixels | 41 mm: 1.691in352×430 pixels | 49 mm: 1.919 in410×502 pixels | | Large (42/44/45 mm case height) diagonal size & resolution | 42 mm: 1.533in312×390 pixels | 44 mm: 1.757in368×448 pixels | 45 mm: 1.901in396×484 pixels | 44 mm: 1.757in368×448 pixels | 45 mm: 1.901in396×484 pixels | | Chipset | Central Processing Unit (CPU) | 520 MHz 32-bit Single-Core | 520 MHz 32-bit Dual-Core | 32-bit Dual-Core | 64-bit Dual-Core S4 SiP | 64-bit Dual-Core S5 SiP | 64-bit Dual-Core S6 SiP | 64-bit Dual-Core S7 SiP | 64-bit Dual-Core S8 SiP | | Storage | 8 GB | **Non-LTE**: 8 GB**LTE**: 16 GB | 16 GB | 32 GB | | Random Access Memory (RAM) | 512 MB DRAM | 768 MB DRAM | 1 GB DRAM | 1.5 GB DRAM | | Software | OS Versions | watchOS 1.0 to 4.3.2 | watchOS 3.0 to 6.3 | watchOS 4.0 to 8.7.1 | watchOS 5.0 to 9.3.1 | watchOS 6.0 to 9.3.1 | watchOS 7.0 to 9.3.1 | watchOS 8.0 to 9.3.1 | watchOS 9.0 to 9.3.1 | | Requires | iPhone 5 or later running iOS 8.2 or later | iPhone 5 or later running iOS 10 or later | **Non-LTE**: iPhone 5S or later running iOS 11 or later**LTE**: iPhone 6 or later, running iOS 11 or later | **Non-LTE**: iPhone 5S or later running iOS 12 or later**LTE**: iPhone 6 or later, running iOS 12 or later | iPhone 6s or later, running iOS 13 or later | iPhone 6s or later with iOS 14 or later | iPhone 6s or later with iOS 15 or later | iPhone 8 or later running iOS 16 or later | | Battery | Small case (38/40/41 mm) capacity | 205 mA·h, 3.8 V, 0.78 W·h | 273 mA·h, 3.77 V, 1.03 W·h | **Non-LTE**: 262 mA·h, 3.81 V, 1.00 W·h | 224.9 mA·h, 3.81 V, 0.858 W·h | 245 mA·h, 3.85 V, 0.944 W·h | 245 mA·h, 3.85 V, 0.944 W·h | 265.9 mA·h, 3.85 V, 1.024 W·h | 284.2 mA·h, 3.85 V, 1.094 W·h | | | 542 mA·h, 3.86 V, 2.094 W·h | | **LTE:** 279 mA·h, 3.82 V, 1.07 W·h | | Large case (42/44/45 mm) capacity | 246 mA·h, 3.78 V, 0.93 W·h | 334 mA·h, 3.8 V, 1.27 W·h | **Non-LTE**: 342 mA·h, 3.82 V, 1.31 W·h | 291.8 mA·h, 3.81 V, 1.113 W·h | 296 mA·h, 3.814 V, 1.129 W·h | 296 mA·h, 3.814 V, 1.129 W·h | 303.8 mA·h, 3.85 V, 1.17 W·h | 308.8 mA·h, 3.85 V, 1.189 W·h | | | | **LTE:** 352 mA·h, 3.82 V, 1.34 W·h | | Charge Times | - | - | - | ~1.5 hours to 80% ~2 hours to 100% | ~1.5 hours to 80% ~2 hours to 100% | ~1.5 hours to 80% ~2.5 hours to 100% | ~1.5 hours to 80% ~2.5 hours to 100% | ~1 hour to 80% ~1.5 hours to 100% | ~45 minutes to 80% ~75 minutes to 100% | ~1.5 hours to 80% ~2.5 hours to 100% | ~45 minutes to 80% ~75 minutes to 100% | ~1 hour to 80% ~1.5 hours to 100% | | Greenhouse Gas Emissions | 50 kg CO2e | 20 kg CO2e | 30 kg CO2e | **Non-LTE**: 28 kg CO2e **LTE**: 36 kg CO2e | **Non-LTE:** 38 kg CO2e **LTE:** 39 kg CO2e | **All:** 40 kg CO2e | **All:** 35 kg CO2e | **All:** 36 kg CO2e | **All:** 34 kg CO2e | **All:** 31 kg CO2e | **All:** 33 kg CO2e | 56 kg CO2e | | Dates | Introduced | September 9, 2014 | September 7, 2016 | September 12, 2017 | September 12, 2018 | September 10, 2019 | September 15, 2020 | September 14, 2021 | September 7, 2022 | | Released | April 24, 2015 | September 12, 2016 | September 16, 2016 | September 22, 2017 | September 21, 2018 | September 25, 2019 | September 18, 2020 | October 15, 2021 | September 16, 2022 | September 23, 2022 | | Discontinued | September 7, 2016 | September 12, 2018 | September 12, 2017 | September 7, 2022 | September 10, 2019 | September 15, 2020 | September 7, 2022 | October 8, 2021 | September 7, 2022 | In production | | Unsupported | September 17, 2018 | December 14, 2020 | September 12, 2022 | Current | | Model Numbers | A1553 (38 mm) A1554 (42 mm) | A1802 (38 mm) A1803 (42 mm) | A1757 (38 mm) A1758 (42 mm)**Edition:** A1816 (38 mm) A1817 (42 mm) | **GPS:** A1858 (38 mm) A1859 (42 mm)**GPS + Cellular:**Americas: A1860 (38 mm) A1861 (42 mm) Europe and Asia Pacific: A1889 (38 mm) A1891 (42 mm) China mainland: A1890 (38 mm) A1892 (42 mm) | **GPS:** A1977 (40 mm) A1978 (44 mm)**GPS + Cellular:**North America: A1975 (40 mm) A1976 (44 mm)Europe, Asia Pacific, and China mainland: A2007 (40 mm) A2008 (44 mm) | **GPS:** A2092 (40 mm) A2093 (44 mm)**GPS + Cellular:**North America: A2094 (40 mm) A2095 (44 mm)Europe, Asia Pacific, and China mainland: A2156 (40 mm) A2157 (44 mm) | **GPS:** A2351 (40 mm) A2352 (44 mm) **GPS + Cellular:** North America: A2353 (40 mm) A2354 (44 mm)Europe, Asia Pacific, and China mainland: A2355 (40 mm) A2356 (44 mm) | **GPS:** A2291 (40 mm) A2292 (44 mm)**GPS + Cellular:**North America: A2293 (40 mm) A2294 (44 mm) Europe, Asia Pacific, and China mainland: A2375 (40 mm) A2376 (44 mm) | **GPS:** A2473 (41 mm) A2474 (45 mm)**GPS + Cellular:**North America: A2475 (41 mm) A2477 (45 mm) Europe, Asia Pacific, and China mainland: A2476 (41 mm) A2478 (45 mm) | **GPS:** A2722 (40 mm) A2723 (44 mm) **GPS + Cellular:** North America: A2726 (40 mm) A2727 (44 mm)Europe and Asia Pacific: A2725 (40 mm) A2724 (44 mm)China mainland: A2855 (40 mm) A2856 (44 mm) | **GPS:** A2770 (41 mm) A2771 (45 mm) **GPS + Cellular:** North America: A2772 (41 mm) A2774 (45 mm)Europe and Asia Pacific: A2773 (41 mm) A2775 (45 mm)China mainland: A2857 (41 mm) A2858 (45 mm) | North America: A2622Europe and Asia Pacific: A2684China mainland: A2859 | | FCC ID | BCG-E2870 BCG-E2871 | BCG-E3102 BCG-E3103 | BCG-E3104 BCG-E3105 | BCG-A1858 BCG-A1859 BCG-A1860 BCG-A1861 BCG-A1889 BCG-A1891 BCG-A1890 BCG-A1892 | BCG-A1977 BCG-A1978 BCG-A1975 BCG-A1976 BCG-A2007 BCG-A2008 | BCG-A2092 BCG-A2093 BCG-A2094 BCG-A2095 BCG-A2156 BCG-A2157 | BCG-A2351 BCG-A2352 BCG-A2353 BCG-A2354 BCG-A2355 BCG-A2356 | BCG-A2291 BCG-A2292 BCG-A2293 BCG-A2294 BCG-A2375 BCG-A2376 | | | | | | Starting price (US)small / large | Base model (Aluminum) | $349 / $399 | $269 | $369 | **GPS**: $329 / 359**GPS+Cellular**: $399 | **GPS**: $399 / $429**GPS+Cellular**: $499 / $529 | **GPS**: $279 / $309**GPS+Cellular**: $329 / $359 | **GPS**: $399 / $429**GPS+Cellular**: $499 / $529 | **GPS**: $249 / $279**GPS+Cellular**: $279 / $329 | **GPS**: $399 / $429**GPS+Cellular**: $499 / $529 | — | | Stainless steel | $549 / $599 | — | $549 | $749 / $799 | $699 / $749 | — | $699 / $749 | — | $699 / $749 | | Nike+ | — | $369 | **GPS**: $329 | $399 | $279 | $399 | — | | Hermes | $1,149 | $1,149 | $1,249 | — | $1,229 | $1,229 | | Edition | $10,000 / $12,000 | $1,249 / $1,299 | $1,299 / $1,349 | — | $799 (Ti)$1,299 (Ceramic) | $799 | — | | Titanium | — | $799 | Physical specifications| Series | Small | Large | | --- | --- | --- | | Al | SS | Ed. | Img | Al | SS | Ed. | Img | | 1st gen. | H | 38.6 mm (1.52 in) | | 42.0 mm (1.65 in) | | | W | 33.3 mm (1.31 in) | 35.9 mm (1.41 in) | | D | 10.5 mm (0.41 in) | 10.5 mm (0.41 in) | | Weight | 25 g (0.88 oz) | 40 g (1.4 oz) | 54–55 g (1.9–1.9 oz) | 30 g (1.1 oz) | 50 g (1.8 oz) | 67–69 g (2.4–2.4 oz) | | 1 | H | 38.6 mm (1.52 in) | — | 42.5 mm (1.67 in) | — | | W | 33.3 mm (1.31 in) | — | 36.4 mm (1.43 in) | — | | D | 10.5 mm (0.41 in) | — | 10.5 mm (0.41 in) | — | | Weight | 25 g (0.88 oz) | — | 30 g (1.1 oz) | — | | 2 | H | 38.6 mm (1.52 in) | 39.2 mm (1.54 in) | 42.5 mm (1.67 in) | 42.6 mm (1.68 in) | | W | 33.3 mm (1.31 in) | 34.0 mm (1.34 in) | 36.4 mm (1.43 in) | 36.5 mm (1.44 in) | | D | 11.4 mm (0.45 in) | 11.8 mm (0.46 in) | 11.4 mm (0.45 in) | 11.8 mm (0.46 in) | | Weight | 28.2 g (0.99 oz) | 41.9 g (1.48 oz) | 39.6 g (1.40 oz) | 34.2 g (1.21 oz) | 52.4 g (1.85 oz) | 45.6 g (1.61 oz) | | 3 | H | 38.6 mm (1.52 in) | 39.2 mm (1.54 in) | 42.5 mm (1.67 in) | 42.6 mm (1.68 in) | | W | 33.3 mm (1.31 in) | 34.0 mm (1.34 in) | 36.4 mm (1.43 in) | 36.5 mm (1.44 in) | | D | 11.4 mm (0.45 in) | 11.8 mm (0.46 in) | 11.4 mm (0.45 in) | 11.8 mm (0.46 in) | | Weight | 26.7–28.7 g (0.94–1.01 oz) | 42.4 g (1.50 oz) | 40.1 g (1.41 oz) | 32.3–34.9 g (1.14–1.23 oz) | 52.8 g (1.86 oz) | 46.4 g (1.64 oz) | | 4 | H | 40 mm (1.6 in) | — | | 44 mm (1.7 in) | — | | | W | 34 mm (1.3 in) | — | 38 mm (1.5 in) | — | | D | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | — | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | — | | Weight | 30.1 g (1.06 oz) | 39.8 g (1.40 oz) | — | 36.7 g (1.29 oz) | 47.9 g (1.69 oz) | — | | 5 | H | 40 mm (1.6 in) | 44 mm (1.7 in) | | W | 34 mm (1.3 in) | 38 mm (1.5 in) | | D | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | | Weight | 30.8 g (1.09 oz) | 40.6 g (1.43 oz) | 35.1 / 39.7 g (1.24 / 1.40 oz) Ti/C | 36.5 g (1.29 oz) | 47.8 g (1.69 oz) | 41.7 / 46.7 g (1.47 / 1.65 oz) Ti/C | | SE (1st gen) | H | 40 mm (1.6 in) | — | 44 mm (1.7 in) | — | | W | 34 mm (1.3 in) | — | 38 mm (1.5 in) | — | | D | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | — | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | — | | Weight | 30.49–30.68 g (1.076–1.082 oz) | — | 36.20–36.36 g (1.277–1.283 oz) | — | | 6 | H | 40 mm (1.6 in) | 44 mm (1.7 in) | | W | 34 mm (1.3 in) | 38 mm (1.5 in) | | D | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | | Weight | 30.5 g (1.08 oz) | 39.7 g (1.40 oz) | 34.6 g (1.22 oz) | 36.5 g (1.29 oz) | 47.1 g (1.66 oz) | 41.3 g (1.46 oz) | | 7 | H | 41 mm (1.6 in) | | 45 mm (1.8 in) | | | W | 35 mm (1.4 in) | 38 mm (1.5 in) | | D | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | | Weight | 32.0 g (1.13 oz) | 42.3 g (1.49 oz) | 37.0 g (1.31 oz) | 38.8 g (1.37 oz) | 51.5 g (1.82 oz) | 45.1 g (1.59 oz) | | SE (2nd gen) | H | 40 mm (1.6 in) | – | | 44 mm (1.7 in) | – | | | W | 34 mm (1.3 in) | – | 38 mm (1.5 in) | – | | D | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | – | 10.7 mm (0.42 in) | – | | Weight | 26.4–27.8 g (0.93–0.98 oz) | – | 32.9–33.0 g (1.16–1.16 oz) | – | | 8 | H | 41 mm (1.6 in) | – | | 45 mm (1.8 in) | – | | | W | 35 mm (1.4 in) | – | 38 mm (1.5 in) | – | | D | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | – | 10.74 mm (0.423 in) | – | | Weight | 32.0 g (1.13 oz) | 42.3 g (1.49 oz) | – | 38.8 g (1.37 oz) | 51.5 g (1.82 oz) | – | | Ultra | H |   | 49 mm (1.9 in) | | | W | 44 mm (1.7 in) | | D | 14.4 mm (0.57 in) | | Weight | 61.3 g (2.16 oz) | 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Viewable area reduced by rounded corners 2. ↑ At time of original release. 3. ↑ Watch with aluminum body 4. ↑ Watch with stainless steel body 5. ↑ "Edition" collection with 18K gold (1st gen), ceramic (Series 2/3/5), or titanium (Series 5/6/7) body ### Collections and materials Collections and materials| Series | Watch | Nike+ | Hermès | Edition | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st Gen | Body | "Sport": Aluminum(Silver, Space Gray, Rose Gold, Gold) | Stainless steel(Polished or Space Black) | N/A | Stainless steel(Polished) | 18K Gold(Rose or Yellow) | | Crystal | "Sport": Ion-X | Sapphire | Sapphire | Sapphire | | Back | "Sport": Composite | Ceramic | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | 1 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Rose Gold, Silver) | N/A | | Crystal | Ion-X | | Back | Composite | | 2 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Rose Gold, Silver) | Stainless steel(Space Black, Polished) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished) | Ceramic(White) | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | 3 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Silver) | Stainless steel(Space Black, Polished) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished) | Ceramic(White, Gray) | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Composite (GPS) | Ceramic | Composite (GPS) with Nike logo | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | Ceramic (GPS+LTE) | Ceramic (GPS+LTE) with Nike Logo | | 4 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished, Space Black, Gold) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished) | N/A | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Nike logo | Ceramic with Hermès logo | | 5 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished, Space Black, Gold) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | Stainless steel(Polished, Space Black) | Titanium(Dark, Light) | Ceramic(White) | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Nike logo | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | SE (1st gen) | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Silver) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | N/A | | Crystal | Ion-X | Ion-X | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Nike logo | | 6 | Body | Aluminum(Space Gray, Gold, Silver, Red, Blue) | Stainless steel(Silver, Graphite, Gold) | Aluminum(Space Gray, Silver) | Stainless steel(Silver, Space Black) | Titanium(Natural, Space Black) | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Nike logo | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | 7 | Body | Aluminum(Midnight, Starlight, Green, Blue, (PRODUCT)RED) | Stainless steel(Silver, Graphite, Gold) | Aluminum(Midnight, Starlight) | Stainless steel(Silver, Space Black) | Titanium(Natural, Space Black) | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Ion-X | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Nike logo | Ceramic with Hermès logo | Ceramic | | SE (2nd gen) | Body | Aluminum(Midnight, Starlight, Silver) | N/A | | Crystal | Ion-X | | Back | Composite | | 8 | Body | Aluminum(Midnight, Starlight, Silver, (PRODUCT)RED) | Stainless steel(Silver, Graphite, Gold) | N/A | Stainless steel(Silver, Space Black) | N/A | | Crystal | Ion-X | Sapphire | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic | Ceramic with Hermès logo | | Ultra | Body | Titanium | N/A | | Crystal | Sapphire | | Back | Ceramic and sapphire | * 1st generation only: Apple Watch was sold as "Apple Watch Sport" (Aluminum body) and "Apple Watch" (Stainless steel body). Later generations sold both body materials as "Apple Watch". Reception --------- Following the announcement, initial impressions from technology and watch industry observers were varied; the watch was praised by some for its "design, potential capabilities and eventual usefulness", while others offered criticism of these same aspects. Venture capitalist Marc Andreessen said he "can't wait" to try it, and Steve Jobs' biographer Walter Isaacson described it as "extremely cool" and an example of future technology that is "much more embedded into our lives". Evan Dashevsky of *PC Magazine* said it offered nothing new in terms of functionality compared to the Moto 360, except the customizable vibration notifications. In November 2014, Apple Watch was listed by *Time* as one of the 25 Best Inventions of 2014. Initial reviews for the device have been generally positive with some caveats. Reviewers praised the watch's potential ability to integrate into everyday life and the overall design of the product, but noted issues of speed and price. Many reviewers described the watch as functional and convenient, while also noting failure to offer as much potential functionality as preceding smartphones. Farhad Manjoo of *The New York Times* mentioned the device's steep learning curve, stating it took him "three long, often confusing and frustrating days" to become accustomed to watchOS 1, but loved it thereafter. Some reviewers also compared it to competing products, such as Android Wear devices, and claimed "The Smartwatch Finally Makes Sense". Reviewers had mixed opinions on battery life though, with Geoffrey Fowler of *The Wall Street Journal* saying "the battery lives up to its all-day billing, but sometimes just barely," and others compared it to the Samsung Gear 2, which "strolls through three days of moderate usage." Tim Bradshaw of the *Financial Times* used several applications over a period of days. He concluded that there is no "killer application" so far besides telling the time, which is the basic function of a wristwatch anyhow. When using the Apple Watch, some users have reported issues using the heart monitoring feature due to permanent skin conditions, including tattoos. The Watch uses photoplethysmography technology (PPG) that utilizes the green LED lights to measure heart rates. To gauge a user's heart rate, the watch flashes green light from the LEDs at the skin and records the amount of this light that is absorbed by the red pigment of the blood. Under certain circumstances, the skin may not allow for the light absorption to be read properly and thus provide inaccurate results. Some users have complained that the logo and text on the back of the Apple Watch Sport model, primarily the space gray version, can be easily worn off. ### Sales Financial analysts offered early sales estimates from a few million to as many as 5 million in the first year. *Time*'s Tim Bajarin summarized the breadth of reactions, writing that "there is not enough information yet to determine how this product will fare when it finally reaches the market next year". Owing to the inadequacy of materials, the Apple Watch's delivery was delayed from its initial pre-order release date of April 10, 2015. As a result, only 22 percent of the pre-ordered Apple Watches were dispatched in the United States during the weekend after the release date. It is estimated Apple received almost one million Apple Watch pre-orders in the United States during the initial six hours of the pre-order period on April 10, 2015, after which it sold out and further orders would start delivering in June. A report later on by an analyst stated that Apple Watch was already a $10 billion business during its first year. Apple has not disclosed any sales figures for the Apple Watch. An estimate by IDC states Apple shipped over 12 million units in 2015. In late 2016, a veteran of the Swiss watch industry said Apple sold about 20 million watches and had a market share of about 50 percent. Analysts estimate Apple sold 18 million watches in 2017, 31 million in 2019, and 34 million in 2020. In 2021, analysts estimated there were 100 million units in use. In 2020, Apple sold more watches than the entire Swiss watch industry– which includes Swatch and TAG Heuer among others. Controversies ------------- In December 2019, Joseph Wiesel, a New York University cardiologist, sued Apple over allegations that the Apple Watch violates a patented method for detecting atrial fibrillation. Wiesel stated he had shared details of the patent with Apple in September 2017; the company refused to negotiate. Following Apple's announcement of the Series 7, an independent software development company filed a lawsuit against Apple alleging inappropriate copying of the software keyboard functionality from an app that Apple had previously rejected from its App Store. See also -------- * List of iPhone models * List of iPad models

Apple Watch

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch

**Ningxia** (/nɪŋˈʃɑː/,/ˈnɪŋˈʃjɑː/; Chinese: 宁夏, Mandarin pronunciation: [nǐŋ.ɕjâ]; alternately romanized as **Ninghsia**), officially the **Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region**, is an autonomous region in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Formerly a province, Ningxia was incorporated into Gansu in 1954 but was later separated from Gansu in 1958 and reconstituted as an autonomous region for the Hui people, one of the 56 officially recognised nationalities of China. Twenty percent of China's Hui population lives in Ningxia. Ningxia is bounded by Shaanxi to the east, Gansu to the south and west and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region to the north and has an area of around 66,400 square kilometres (25,600 sq mi). This sparsely settled, mostly desert region lies partially on the Loess Plateau and in the vast plain of the Yellow River and features the Great Wall of China along its northeastern boundary. Over about 2000 years an extensive system of canals ( total length about 1397 kilometers) has been built from Qin dynasty. Extensive land reclamation and irrigation projects have made increased cultivation possible. The arid region of Xihaigu, which covers large parts of the province, suffers from severe water shortage, which the canals were intended to alleviate. Ningxia was the core area of the Western Xia in the 11th-13th century, established by the Tangut people; its name, "Peaceful Xia", derived from the Mongol conquest of the state. The Tanguts made significant achievements in literature, art, music, and architecture, particularly invented Tangut script. Long one of the country's poorest areas, a small winemaking industry has become economically important since the 1980s. Before the arrival of viticulture, Ningxia's 6.8 million people, 36 per cent of whom are Muslims from the Hui ethnic group, relied largely on animal grazing, subsistence agriculture and the cultivation of wolfberries used in traditional Chinese medicine. Since then, winemaking has become the premier specialty of Ningxia, with the province housing almost 40,000 hectares of wine grapes and producing 120 million wine bottles in 2017 – a quarter of the entire nation's production. History ------- As a frontier zone between nomadic pastoralists and sedentary farmers, Ningxia was a frequent seat of war and incursions by non-Chinese tribes. Ningxia and its surrounding areas were incorporated into the Qin as the Beidi Commandery as early as the 3rd century BC. To pacify the region, the imperial government established military colonies to reclaim land. In addition, horse pasturages were founded under the Imperial Stud to safeguard the supply of army horses, as early as the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 9 CE). Throughout the Han dynasty and the Tang dynasty there were several large cities established in the region. The Liang Province rebellion at the end of the Han Dynasty affected Ningxia. By the 11th century the Tangut people had established the Western Xia dynasty on the outskirts of the then-Song dynasty. Jews also lived in Ningxia, as evidenced by the fact that in 1489, after a major flood destroyed Torah scrolls in Kaifeng, a replacement was sent to the Kaifeng Jews by the Ningbo and Ningxia Jewish communities. It then came under Mongol domination after Genghis Khan conquered Yinchuan in the early 13th century. Muslims from Central Asia also began moving into Ningxia from the west. By the late 17th century, Ningxia had become a weaving center, producing many early Chinese carpets. The Muslim Dungan Revolt of the 19th century affected Ningxia. In 1914, Ningxia was merged with the province of Gansu. However, in 1928 it was detached from Gansu and became a separate province. Between 1914 and 1928, the Ma clique ruled the provinces of Qinghai, Ningxia and Gansu; General Ma Hongkui was the military governor of Ningxia and had absolute authority in the province. The Muslim conflict in Gansu, which lasted from 1927 to 1930, spilled over into Ningxia. In 1934, warlord and National Revolutionary Army general Sun Dianying attempted to conquer the province, but was defeated by an alliance led by the Ma clique. From 1950 to 1958, a Kuomintang Islamic insurgency resulted in fighting throughout Northwest China, including Ningxia. In 1954, the Chinese government merged Ningxia with Gansu, but in 1958 Ningxia formally became an autonomous region of China. In 1969, Ningxia received a part of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, but this area was returned in 1979. A number of Chinese artifacts dating from the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty, some of which had been owned by Emperor Zhenzong, were excavated and then came into the hands of Ma Hongkui, who refused to publicize the findings. Among the artifacts were a white marble tablet from the Tang dynasty, gold nails, and bands made out of metal. It was not until after Ma died that his wife went to Taiwan in 1971 from America to bring the artifacts to Chiang Kai-shek, who turned them over to the Taipei National Palace Museum. Geography --------- Present-day Ningxia is one of the nation's smallest provincial-level units and borders the provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. At 3556 meters above sea level, Aobaogeda (敖包疙瘩) in the Helan Mountains is the highest point in Ningxia. Ningxia is a relatively dry, desert-like region and features a diverse geography of forested mountains and hills, table lands, deserts, flood plains and basins cut through by the Yellow River. The Ningxia ecosystem is one of the least studied regions in the world. Significant irrigation supports the growing of wolfberries, a commonly consumed fruit throughout the region. Ningxia's deserts include the Tengger desert in Shapotou. The northern section, through which the Yellow River flows, supports the best agricultural land. A railroad, linking Lanzhou with Baotou, crosses the region. A highway has been built across the Yellow River at Yinchuan. On 16 December 1920, the Haiyuan earthquake, 8.6 magnitude, at 36°36′N 105°19′E / 36.6°N 105.32°E / 36.6; 105.32, initiated a series of landslides that killed an estimated 200,000 people. Over 600 large loess landslides created more than 40 new lakes. In 2006, satellite images indicated that a 700 by 200-meter fenced area within Ningxia—5 km (3.1 mi) southwest of Yinchuan, near the remote village of Huangyangtan—is a near-exact 1:500 scale terrain model reproduction of a 450 by 350-kilometer area of Aksai Chin bordering India, complete with mountains, valleys, lakes and hills. Its purpose is as yet unknown. ### Grasslands It was reported that approximately 34 percent (33.85 million mu; 22,600 km2) of the region's total surface consisted of grassland. This figure is down from approximately 40 percent in the 1990s. The grasslands are spread over the dry desert-steppe area in the northeast (which forms a part of the Inner Mongolian steppe region), and the hilly pastures located on the semi-arid Loess Plateau in the south. It is ascertained that the grasslands of Ningxia have been degraded to various degrees. However, there is scientific debate as to what extent this degradation is taking place as measured in time and space. Historical research has also found limited evidence of expanding grassland degradation and desertification in Ningxia. A major component of land management in Ningxia is a ban on open grazing, which has been in place since 2003. The ecological and socio-economic effects of this Grazing Ban in relation to the grasslands and pastoralists' livelihood are contested. The ban stipulates that animal husbandry be limited to enclosed pens and no open grazing be permitted in certain time periods set by the Autonomous Region's People's Government. ### Climate The region is 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) from the sea and has an arid continental climate on the north to humid continental climate to the south, with average summer temperatures rising to 17 to 24 °C (63 to 75 °F) in July and average winter temperatures dropping to between −7 and −15 °C (19 and 5 °F) in January. Seasonal extreme temperatures can reach 39 °C (102 °F) in summer and −30 °C (−22 °F) in winter. The diurnal temperature variation can reach above 17 °C (31 °F), especially in spring. Annual rainfall averages from 190 to 700 millimetres (7.5 to 27.6 in), with more rain falling in the south of the region. ### Mineral resources Ningxia is rich in mineral resources with proven deposits of 34 kinds of minerals, much of which located in grassland areas. In 2011 it was estimated that the potential value per capita of these resources accounted for 163.5 percent of the nation's average. Ningxia boasts verified coal reserves of over 30 billion tons, with an estimated reserve of more than 202 billion tons, ranking sixth nationwide. Coal deposits are spread over one-third of the total surface of Ningxia, and mined in four major fields in the Helan and Xiangshan mountains, Ningdong and Yuanzhou (or Guyuan). The region's reserves of oil and natural gas can be found in Yanchi and Lingwu County, and are ideal for large-scale development of oil, natural gas and chemical industries. Ningxia leads China in gypsum deposits, with a proven reserve of more than 4.5 billion tons, of which the rarely found, top-grade gypsum accounts for half of the total deposits. The Hejiakouzi deposit in Tongxin County features a reserve of 20 million tons of gypsum with a total thickness of 100 meters. There is a considerable deposit of quartz sandstone, of which 17 million tons have been ascertained. In addition, there are phosphorus, flint, copper, iron, barite, other minerals and Helan stone – a special clay stone. Governance ---------- The politics of Ningxia is structured in a dual party-government system like all other governing institutions in mainland China. The Chairman of the Autonomous Region is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Ningxia. However, in the Autonomous Region's dual party-government governing system, the Chairman has less power than the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Ningxia Committee Secretary, colloquially termed the "Ningxia CCP Party Chief". Ningxia has a friendship agreement with Sogn og Fjordane county of Norway. Administrative divisions ------------------------ Ningxia is divided into five prefecture-level divisions: all prefecture-level cities: | **Administrative divisions of Ningxia** | | --- | | **Yinchuan** **Shizuishan** **Wuzhong** **Guyuan** **Zhongwei** | | Division code | Division | Area in km2 | Population 2020 | Seat | Divisions | | Districts | Counties | CL cities | | 640000 | Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region | 66400.00 | 7,202,654 | Yinchuan city | 9 | 11 | 2 | | 640100 | Yinchuan city | 8874.61 | 2,859,074 | Jinfeng District | 3 | 2 | 1 | | 640200 | Shizuishan city | 5208.13 | 751,389 | Dawukou District | 2 | 1 | | | 640300 | Wuzhong city | 21420.14 | 1,382,713 | Litong District | 2 | 2 | 1 | | 640400 | Guyuan city | 13449.03 | 1,142,142 | Yuanzhou District | 1 | 4 | | | 640500 | Zhongwei city | 17448.09 | 1,067,336 | Shapotou District | 1 | 2 | | | Administrative divisions in Chinese and varieties of romanizations | | --- | | English | Chinese | Pinyin | Xiao'erjing | | **Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region** | 宁夏回族自治区 | *Níngxià Huízú Zìzhìqū* | نِئٍ‌ثِيَا خُوِزُو زِجِ‌ٿِيُوِ | | Yinchuan city | 银川市 | *Yínchuān Shì* | ءٍچُوًا شِ | | Shizuishan city | 石嘴山市 | *Shízuǐshān Shì* | شِ‌ظُوِشًا شِ | | Wuzhong city | 吴忠市 | *Wúzhōng Shì* | وُجْو شِ | | Guyuan city | 固原市 | *Gùyuán Shì* | قُ‌يُوًا شِ | | Zhongwei city | 中卫市 | *Zhōngwèi Shì* | جْووِ شِ | The five prefecture-level cities of Ningxia are subdivided into 22 county-level divisions (9 districts, 2 county-level cities, and 11 counties). ### Urban areas | Population by urban areas of prefecture & county cities | | --- | | # | City | Urban area | District area | City proper | Census date | | 1 | **Yinchuan** | 1,159,457 | 1,290,170 | 1,993,088 | 2010-11-01 | | 2 | Shizuishan | 403,901 | 472,472 | 725,482 | 2010-11-01 | | 3 | Wuzhong | 232,134 | 544,362 | 1,273,792 | 2010-11-01 | | 4 | Zhongwei | 160,279 | 378,606 | 1,080,832 | 2010-11-01 | | 5 | Guyuan | 130,155 | 411,854 | 1,228,156 | 2010-11-01 | | 6 | Lingwu | 125,976 | 261,677 | *see Yinchuan* | 2010-11-01 | | 7 | Qingtongxia | 99,367 | 264,717 | *see Wuzhong* | 2010-11-01 | Economy ------- Rural Ningxia was for long an officially designated poverty area, and is still located on the lower rungs of the developmental ladder. It is the province with the third smallest GDP (Tibet being the last) in China, even though its neighbors, Inner Mongolia and Shaanxi, are among the strongest emerging provincial economies in the country. Its nominal GDP in 2011 was just 200.0 billion yuan (US$32.7 billion) and a per capita GDP of 21,470 yuan (US$3,143). It contributes 0.44% of the national economy. ### Agriculture Similar to other areas, Ningxia has seen a gradual decline of its peasant population due to rural–urban migration. In spite of this, the great majority (62.8 percent) was still agricultural at the time of the survey. Animal husbandry is important for the regional economy. In the main pastoral county, Yanchi, it is even the leading industry when specified for the primary sector. The dominant grazing animals are sheep and goat. In the (semi-)pastoral regions, herders engage in a mixed sedentary farming operation of dryland agriculture and extensive animal husbandry, while full nomadic pastoralism is no longer practiced. Ningxia is the principal region of China where wolfberries are grown. Other specialties of Ningxia are licorice, products made from Helan stone, fiddlehead and products made from sheepskin. Ningxia wines are a promising area of development. The Chinese authorities have given approval to the development of the eastern base of the Helan Mountains as an area suitable for wine production. Several large Chinese wine companies including Changyu and Dynasty Wine have begun development in the western region of the province. Together they now own 20,000 acres of land for wine plantations and Dynasty has ploughed 100 million yuan into Ningxia. In addition, the major oil company China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation has founded a grape plantation near the Helan Mountains. The household appliance company Midea has also begun participating in Ningxia's wine industry. Vineyards have been set up in the region. ### Industries and economic zones Yinchuan Economic and Technological Development Zone was established in 1992. Spanning 32 km2 (12 sq mi), it has an annual economic output Rmb23.7 billion (25.1% up) (US$3.5 billion). Major investors are mainly local enterprises such as Kocel Steel Foundry, FAG Railway Bearing (Ningxia), Ningxia Little Giant Machine Tools, etc. Major industries include machinery and equipment manufacturing, new materials, fine chemicals and the animation industry. Desheng Industrial Park (in Helan County) is a base for about 400 enterprises. The industrial park has industrial chains from Muslim food and commodities to trade and logistics, new materials and bio-pharmaceuticals that has 80 billion yuan in fixed assets. Desheng is looking to be the most promising industrial park in the city. It achieved a total output value of 4.85 billion in 2008, up 40 percent year-on-year. The local government plans to cut taxes and other fees to reduce the burden on local enterprises. The industrial output value reached 2.68 billion yuan in 2008, an increase of 48 percent from a year earlier. Transport --------- ### Airports * Yinchuan Hedong International Airport * Zhongwei Shapotou Airport * Guyuan Liupanshan Airport * Wuhai Airport (serves the northern area) ### Highways * China National Highway 109 * China National Highway 110 * China National Highway 211 * China National Highway 307 * China National Highway 309 * China National Highway 312 ### Bridge * Taole Yellow River Expressway Bridge (陶乐黄河大桥) ### Rail * Baotou–Lanzhou railway * Baoji–Zhongwei railway (宝中铁路) Education --------- Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1912 | 303,000 | —     | | 1928 | 1,450,000 | +378.5% | | 1936-37 | 978,000 | −32.6% | | 1947 | 759,000 | −22.4% | | 1982 | 3,895,578 | +413.3% | | 1990 | 4,655,451 | +19.5% | | 2000 | 5,486,393 | +17.8% | | 2010 | 6,301,350 | +14.9% | | 2020 | 7,202,654 | +14.3% | | Ningxia Province/AR was part of Gansu 1914-1929 and 1954-1958In 1947 parts of Ningxia Province/AR were incorporated into Inner Mongolia AR. | ### Religion Religion in Ningxia (around 2010)   Islam (34%)  Christianity (1.17%)  Others (Chinese religions, Buddhism, or not religious) (64.83%) Islam is the single biggest religious tradition in Ningxia, adhered to by 34% of the population according to a 2010 survey. Many of the Han Chinese practice Chinese folk religions, Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism. Christianity was the religion of 1.17% of the province's population according to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2004. In 2008, the number of mosques in Ningxia was 3,760, which is about one per 1730 residents. Hospitals --------- * People's Hospital of Ningxia * Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine of Ningxia * Ningxia Medical College Affiliated Hospital * Yinchuan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine * Yinchuan People's Hospital * Yinchuan Stomatological Hospital * Yinchuan Women and Children's Healthcare Center * Women and Children's Healthcare Center of Ningixa * Yinchuan No.1 People's Hospital * Yinchuan No.2 People's Hospital * Yinchuan No.3 People's Hospital * Shizuishan No.2 People's Hospital * Guyuan Hospital of Ningxia Tourism ------- One of Ningxia's main tourist spots is the internationally renowned Xixia Tombs site located 30 km (19 mi) west of Yinchuan. The remnants of nine Western Xia emperors' tombs and two hundred other tombs lie within a 50 km2 (19 sq mi) area. Other famous sites in Ningxia include the Helan Mountains, the mysterious 108 stupas, the twin pagodas of Baisikou and the desert research outpost at Shapatou. A less visited tourist spot in Ningxia is the Mount Sumeru Grottoes (须弥山), which is among the ten most famous grottoes in China. Museums ------- * Ningxia Museum, opened in 1988 * Ningxia Transportation Museum, opened in August 2008 * Museum of Contemporary Art Yinchuan (MOCA Yinchuan), opened on 8 August 2015. Notable people -------------- * Emma Gao, winemaker * Zhang Jin, physical chemist and nanotechnologist Gallery ------- * View of Yinchuan looking east from top of Chengtian Temple Pagoda.View of Yinchuan looking east from top of Chengtian Temple Pagoda. * People's Square in Yinchuan.People's Square in Yinchuan. * Phoenix Tablet fountain in Yinchuan.Phoenix Tablet fountain in Yinchuan. * Tongxin Great Mosque, one of the oldest mosques in Ningxia and a famous cultural relic among the locals.Tongxin Great Mosque, one of the oldest mosques in Ningxia and a famous cultural relic among the locals. * A tomb of the Western XiaA tomb of the Western Xia See also -------- * Major national historical and cultural sites in Ningxia References ---------- ### Sources * Lin, Hsiao-ting (2011). *Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West*. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge.

Ningxia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ningxia

The **plural** (sometimes abbreviated as **pl.**, **pl**, or **PL**), in many languages, is one of the values of the grammatical category of number. The plural of a noun typically denotes a quantity greater than the default quantity represented by that noun. This default quantity is most commonly one (a form that represents this default quantity of one is said to be of *singular* number). Therefore, plurals most typically denote two or more of something, although they may also denote fractional, zero or negative amounts. An example of a plural is the English word *cats*, which corresponds to the singular *cat*. Words of other types, such as verbs, adjectives and pronouns, also frequently have distinct plural forms, which are used in agreement with the number of their associated nouns. Some languages also have a dual (denoting exactly two of something) or other systems of number categories. However, in English and many other languages, singular and plural are the only grammatical numbers, except for possible remnants of dual number in pronouns such as *both* and *either*. Use in systems of grammatical number ------------------------------------ In many languages, there is also a dual number (used for indicating two objects). Some other grammatical numbers present in various languages include trial (for three objects) and paucal (for an imprecise but small number of objects). In languages with dual, trial, or paucal numbers, plural refers to numbers higher than those. However, numbers besides singular, plural, and (to a lesser extent) dual are extremely rare. Languages with numerical classifiers such as Chinese and Japanese lack any significant grammatical number at all, though they are likely to have plural personal pronouns. Some languages (like Mele-Fila) distinguish between a plural and a greater plural. A greater plural refers to an abnormally large number for the object of discussion. The distinction between the paucal, the plural, and the greater plural is often relative to the type of object under discussion. For example, in discussing oranges, the paucal number might imply fewer than ten, whereas for the population of a country, it might be used for a few hundred thousand. The Austronesian languages of Sursurunga and Lihir have extremely complex grammatical number systems, with singular, dual, paucal, greater paucal, and plural. Traces of the dual and paucal can be found in some Slavic and Baltic languages (apart from those that preserve the dual number, such as Slovene). These are known as "pseudo-dual" and "pseudo-paucal" grammatical numbers. For example, Polish and Russian use different forms of nouns with the numerals 2, 3, or 4 (and higher numbers ending with these) than with the numerals 5, 6, etc. (genitive singular in Russian and nominative plural in Polish in the former case, genitive plural in the latter case). Also some nouns may follow different declension patterns when denoting objects which are typically referred to in pairs. For example, in Polish, the noun "*oko*", among other meanings, may refer to a human or animal eye or to a drop of oil on water. The plural of "*oko*" in the first meaning is "*oczy*" (even, if actually referring to more than two eyes), while in the second - "*oka*" (even, if actually referring to exactly two drops). Traces of dual can also be found in Modern Hebrew. Biblical Hebrew had grammatical dual via the suffix *-ạyim* as opposed to ־ים‎ *-īm* for masculine words. Contemporary use of a true dual number in Hebrew is chiefly used in words regarding time and numbers. However, in Biblical and Modern Hebrew, the pseudo-dual as plural of "eyes" עין / עינים‎ *ʿạyin / ʿēnạyim* "eye / eyes" as well as "hands", "legs" and several other words are retained. For further information, see Dual (grammatical number) § Hebrew. Certain nouns in some languages have the unmarked form referring to multiple items, with an inflected form referring to a single item. These cases are described with the terms *collective number* and *singulative number*. Some languages may possess a **massive plural** and a **numerative plural**, the first implying a large mass and the second implying division. For example, "the waters of the Atlantic Ocean" versus, "the waters of [each of] the Great Lakes". Ghil'ad Zuckermann uses the term *superplural* to refer to massive plural. He argues that the Australian Aboriginal Barngarla language has four grammatical numbers: singular, dual, plural and *superplural*. For example: * **wárraidya** "emu" (singular) * **wárraidya**lbili**** "two emus" (dual) * **wárraidya**rri**** "emus" (plural) * **wárraidya**ilyarranha**** "a lot of emus", "heaps of emus" (superplural) Formation of plurals -------------------- A given language may make plural forms of nouns by various types of inflection, including the addition of affixes, like the English *-(e)s* and *-ies* suffixes, or ablaut, as in the derivation of the plural *geese* from *goose*, or a combination of the two. Some languages may also form plurals by reduplication, but not as productive. It may be that some nouns are not marked for plural, like *sheep* and *series* in English. In languages which also have a case system, such as Latin and Russian, nouns can have not just one plural form but several, corresponding to the various cases. The inflection might affect multiple words, not just the noun; and the noun itself need not become plural as such, other parts of the expression indicate the plurality. In English, the most common formation of plural nouns is by adding an *-**s*** suffix to the singular noun. (For details and different cases, see English plurals). Just like in English, noun plurals in French, Spanish and Portuguese are also typically formed by adding an *-s* suffix to the lemma form, sometimes combining it with an additional vowel (in French, however, this plural suffix is often not pronounced). This construction is also found in German and Dutch, but only in some nouns. Suffixing is cross-linguistically the most common method of forming plurals. In Welsh, the reference form, or default quantity, of some nouns is plural, and the singular form is formed from that, eg *llygod*, mice; *llygoden*, mouse; *erfin*, turnips; *erfinen*, turnip. Plural forms of other parts of speech ------------------------------------- In many languages, words other than nouns may take plural forms, these being used by way of grammatical agreement with plural nouns (or noun phrases). Such a word may in fact have a number of plural forms, to allow for simultaneous agreement within other categories such as case, person and gender, as well as marking of categories belonging to the word itself (such as tense of verbs, degree of comparison of adjectives, etc.) Verbs often agree with their subject in number (as well as in person and sometimes gender). Examples of plural forms are the French *mangeons, mangez, mangent* – respectively the first-, second- and third-person plural of the present tense of the verb *manger*. In English a distinction is made in the third person between forms such as *eats* (singular) and *eat* (plural). Adjectives may agree with the noun they modify; examples of plural forms are the French *petits* and *petites* (the masculine plural and feminine plural respectively of *petit*). The same applies to some determiners – examples are the French plural definite article *les*, and the English demonstratives *these* and *those*. It is common for pronouns, particularly personal pronouns, to have distinct plural forms. Examples in English are *we* (*us*, etc.) and *they* (*them* etc.; see English personal pronouns), and again *these* and *those* (when used as demonstrative pronouns). In Welsh, a number of common prepositions also inflect to agree with the number, person, and sometimes gender of the noun or pronoun they govern. Nouns lacking plural or singular form ------------------------------------- Certain nouns do not form plurals. A large class of such nouns in many languages is that of uncountable nouns, representing mass or abstract concepts such as *air*, *information*, *physics*. However, many nouns of this type also have countable meanings or other contexts in which a plural can be used; for example *water* can take a plural when it means water from a particular source (*different waters make for different beers*) and in expressions like *by the waters of Babylon*. Certain collective nouns do not have a singular form and exist only in the plural, such as "clothes". There are also nouns found exclusively or almost exclusively in the plural, such as the English *scissors*. These are referred to with the term *plurale tantum*. Occasionally, a plural form can pull double duty as the singular form (or vice versa), as has happened with the word "data". Usage of the plural ------------------- The plural is used, as a rule, for quantities other than one (and other than those quantities represented by other grammatical numbers, such as dual, which a language may possess). Thus it is frequently used with numbers higher than one (*two cats*, *101 dogs*, *four and a half hours*) and for unspecified amounts of countable things (*some men*, *several cakes*, *how many lumps?*, *birds have feathers*). The precise rules for the use of plurals, however, depends on the language – for example Russian uses the genitive singular rather than the plural after certain numbers (see above). Treatments differ in expressions of zero quantity: English often uses the plural in such expressions as *no injuries* and *zero points*, although *no* (and *zero* in some contexts) may also take a singular. In French, the singular form is used after *zéro*. English also tends to use the plural with decimal fractions, even if less than one, as in *0.3 metres*, *0.9 children*. Common fractions less than one tend to be used with singular expressions: *half (of) a loaf*, *two-thirds of a mile*. Negative numbers are usually treated the same as the corresponding positive ones: *minus one degree*, *minus two degrees*. Again, rules on such matters differ between languages. In some languages, including English, expressions that appear to be singular in form may be treated as plural if they are used with a plural sense, as in *the government are agreed*. The reverse is also possible: *the United States is a powerful country*. See synesis, and also English plural § Singulars as plural and plurals as singular. POS tagging ----------- In part-of-speech tagging notation, tags are used to distinguish different types of plurals based on their grammatical and semantic context. Resolution varies, for example the Penn-Treebank tagset (~36 tags) has two tags: *NNS - noun, plural,* and *NPS - Proper noun, plural*, while the CLAWS 7 tagset (~149 tags) uses six: *NN2 - plural common noun, NNL2 - plural locative noun, NNO2 - numeral noun, plural, NNT2 - temporal noun, plural, NNU2 - plural unit of measurement, NP2 - plural proper noun.* See also -------- * Partitive plural * Plural quantification * Pluractionality * *Pluralis majestatis* * Romance plurals Further reading --------------- * Corbett, Greville. *Number* (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics). Cambridge University Press, 2000. * Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K., *The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language*, Cambridge University Press, Suffolk, UK, 2002 * Curme, George O., *A Grammar of the English Language, Volume 1: Parts of Speech*, D.C. Heath and Company, 1935 * Opdycke, John B., *Harper's English Grammar*, Harper & Row, New York, New York, 1965 * Jespersen, Otto, *A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, v. II*, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 1928 * McDavid, Raven I. Jr. et al., *The Plurals of Nouns of Measure in Spoken American English*, Fries Festschrift, Ann Arbor, MI, 1963 * Xu, Dan. 2012. *Plurality and classifiers across languages in China.* Berlin: de Gruyter.

Plural

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plural

**Wuxi** (simplified Chinese: 无锡; traditional Chinese: 無錫, *WOO-shee*) is a city in southern Jiangsu province, eastern China, 135 kilometers (84 mi) by car to the northwest of downtown Shanghai, between Changzhou and Suzhou, and one of the central cities in the Yangtze River Delta. It is the ancient founding capital of the state of Wu and the origin of Jiangnan[*clarification needed*]. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 7,462,135 inhabitants. Wuxi is a historically and culturally prominent city, and has been a thriving economic center since ancient times as a production as an export hub of rice, silk and textiles. In the last few decades it has emerged as a major producer of electrical motors, software, solar technology and bicycle parts. The city lies in the southern delta of the Yangtze River and on Lake Tai, which with its 48 islets is popular with tourists. Notable landmarks include Lihu Park, the Mt. Lingshan Grand Buddha Scenic Area and its 88-meter (289 ft)-tall Grand Buddha at Ling Shan statue, Xihui Park, Wuxi Zoo and Taihu Lake Amusement Park and the Wuxi Museum. The city is served by Sunan Shuofang International Airport, which opened in 2004, the Wuxi Metro, opened in 2014, and the Shanghai–Nanjing Intercity High-Speed Railway and Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway which connect it to Shanghai. Wuxi is also a major city among the top 500 cities in the world by scientific research outputs, as tracked by the Nature Index and home to Jiangnan University, the only key national university of “Project 211” in the city. Wuxi also possesses one of the highest GDP per capita levels of any city in China. Etymology --------- Wuxi literally means "the capital of Wu (state)." Despite varied origin stories, many modern Chinese scholars favor the view that the word is derived from the "old Yue language" or, supposedly, the old Kra–Dai languages, rather than reflecting the presence of tin in the area. History ------- Clues are to be found at the Meili Museum and the Helv Relics Museum, Wuxi is the ancient capital of Wu State during the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BCE). Taibo and Zhongyong traveled southeast and settled in Wuxi Meili. There, Taibo and his followers set up the State of Wu, and made Wuxi as its founding capital which lasted for 600 years. The history of Wuxi can be traced back to Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC). The tin industry thrived in the area in ancient times but it was eventually depleted, so that when Wuxi was established in 202 BCE during the Han dynasty, it was named "Wuxi" (the capital of WU state). Administratively, Wuxi became a district of Biling (later Changzhou) and only during the Yuan dynasty (1206–1368) did it become an independent prefecture. Wuxi and Changzhou are considered to be the birthplaces of modern industrialization in China. Agriculture and the silk industry flourished in Wuxi and the town became a transportation hub under the early Tang Dynasty after the opening of the Grand Canal in 609. It became known as one of the biggest markets for rice in China. The Donglin Academy, originally founded during the Song dynasty (960-1279) was restored in Wuxi in 1604. Not a school, it served as a public forum, advocating a Confucian orthodoxy and ethics. Many of its academicians were retired court officials or officials deposed in the 1590s due to factionalism. As a populous county, its eastern part was separated and made into Jinkui county in 1724. Both Wuxi and Jinkui were utterly devastated by the Taiping Rebellion, which resulted in nearly 2/3 of their population being killed. The number of “able-bodied males” (*ding*, 丁) were only 72,053 and 138,008 individuals in 1865, versus 339,549 and 258,934 in 1830. During the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), cotton and silk production flourished in Wuxi. Trade increased with the opening of ports to Shanghai in 1842, and Zhenjiang and Nanjing in 1858. Wuxi became a center of the textile industry in China. Textile mills were built in 1894 and silk reeling establishments known as "filatures" were built in 1904. Wuxi was remained the regional center for the waterborne transport of grain. The opening of the railways to Shanghai and to the cities of Zhenjiang and Nanjing to the northwest in 1908 further increased the exports of rice from the area. Jinkui xian merged into Wuxi County with the onset of the Republic in 1912. Many agricultural laborers and merchants moved to Shanghai in the late 19th century and early 20th century; some prospered in the new factories. After World War II, Wuxi's importance as an economic center diminished, but it remains a regional manufacturing hub. Tourism has increasingly become important. On April 23, 1949, Wuxi was divided into Wuxi City and Wuxi County, and it became a provincial city in 1953 when Jiangsu Province was founded. In March 1995, several administrative changes were made within Wuxi City and Wuxi County to accommodate for Wuxi New District, with the creation of 19 administrative villages such as Shuofang, Fangqian, Xin’an and Meicun. Jiangnan University was originally founded in 1902, before merging with two other colleges in 2001 to form the modern university. Wuxi In Qing Dynasty Climate ------- | Climate data for Wuxi (1981–2010 normals) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.1(71.8) | 26.8(80.2) | 29.1(84.4) | 34.8(94.6) | 35.3(95.5) | 38.1(100.6) | 39.7(103.5) | 40.1(104.2) | 37.5(99.5) | 33.1(91.6) | 28.7(83.7) | 22.5(72.5) | 40.1(104.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.5(45.5) | 9.5(49.1) | 13.8(56.8) | 20.0(68.0) | 25.7(78.3) | 28.7(83.7) | 32.4(90.3) | 31.8(89.2) | 27.7(81.9) | 22.7(72.9) | 16.7(62.1) | 10.4(50.7) | 20.6(69.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.5(38.3) | 5.4(41.7) | 9.4(48.9) | 15.2(59.4) | 20.7(69.3) | 24.5(76.1) | 28.5(83.3) | 27.8(82.0) | 23.6(74.5) | 18.2(64.8) | 12.1(53.8) | 5.9(42.6) | 16.2(61.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.4(32.7) | 2.1(35.8) | 5.8(42.4) | 11.1(52.0) | 16.6(61.9) | 21.1(70.0) | 25.3(77.5) | 24.8(76.6) | 20.5(68.9) | 14.6(58.3) | 8.3(46.9) | 2.4(36.3) | 12.8(54.9) | | Record low °C (°F) | −9.2(15.4) | −7.6(18.3) | −3.5(25.7) | 0.7(33.3) | 8.7(47.7) | 11.6(52.9) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.3(64.9) | 11.7(53.1) | 2.8(37.0) | −3.2(26.2) | −8.0(17.6) | −9.2(15.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 58.8(2.31) | 57.3(2.26) | 92.0(3.62) | 79.9(3.15) | 96.1(3.78) | 182.9(7.20) | 172.1(6.78) | 143.5(5.65) | 91.5(3.60) | 57.4(2.26) | 56.7(2.23) | 33.8(1.33) | 1,122(44.17) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 10.2 | 9.9 | 11.4 | 10.5 | 11.2 | 13.3 | 12.1 | 12.6 | 8.8 | 7.9 | 8.5 | 7.7 | 124.1 | | Average snowy days | 3.0 | 2.0 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 75 | 75 | 75 | 74 | 74 | 79 | 79 | 81 | 80 | 77 | 75 | 72 | 76 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 123.0 | 124.0 | 145.8 | 171.0 | 181.4 | 136.7 | 189.5 | 185.4 | 161.9 | 162.4 | 140.3 | 139.0 | 1,860.4 | | Percent possible sunshine | 38 | 40 | 39 | 44 | 43 | 32 | 44 | 46 | 44 | 47 | 45 | 45 | 42 | | Source: China Meteorological Administration (precipitation days, snow days, sunshine 1991–2020) | Administrative divisions ------------------------ The prefecture-level city of Wuxi administers seven county-level divisions, including 5 districts and 2 county-level cities. The information here presented uses the metric system and data from the 2020 Census. These districts are sub-divided into 73 township-level divisions, including 59 towns and 24 subdistricts. | Map | | --- | | *Lake Tai* *GeLake* **Xishan** **Huishan** **Binhu** **Liangxi** **Xinwu** **Jiangyin(city)** **Yixing(city)** | | Subdivision | Chinese | Hanyu Pinyin | Population (2020) | Area (km2) | Density (/km2) | | | **City Proper** | | Liangxi District | 梁溪区 | *Liángxī Qū* | 985,465 | 73.29 | 13,446 | | | **Suburban** | | Xishan District | 锡山区 | *Xīshān Qū* | 882,387 | 395.9 | 2,229 | | Huishan District | 惠山区 | *Huìshān Qū* | 893,675 | 321.5 | 2,780 | | Binhu District | 滨湖区 | *Bīnhú Qū* | 915,093 | 620.4 | 1,475 | | Xinwu District | 新吴区 | *Xīnwú Qū* | 720,215 | 209.9 | 3,431 | | | **Satellite cities (County-level cities)** | | Jiangyin City | 江阴市 | *Jiāngyīn Shì* | 1,779,515 | 987.4 | 1,802 | | Yixing City | 宜兴市 | *Yíxīng Shì* | 1,285,785 | 2,010 | 639.7 | | **Total** | **7,462,135** | **4,618** | **1,616** | | Defunct: Chong'an District, Nanchang District, & Beitang District | Economy ------- Wuxi has a relatively developed economy since ancient times. In 1895, Yang Zonglian and Yang Zonghan founded the first national capital enterprise, Yeqin Cotton Mill, outside the south gate of Wuxi. Subsequently, many enterprises with textile, silk and grain processing industries as the main body were born and developed rapidly. Wuxi became One of the birthplaces of national industry and commerce. During this process, many "firsts" and "most" in the history of Wuxi's modern industrial development were born; batches of industrial and commercial giants including the Rong family and the Tang family were born, and it also demonstrated the entrepreneurship of Wuxi's national industrial and commercial entrepreneurs. The journey is worth remembering forever. After the reform and opening up, private enterprises in Wuxi developed vigorously on the basis of the southern Jiangsu model represented by township industries. Well-known companies such as "Technology" all transformed during this period. And since July 1993, Taiji Industry was the first private enterprise listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange as a listed company in Jiangsu Province. Over the years, the scale of listed companies from Wuxi has gradually expanded, forming a relatively unique "Wuxi plate", ranking first in Jiangsu Province. First, it plays an increasingly important role in the economic development of the entire Yangtze River Delta. After the reform and opening up, Wuxi has gradually become an important economic center in the east and a very dynamic commercial city with the opportunity brought by the Southern Jiangsu model. At the end of 2013, Wuxi became one of the "China's new first-tier cities" selected by "First Financial Weekly" due to its stable comprehensive strength; at the same time, "2013 Best Commercial Cities in Mainland China" released by the Chinese version of "Forbes" Among them, Wuxi ranks fifth, ranking first among prefecture-level cities. In 2022, Wuxi's economic aggregate will hit a new high, and its comprehensive strength will continue to increase. According to preliminary calculations, the annual GDP of Wuxi will be 1,485.082 billion yuan, an increase of 3.0% over the previous year at comparable prices. The per capita GDP in terms of resident population reached 198,400 yuan, ranking second in the country. In terms of industry, the added value of the city's primary industry was 13.365 billion yuan, an increase of 1.1% over the previous year; the added value of the secondary industry was 717.739 billion yuan, an increase of 3.6% over the previous year; The growth rate of the previous year was 2.4%; the ratio of the three industries was adjusted to 0.9 : 48.3 : 50.8. A total of 158,100 new jobs were created in cities and towns throughout the year, of which 77,200 laid-off and unemployed people in various cities and towns were reemployed, and 31,200 people who had difficulties in finding jobs were reemployed. The city's urban registered unemployment rate was 2.68%. The added value of the private economy in the whole year was 983.124 billion yuan, an increase of 3.3% over the previous year, accounting for 66.2% of the total economic output, an increase of 0.2 percentage points over the previous year. The output value of privately-owned industries above designated size was 1,426.928 billion yuan, an increase of 12.8% over the previous year. Private investment was 240.341 billion yuan, down 3.6% from the previous year. At the end of the year, 423,300 enterprises of various types were registered by the registration authorities at all levels in the city, including 36,000 state-owned and collective holding companies, 7,000 foreign-invested enterprises, and 380,400 private enterprises. At the end of the year, there were 660,900 self-employed households, and 80,800 newly registered households that year. The annual urban consumer price index (CPI) rose by 2.1%, an increase of 0.4 percentage points over the previous year. Among them, the price of service items increased by 1.0%, and the price of consumer goods increased by 2.9%. The increase in the price of industrial production was stable. The ex-factory price of industrial producers rose by 1.7% and the purchasing price of industrial producers rose by 3.9%. Since it was established in 1992, Wuxi New District (WND), covering an area of 220 square kilometers (85 sq mi), has evolved to be one of the major industrial parks in China. In 2013, it had a GDP of 121.3 billion yuan ($19.54 billion), and an industrial output value of 276.7 billion yuan, accounting for 15% of production in the Wuxi area. The district includes the Wuxi Hi-tech Industrial Development Zone, Wuxi (Taihu) International Technology Park, Wuxi Airport Industrial Park, China (Wuxi) Industrial Expo Park, China Wu Culture Expo Park, and International Education and Living Community. Hotels in Wuxi include Wuxi Maoye City – Marriott Hotel, Hilton Hotel's Wuxi-Lingshan Double Tree Resort near the Lingshan Giant Buddha, Kempinski Hotel Wuxi, Landison Square Hotel Wuxi, noted for its Wu jade phoenix sculpture in the lobby, Radisson Blu Resort Wetland Park Wuxi, Sheraton Wuxi Binhu Hotel, the Wuxi Grand Hotel, and Wuxi Hubin Hotel. In 2022, Wuxi's GDP will reach 1,485.082 billion yuan, an increase of 3.0% over the previous year based on comparable prices; calculated based on the permanent population, the per capita GDP will reach 198,400 yuan; the city's annual general public budget revenue will be 113.338 billion yuan. Prosperous Business ------------------- Wuxi is a regional business hub, with extensive manufacturing and large industrial parks devoted to new industries. Historically a center of textile manufacturing, the city has adopted new industries such as electric motor manufacturing, MRP software development, bicycle and brake manufacturing, and solar technology, with two major photovoltaic companies, Suntech Power and Jetion Holdings Ltd, based in Wuxi. Wuxi Pharma Tech, a major pharmaceutical company, is based in Wuxi. The city has a rapidly developing skyline with the opening of three supertall skyscrapers in 2014: Wuxi IFS (339 meters (1,112 ft)), Wuxi Suning Plaza 1 (328 meters (1,076 ft)) and Wuxi Maoye City - Marriott Hotel (303.8 meters (997 ft)). Wuxi's commercial area is concentrated along Zhongshan Road in Liangxi District. On this road, Maoye Department Store, Hongdou Wanhua City, Great Oriental Department Store, Suning Plaza, Henglong Plaza, Yaohan, Parkson and other Chinese and foreign commercial retail enterprises gather. Chong'an Temple, Nanchan Temple, and Nanchang Street are three traditional commercial bazaars. Among them, Chong'an Temple Block is as famous as Shanghai Town God's Temple, Nanjing Confucius Temple, and Suzhou Xuanmiao Temple, which are also formed by temple bazaars. Since the establishment of Yaohan, the first Sino-foreign joint venture retail enterprise in Jiangsu Province in 1996, and the establishment of Metro, China's second foreign-funded hypermarket, in Wuxi in 1997, the concentration of foreign-funded commercial retail in Wuxi is second only to Shanghai in the Yangtze River Delta region. Today, it includes Plaza 66, Great Eastern Department Store, Wuxi Yaohan, IKEA Gathering, Yaohan Center, Bailian Outlets, Apple Direct Store, Mixc City, Coastal City, Maoye Department Store, a large number of Wanda Plazas and Rong Commercial retail benchmarking enterprises such as Chuangmao and Outlets Chuanzhisha still maintain their uniqueness in Jiangsu Province or in the Yangtze River Delta region, thus establishing Wuxi as one of the most important commercial center cities in Jiangsu Province and even in the Yangtze River Delta region Culture and Education --------------------- ### Culture Wuxi is one of the major art and cultural centers of Jiangnan. The city is known for its Huishan clay figurines, which take their name from the black clay of Huishan Mountain. The figurines have been produced for over 400 years since the Ming dynasty, and are typically large-headed dolls, puppies, kittens and chickens. The figurines are believed to promote longevity and exorcise evil spirits. Yixing clay teapots are also of note, made from purple, red and green earth, which is said to enhance the tea drinking experience. The city is served by Jiangnan University, a key national university of “Project 211” and center for scientific research, which was originally founded in 1902 and established in 1958 as the Wuxi Institute of Light Industry. In 2001 it was reconstituted by the Ministry of Education with the merger of two other colleges to formally establish Jiangnan University. The Taihu University of Wuxi, beside Huishan National Forest Park is a private university and one of the largest in China, covering over 2,000 acres with over 20,000 teachers and students and more than 20 different faculties. Other educational institutes include the Wuxi Institute of Technology. ### Diet About food features,Wuxi cuisine is part of Jiangsu cuisine (also known as Huaiyang cuisine, Jiangsu-Zhejiang cuisine), one of the four major Chinese cuisines. Traditional Wuxi cuisine is sweet. This is because the taste of As the plains have also moved south, Wuxi cuisine has become sweeter. ### University * Jiangnan University: Directly under the Ministry of Education, the national "211 Project" [Refer to 78] and "985 Project Advantageous Discipline Innovation Platform" project key construction universities. * Wuxi University [zh]: Wuxi University, located in Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, is a public general undergraduate university approved by the Ministry of Education, managed by the People's Government of Jiangsu Province, organized by the People's Government of Wuxi City, and supported by Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology. * Dongnan University Wuxi Campus: Founded in April 1988, formerly known as Southeast University Wuxi Campus, it is one of the first batch of key university branches approved by the former State Education Commission, and it is the first to explore the cultivation mode of outstanding engineers in my country. * Wuxi Higher Normal School: Founded in 1911, it was formerly known as the Jiangsu Provincial Third Normal School. Famous scholars such as Qian Songyan, Wu Guanzhong, and Chen Shouzhu are all alumni of the school. * Peking University School of Software and Microelectronics: Established in March 2002, it is a school directly affiliated to Peking University. ### High school * Tianyi Middle School in Jiangsu Province: The school was founded in 1946. * Wuxi No. 1 Middle School: Founded in the third year of Xuantong in the Qing Dynasty (1911), it has undergone changes until now. Now it is a key school in Jiangsu Province and a national model high school. * Wuxi Furen High School: Originally a church school, it was originally founded in 1918 by Wuxi alumni of Shanghai St. John's University. It was the school with the most advanced facilities in Wuxi at that time. It had physical and chemical laboratories and lecture halls. After the outbreak of the Anti-Japanese War, it moved to Shanghai. run a school. After 1949, it was renamed Wuxi No. 2 Middle School, and its name was restored in 2003. It is now a key school in Jiangsu Province and a national model high school. * Meicun High School in Jiangsu Province: Founded in 1913 in Meicun (ancient Meili), the birthplace of Wu culture, in 1914, brothers Qian Zhi and Qian Mu came to teach at the school. * Wuxi No. 3 High School: In 1920, Gao Yang, a townsman, sold all his property and founded a private Wuxi middle school. * Wuxi No. 1 Girls' Middle School. * Wuxi Shibei High School: Founded in 1934, it was originally a "private Yuandao Middle School". It was rated as a provincial four-star high school in 2006. * Xishan High School in Jiangsu Province: Founded in 1906 by the industrialist Kuang Zhongmou in the east of Wuxi City. After 1949, it was renamed Wuxi County Middle School, and in 1996, it was renamed Jiangsu Xishan High School until now. * Wuxi Public Welfare Middle School: It was founded in 1919 by brothers Rong Zongjing and Rong Desheng. The first principal was Hu Yuren, a famous educator from Wuxi. After 1949, it was renamed Wuxi No. 5 Middle School. * Jiangsu Nanjing Senior High School: It was formerly known as Jiangyin Nanjing Academy established in 1882, which was the highest institution of higher learning and education center in Jiangsu Province at that time. Celebrities such as Yu Chan, Niu Yongjian, and Wang Zengqi once attended the school. * Yixing Middle School in Jiangsu Province: Founded in 1928, it is a key school in Jiangsu Province and a national model high school. Celebrities such as Jiang Nanxiang and Yu Zhaozhong are all alumni of the school. * Wuxi Daqiao Experimental School: Wuxi Daqiao Experimental School was founded in August 1993. It was then named "Wuxi Daqiao Experimental Middle School". It was the first private school approved by the Wuxi Municipal People's Government since the reform and opening up. It was renamed Wuxi in 2012 Bridge Experimental School. ### Elementary * Lianyuan Street Primary School in Wuxi City: Founded in 1898, it is the earliest new-style education higher primary school in Wuxi. It was originally named Aishi School, and after the Republic of China, it was renamed County Lianyuan Street Primary School after the location of the school. After 1949, it was renamed as Dongfanghong Primary School. In 1978, it was restored to its original name. Now it is a provincial and municipal key primary school. * Donglin Primary School in Wuxi City: In August 1902, according to the order, Donglin Academy was reorganized into Donglin Academy for new education. * Primary School Affiliated to Wuxi Normal School: Founded in 1913 by Gu Zhuo, the principal of Jiangsu Provincial Third Normal School and a famous educator from Wuxi, Gu Zhuo had studied in Japan, so it was built on the basis of the Primary School Affiliated to Tokyo Higher Normal School (now University of Tsukuba), Japan, in 1915 In 1937, the school established the first elementary school boy scout organization in Wuxi. On November 11, 1937, the original school was closed due to the bombing of Japanese bombers. After 1949, it used to be a school for the children of CCP cadres. In 1982, it was designated as an experimental primary school in Jiangsu Province. * Wuxi Jiyu Experimental School: Founded in 1901, it is the first "nine-year consistent" school in Wuxi City. * Nanchang Street Primary School in Wuxi City: It was originally Dongwu No. 8 Primary School founded by Wuxi Christian Supervisory Committee in 1911, and later called Mingde Primary School. ### International Education * Wuxi Nanwai Kings International School: A K-12 international school jointly established by Dipont Education Group, Nanjing Foreign Language School, King's College London, and Dipont Education Group. The school is a high-quality international education project introduced by the Wuxi Municipal Government. * Wuxi International School: Wuxi International School, referred to as WIS, is a public international school. Established in 2003, Wuxi International School provides an international educational environment for the children of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan compatriots and foreigners who work and live in Wuxi, and is directly under the management of Wuxi Education Bureau. * Siying School for Children of Foreigners in Xinyu District, Wuxi: A non-profit group, since 1986, iSC offers academic excellence and caters for the intellectual, physical and emotional development of students. iSC operates six schools for foreign children in China - in Chengdu, Qingdao, Wuhan, Wuxi, Tianjin and Yantai - and one in the UAE. * Wuxi Foreign Language School: Founded in 1998, Wuxi Foreign Language School has developed into a 12-year consistent foreign language characteristic school, and has been named as a designated school for the children of Wuxi foreigners, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan students and returned entrepreneurial talents. The school consists of kindergarten, primary school, junior high school, high school and bilingual department. Landmarks --------- The city lies in the southern Yangtze River delta on Lake Tai, which is the third largest freshwater lake in China, and a rich resource for tourism in the area with cruises. There are 72 peninsulas and peaks and 48 islets, including Yuantouzhu (the Islet of Turtlehead) and Taihu Xiandao (Islands of the Deities). ### Parks and gardens Wuxi has many private gardens or parks built by learned scholars and illustrious people in the past. Lihu Park in Binhu District was built in 1927 and named after the politician and economist Fan Li. The Star of Taihu Lake is noted for its water Ferris wheel. The gardens contains a long embankment with willow trees and a path beside the lake with numerous small bridges and pavilions. On the southwest bank of the lake at the foot of Junzhang Hill is Changguangxi Wetland Park, a 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) stretch of canal connecting Lihu Lake to the north and Taihu Lake to the south. It contains the Shitang Bridge and a lotus pond. Also in Binhu District is Wuxi Zoo and Taihu Lake Amusement Park, an AAAA national landmark with over a 1000 animals including Asian elephant, leopard, chimpanzee, giant panda and white rhinoceros and an ecology and science exhibition and recreation area. The 30 hectare (74 acres) Mt. Lingshan Grand Buddha Scenic Area on the southwest tip of Wuxi contains the 88 meters (289 ft) tall Grand Buddha at Ling Shan, the world's largest bronze Buddha statue. The Mt Lingshan area also contains the Brahma Palace, Xiangfu Temple, Five Mudra Mandala, Nine Dragons Bathing Sakyamuni (a 7.2 meters (24 ft) statue of Sakyamuni), and numerous other Buddhist sites. Xihui Park, established in 1958 at the foot of Xi Shan to the west of the city, contains Jichang Garden and the Dragon Light Pagoda. ### Museums Wuxi Museum was formally opened on October 1, 2008 following a merger of the Wuxi Revolution Museum, Wuxi Museum and Wuxi Science Museum. Covering over 71,000 square meters (760,000 sq ft) and an exhibition area of 24,100 square meters (259,000 sq ft) it is the largest public cultural building in Wuxi, with 600,000 visitors annually as of 2019. The museum also administers the Chinese National Industry and Commerce Museum of Wuxi, Chengji Art Museum, Zhou Huaimin Painting Museum, Zhang Wentian Former Residence and Wuxi Ancient Stone Inscriptions Museum. Wuxi Art Museum, known as the Wuxi Painting and Calligraphy Institute before the rename in 2011, was established on December 7, 1979 in Chong’an district. The current facility has a space of 1,135 meters (3,724 ft). Hongshan Archaeological Museum in Wuxi New District opened in 2008 and houses artifacts related to the local Wu culture between 770 and 221 BC. The items, which include miniature jade engravings and objects related to burial and musical customs, were unearthed at Hongshan Tomb Complex in 2004. The Former Residence of Xue Fucheng at No. 152 Xueqian Street in Chong'an district, is the former home of Zue Fencheng, a noted diplomat of the late Qing dynasty and is open to the public. ### Wuxi Grand Theater The main design concept of Wuxi Grand Theater is based on its regional location. The site of Wuxi Grand Theater is located on an artificial peninsula in the south bank of Taihu Lake. There is a highway bridge nearby, which makes the location of the site comparable to that of Sydney Grand Theater. This location determines that Wuxi Grand Theater will become an important landmark building. The building is like a huge The statue generally rises from the height of the base to a height of 50 meters. The 8 huge roofs of the building protrude far outside the wall like wings, making the theater look like a butterfly. The large roof is also conducive to blocking the heat of the sun. . The architectural design concept is unique: inside the steel wings are thousands of LED lights. It is possible to change the color of the wings according to the characteristics of the show, thanks to the perforated aluminum plates that cover the underside of the wings to make this concept possible. Another special feature of the design concept of Wuxi Grand Theater is the "forest" formed by 50 pillars of light with a height of 9 meters. The pillars of light start from the square at the main entrance, support the roof of the central hall, and pass through the entrance along the lake side Extending to the lake, a feature with strong Chinese characteristics runs through the entire building: a large amount of bamboo, which is both a traditional Chinese material and a modern material, is used. Recently, some new bamboo manufacturing and usage methods have made it possible for the auditorium of the main theater to be wrapped by 15,000 solid bamboo blocks of different shapes determined according to acoustic needs and architectural images. Wuxi Grand Theater also adopted a Finnish The featured material is nearly 20,000 specially designed glass blocks on the curved wall of the theater audience hall along the lake side. Finnish nature, lakes and ice, were the inspiration for the architectural design. ### Wuxi Sunac Taihu Show Project Wuxi Sunac Taihu Show Project is located in the prime location of Wuxi's future city center, the center of Taihu Lake Scenic Area, and a collection of transportation networks. As a traditional cultural tourism city, Wuxi is rich in tourism resources. The project will fill the lack of high-tech tourism and experiential tourism in Wuxi and even the entire Jiangsu Province, and improve the transformation of Wuxi and even Jiangsu from traditional tourism to high-tech tourism. It has made great contributions to the development and enhancement of the city's charm. The project has 3 floors above ground and 2 floors underground. The height of the main steel roof structure is about 36 meters. The main structure of the lower part is a reinforced concrete frame-shear wall structure system. The steel roof is a radial steel truss with a central transition ring and cantilever Beam structure, the truss plane diameter is 62 meters, the outer cantilever is 10 meters, and the suspended steel pipe imitation bamboo column is set under the cantilever structure. The project won the China Steel Structure Gold Award; it was rated as the world's top ten best buildings and the world's top ten most anticipated buildings by the world's two authoritative media "The Times of England" and "CNN News". After the TV station, the New World Trade Center in the United States, and the Burj Khalifa in the United Arab Emirates, it was the only project that two major authoritative media focused on reporting at the same time. Sports ------ Wuxi Sports Center opened in October 1994 and has a capacity of 30,000. It hosts the Wuxi Classic, a snooker event which attracted the biggest names in snooker. Wuxi City Sports Park Stadium hosted the 2017 ITTF Asian-Championships (Ping Pong), and the 2019 World Cup in snooker in June 2019. Major League Baseball based its main Chinese recruitment center in Wuxi since 2009 in Wuxi Development Center at Dongbeitang High School. There Major League Baseball scouts recruit the best players in China in the hopes that they will eventually play professional baseball in America. In 2022，The Wuxi Olympic Sports Center project has a total land area of about 56.7 hectares, a total construction area of about 467,000 square meters, and a total investment of about 6.9 billion yuan. It is planned to have a stadium with 60,000 seats, a gymnasium with 18,000 seats, a swimming pool with 2,000 seats and a national fitness center, and it will be constructed in accordance with the standards of a Grade A stadium. After completion, it can host large-scale comprehensive sports events across the country. In addition to "one venue, two halls", a 70,000-square-meter cultural, commercial, sports and tourism complex including commercial and hotel facilities will also be built. Through strengthening planning and operation, multiple "first competitions" and "first exhibitions" will be introduced in the future. Premiere" and other activities, and strive to build Wuxi Olympic Sports Center into a modern large-scale sports complex with various projects, rich formats and complete functions Transport --------- * Wuxi is situated on the Shanghai–Nanjing Intercity High-Speed Railway, a 301 kilometers (187 mi) railway which opened on July 1, 2010, linking it directly with the provincial capital of Nanjing, Shanghai and Suzhou. * Wuxi Metro began operations in 2014, with two lines totaling 19 miles (31 km) and over 124 miles (200 km) in total expected with new lines opening over the next few decades. * Wuxi Public Transport refers to the urban road public transportation system serving Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, China. Its first line was opened in 1927. As of 2020, Wuxi Public Transport has 297 bus lines with a length of 5,760 kilometers and 3,036 operating vehicles. In 2020, the annual passenger volume of Wuxi buses will be 191.18 million. * Sunan Shuofang International Airport, situated 14 kilometers (8.7 mi) from the city center, opened in 2004, and has direct flights to Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Hong Kong, Taipei, Singapore, and Osaka. * Wuxi lies along China National Highway 312 which connects Shanghai to central and northwestern China. The 274 kilometers (170 mi) Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway (G42), which opened in November 1996, connecting it to Shanghai, Suzhou, Changzhou, Zhenjiang and other cities in Jiangsu province. The 62.3 kilometers (38.7 mi) Wuxi-Yixing Expressway connects Wuxi with Yixing within the regional prefecture-level area. * Wuxi jiangyin Port has 12 berths, mainly distributed in Shenxia Port Area, all of which have passed the open acceptance for foreign ships, with a total area of 1.5 million square meters, which are operated by Dagang Branch and Dacheng Branch respectively. Dagang Branch has a yard area of 710,000 square meters, and has two large warehouses with an area of 12,000 square meters each, each equipped with two 20-ton cranes. There are 10 dock berths, and the front of the dock maintains a water depth of -15 meters all year round. Among them, there are two 50,000-ton and 100,000-ton ocean-going berths, and one 2,000-ton sea-going berth, equipped with 9 gantry cranes with a lifting capacity of 40T, which can complete the cargo of arriving ships below 100,000 tons Unloading and transfer operations. There are also four 5,000-ton inland berths with a total length of 536 meters, equipped with multiple portal cranes and loading belt conveyors for port dredging. The port area is equipped with 7 120-150 ton truck scales and 2 gantry cranes. The warehouse has a maximum storage capacity of 3 million tons. It is mainly responsible for the unloading, storage and transfer of metal ore, coal and some general cargo. In order to meet the needs of customers, Dagang Branch also has ore screening and crushing equipment. After crushing, it can be directly conveyed to the vibrating screen for screening by the belt conveyor. The screen aperture can be adjusted according to the needs of different customers, and the production and processing can form lump ore and fine ore, with an annual output of 800,000-1 million tons. Dagang Branch has also launched three-condition general cargo liner routes from Jiangyin to the Middle East, Thailand and South Korea. Dacheng Branch was completed and put into operation in 2015. * Wuxi Public Transport refers to the urban road public transportation system serving Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, China. Its first line was opened in 1927. As of 2020, Wuxi Public Transport has 297 bus lines with a length of 5,760 kilometers and 3,036 operating vehicles. In 2020, the annual passenger volume of Wuxi public transport will be 191.18 million passengers Notable people -------------- * An Guo, printer and collecter of antiques (1481–1534) * Ni Zan, painter (1301–1374) * Xue Fucheng, diplomat (1838–1894) * Gu Deng, mathematician and politician (1882–1947?) * Chen Chi (1912—2005), painter * Hua Yanjun (1893–1950), musician * Liu Tianhua, folk musician (1895–1932) * Zhou Peiyuan, (1902–1993) theoretical physicist * Zhang Xu, telecommunications engineer (1913–2015) * Zou Jiayi, (b. 1963), politician and economist * Qian Zhongshu, 20th century Chinese literary scholar and writer (1910–1998) * Qian Weichang, physicist, applied mathematician and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (1910–1998) * Marie Lu, (b. 1984), novelist, author of *Legend* series * And a lot Medical ------- Wuxi has a long history of medicine, especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Since the Ming Dynasty, famous doctors such as You Zhongren, Shi Zhongmo, Deng Xingbo, Ke Huaizu, Xue Fuchen, etc. have either worked in the imperial hospital, or been ordered to diagnose and treat the royal family. Among them, Tan Yunxian and Xu Lushi are rare female doctors in ancient China. As for the modern medical institutions in Wuxi, it began in 1908 when Li Kele, a missionary of the American Episcopal Church and a doctor of medicine, founded the Puren Hospital, which is now the Second People's Hospital of Wuxi. At present, Wuxi has one medical school (Medical College Affiliated to Jiangnan University) and ten municipal hospitals, and a total of thirteen tertiary hospitals * Wuxi No. 1 People's Hospital * Wuxi No. 2 People's Hospital (North and South Campus) * Jiangnan University Affiliated Hospital (formerly No. 3 Hospital and No. 4 Hospital, currently North and South Branches) * Wuxi No. 5 People's Hospital * Wuxi No. 7 People's Hospital, Wuxi Ninth People's Hospital * Wuxi Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital * Wuxi Maternal and Child Health Center * Wuxi Children's Hospital * 904 General Hospital * Jiangyin People's Hospital * Jiangyin Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine * Yixing People's Hospital among which Wuxi People's Hospital released the "2013 China Ranked twelfth in the "Top 100 Competitiveness List of Prefectural-level City Hospitals". Attractions ----------- * Grand Canal: Although active water transportation has been handed over to the new Grand Canal that bypasses the city, the Grand Canal has been running through the city since the Sui dynasty, and cruises that travel along the ancient Grand Canal are being held. * Lake Tai and Sanshan: Enjoy the scenery at Gentosho Park, a peninsula that juts out into the lake. Monkey Island in Lake Tai,. * Xihui Park: A park on the west side of the city, straddling Xishan and Huishan. Tin Mountain is a mountain that once produced tin. The mountain offers a great view of the city, and is dotted with Buddhist temples and pavilions. There is also a ropeway. * Jianhuawan: Located at No. 68 Huanshan West Road, Binhu District, Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, 30 miles from Wuxi City * Nanchang street: It is a kilometer away, covers an area of 106.67 hectares, with a total construction area of 350,000 square meters. Flower Tower, Smile Square. Komawan opened on November 14, 2015. As an important part of Lingshan Buddhist culture, Kehuawan generally takes "Zen" as the theme element, and "Zen" combines Buddhist culture with the dual proposition of travel and vacation throughout Lingshan cultural scenic spots. , Kehuawan is the "Oriental Zen Life" The overall positioning of paradise, the garden of the world's soul holiday. On November 5, 2021, Nianhuawan was recognized by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism as the first group of national night cultural tourism consumption gathering areas. * Tianxia Second Spring: Located in Xihui Park. The name derives from the fact that Lu Yu, a tea master who wrote the "Cha Jing" in the Tang dynasty, ranked Eisen in Huishan, Wuxi as the second most suitable water for brewing tea. He is also known for the erhu song "Nisen Eigetsu". * Jichangyuan: Located in Xihui Park. Located to the east of Mount Huishan, it is a representative masterpiece of the Ming dynasty mansion-style garden with its peaks as a borrowed landscape. Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty is said to have visited Yuchuyuan many times and built Beijing's Summer Palace based on it. * Li Garden: A garden built in 1930 by Wang Yuqing, a local businessman. Fan Li, a vassal of Yue Wang Gohan, was built in the lake where he spent time with Xi Shi, who was said to be a matchless beauty. * Three Kingdoms City/Water Margin City: An open set built for a China Central Television TV drama. * Donglin Academy: An academy founded by Yang Shi, a Confucian scholar in the Northern Song dynasty, and produced bureaucrats called the Donglin Party in the Ming dynasty. * Former Residence of Qian Zhongshu: The birthplace of Qian Zhongshu, a writer and literary researcher known for works such as "Waijo" and "Song Poetry Selection Notes." * Lingshan Giant Buddha: Inaugurated on November 15, 1997, the Great Buddha stands 88 meters tall, making him the second tallest Buddha in China, and 101.5 meters high including the three-tiered pedestal. * Nanchan Temple: Nanchan Temple, also known as Fusheng Temple, is located at No. 32, Xiangyang Road, Liangxi District, Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, on the north side of Wuxi Nanchan Temple Scenic Area, in the south corner of the old city. By the ancient canal of Wuxi. Founded in the first year of Nanliang Taiqing (547), Nanzen Temple was originally called Hu Guo Temple. -1031), the temple was rebuilt and awarded the "Fusheng Temple", commonly known as "Nanzen Temple", known as "the most beautiful jungle in the southern Yangtze". The Nanzen Temple covers an area of 7,000 square meters, divided into east and west roads, and mainly includes buildings such as Tianwang Hall, Daxiong Hall, and Miaoguang Pagoda. In 2012, Wuxi Nanchan Temple Scenic Area, where Nanchan Temple is located, was recognized as a national AAAA-level tourist attraction. In 1983, Nanzenji Temple's Myoguang Pagoda was announced by the Wuxi Municipal People's Government as the first group of cultural relics protection groups in Wuxi City. * Xuelang Mountain * Changguangxi * And a lot Sister cities ------------- ### Asia * Akashi, Hyogo, Japan: concluded on August 29, 1981 * Sagamihara City, Japan: concluded on October 6, 1985 * Gimhae, South Korea: concluded on October 24, 2006 * Puerto Princesa City, Philippines: concluded on October 30, 2007 * Sihanoukville, Cambodia: concluded on July 29, 2009 * Ulsan, South Korea: concluded on January 20, 2014 * Tiberias, Israel: concluded on July 22, 2015 ### Europe * Cascais, Portugal: concluded on September 14, 1993 * Vicenza, Italy: concluded on January 25, 2006 * Leverkusen, Germany: concluded on April 27, 2006   Nimes, France: concluded on April 5, 2007 * Sodertalje, Sweden: concluded on October 8, 2007 * Kortrijk, Belgium: concluded on October 30, 2007 * Beiserkellen, Denmark: concluded on August 22, 2008 * Chelmsford, United Kingdom: concluded on 19 November 2009 * Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands: concluded on February 10, 2010 * Lahti, Finland: concluded on November 7, 2011   Patras, Greece: concluded on December 24, 2012 * Zielona Góra, Poland: concluded on January 7, 2014 ### America * Chattanooga, United States: concluded on October 12, 1982 * Fredericton, Canada: concluded on November 22, 2010   San Antonio, USA: concluded on February 16, 2012 * Sorocaba, Brazil: concluded on December 18, 2010 * Puebla, Mexico: concluded on December 25, 2014 ### oceania * Hamilton, New Zealand: concluded on July 5, 1986 * Frankston, Australia: concluded on November 8, 2012 ### Africa * Fez, Morocco: concluded on June 29, 2010 See also -------- * China Wu Culture Expo Park * Jiangnan * List of cities in the People's Republic of China by population * List of twin towns and sister cities in China

Wuxi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuxi

The **ortolan** (***Emberiza hortulana***), also called **ortolan bunting**, is a Eurasian bird in the bunting family Emberizidae, a passerine family now separated by most modern scholars from the finches, Fringillidae. The genus name *Emberiza* is from Alemannic German *Embritz*, a bunting. The specific *hortulana* is from the Italian name for this bird, *ortolana*. The English *ortolan* is derived from Middle French *hortolan*, "gardener". The ortolan is served in French cuisine, typically cooked and eaten whole. Traditionally diners cover their heads with their napkin or a towel while eating the delicacy. The bird is so widely used that its French populations dropped dangerously low, leading to laws restricting its use in 1999. In September 2007, the French government announced its intent to enforce long-ignored laws protecting the bird. Taxonomy -------- The ortolan bunting was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his *Systema Naturae* and retains its original binomial name of *Emberiza hortulana*. The species is monotypic. A molecular phylogenetic study of the buntings published in 2008 found that the ortolan bunting is most closely related to Cretzschmar's bunting (*Emberiza caesia*). Description ----------- Ortolan buntingFemaleMale The ortolan bunting is 16–17 cm (6.3–6.7 in) in length and has a wing-span of 23–29 cm (9.1–11.4 in). In appearance and habits it much resembles its relative the yellowhammer, but lacks the bright colouring of that species; the ortolan's head, for instance, is greenish-grey, instead of a bright yellow. The song of the male ortolan resembles that of the yellowhammer. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ A native of most European countries and western Asia, it reaches as far north as Scandinavia and beyond the Arctic Circle, frequenting cornfields and their neighbourhoods. It is an uncommon vagrant in spring, and particularly autumn, to the British Isles. It was spotted at Kenjar Coastal Karnataka, India, in November 2018 and photographed by Birdwatchers. Some birders commented that it is the first photographic record of an ortolan bunting in India. Behaviour --------- Ortolan nests are placed on or near the ground. The maximum age recorded is six years and ten months for a bird found dead in Switzerland. Seeds are the natural diet, but beetles and other insects are taken when feeding their young. As food ------- > > For centuries, a rite of passage for French gourmets was the eating of the Ortolan. These tiny birds—captured alive, force-fed, then drowned in Armagnac—were roasted whole and eaten that way, bones and all, while the diner draped his head with a linen napkin to preserve the precious aromas and, some believe, to hide from God. > > > *The Wine Spectator* The birds are caught with nets set during their autumn migratory flight to Africa. They are then kept in covered cages or boxes. The birds react to the dark by gorging themselves on grain, usually millet seed, until they double their bulk. The birds are then thrown into a container of Armagnac, which both drowns and marinates the birds. The bird is roasted for eight minutes and then plucked. The consumer then places the bird feet first into their mouth while holding onto the bird's head. The ortolan is then eaten whole, with or without the head, and the consumer spits out the larger bones. The traditional way French gourmands eat ortolans is to cover their heads and face with a large napkin or towel while consuming the bird. The purpose of the towel is debated. Some claim it is to retain the maximum aroma with the flavour as they consume the entire bird at once, others have stated "Tradition dictates that this is to shield – from God’s eyes – the shame of such a decadent and disgraceful act", and others have suggested the towel simply hides the consumers spitting out bones. This use of the towel was begun by a priest, a friend of Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin. At one time, the island of Cyprus formed a chief depot for the export of ortolans, which were pickled in spices and vinegar and packed in casks containing from 300 to 400 each. In the early 20th century, between 400 and 500 casks were annually exported from Cyprus. ### Noted meals * The Three Emperors Dinner in 1867 included ortolans on toast among its 16 courses. * The favourite dish of medicine Nobel laureate and inventor of the lobotomy procedure, António Egas Moniz, was ortolans as prepared at the restaurant Le Chapon Fin in Bordeaux. * In 1975, food critic Craig Claiborne made a winning $300 bid in an auction for a dinner for two, courtesy of American Express, at any restaurant in the world that takes its credit card. Claiborne selected Chez Denis in Paris for a $4,000 meal ($20,665 in 2022) that included a course of ortolans. * In 1995, former French President François Mitterrand's last New Year's Eve meal included this specially prepared bird. * Bill Cosby describes eating ortolan in an Italian restaurant on his 1973 album Fat Albert. Legal status ------------ Ortolan hunting was banned in France in 1999, but the law was poorly enforced and it is thought that up to 50,000 ortolans were illegally killed each year during the autumn migration: mostly birds from breeding grounds in Finland and the Baltic area. According to France's League for the Protection of Birds, France's ortolan population fell 30% between 1997 and 2007. In 2007, the French government vowed to strictly enforce some existing rules about banning the practice, with the maximum fine set at €6,000 (£4,800 or $6,728). Killing and cooking ortolans is banned across the EU. In 2007, the pressure from France's League for Protection of Birds and from the European Union resulted in the French government promising to enforce the EU directive protecting the ortolan. After several years of active citizen watch revealing little if any change in the field situation, the local representative of the government repeated this statement in 2016. European Union member states prohibit: * deliberate killing or capture of these birds by any method; * deliberate destruction of, or damage to, their nests and eggs or removal of their nests; * taking their eggs in the wild and keeping these eggs; * deliberate disturbance of these birds particularly during the period of breeding and rearing, insofar as this would have a significant negative effect on the birds; * keeping birds, the hunting and capture of which is prohibited; * sale, transport for sale, keeping for sale and the offering for sale of live or dead birds and of any readily recognizable parts or derivatives of these birds. As of 2018, the overall Ortolan bunting's population is listed by the IUCN as Least Concern (LC). See also -------- * Ambelopoulia * Animal rights * Animal welfare * Cruelty to animals Further reading --------------- * Jiguet, Frédéric; et al. (2019). "Unravelling migration connectivity reveals unsustainable hunting of the declining ortolan bunting". *Science Advances*. **5** (5): eaau2642. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.2642J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau2642. PMC 6530999. PMID 31131318.

Ortolan bunting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortolan_bunting

**Telavi** (Georgian: თელავი [ˈtʰɛɫɑvi]) is the main city and administrative center of Georgia's eastern province of Kakheti. Its population consists of some 19,751 inhabitants (as of the year 2017). The city is located on the foothills of the Tsiv-Gombori Range at 500–800 m (1,600–2,600 ft) above sea level. History ------- The first archaeological findings from Telavi date back to the Bronze Age. One of the earliest surviving accounts of Telavi is from the 2nd century AD, by Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus, who mentions the name *Teleda* (a reference to *Telavi*). Telavi began to transform into a fairly important and large political and administrative center in the 8th century. Interesting information on Telavi is provided in the records by an Arab geographer, Al-Muqaddasi of the 10th century, who mentions Telavi along with such important cities of that time's Caucasus as Tbilisi, Shamkhor, Ganja, Shemakha and Shirvan. Speaking about the population of Telavi, Al-Muqaddasi points out that for the most part it consisted of Christians. From the 10th until the 12th century, Telavi served as the capital of the Kingdom of Kakheti and later Kingdom of Kakhet-Hereti. During the Golden Era of the Georgian State (12th–13th centuries), Telavi turned into one of the most important political and economic centers of the Georgian State. After the disintegration of the united Georgian Kingdom in the 15th century, the role of Telavi started to decline and the city eventually became an ordinary town of trade and crafts. Telavi regained its political importance in the 17th century when it became a capital of the kingdom of Kakheti. By 1762, it turned into the second capital (after Tbilisi) of the united Eastern Georgian Kingdom of Kartl-Kakheti. The reign of King Erekle II, who was born and died in this city, was a special epoch in the history of Telavi. During this period (1744–1798) it grew into a strategic and cultural centre. Erakle II established there a theological seminary and founded a theatre. Erekle II's reforms touched upon all aspects of life in the country. They changed fundamentally the political, economical and cultural orientation of Kartli-Kakheti and, subsequently of the whole Georgia. His name became a symbol of freedom and national independence of the Georgian people. Erakle II is still called affectionately "Patara Kakhi" (Little Kakhetian), and his heroic deeds are described in folk literature. ### Russian rule In 1801, after the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti was annexed by the Russian Empire, Telavi lost its status as a capital. In the 19th century, the city was the administrative center of the Telavi uezd within the Tiflis Governorate. During that period, the economy of the city was mainly composed of small-scale industries (leather painting, pottery production, wine-making, etc.), commerce and agriculture. The town's population was about 12,000 in the end of the 19th century (including about 9,000 Armenians and 2,000 ethnic Georgians). Heritage -------- Telavi and its surroundings are rich in historical, architectural and natural monuments. The most important heritage monuments preserved within the city limits include: * *Dzveli Galavani* ("Old Walls") - fortress of the first Kakhetian kings (9th–10th centuries) * Church of the St. Mary (16th century) * Church of the Holy Trinity (6th century) * Fortress *Batonis Tsikhe* ("Fortress of Master") built in the 17th century; one of the only well-preserved medieval royal palaces in Georgia * *Korchibashishvilebis Tsikhe* - castle of the local noblemen named Korchibashishvilis (16th–18th century) * *akhvakhishvilebis Tsikhe* - castle of the local noblemen named Vakhvakhishvilis (18th century) Telavi is the only city in Georgia where four fortification monuments from four historical periods remain relatively intact. Due to this reason, architects, scholars and art historians consider Telavi as the most "medieval" city in the country. Another curious sight in Telavi is a 900-year-old plane tree which is 40 m (130 ft) high and 11 m (36 ft) around the trunk. Other notable landmarks around Telavi include the Alaverdi Cathedral (11th century), the second highest cathedral in Georgia after the newly built Tbilisi Sameba Cathedral; the Ikalto Academy (8th-12th centuries–), where the famous Georgian writer Shota Rustaveli studied; the Church of St. George (dedicated to the patron saint of Georgia, where it is said that there are 365 churches named St. George); ruins of the city and castle of Gremi (the former capital of Kakheti during the 15th–17th centuries); Shuamta, a complex made of three churches of different periods—6th, 7th and 8th centuries—in a highland forest; Akhali Shuamta ("New Shuamta" in English), the monastery close to Dzveli Shuamta ("Old Shuamta" in English), built in the 16th century; the stunning Tsinandali Gardens (the residential Palace of Noblemen Chavchavadzes family); and many others. ### Armenian heritage of Telavi The former Armenian population had a rich cultural life, some of which remains to this day, and some of which is lost. * Avag (Mother) St. George Church - called Surb Gevorg in Armenian, located in the heart of the old city. The bell tower was built in 1829. In 1861 permission was requested to build a dome (gmbet) on the church. By early 1923 the church was closed, and the bell tower was demolished on April 19, 1924. In May of the same year the gavit was also demolished, along with the serf walls on the western and southern sides. * Surb Karapet Church - built in 1797. By 1818 it was already not used anymore. * Dzvelgalavani Surb Gevorg Church - date of construction is unknown, but there are records that it was already built by 1798-1800, and that it was renovated in 1852 at a cost of 1,500 manet. Still stands. In poor condition. * Surb Astvatsatsin (Holy Mother of God). Located in the old Armenian cemetery. There are records of it already existing by 1840, which means it was built at some point prior. In 1879, 4000 rubles were spent to build a dome (gmbet) on the church. On the night of December 10, 1894, the church was robbed, leading to protective walls being built around it. Still stands, and functions as a Georgian Church now. * Surb Yerordutyun Church. There are no known records about the construction, but there are records of it beginning in the 1800s. It was closed in 1923. * Surb Tovmas Chapel. Built of wood in 1882-1885 at a cost of 280 rubles. Closed in 1923. Still stands. Geography --------- Telavi faces the Tsiv-Gombori Range to the south and southwest and borders on the Alazani Valley to the north and east. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range, which runs to the north of the Alazani Valley, can be seen from most of Telavi. At present, the city of Telavi is connected with Tbilisi by two highways. The most widely traveled (and better-paved) highway runs through the rural areas of Kakheti and is longer (the overall length of the highway is approximately 156 km (97 mi)) than the route, which runs through the highlands of the Gombori Mountain Range. The shorter route (approximately 96 km (60 mi)) is quite scenic, but is less used due to the reconstruction works that are being carried out there from 2014, but now it is used way, it is little difficult for non professional and non experienced drivers, road is too much narrow and dangerous. Because of its beauty, historical monuments and hospitality and the reputation for kindness of its residents, the city is a popular tourist destination in Georgia. ### Climate | Climate data for Telavi (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 18.8(65.8) | 19.4(66.9) | 26.1(79.0) | 32.3(90.1) | 32.1(89.8) | 34.7(94.5) | 40.2(104.4) | 39.4(102.9) | 36.0(96.8) | 32.7(90.9) | 24.2(75.6) | 21.3(70.3) | 40.2(104.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 6.2(43.2) | 7.3(45.1) | 11.7(53.1) | 17.8(64.0) | 22.1(71.8) | 26.7(80.1) | 29.6(85.3) | 29.4(84.9) | 25.0(77.0) | 18.7(65.7) | 12.2(54.0) | 7.7(45.9) | 17.9(64.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 1.6(34.9) | 2.5(36.5) | 6.5(43.7) | 12.1(53.8) | 16.3(61.3) | 20.7(69.3) | 23.6(74.5) | 23.2(73.8) | 18.9(66.0) | 13.2(55.8) | 7.4(45.3) | 3.2(37.8) | 12.5(54.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.8(28.8) | −1.2(29.8) | 2.5(36.5) | 7.7(45.9) | 11.7(53.1) | 15.7(60.3) | 18.7(65.7) | 18.3(64.9) | 14.2(57.6) | 9.4(48.9) | 3.8(38.8) | −0.1(31.8) | 8.3(46.9) | | Record low °C (°F) | −12.4(9.7) | −13.8(7.2) | −10.5(13.1) | −4.7(23.5) | 3.1(37.6) | 8.4(47.1) | 11.0(51.8) | 9.0(48.2) | 4.5(40.1) | −1.6(29.1) | −6.3(20.7) | −13.7(7.3) | −13.8(7.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 23.1(0.91) | 33.2(1.31) | 51.1(2.01) | 87.2(3.43) | 118.1(4.65) | 103.6(4.08) | 67.7(2.67) | 76.2(3.00) | 63.8(2.51) | 67.0(2.64) | 49.4(1.94) | 30.3(1.19) | 767.6(30.22) | | Source: World Meteorological Organization | Politics -------- **Telavi Municipal Assembly** (Georgian: თელავის საკრებულო) is a representative body in Telavi. currently consisting of 33 members. The council is assembles into session regularly, to consider subject matters such as code changes, utilities, taxes, city budget, oversight of city government and more. Telavi sakrebulo is elected every four year. The last election was held in October 2017. | Party | Seats | Current Municipal Assembly | | --- | --- | --- | |   | Georgian Dream | **24** | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | UNM | **5** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | European Georgia | **2** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | For Georgia | **1** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | Alliance of Patriots | **1** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | Notable Residents ----------------- * King Erekle II (1720-1798), King of Kartli and Kakheti * King George XII (1746-1800), Last Georgian Monarch * Prince Iulon (1760-1816), Georgian prince, half-brother of King George XII * Elene Akhvlediani (1898-1976), Georgian painter * Girgor Harutyunyan (1900-1957), First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Armenian SSR * Henrik Malyan (1925-1988), Armenian film director * Givi Chikvanaia (1939-2018), Georgian waterpolo player * Kakhi Asatiani (1947-2002), Georgian football player * Larissa Petrosyan (1993-), model * Givi Chokheli (1937-1994), Georgian football player * Alim Nabiev (1994-), Azerbaijani kickboxer In popular culture ------------------ Telavi serves as the hometown of the Georgian bush pilot Mimino (Vakhtang Kikabidze) in the 1977 Soviet comedy *Mimino*. See also -------- * Kakheti * Tsinandali * Rosen, Roger. *Georgia: A Sovereign Country of the Caucasus.* Odyssey Publications: king Kong, 1999. ISBN 962-217-748-4

Telavi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telavi

**Roe** (/roʊ/ *ROH*) or **hard roe** is the fully ripe internal egg masses in the ovaries, or the released external egg masses, of fish and certain marine animals such as shrimp, scallop, sea urchins and squid. As a seafood, roe is used both as a cooked ingredient in many dishes, and as a raw ingredient for delicacies such as caviar. The roe of marine animals, such as the roe of lumpsucker, hake, mullet, salmon, Atlantic bonito, mackerel, squid, and cuttlefish are especially rich sources of omega-3 fatty acids, but omega-3s are present in all fish roe. Also, a significant amount of vitamin B12 is among the nutrients present in fish roes. Roe from a sturgeon or sometimes other fish such as flathead grey mullet, is the raw base product from which caviar is made. The term **soft roe** or **white roe** denotes fish milt, not fish eggs. Around the world ---------------- ### Africa #### South Africa People in KwaZulu-Natal consume fish roe in the form of slightly sour curry or battered and deep fried. ### Americas #### Brazil In southern Brazil, in particular in the litoral parts of the state of Santa Catarina (from Azorean colonization), mullet roesacks are consumed deep-fried or pan-seared by the locals. #### Canada In the province of New Brunswick, roe (caviare) of the Atlantic sturgeon is harvested from the Saint John river. Roe from the cisco is harvested from the Great Lakes, primarily for overseas markets. Roe is also extracted from herring, salmon, and sea urchins. Roe is an important food source and fishery for Indigenous people of the pacific coast. Herring roe on kelp is a distinctly indigenous industry which involves harvesting kelp or hemlock branches with eggs laid on them which is much more sustainable then killing the fish for roe. In coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar. #### Chile In Chile, sea urchin roe is a traditional food known as an "erizo de mar". Chile is one of many countries that exports sea urchins to Japan in order to fulfill Japanese demand. #### Dominican Republic In Dominican Republic, dried and smoked herring roe ("huevas de arenque") is eaten. Unlike in some countries, it's generally cooked before consumption. #### Peru In Peru, roe is served in many seafood restaurants sauteed, breaded and pan fried, and sometimes accompanied by a side of fresh onion salad. It is called Huevera Frita. Cojinova (Seriolella violacea) yields the best roe for this dish. Despite the fact that many people like it, it is hardly considered a delicacy. Upscale restaurants are not expected to offer it, but street vendors and smaller restaurants will make their first daily sales of it before they run out. Cojinova itself (considered a medium quality fish) is caught for its fish meal, not for its roe, which is considered a chance product. Sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and it is used (at customer request) to add strength to ceviche. #### United States In the United States, several kinds of roe are produced: salmon from the Pacific coast, shad and herring species such as the American shad and alewife, mullet, paddlefish, American bowfin, and some species of sturgeon. Shad, pike, and other roe sometimes are pan-fried with bacon. Spot prawn roe (hard to find) is also a delicacy from the North Pacific. Flounder roe, pan-fried and served with grits is popular on the Southeastern coast. ### Asia #### Cambodia In Cambodia roe (Khmer: ពងត្រី, *pông trei*) are fermented and usually eaten with steamed eggs, omelettes and other hen or duck egg dishes. #### China In many regions in China, crab and urchin roes are eaten as a delicacy. Crab roe are often used as topping in dishes such as "crab roe tofu" (蟹粉豆腐). Nanxiang Steamed Bun Restaurant serves "crab roe xiaolongbao" as their special. Shrimp roes are also eaten in certain places, especially around the downstream of Yangtze River, such as Wuhu, as toppings for noodle soup. #### India, Pakistan and Bangladesh Among the populace of eastern India, roe that has been deeply roasted over an open fire is a delicacy. In this region, the roe of rohu is also considered a delicacy and is eaten fried or as a stuffing within a fried pointed gourd to make *potoler dolma*. Roe from the ilish fish is considered a delicacy in Bangladesh. The roe is usually deep-fried, although other preparations such as mashed roe where the roe crushed along with oil, onion and pepper, or curry of roe can also be found. All along the Konkan coast and Northern Kerala, the roe of sardines, black mackerel and several other fish is considered a delicacy. The roe can be eaten fried (after being coated with red chilli paste) and also as a thick curry (gashi). In Goa and Malvan, roe is first steamed or poached, then coated with salt and chilli powder and then shallow fried or roasted on a tawa (flat pan). In the state of Kerala, roe is deep fried in coconut oil, and is considered a delicacy. A common method of quick preparation is to wrap the roe in wet banana leaves and cook it over charcoal embers. In Odisha and West Bengal, roe of several fresh-water fish, including hilsa, are eaten, the roe being cooked separately or along with the fish, the latter method being preferred for all but large fishes. Roe, either light or deep-fried are also eaten as snacks or appetizers before a major meal. All along the Indus River and Specially South Pakistan Sindh, the roe of Palla (fish), and several other fish is considered a delicacy. The roe can be eaten fried (after being coated with red chilli paste) and also as a thick curry (Salan/Curry). coated with salt and chilli powder and then shallow fried or roasted on a tawa (flat pan). #### Indonesia *Pepes telur ikan* is a dish of steamed or fried spiced roe wrapped in banana leaf. In Makassar, It is made from flying fish roe or locals called *ikan tuing-tuing*. Also in Gresik, the pepes is made from Java barb roe or locals called *ikan bader*. In Kendal, *telur ikan mimi* has become a Ramadan dish. It is made from horseshoe crab roe with grated coconut. #### Iran In the Caspian provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, several types of roe are used. Called *ashpal* or *ashbal*, roe is consumed grilled, cured, salted, or mixed with other ingredients. If salted or cured, it is consumed as a condiment. If used fresh, it is usually grilled, steamed, or mixed with eggs and fried to form a custard-like dish called "Ashpal Kuku". Besides the much sought-after caviar, roe from kutum (also known as Caspian white fish or *Rutilus frisii kutum*), Caspian roach (called "kuli" in Gileki), bream (called "kulmeh" in Gileki), and Caspian salmon are highly prized. Roe from carp is less common and barbel roe is also occasionally used. #### Israel Several sections of the Israeli cuisine include roe. In Modern Hebrew, roe is commonly referred to by its Russian name "ikra" (איקרה). When necessary, the color is also mentioned: white or pink, as appropriate. Israeli "white ikra" is commonly made of carp or herring eggs, while "red ikra" is made of flathead mullet eggs or, in rarer cases, salmon eggs. The term "caviar" is separate, and denotes only sturgeon eggs. Ikra is served as a starter dish, to be eaten with pita or similar breads, particularly in Arab restaurants. It can also be purchased in stores, in standard-sized plastic packages. In home cooking it is similarly served as a starter dish. In Judaism, roe from kosher fish—fish with fins and scales—is considered kosher. Like fish in general, it is considered pareve. Roe is considered kosher only if the fish from which it is harvested is kosher as well. This means that sturgeon roe is not considered kosher from an Orthodox Jewish perspective. For most observant Orthodox Jewish consumers who keep kosher, roe or caviar must be processed under kosher supervision as well. The only exception to this rule is red roe, thanks to a widely accepted responsa by the Bais Yosef. #### Japan Various roe types are used in Japanese cuisine, including the following which are used raw in sushi: * Ikura (イクラ) - Salmon roe. Large reddish-orange individual spheres. It is a loan word from the Russian, "икра" (roe, in this context caviar) * Sujiko (すじこ/筋子) - Also salmon roe. The difference is that sujiko is still inside its sac when it is prepared. It also has a different color; sujiko is red to dark-red while ikura is lighter in color, sometimes almost orange. Sujiko is also sweeter in taste. * Masago (真砂子)- Capelin roe, similar to Tobiko, but smaller. * Kazunoko (数の子/鯑) - Herring roe, yellow or pinkish, having a firm, rubbery texture and appearance, usually pickled. The roe is in a single cohesive mass and so looks like a piece of fish. * Mentaiko (明太子) - Alaska pollock roe, spiced with powdered red pepper and surrounded by a thin, elastic membrane. Mentaiko is usually pink to dark red. * Tarako (たらこ/鱈子) - Salted Alaska pollock roe, sometimes grilled. * Tobiko (飛び子) - Flying fish roe, very crunchy, reddish orange in color. * Uni (うに/雲丹) - Sea urchin roe, soft and melting. Color ranges from orange to pale yellow. Humans consume the reproductive organs ("roe") either raw or briefly cooked. Sea urchin roe is a popular food in Japan, and it is called "uni" in Japanese sushi cuisine. Apart from domestic consumption, a number of other countries export the sea urchin to Japan in order to meet its demand throughout the country. Traditionally considered an aphrodisiac, sea urchin roe has been found to contain the cannabinoid anandamide. * Karasumi (カラスミ/鱲子) - is a specialty of Nagasaki and along with salt-pickled sea urchin roe and Konowata one of the three chinmi of Japan. It is made by desalinating salt-pickled mullet roe while still in the ovary and sun drying it. * Ebiko - Shrimp roe, sometimes translated as "Shrimp Flakes"; the eggs are smaller and generally a darker orange than Tobiko. There is a variant of Ebiko made from Capelin roe. #### Korea All kinds of fish roe are widely eaten in Korean cuisine, including the popular sea urchin, salmon, herring, flying fish, cod, among others. Myeongran *jeot* (명란젓) refers to the jeotgal (salted fermented seafood) made with pollock roe seasoned with chili pepper powders. It is commonly consumed as banchan, small dish accompanied with cooked rice or ingredient for *altang* (알탕), a kind of jjigae (Korean stew). *Albap* is a bibimbap made with roe. #### Lebanon Sea urchin roe, or *toutia* توتية as it is known locally, is eaten directly from the sea urchin shell fresh using a small spoon. Some people add a twist of lemon juice to the roe and eat it in Lebanese flat bread. #### Malaysia Particularly in Sarawak, Malaysia, Toli Shad fish roe is a popular delicacy among locals and tourists. The roe is usually found in the street market in Sarawak's capital city of Kuching. The roe can be sold for up to US$19 per 100 grams and is considered expensive among locals, but the price can reach up to US$30 in other states of Malaysia. The roe is usually salted before sale but fresh roe is also available. The salted roe is usually pan fried or steamed and eaten with steamed rice. The fish itself is also usually salted and served along with the roe. ### Oceania #### New Zealand The Maori people and other New Zealanders eat sea urchin roe, called "kina". Kina is sold in fish shops, supermarkets, and alongside the road. Most commercial kina is imported from the Chatham Islands. ### Europe All around the Mediterranean, botargo is an esteemed specialty made of the cured roe pouch of flathead mullet, tuna, or swordfish; it is called bottarga (Italian), poutargue or boutargue (French), botarga (Spanish), batarekh (Arabic) or avgotaraho (Greek αυγοτάραχο). #### Denmark The most commonly eaten roe in Denmark is cod roe, usually sold canned with added water, starch, oil, salt, and tomato puree and then boiled and preserved. It is served sliced, either as is or slightly roasted in a pan, on top of rye bread, sometimes topped with remoulade and/or lemon. An everyday food item on many Danish lunch tables. Lumpfish (*stenbider*) roe is another roe used in Danish cuisine. It is considered somewhat of a luxury item and is primarily used as a condiment on top of halved or sliced hard-boiled eggs, on top of mounds of shrimp, or in combination with other fish or seafood. #### France Sea urchin roe (*oursin* in French) is eaten directly from the sea and in restaurants, where it is served both by itself and in seafood platters, usually spooned from the shell of the animal. Crab, shrimp and prawn roe still attached to those animals is also considered a delicacy. #### Finland Common whitefish and especially vendace from the fresh water lakes in Finland are renowned for the excellent delicate taste of the roe. Roe is served as topping of toast or on blini with onion and smetana. #### Greece Taramá is salted and cured carp or cod roe used to make taramosaláta, a Greek meze consisting of taramá mixed with lemon juice, bread crumbs, onions, and olive oil; it is eaten as a dip. Avgotaraho (αυγοτάραχο) or botargo is the prepared roe of the flathead mullet. #### Italy Bottarga is primarily the salted and dried roe pouch of the Atlantic bluefin tuna; it can also be prepared with the dried roe pouch of the flathead mullet, even if it is considered of low quality and less tasty. It is used minced for dressing pasta or sliced with olive oil and lemon (Fishermen style). The coastal town of Alghero, Sardinia, is also known for its "bogamarì" specialty (fresh sea urchin roe). #### Norway Norwegian caviar is most commonly made from cod, but caviar made from lumpsucker or capelin roe is also available. During winter season, when skrei, winter cod is available, roe is cooked in its sack and served with cod liver and poached cod. This traditional dish is particularly popular in coastal Norway and is called mølje. In some areas it is also common to fry the roe from freshly caught fish, to be eaten on bread or with potatoes and flatbread. #### Portugal Codfish roe and sardine roe are sold in olive oil. The fresh roe of hake (pescada) is also consumed (a popular way of eating it is boiled with vegetables, and simply seasoned with olive oil and a dash of vinegar). In the South of Portugal, the "ouriço do mar" (sea urchin) is highly appreciated. In the Sines area (Alentejo), a layer of dried pine needles is placed on the ground and, on top of it, a layer of sea urchins. This layer is topped with a second layer of dried pine needles. The pile is set on fire. The roe is removed from the cooked sea urchins and eaten. Sea urchin is not consumed in May, June, July, and August. #### Romania Fish roe is very popular in Romania as a starter (like salată de icre) or sometimes served for breakfast on toasted bread. The most common roe is that of the European carp; pike, herring, cod are also popular. Fried soft roe is also a popular dish. Sturgeon roe is a delicacy normally served at functions. #### Russia and ex-USSR countries In Russian, all types of fish roe are called *ikra* (икра), and there is no linguistic distinction between the English words "roe" and "caviar". Also, Russians tend to translate any "ikra" as "caviar", thus creating the impression of availability of sturgeon roe. Sturgeon roe, called *chyornaya ikra* (чёрная икра, "black caviar") is most prized. It is followed in prestige by salmon roe called *krasnaya ikra* (красная икра, "red caviar"), which is less expensive, but still considered a delicacy. Both types of roe are usually served lightly salted on buttered wheat bread, or as an accompaniment for blini, or used as an ingredient in various *haute cuisine* and festive dishes. It should be noted, however, the butter on bread may actually "muffles" the exquisite taste of large pellets of black or red roe this way, by making it more dull. What's more important, the bread should be soft and fresh rather than soggy, crisp or bun-like dense. More common roes, such as cod, Alaska pollock, and herring ones are everyday dishes, combining richness in protein with low price. Salted cod or pollock roe on buttered bread is common breakfast fare and herring roe is often eaten smoked or fried. The roe of freshwater fish is also popular but the commercial availability is lower. Soft roe of various fishes is also widely consumed, mostly fried, and is a popular cantina-style dish. * For those "everyday" roes, the buttered bread makes sense, since the canned roe is more salty than *caviar* sturgeon roe. * Capelin roe mixed with cream is sold in convenience stores of Russia as a more gentle-tasting variant of aforementioned canned roe spreads. Roe found in dried vobla fish is considered delicious by some; though dried vobla roe is not produced separately as a stand-alone dish, roe-carrying vobla is prized. #### Spain Cod and hake roe is commonly consumed throughout Spain in many different forms: sautéed, grilled, fried, marinated, pickled, boiled, with mayonnaise, or in salad. Tuna and ling dry brined roe is traditional in Andalusia and the Mediterranean coasts since antiquity. In all of the Spanish coastal regions, sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and consumed raw. Roe from the Mediterranean grey mullet, *Mugil cephalus*, is a sustainable roe resembling sturgeon roe that is marketed from Spain to countries around the world. #### Sweden Smoked and salted cod roe paste known as smörgåskaviar is commonly served as sandwich topping in Sweden. Lightly salted roe of the vendace is called Löjrom in Swedish. It is naturally orange in colour. The most sought after type is Kalix Löjrom from Kalix in the northern Baltic sea. Most Löjrom consumed in Sweden is however imported frozen from North America. Stenbitsrom, the roe of lumpfish is naturally a bleak unappetizing gray, but is coloured black (to emulate black caviar) or orange (to emulate Löjrom). Stenbitsrom sells in much larger volume than Löjrom, but it has two drawbacks: it tastes of little more than its salt and artificial additives, and the colour additives tend to bleed into other parts of the food served with it (such as a boiled egg), or to discolour porcelain dishes. There is also a trend to use more Laxrom (salmon roe), which is a natural orange colour, with a large diameter. #### United Kingdom Though not popular, herring roe is sold within many British supermarkets. Battered cod roe can also be bought from many fish and chip shops. Various tinned roes are on sale in supermarkets e.g. soft cod roes, pressed cod roes and herring roes. See also -------- * Egg as food * Fish reproduction * Smoked egg

Roe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe

The **Marmara Region** (Turkish: *Marmara Bölgesi*) is a geographical region of Turkey. Located in northwestern Turkey, it is bordered by Greece and the Aegean Sea to the west, Bulgaria and the Black Sea to the north, the Black Sea Region to the east, and the Aegean Region to the south. At the center of the region is the Sea of Marmara, which gives the region its name. The largest city in the region is Istanbul. Other big cities are Bursa, İzmit, Balıkesir, Tekirdağ, Çanakkale and Edirne. Among the seven geographical regions, the Marmara Region has the second-smallest area, yet the largest population; it is the most densely populated region in the country. Subdivision ----------- * **Çatalca - Kocaeli** Section (Turkish: *Çatalca - Kocaeli Bölümü*) + **Adapazarı** Area (Turkish: *Adapazarı Yöresi*) + **Istanbul** Area (Turkish: *Istanbul Yöresi*) * **Ergene** Section (Turkish: *Ergene Yöresi*) * **Southern Marmara** Section (Turkish: *Güney Marmara Bölümü*) + **Biga - Gallipoli** Area (Turkish: *Biga - Gelibolu Yöresi*) + **Bursa** Area (Turkish: *BursaYöresi*) + **Karesi** Area (Turkish: *Karesi Yöresi*) + **Samanlı** Area (Turkish: *Samanlı Yöresi*) * **Yıldız** Section (Turkish: *Yıldız Bölümü*) Ecoregions ---------- ### Terrestrial #### Palearctic ##### Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests * Balkan mixed forests * Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests ##### Temperate coniferous forests * Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests (Turkey) ##### Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub * Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests * Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests Provinces --------- Panoramic view of Istanbul Provinces that are entirely in the Marmara Region: * Edirne * İstanbul * Kırklareli * Kocaeli * Tekirdağ * Yalova Provinces that are mostly in the Marmara Region: * Balıkesir * Bilecik * Bursa * Çanakkale * Sakarya Panoramic view of Edirne from Selimiye Mosque. Geography --------- The Yıldız Mountains and Uludağ are in the Marmara Region. Islands in the Aegean Sea are Gökçeada and Bozcaada, and in the Sea of Marmara are Marmara Island, Avşa, Paşalimanı, İmralı and the Princes' Islands of Istanbul. ### Climate The Marmara region has a hybrid mediterranean climate/humid subtropical climate on the Aegean Sea coast and the south Marmara Sea coast, an oceanic climate on the Black Sea coast and a humid continental climate in the interior. Summers are warm to hot and moderately dry whereas winters are cold and wet and sometimes snowy. The coastal climate keeps the temperatures relatively mild. See also -------- * East Thrace * Sea of Marmara * Dardanelles * Bosporus * Turkish Straits * Geographical regions of Turkey * Provinces of Turkey

Marmara Region

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmara_Region

**Phosphine** (IUPAC name: **phosphane**) is a colorless, flammable, highly toxic compound with the chemical formula PH3, classed as a pnictogen hydride. Pure phosphine is odorless, but technical grade samples have a highly unpleasant odor like rotting fish, due to the presence of substituted phosphine and diphosphane (P2H4). With traces of P2H4 present, PH3 is spontaneously flammable in air (pyrophoric), burning with a luminous flame. Phosphine is a highly toxic respiratory poison, and is immediately dangerous to life or health at 50 ppm. Phosphine has a trigonal pyramidal structure. **Phosphines** are compounds that include PH3 and the organophosphines, which are derived from PH3 by substituting one or more hydrogen atoms with organic groups. They have the general formula PH3−*n*R*n*. **Phosphanes** are saturated phosphorus hydrides of the form P*n*H*n*+2, such as triphosphane. Phosphine, PH3, is the smallest of the phosphines and the smallest of the phosphanes. History ------- Philippe Gengembre (1764–1838), a student of Lavoisier, first obtained phosphine in 1783 by heating white phosphorus in an aqueous solution of potash (potassium carbonate). Perhaps because of its strong association with elemental phosphorus, phosphine was once regarded as a gaseous form of the element, but Lavoisier (1789) recognised it as a combination of phosphorus with hydrogen and described it as *phosphure d'hydrogène* (phosphide of hydrogen). In 1844, Paul Thénard, son of the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard, used a cold trap to separate diphosphine from phosphine that had been generated from calcium phosphide, thereby demonstrating that P2H4 is responsible for spontaneous flammability associated with PH3, and also for the characteristic orange/brown color that can form on surfaces, which is a polymerisation product. He considered diphosphine's formula to be PH2, and thus an intermediate between elemental phosphorus, the higher polymers, and phosphine. Calcium phosphide (nominally Ca3P2) produces more P2H4 than other phosphides because of the preponderance of P-P bonds in the starting material. The name "phosphine" was first used for organophosphorus compounds in 1857, being analogous to organic amines (NR3). The gas PH3 was named "phosphine" by 1865 (or earlier). Structure and properties ------------------------ PH3 is a trigonal pyramidal molecule with *C*3*v* molecular symmetry. The length of the P−H bond is 1.42 Å, the H−P−H bond angles are 93.5°. The dipole moment is 0.58 D, which increases with substitution of methyl groups in the series: CH3PH2, 1.10 D; (CH3)2PH, 1.23 D; (CH3)3P, 1.19 D. In contrast, the dipole moments of amines decrease with substitution, starting with ammonia, which has a dipole moment of 1.47 D. The low dipole moment and almost orthogonal bond angles lead to the conclusion that in PH3 the P−H bonds are almost entirely pσ(P) – sσ(H) and phosphorus 3s orbital contributes little to the bonding between phosphorus and hydrogen in this molecule. For this reason, the lone pair on phosphorus may be regarded as predominantly formed by the 3s orbital of phosphorus. The upfield chemical shift of the phosphorus atom in the 31P NMR spectrum accords with the conclusion that the lone pair electrons occupy the 3s orbital (Fluck, 1973). This electronic structure leads to a lack of nucleophilicity in general and lack of basicity in particular (p*K*aH = –14), as well as an ability to form only weak hydrogen bonds. The aqueous solubility of PH3 is slight; 0.22 cm3 of gas dissolves in 1 cm3 of water. Phosphine dissolves more readily in non-polar solvents than in water because of the non-polar P−H bonds. It is technically amphoteric in water, but acid and base activity is poor. Proton exchange proceeds via a phosphonium (PH+4) ion in acidic solutions and via phosphanide (PH−2) at high pH, with equilibrium constants *K*b = 4×10−28 and *K*a = 41.6×10−29. ### Water Phosphine upon contact with water at high pressure and temperature produces phosphoric acid and hydrogen: PH3 + 4H2O Pressure & Temperature→H3PO4 + 4H2 ### Burning Burning phosphine in the air produced phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) (which reacts with water to produce phosphoric acid): 2PH3 + 4O2 → P2O5 + 3H2O Preparation and occurrence -------------------------- Phosphine may be prepared in a variety of ways. Industrially it can be made by the reaction of white phosphorus with sodium or potassium hydroxide, producing potassium or sodium hypophosphite as a by-product. 3 KOH + P4 + 3 H2O → 3 KH2PO2 + PH3 3 NaOH + P4 + 3 H2O → 3 NaH2PO2 + PH3 Alternatively, the acid-catalyzed disproportionation of white phosphorus yields phosphoric acid and phosphine. Both routes have industrial significance; the acid route is the preferred method if further reaction of the phosphine to substituted phosphines is needed. The acid route requires purification and pressurizing. ### Laboratory routes It is prepared in the laboratory by disproportionation of phosphorous acid: 4 H3PO3 → PH3 + 3 H3PO4 Phosphine evolution occurs at around 200 °C. Alternative methods are the hydrolysis of tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphine, or of metal phosphides such as aluminium phosphide, or calcium phosphide: Ca3P2 + 6 H2O → 3 Ca(OH)2 + 2 PH3 Pure samples of phosphine, free from P2H4, may be prepared using the action of potassium hydroxide on phosphonium iodide : [PH4]I + KOH → PH3 + KI + H2O ### Occurrence Phosphine is a worldwide constituent of the Earth's atmosphere at very low and highly variable concentrations. It may contribute significantly to the global phosphorus biochemical cycle. The most likely source is reduction of phosphate in decaying organic matter, possibly via partial reductions and disproportionations, since environmental systems do not have known reducing agents of sufficient strength to directly convert phosphate to phosphine. It is also found in Jupiter's atmosphere. #### Possible extraterrestrial biosignature In 2020 a spectroscopic analysis was reported to show signs of phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus in quantities that could not be explained by known abiotic processes. Later re-analysis of this work showed interpolation errors had been made, and re-analysis of data with the fixed algorithm do not result in the detection of phosphine. The authors of the original study then claimed to detect it with a much lower concentration of 1 ppb.[*disputed – discuss*] Applications ------------ ### Organophosphorus chemistry Phosphine is a precursor to many organophosphorus compounds. It reacts with formaldehyde in the presence of hydrogen chloride to give tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride, which is used in textiles. The hydrophosphination of alkenes is versatile route to a variety of phosphines. For example, in the presence of basic catalysts PH3 adds of Michael acceptors. Thus with acrylonitrile, it reacts to give tris(cyanoethyl)phosphine: PH3 + 3 CH2=CHZ → P(CH2CH2Z)3 (Z is NO2, CN, or C(O)NH2) Acid catalysis is applicable to hydrophosphination with isobutylene and related analogues: PH3 + R2C=CH2 → R2(CH3)CPH2 (R is CH3, alkyl, etc.) ### Microelectronics Phosphine is used as a dopant in the semiconductor industry, and a precursor for the deposition of compound semiconductors. Commercially significant products include gallium phosphide and indium phosphide. ### Fumigant For farm use, pellets of aluminium phosphide (AlP), calcium phosphide (Ca3P2), or zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) release phosphine upon contact with atmospheric water or rodents' stomach acid. These pellets also contain agents to reduce the potential for ignition or explosion of the released phosphine. A more recent alternative is the use of phosphine gas itself which requires dilution with either CO2 or N2 or even air to bring it below the flammability point. Use of the gas avoids the issues related with the solid residues left by metal phosphide and results in faster, more efficient control of the target pests. Because the previously popular fumigant methyl bromide has been phased out in some countries under the Montreal Protocol, phosphine is the only widely used, cost-effective, rapidly acting fumigant that does not leave residues on the stored product. Pests with high levels of resistance toward phosphine have become common in Asia, Australia and Brazil. High level resistance is also likely to occur in other regions, but has not been as closely monitored. Genetic variants that contribute to high level resistance to phosphine have been identified in the dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase gene. Identification of this gene now allows rapid molecular identification of resistant insects. Toxicity and safety ------------------- Deaths have resulted from accidental exposure to fumigation materials containing aluminium phosphide or phosphine. It can be absorbed either by inhalation or transdermally. As a respiratory poison, it affects the transport of oxygen or interferes with the utilization of oxygen by various cells in the body. Exposure results in pulmonary edema (the lungs fill with fluid). Phosphine gas is heavier than air so it stays near the floor. Phosphine appears to be mainly a redox toxin, causing cell damage by inducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Resistance in insects is caused by a mutation in a mitochondrial metabolic gene. Phosphine can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Direct contact with phosphine liquid – although unlikely to occur – may cause frostbite, like other cryogenic liquids. The main target organ of phosphine gas is the respiratory tract. According to the 2009 U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) pocket guide, and U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulation, the 8 hour average respiratory exposure should not exceed 0.3 ppm. NIOSH recommends that the short term respiratory exposure to phosphine gas should not exceed 1 ppm. The Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health level is 50 ppm. Overexposure to phosphine gas causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, thirst, chest tightness, dyspnea (breathing difficulty), muscle pain, chills, stupor or syncope, and pulmonary edema. Phosphine has been reported to have the odor of decaying fish or garlic at concentrations below 0.3 ppm. The smell is normally restricted to laboratory areas or phosphine processing since the smell comes from the way the phosphine is extracted from the environment. However, it may occur elsewhere, such as in industrial waste landfills. Exposure to higher concentrations may cause olfactory fatigue. ### Explosiveness Phosphine gas is denser than air and hence may collect in low-lying areas. It can form explosive mixtures with air, and may also self-ignite. See also -------- * Diphosphane, H2P−PH2, simplified to P2H4 * Diphosphene, HP=PH Further reading --------------- * Fluck, E. (1973). "The Chemistry of Phosphine". *Topics in Current Chemistry*. Fortschritte der Chemischen Forschung. **35**: 1–64. doi:10.1007/BFb0051358. ISBN 3-540-06080-4. S2CID 91394007. * World Health Organisation (1988). *Phosphine and Selected Metal Phosphides*. Environmental Health Criteria. Vol. 73. Geneva: Joint sponsorship of UNEP, ILO and WHO.

Phosphine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphine

**Matsya** (Sanskrit: मत्स्य, lit. *fish*) is the fish avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. Often described as the first of Vishnu's ten primary avatars, Matsya is described to have rescued the first man, Manu, from a great deluge. Matsya may be depicted as a giant fish, often golden in color, or anthropomorphically with the torso of Vishnu connected to the rear half of a fish. The earliest account of Matsya is found in the *Shatapatha Brahmana,* where Matsya is not associated with any particular deity. The fish-saviour later merges with the identity of Brahma in post-Vedic era, and still later, becomes regarded with Vishnu. The legends associated with Matsya expand, evolve, and vary in Hindu texts. These legends have embedded symbolism, where a small fish with Manu's protection grows to become a big fish, and the fish saves the man who would be the progenitor of the next race of mankind. In later versions, Matsya slays a demon named Hayagriva who steals the Vedas, and thus is lauded as the saviour of the scriptures. The tale is ascribed with the motif of flood myths, common across cultures. Etymology --------- The deity Matsya derives his name from the word *matsya* (Sanskrit: मत्स्य), meaning "fish". Monier-Williams and R. Franco suggest that the words *matsa* and *matsya*, both meaning fish, derive from the root *mad*, meaning "to rejoice, be glad, exult, delight or revel in". Thus, matsya means the "joyous one". The Sanskrit grammarian and etymologist Yaska (circa 600 BCE) also refers to the same stating that fish are known as *matsya* as "they revel eating each other". Yaska also offers an alternate etymology of *matsya* as "floating in water" derived from the roots *syand* (to float) and *madhu* (water). The Sanskrit word *matsya* is cognate with Prakrit *maccha* ("fish"). Legends and scriptural references --------------------------------- ### Vedic origins The section 1.8.1 of the *Shatapatha Brahmana* (*Yajur veda*) is the earliest extant text to mention Matsya and the flood myth in Hinduism. It does not associate the fish Matsya with any other deity in particular. The central characters of this legend are the fish (Matsya) and Manu. The character Manu is presented as the legislator and ancestor king. One day, water is brought to Manu for his ablutions. In the water is a tiny fish. The fish states that it fears being swallowed by a larger fish and appeals to Manu to protect it. In return, the fish promises to rescue Manu from an impending flood. Manu accepts the request. He puts the fish in a pot of water where it grows. Then he prepares a ditch filled with water, and transfers it there where it can grow freely. Once the fish grows further to be big enough to be free from danger, Manu transfers it into the ocean. The fish thanks him, tells him the timing of the great flood, and asks Manu to build a ship by that day, one he can attach to its horn. On the predicted day, Manu visits the fish with his boat. The devastating floods come. Manu ties the boat to the horn. The fish carries the boat with Manu to the high grounds of the northern mountains (interpreted as the Himalayas). The lone survivor Manu then re-establishes life by performing austerities and yajna (sacrifices). The goddess Ida appears from the sacrifice and both together initiate the race of Manu, the humans. According to Bonnefoy, the Vedic story is symbolic. The little fish alludes to the Indian "law of the fishes", an equivalent to the "law of the jungle". The small and weak would be devoured by the big and strong, and needs the dharmic protection of the legislator and king Manu to enable it to attain its full potential and be able to help later. Manu provides the protection, the little fish grows to become big and ultimately saves all existence. The boat that Manu builds to get help from the saviour fish, states Bonnefoy, is symbolism of the means to avert complete destruction and for human salvation. The mountains represent the doorway for ultimate refuge and liberation. Edward Washburn Hopkins suggests that the favour of Manu rescuing the fish from death, is reciprocated by the fish. Though Matsya does not appear in older scriptures, the seeds of the legend may be traced to the oldest Hindu scripture, the *Rigveda*. Manu (lit. "man"), the first man and progenitor of humanity, appears in the *Rigveda*. Manu is said to have performed the first sacrifice by kindling the sacrificial fire (Agni) with seven priests; Manu's sacrifice becomes the archetypal sacrifice. Narayan Aiyangar suggests that the ship from the Matsya legend alludes to the ship of Sacrifice referred in the *Rigveda* and the *Aitareya Brahmana*. In this context, the fish denotes Agni - God as well as the sacrificial flames. The legend thus signifies how man (Manu) can sail the sea of sins and troubles with the ship of sacrifice and the fish-Agni as his guide. In a prayer to kushta plant in the *Atharvaveda*, a golden ship is said to rest at a Himalayan peak, where the herb grows. Maurice Bloomfield suggests that this may be an allusion to Manu's ship. ### Saviour of Manu from the Deluge The tale of Matsya also appears in chapter 12.187 of the Book 3, the *Vana Parva*, in the epic *Mahabharata*. The legend begins with Manu (specifically Vaivasvata Manu, the present Manu. Manu is envisioned as a title, rather than an individual) performing religious rituals on the banks of the Chirini River in Vishāla forest. A little fish comes to him and asks for his protection, promising to save him from a deluge in the future. The legend moves in the same vein as the Vedic version. Manu places him in the jar. Once it outgrows the jar, the fish asks to be put into a tank which Manu helps with. Then the fish outgrows the tank, and with Manu's help reaches the Ganges River (Ganga), finally to the ocean. Manu is asked by the fish, as in the *Shatapatha Brahmana* version, to build a ship and additionally, to be in it with Saptarishi (seven sages) and all sorts of seeds, on the day of the expected deluge. Manu accepts the fish's advice. The deluge begins. The fish arrives to Manu's aid. He ties the ship with a rope to the horn of the fish, who then steers the ship to the Himalayas, carrying Manu through a turbulent storm. The danger passes. The fish then reveals himself as Brahma and gives the power of creation to Manu. The key difference between the Vedic version and the *Mahabharata* version of the allegorical legend are the latter's identification of Matsya with Brahma, a more explicit discussion of the "law of the fishes" where the weak needs the protection from the strong, and the fish asking Manu to bring along sages and grains. The *Matsya Purana* identifies the fish-savior (Matsya) with Vishnu, instead of Brahma. The Purana derives its name from Matsya and begins with the tale of Manu. King Manu renounces the world. Pleased with his austerities on Malaya mountains (interpreted as Kerala in Southern India), Brahma grants his wish to rescue the world at the time of the *pralaya* (dissolution at end of a *kalpa*). As in other versions, Manu encounters a little fish that miraculously increases in size over time and soon he transfers the fish to the Ganges and later to the ocean. Manu recognizes Vishnu in the fish. The fish warns him about the impending fiery end of *kalpa* accompanied with the *pralaya* as a deluge. The fish once again has a horn, but the gods gift a ship to Manu. Manu carries all types of living creatures and plant seeds to produce food for everyone after the deluge is over. When the great flood begins, Manu ties the cosmic serpent Shesha to the fish's horn. In the journey towards the mountains, Manu asks questions to Matsya and their dialogue constitutes the rest of the Purana. The *Matsya Purana* story is also symbolic. The fish is divine to begin with, and needs no protection, only recognition and devotion. It also ties the story to its cosmology, connecting two *kalpa*s through the cosmic symbolic residue in the form of Shesha. In this account, the ship of Manu is called the ship of the Vedas, thus signifying the rites and rituals of the Vedas. Roy further suggests that this may be an allusion to the gold ship of Manu in the *Rigveda*. In the *Garuda Purana*, Matysa is said to rescued the seventh Manu Vaivasvata Manu by placing him in a boat from the great Deluge. The *Linga Purana* praises Vishnu as the one who saved various beings as a fish by tying a boat to his tail. ### Saviour of the Vedas The *Bhagavata Purana* adds another reason for the Matsya avatar. At the end of the *kalpa*, a demon Hayagriva ("horse-necked") steals the Vedas, which escape from the yawn of a sleepy Brahma. Vishnu discovers the theft. He descends to earth in the form of a little *saphari* fish, or the Matsya avatar. One day, the king of Dravida country (South India) named Satyavrata cups water in his hand for libation in the Kritamala river (identified with Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu, South India). There he finds a little fish. The fish asks him to save him from predators and let it grow. Satyavrata is filled with compassion for the little fish. He puts the fish in a pot, from there to a well, then a tank, and when it outgrows the tank, he transfers the fish finally to the sea. The fish rapidly outgrows the sea. Satyavrata asks the supernatural fish to reveal its true identity, but soon realizes it to be Vishnu. Matsya-Vishnu informs the king of the impending flood coming in seven days. The king is asked to collect every species of animal, plant and seeds as well as the seven sages in a boat. The fish asks the king to tie the boat to its horn with the help of the Vasuki serpent. The deluge comes. While carrying them to safety, the fish avatar teaches the highest knowledge to the sages and Satyavrata to prepare them for the next cycle of existence. The *Bhagavata Purana* states that this knowledge was compiled as a Purana, interpreted as an allusion to the *Matsya Purana*. After the deluge, Matsya slays the demon and rescues the Vedas, restoring them to Brahma, who has woken from his sleep to restart creation afresh. Satyavrata becomes Vaivasvata Manu and is installed as the Manu of the current *kalpa*. The *Agni Purana* narrative is similar to the *Bhagavata Purana* version placed around Kritamala river and also records the rescue of Vedas from the demon Hayagriva. It mentions Vaivasvata Manu only collecting all seeds (not living beings) and assembling the seven sages similar to the *Mahabharata* version. It also adds the basis of the *Matsya Purana*, being the discourse of Matsya to Manu, similar to the *Bhagavata Purana* version. While listing the Puranas, the *Agni Purana* states that the *Matsya Purana* was told by Matsya to Manu at the beginning of the *kalpa*. The *Varaha Purana* equates Narayana (identified with Vishnu) as the creator-god, instead of Brahma. Narayana creates the universe. At the start of a new *kalpa*, Narayana wakes from his slumber and thinks about the Vedas. He realizes that they are in the cosmic waters. He takes the form of a gigantic fish and rescues the Vedas and other scriptures. In another instance, Narayana retrieves the Vedas from the Rasatala (netherworld) and grants them to Brahma. The Purana also extols Narayana as the primordial fish who also bore the earth. PPL The *Garuda Purana* states that Matysa slew Hayagriva and rescued the Vedas as well as the Manu. In another instance, it states that Vishnu as Matsya killed the demon Pralamba in the reign of the third Manu - Uttama. The *Narada Purana* states that the demon Hayagreeva (son of Kashyapa and diti) seized the Vedas of the mouth of Brahma. Vishnu then takes the Matsya form and kills the demon, retrieving the Vedas. The incident is said to have happened in the Badari forest. The deluge and Manu are dropped in the narrative. The *Shiva Purana* praises Vishnu as Matsya who rescued the Vedas via king Satyavrata and swam through the ocean of *pralaya*. The *Padma Purana* replaces Manu with the sage Kashyapa, who finds the little fish who expands miraculously. Another major divergence is the absence of the deluge. Vishnu as Matsya slays the demon Shankha. Matsya-Vishnu then orders the sages to gather the Vedas from the waters and then presents the same to Brahma in Prayag. This Purana does not reveal how the scriptures drowned in the waters. Vishnu then resides in the Badari forest with other deities. The *Karttikamsa-Mahatmya* in the *Skanda Purana* narrates that slaying of the *asura* (demon) Shankha by Matysa. Shankha (lit. "conch"), the son of Sagara (the ocean), snatches the powers of various gods. Shankha, wishing to acquire more power, steals the Vedas from Brahma, while Vishnu was sleeping. The Vedas escape from his clutches and hide in the ocean. Implored by the gods, Vishnu wakes on Prabodhini Ekadashi and takes the form of a *saphari* fish and annihilates the demon. Similar to the *Padma Purana*, the sages re-compile the scattered Vedas from the oceans. The Badari forest and Prayag also appear in this version, though the tale of growing fish and Manu is missing. Another account in the *Padma Purana* mentions that a demon son called Makara steals the Vedas from Brahma and hides them in the cosmic ocean. Beseeched by Brahma and the gods, Vishnu takes the Matsya-form and enters the waters, then turns into a crocodile and destroys the demon. The sage Vyasa is credited with re-compilation of the Vedas in this version. The Vedas are then returned to Brahma. The *Brahma Purana* states that Vishnu took the form of a rohita fish when the earth was in the netherland to rescue the Vedas. The Krishna-centric *Brahmavaivarta Purana* states that Matsya is an avatar of Krishna (identified with Supreme Being) and in a hymn to Krishna praises Matsya as the protector of the Vedas and Brahmins (the sages), who imparted knowledge to the king. The *Purusottama-Ksetra-Mahatmya* of *Skanda Purana* in relationship of the origin of the herb *Damanaka* states that a *daitya* (demon) named Damanaka tormented people and wandered in the waters. On the request of Brahma, Vishnu takes the Matsya form, pulls the demon from the waters and crushes him on land. The demon transforms into a fragrant herb called Damanaka, which Vishnu wears in his flower garland. ### In avatar lists Matsya is generally enlisted as the first avatar of Vishnu, especially in Dashavatara (ten major avatars of Vishnu) lists. However, that was not always the case. Some lists do not list Matsya as first, only later texts start the trend of Matsya as the first avatar. In the *Garuda Purana* listing of the Dashavatara, Matsya is the first. The *Linga Purana*, the *Narada Purana*, the *Shiva Purana*, the *Varaha Purana*, the *Padma Purana*, the *Skanda Purana* also mention Matsya as the first of the ten classical avatars. The *Bhagavata Purana* and the *Garuda Purana* regard Matysa as the tenth of 22 avatars and described it as the "support of the earth". The *Ayidhya-Mahatmya* of the *Skanda Purana* mentions 12 avatars of Vishnu, with Matsya as the 2nd avatar. Matsya is said to support Manu, plants and others like a boat at the end of Brahma's day (*pralaya*). ### Other scriptural references The *Vishnu Purana* narrative of Vishnu's boar avatar Varaha alludes to the Matysa and Kurma avatars, saying that Brahma (identified with Narayana, an epithet transferred to Vishnu) took these forms in previous *kalpa*s. The *Agni Purana*, the *Brahma Purana* and the *Vishnu Purana* suggests that Vishnu resides as Matsya in Kuru-varsha, one of the regions outside the mountains surrounding Mount Meru. Iconography ----------- Matsya is depicted in two forms: as a zoomorphic fish or in an anthropomorphic form. The *Agni Purana* prescribes Matsya be depicted zoomorphically. The *Vishnudharmottara Purana* recommends that Matsya be depicted as horned fish. In the anthropomorphic form, the upper half is that of the four-armed man and the lower half is a fish. The upper half resembles Vishnu and wears the traditional ornaments and the *kirita-mukuta* (tall conical crown) as worn by Vishnu. He holds in two of his hands the *Sudarshana chakra* (discus) and a *shankha* (conch), the usual weapons of Vishnu. The other two hands make the gestures of *varadamudra*, which grants boons to the devotee, and *abhayamudra*, which reassures the devotee of protection. In another configuration, he might have all four attributes of Vishnu, namely the *Sudarshana chakra*, a *shankha*, a gada (mace) and a lotus. In some representations, Matsya is shown with four hands like Vishnu, one holding the chakra, another the shankha, while the front two hands hold a sword and a book signifying the Vedas he recovered from the demon. Over his elbows is an *angavastra* draped, while a *dhoti-*like draping covers his hips. In rare representations, his lower half is human while the upper body (or just the face) is of a fish. The fish-face version is found in a relief at the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura. Matsya may be depicted alone or in a scene depicting his combat with a demon. A demon called Shankhasura emerging from a conch is sometimes depicted attacking Matsya with a sword as Matsya combats or kills him. Both of them may be depicted in the ocean, while the god Brahma and/or manuscripts or four men, symbolizing the Vedas, may be depicted in the background. In some scenes, Matsya is depicted as a fish pulling the boat with Manu and the seven sages in it. Evolution and symbolism ----------------------- The story of a great deluge is found in many civilizations across the earth. It is often compared with the Genesis narrative of the flood and Noah's Ark. The fish motif reminds readers of the Biblical 'Jonah and the Whale' narrative as well; this fish narrative, as well as the saving of the scriptures from a demon, are specifically Hindu traditions of this style of the flood narrative. Similar flood myths also exist in tales from ancient Sumer and Babylonia, Greece, the Maya of Americas and the Yoruba of Africa. The flood was a recurring natural calamity in Ancient Egypt and Tigris–Euphrates river system in ancient Babylonia. A cult of fish-gods arose in these regions with the fish-saviour motif. While Richard Pischel believed that fish worship originated in ancient Hindu beliefs, Edward Washburn Hopkins rejected the same, suggesting its origin in Egypt. The creator, fish-god Ea in the Sumerian and Babylonian version warns the king in a dream of the flood and directs him to build a flood. The idea may have reached the Indian subcontinent via the Indo-Aryan migrations or through trade routes to the Indus Valley civilisation. Another theory suggests the fish myth is home-grown in the Indus Valley or South India Dravidian peoples. The Puranic Manu is described to be in South India. As for Indus Valley theory, the fish is common in the seals; also horned beasts like the horned fish are common in depictions. Even if the idea of the flood myth and the fish-god may be imported from another culture, it is cognate with the Vedic and Puranic cosmogonic tale of Creation through the waters. In the *Mahabharata* and the Puranas, the flood myth is in fact a cosmogonic myth. The deluge symbolizes dissolution of universe (pralaya); while Matsya "allegorizes" the Creator-god (Brahma or Vishnu), who recreates the universe after the great destruction. This link to Creation may be associated with Matsya regarded as Vishnu's first avatar. Matsya is believed to symbolise the aquatic life as the first beings on earth. Another symbolic interpretation of the Matsya mythology is, states Bonnefoy, to consider Manu's boat to represent moksha (salvation), which helps one to cross over. The Himalayas are treated as a boundary between the earthly existence and land of salvation beyond. The protection of the fish and its horn represent the sacrifices that help guide Manu to salvation. Treated as a parable, the tale advises a good king should protect the weak from the mighty, reversing the "law of fishes" and uphold dharma, like Manu, who defines an ideal king. In the tales where the demon hides the Vedas, dharma is threatened and Vishnu as the divine Saviour rescues dharma, aided by his earthly counterpart, Manu - the king. Another theory suggests that the boat of Manu and the fish represents the constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor respectively, when the star Thuban was the Pole Star (4th to 2nd millennium BCE). Worship ------- Matsya is invoked as a form of Vishnu in various hymns in scriptures. In a prayer in the *Bhagavata Purana*, Matsya is invoked for protection from the aquatic animals and the waters. The *Agni Purana* suggests that Matsya be installed in the Northern direction in temples or in water bodies. The *Vishnudharmottara Purana* prescribes worship for Matsya for grain. Matsya is invoked as a form of Vishnu in hymns in the *Brahma Purana*. The *Vishnu Sahasranama* version of the *Garuda Purana* includes Matsya. The *Vishnu Sahasranama* in the *Skanda Purana* includes *Matsya*, *Maha-matsya* ("Great fish") and *Timingila* ("a great aquatic creature"). The third day in the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Chaitra is celebrated as Matsya Jayanti, the birthday of Matsya, when his worship is recommended. Vishnu devotees observe a fast from a day before the holy day; take a holy bath on Matsya Jayanti and worship Matsya or Vishnu in the evening, ending their fast. Vishnu temples organize a special Puja. The Meena community claim a mythological descent from Matsya, who is called Meenesh ("Lord of the Meenas"/ "Fish-Lord"). Matsya Jayanti is celebrated as Meenesh Jayanti by the Meenas. The *Varaha Purana* and the *Margashirsha-Mahatmya* of the *Padma Purana* recommends a *vrata* (vow) with fasting and worshipping Matysa (as a golden fish) in a three lunar-day festival culminating on the twelfth lunar day of the month of Margashirsha. There are very few temples dedicated to Matsya. Prominent ones include the Shankhodara temple in Bet Dwarka and Vedanarayana Temple in Nagalapuram. Matsya Narayana Temple, Bangalore also exists. The *Brahma Purana* describes that Matsya-madhava (Vishnu as Matsya) is worshipped with Shveta-madhava (King Shveta) in the Shveta-madhava temple of Vishnu near the sacred Shweta ganga pond in Puri. A temple to Machhenarayan (Matsya) is found in Machhegaun, Nepal, where an annual fair is held in honour of the deity. The Koneswaram Matsyakeswaram temple in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka is now destroyed. Further reading --------------- * Aiyangar, Narayan (1901). *Essays On Indo Aryan Mythology*. Madras: Addison and Company. * Bonnefoy, Yves (1993). *Asian Mythologies*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06456-7. * Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra (1935). *Matsya Purana a study*. * Roy, J. (2002). *Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya*. Atlantic. ISBN 978-81-269-0169-2. * Krishna, Nanditha (2009). *The Book of Vishnu*. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-306762-7. * Rao, T.A. Gopinatha (1914). *Elements of Hindu iconography*. Vol. 1: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House. * George M. Williams (2008). *Handbook of Hindu Mythology*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2. * Mani, Vettam (1975). *Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature*. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8426-0822-0. * Shah, Priyabala (1990). *Shri Vishnudharmottara*. The New Order Book Co. * H H Wilson (1911). *Puranas*. p. 84. * Shastri, J. L.; Tagare, G. V. (1999) [1950]. *The Bhāgavata Purāṇa*. Motilal Banarsidas. * Shastri, J. L.; Bhatt, G. P.; Gangadharan, N. (1998) [1954]. *Agni Purana*. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. * Wilson, H. H. (Horace Hayman) (1862). *The Vishnu Purána : a system of Hindu mythology and tradition*. Works by the late Horace Hayman Wilson. Vol. VI. Princeton Theological Seminary Library. London : Trübner. + Wilson, H. H. (Horace Hayman) (1862a). *The Vishnu Purána : a system of Hindu mythology and tradition*. Works by the late Horace Hayman Wilson. Vol. VII. Princeton Theological Seminary Library. London : Trübner. * *Brahma Purana*. UNESCO collection of Representative Works - Indian Series. Motilal Banarsidass. 1955. * Nagar, Shanti Lal (2005). *Brahmavaivarta Purana*. Parimal Publications. * *The Garuda Purana*. Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidas. 2002 [1957]. + *The Garuda Purana*. Vol. 3. Motilal Banarsidas. 2002 [1957]. * Shastri, J.L. (1990) [1951]. *Linga Purana*. Vol. 2. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. * *The Narada Purana*. Vol. 4. Motilal Banarsidas. 1997 [1952]. + *The Narada Purana*. Vol. 5. Motilal Banarsidas. 1952. * *The Varaha Purana*. UNESCO collection of Representative Works - Indian Series. Vol. 1. Motilal Banarsidas. 1960. * Shastri, J. L. (2000) [1950]. *The Śiva Purāṇa*. Vol. 2. Motilal Banarsidas. * *Padma Purana*. Vol. 8. Motilal Banarsidas. 1956. + *Padma Purana*. Vol. 9. Motilal Banarsidas. 1956. * *The Skanda Purana*. Vol. 5. Motilal Banarsidas. 1998 [1951]. + *The Skanda Purana*. Vol. 6. Motilal Banarsidas. 1998 [1951]. + *The Skanda Purana*. Vol. 15. Motilal Banarsidas. 2003 [1957]. + *The Skanda Purana*. Vol. 12. Motilal Banarsidas. 2003 [1955].

Matsya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsya

The **Spain national football team** (Spanish: *Selección Española de Fútbol*) has represented Spain in international men's football competitions since 1920. It is governed by the Royal Spanish Football Federation, the governing body for football in Spain. Spain is one of eight national teams to have been crowned world champions, having participated in a total of 16 of 22 FIFA World Cups and qualifying consistently since 1978. Spain also won three continental titles, having appeared at 11 of 16 UEFA European Championships. Spain currently competes in League A of the UEFA Nations League alongside the other top teams of Europe. Their best result was in the 2022–23 season where they reached the final, winning against Croatia. Spain is the only national team to win three consecutive major titles, including two back-to-back European Championships in 2008 and 2012, while becoming the first European team to win a FIFA World Cup held outside of Europe in 2010. Spain along with France are the only two European countries to have won the triplete (World Cup, Euro, Nations League). From 2008 to 2013, Spain won the FIFA Team of the Year, the second-most of any nation, behind only Brazil. From the start of 2007 to the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, Spain achieved 35 consecutive undefeated matches, a feat which they shared with Brazil, and a sport record at the time. Their achievements have led many experts and commentators to consider the 2008–2012 Spain squads one of the best ever sides in the history of world football. History ------- Spain has been a member of FIFA since FIFA's founding in 1904, even though the Spanish Football Federation was first established in 1909. The first Spain national football team was constituted in 1920, with the main objective of finding a team that would represent Spain at the 1920 Summer Olympics held in Belgium in that same year. Spain made their debut at the tournament on 28 August 1920 against Denmark, silver medalists at the last two Olympic tournaments. Spain managed to win that match by a scoreline of 1–0, eventually finishing with the silver medal. Spain qualified for their first FIFA World Cup in 1934, defeating Brazil in their first game and losing in a replay to the hosts and eventual champions Italy in the quarter-finals. The Spanish Civil War and World War II prevented Spain from playing any competitive matches between the 1934 World Cup and the 1950 edition's qualifiers. At the 1950 finals in Brazil, they topped their group to progress to the finals round, then finished in fourth place. Until 2010, this had been Spain's highest finish in a FIFA World Cup finals. Spain won its first major international title when hosting the 1964 European Nations' Cup held in Spain, defeating the Soviet Union 2–1 in the finals at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. The victory would stand as Spain's lone major title for 44 years. Spain was selected as host of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, reaching the second round and four years later they reached the quarter-finals before a penalty shootout defeat to Belgium. Also at UEFA Euro 1984 they lost the final against France. Spain reached the quarter-finals of the 1994 World Cup. The match became controversial when Italian defender Mauro Tassotti struck Luis Enrique with his elbow inside Spain's penalty area, causing Luis Enrique to bleed profusely from his nose and mouth, but the foul was not noticed nor sanctioned by referee Sándor Puhl. Had the official acknowledged the foul, Spain would have merited a penalty kick. In the 2002 World Cup, Spain won its three group play matches, then defeated the Republic of Ireland on penalties in the second round. They faced co-hosts South Korea in the quarter-finals, losing in a shootout after having two goals controversially called back for alleged infractions during regular and extra time. At UEFA Euro 2008, Spain won all their games in Group D. Italy were the opponents in the quarter-finals match, which Spain won 4–2 on penalties. They then met Russia again in the semi-finals, beating them 3–0. In the final, Spain defeated Germany 1–0, with Fernando Torres scoring the only goal of the game. This was Spain's first major title since the 1964 European Championship. Xavi was awarded the player of the tournament. The following year the side finished third at the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup breaking their 35-match unbeaten streak that began in November 2006 after a loss to the United States. In the 2010 World Cup, Spain advanced to the final for the first time ever by defeating Germany 1–0. In the decisive match against the Netherlands, Andrés Iniesta scored the match's only goal, coming in extra time. Spain became the third team to win a World Cup outside their own continent, and the first European team to do so. Goalkeeper Iker Casillas won the golden glove for only conceding two goals during the tournament, while David Villa won the bronze ball and silver boot, tied for top scorer of the tournament. Spain qualified top of Group I in qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 with a perfect 100% record. They became the first team to retain the European Championship, winning the final 4–0 against Italy, while Fernando Torres won the Golden Boot for top scorer of the tournament. Spain advanced to the final of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, losing to hosts Brazil, and the following year they were eliminated from the group stage of the 2014 World Cup. At Euro 2016 and the 2018 World Cup, the side reached the last 16 in both tournaments losing to Italy 2–0 and Russia 3–2 on penalties after a 1–1 draw. In the UEFA Euro 2020, held in 2021 after COVID-19 pandemic caused delays, Spain made a breakthrough, reaching the last four of a major tournament for the first time since 2012, before losing to eventual champions Italy 4–2 on penalties after a 1–1 draw. The team finished the tournament with two wins and four draws (including two penalty shootouts). The same year they managed to reach the 2021 UEFA Nations League Final, losing against France. In the 2022 World Cup, Spain finished second in their group, then in the round of 16, they lost to Morocco 3–0 on penalties after a 0–0 draw, to be the third consecutive elimination from a major tournament in penalty shootouts. Team image ---------- ### Nicknames Spain's team is commonly known by fans as "*La Furia Roja*", meaning *the Red Fury* in Spanish. recalling the "Sack of Antwerp" – an episode in the military history of Spain. However, there are another unofficial nicknames to refer to the national team of Spain. The other most common nickname, known by fans, is "*Los Toros*" (*Fighting Bulls*), since Spanish Fighting Bull is one of Spain's famous national treasures and often used to define Spanish culture, and also often depicted by Spanish supporters alike. The Spain football team is sometimes referred as the Bulls due to this cultural heritage. The Spanish team also received other nicknames, mostly "*Toreros*" or "*Matador*" (*Bullfighters* in Spanish), to describe its passionate and romantic style of football playing. ### Style of play Between 2008 and 2012, the team played a style of football dubbed 'tiki-taka', a systems approach to football founded upon the ideal of team unity and a comprehensive understanding in the geometry of space on a football field. Tiki-taka has been variously described as "a style of play based on making your way to the back of the net through short passing and movement", a "short passing style in which the ball is worked carefully through various channels", and a "nonsensical phrase that has come to mean short passing, patience and possession above all else". The style involves roaming movement and positional interchange amongst midfielders, moving the ball in intricate patterns, and sharp, one or two-touch passing. Tiki-taka is "both defensive and offensive in equal measure" – the team is always in possession, so doesn't need to switch between defending and attacking. Commentators have contrasted tiki-taka with "Route One physicality" and with the higher-tempo passing of Barcelona and Arsène Wenger's 2007–08 Arsenal side, which employed Cesc Fàbregas as the only channel between defence and attack. Tiki-taka is associated with flair, creativity, and touch, but can also be taken to a "slow, directionless extreme" that sacrifices effectiveness for aesthetics. Tiki-taka was successfully employed by Spain to win Euro 2008, the 2010 World Cup and Euro 2012. The 2008–12 teams are regarded as being among the greatest of international teams in football history. > They have the Barcelona "carousel" of Xavi and Andrés Iniesta augmented by Real Madrid's Xabi Alonso in midfield. > > — Phil McNulty of the BBC on the midfield players at the heart of Spain's tiki-taka passing style of play. Sid Lowe identifies Luis Aragonés' tempering of tiki-taka with pragmatism as a key factor in Spain's success in Euro 2008. Aragonés used tiki-taka to "protect a defense that appeared suspect [...], maintain possession and dominate games" without taking the style to "evangelical extremes". None of Spain's first six goals in the tournament came from tiki-taka: five came from direct breaks and one from a set play. For Lowe, Spain's success in the 2010 World Cup was evidence of the meeting of two traditions in Spanish football: the "powerful, aggressive, direct" style that earned the silver medal-winning 1920 Antwerp Olympic team the nickname *La Furia Roja* ("The Red Fury") and the tiki-taka style of the contemporary Spain's team, which focused on a collective, short-passing, technical and possession-based game. Analyzing Spain's semi-final victory over Germany at the 2010 World Cup, Raphael Honigstein described Spain's tiki-taka style as "the most difficult version of football possible: an uncompromising passing game, coupled with intense, high pressing". For Honigstein, tiki-taka is "a significant upgrade" of the Netherlands' Total Football because it relies on ball movement rather than players switching position. Tiki-taka allowed Spain to "control both the ball and the opponent". > We have the same idea as each other. Keep the ball, create movement around and off the ball, get in the spaces to cause danger. > > — Xabi Alonso (Spanish midfielder). ### Kits and crest Spain's kit is traditionally a red jersey with yellow trim, dark blue shorts and black socks, whilst their current away kit is all predominantly white. The colour of the socks altered throughout the 1990s from black to the same blue colour as the shorts, matching either the blue of the shorts or the red of the shirt until the mid-2010s when they returned to their traditional black. Spain's kits have been produced by manufacturers including Adidas (from 1981 until 1983), Le Coq Sportif (from 1983 until 1991) and Adidas once again (since 1991). Rather than displaying the logo of the Spanish football federation, Spain's jersey traditionally features the country's coat of arms over the left side. After winning the 2010 World Cup, the World Cup winners badge was added to the right side of the jersey and a golden star at the top of Spain's coat of arms. #### Kit suppliers | Kit supplier | Period | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | | *None* | 1920–1935 | | | Spain Deportes Cóndor | 1935–1966 | | | England Umbro | 1966 | | | Spain Deportes Cóndor | 1967–1981 | | | West Germany Adidas | 1981–1983 | | | France Le Coq Sportif | 1984–1990 | | | Germany Adidas | 1991–present | Current until 2030 | ### Home stadium Spain does not have a designated national stadium. The capital city of Madrid (Bernabéu and Metropolitano), Seville (Pizjuán, La Cartuja and Villamarín), Valencia (Mestalla and Orriols) and Barcelona (Camp Nou and Montjuïc), are the four Spanish cities that have hosted more than 15 national team matches, while also being home to the largest stadiums in the country. Other friendly matches, as well as qualifying fixtures against smaller opponents, are played in provincial stadia. The 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign included matches at the Reino de León in León, Los Cármenes in Granada, El Molinón in Gijón, and the Rico Pérez in Alicante. ### Media coverage Spain's UEFA European Qualifiers and UEFA Nations League matches, and all friendly games from 2018 until 2022, will be televised nationwide by La 1, flagship television channel of the public broadcaster TVE. Rivalries --------- Spain has three main rivalries with other top footballing nations. * Their rivalry with **Italy**, sometimes referred to as the *Mediterranean Derby*, contested since 1920. Although the two nations are not immediate geographical neighbours, their rivalry at international level is enhanced by the strong performances of the representative clubs in UEFA competitions, in which they are among the leading associations and have each enjoyed spells of dominance. Since the quarter-finals match between the two countries at Euro 2008, the rivalry has renewed, with its most notable match between the two sides being in the UEFA Euro 2012 Final, which Spain won 4–0. * Their rivalry with **Portugal**, also known as the *Iberian Derby*, is one of the oldest football rivalries at a national level. It began on 18 December 1921, when Portugal lost 3–1 to Spain at Madrid in their first ever international friendly game. Portugal lost their first matches, with their first draw (2–2) only coming in 1926. Portugal's first win came much later (4–1) in 1947. Both belong to the strongest football nations of the world, and have met a total of 39 times (of which 9 matches were competitive) which resulted in 16 victories for Spain, 17 draws and 6 victories for Portugal. * Their rivalry with **France**, also another major football force, is also one of the oldest at a national level. Spain and France have met a total of 36 times, began with a 4–0 triumph for Spain in a friendly in Bordeaux on 30 April 1922, though their first competitive meeting came in the UEFA Euro 1984 Final, which France won to take over its first major international honours. Spain has the advantage in head-to-head competition with 16 wins, 13 losses and 7 draws, though France has gotten more international glories than Spain. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Spain  v  Switzerland | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 September 2022 (2022-09-24) 2022–23 UEFA Nations League A | **Spain** | **1–2** | **Switzerland** | Zaragoza, Spain | | 20:45 | * Alba 51' | Report | * Akanji 21' * Embolo 59' | Stadium: La RomaredaAttendance: 31,804Referee: Clément Turpin (France) | Portugal  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September 2022 (2022-09-27) 2022–23 UEFA Nations League A | **Portugal** | **0–1** | **Spain** | Braga, Portugal | | 20:45 (19:45 UTC+1) | | Report | * Morata 88' | Stadium: Estadio Municipal de BragaAttendance: 28,196Referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) | Jordan  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 November 2022 (2022-11-17) Friendly | **Jordan** | **1–3** | **Spain** | Amman, Jordan | | 19:00 UTC+3 | * Samir 90+2' | Report | * Fati 13' * Gavi 56' * Williams 84' | Stadium: Amman International StadiumAttendance: 20,000Referee: Ahmed Al-Kaf (Oman) | Spain  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 November 2022 2022 FIFA World Cup Group E | **Spain** | **7–0** | **Costa Rica** | Doha, Qatar | | 19:00 UTC+3 | * Olmo 11' * Asensio 21' * Torres 31' (pen.), 54' * Gavi 74' * Soler 90' * Morata 90+2' | Report | | Stadium: Al Thumama StadiumAttendance: 40,013Referee: Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed (United Arab Emirates) | Spain  v  Germany | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 November 2022 2022 FIFA World Cup Group E | **Spain** | **1–1** | **Germany** | Al Khor, Qatar | | 22:00 UTC+3 | * Morata 62' | Report | * Füllkrug 83' | Stadium: Al-Bayt StadiumAttendance: 68,895Referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) | Japan  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 December 2022 2022 FIFA World Cup Group E | **Japan** | **2–1** | **Spain** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 22:00 UTC+3 | * Dōan 48' * Tanaka 51' | Report | * Morata 11' | Stadium: Khalifa International StadiumAttendance: 44,851Referee: Victor Gomes (South Africa) | Morocco  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 6 December 2022 2022 FIFA World Cup R16 | **Morocco** | **0–0** (a.e.t.) (**3–0** p) | **Spain** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 18:00 | | Report | | Stadium: Education City StadiumAttendance: 44,667Referee: Fernando Rapallini (Argentina) | | | **Penalties** | | | * Sabiri soccer ball with check mark * Ziyech soccer ball with check mark * Benoun soccer ball with red X * Hakimi soccer ball with check mark | | * soccer ball with red X Sarabia * soccer ball with red X Soler * soccer ball with red X Busquets | ### 2023 Spain  v  Norway | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 25 March 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Spain** | **3–0** | **Norway** | Málaga, Spain | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | * Olmo 13' * Joselu 84', 85' | Report | | Stadium: La RosaledaAttendance: 29,214Referee: Benoît Bastien (France) | Scotland  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Scotland** | **2–0** | **Spain** | Glasgow, Scotland | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | * McTominay 7', 51' | Report | | Stadium: Hampden ParkAttendance: 47,976Referee: Sandro Schärer (Switzerland) | Spain  v  Italy | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 June 2023 2022–23 UEFA Nations League SF | **Spain** | **2–1** | **Italy** | Enschede, Netherlands | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | * Pino 3' * Joselu 88' | Report | * Immobile 11' (pen.) | Stadium: De Grolsch VesteAttendance: 24,558Referee: Slavko Vinčić (Slovenia) | Croatia  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 18 June 2023 2022–23 UEFA Nations League F | **Croatia** | **0–0** (a.e.t.) (**4–5** p) | **Spain** | Rotterdam, Netherlands | | 20:45 CEST | | Report | | Stadium: De KuipAttendance: 41,110Referee: Felix Zwayer (Germany) | | | **Penalties** | | | * Vlašić soccer ball with check mark * Brozović soccer ball with check mark * Modrić soccer ball with check mark * Majer soccer ball with red X * Perišić soccer ball with check mark * Petković soccer ball with red X | | * soccer ball with check mark Joselu * soccer ball with check mark Rodri * soccer ball with check mark Merino * soccer ball with check mark Asensio * soccer ball with red X Laporte * soccer ball with check mark Carvajal | | *Note: Spain won on penalties 5–4* | Georgia  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 8 September 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Georgia** | **v** | **Spain** | Tbilisi, Georgia | | 18:00 CEST (UTC+02:00) | | Report | | Stadium: Boris Paichadze Dinamo Arena | Spain  v  Cyprus | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 11 September 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Spain** | **v** | **Cyprus** | Santander, Spain | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | | Report | | Stadium: El Sardinero | Spain  v  Scotland | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 12 October 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Spain** | **v** | **Scotland** | TBD, Spain | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | | Report | | Stadium: TBD | Norway  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 October 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Norway** | **v** | **Spain** | Oslo, Norway | | 20:45 CEST (UTC+02:00) | | Report | | Stadium: Ullevaal Stadion | Cyprus  v  Spain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 November 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Cyprus** | **v** | **Spain** | TBD, Cyprus | | 20:45 CET (UTC+01:00) | | Report | | Stadium: TBD | Spain  v  Georgia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 19 November 2023 2024 Euro Q | **Spain** | **v** | **Georgia** | Valladolid, Spain | | 20:45 CET (UTC+01:00) | | Report | | Stadium: José Zorrilla | ### 2024 Spain  v  Brazil | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | March 2024 Friendly | **Spain** | **v** | **Brazil** | Madrid, Spain | | | | | | Stadium: Santigo Bernabéu | Coaching staff -------------- | Role | Name | | --- | --- | | Head coach | Spain Luis de la Fuente | | Assistant coach | Spain Pablo Amo | | Goalkeeping coach | Spain Miguel Ángel España | | Fitness coach | Spain Carlos Cruz | | Data analysts | Spain Aitor Unzué --- Spain Juanjo González | | Psychologist | Spain Joaquín Valdés | | Video analyst | Spain Pablo Peña | | Doctor | Spain Juan José García Cota | | Physiotherapists | Spain Lorenzo del Pozo --- Spain Raúl Martínez --- Spain Miguel Gutiérrez --- Spain Juan Carlos Herranz --- Spain Fernando Galán del Río | | Kit men | Spain Joaquín Retamosa --- Spain José Damián García --- Spain Antonio Guerra | | Sporting director | Spain Albert Luque | | Team manager | Spain Nuria Martínez Navas | | Delegate | Spain Pedro Cortés | Players ------- ### Current squad The following 23 players were named in the squad for the 2023 UEFA Nations League Finals. On 5 June, David García and Nico Williams withdrew from the squad due to injury and were replaced by Nacho and Ansu Fati, respectively. On 12 June, Juan Bernat withdrew from the squad due to injury and was replaced by Fran García. *Caps and goals updated as of 18 June 2023, after the match against Croatia.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Kepa Arrizabalaga | (1994-10-03) 3 October 1994 (age 28) | 13 | 0 | England Chelsea | | 13 | 1GK | David Raya | (1995-09-15) 15 September 1995 (age 27) | 2 | 0 | England Brentford | | 23 | 1GK | Unai Simón | (1997-06-11) 11 June 1997 (age 26) | 33 | 0 | Spain Athletic Bilbao | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Dani Carvajal | (1992-01-11) 11 January 1992 (age 31) | 36 | 0 | Spain Real Madrid | | 3 | 2DF | Robin Le Normand | (1996-11-11) 11 November 1996 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | Spain Real Sociedad | | 4 | 2DF | Nacho | (1990-01-18) 18 January 1990 (age 33) | 24 | 1 | Spain Real Madrid | | 14 | 2DF | Aymeric Laporte | (1994-05-27) 27 May 1994 (age 29) | 22 | 1 | England Manchester City | | 17 | 2DF | Fran García | (1999-08-14) 14 August 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Spain Real Madrid | | 18 | 2DF | Jordi Alba *(captain)* | (1989-03-21) 21 March 1989 (age 34) | 93 | 9 | Free agent | | 22 | 2DF | Jesús Navas | (1985-11-21) 21 November 1985 (age 37) | 48 | 5 | Spain Sevilla | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Martín Zubimendi | (1999-02-02) 2 February 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | Spain Real Sociedad | | 6 | 3MF | Mikel Merino | (1996-06-22) 22 June 1996 (age 27) | 15 | 0 | Spain Real Sociedad | | 8 | 3MF | Fabián Ruiz | (1996-04-03) 3 April 1996 (age 27) | 18 | 1 | France Paris Saint-Germain | | 9 | 3MF | Gavi | (2004-08-05) 5 August 2004 (age 18) | 21 | 3 | Spain Barcelona | | 11 | 3MF | Sergio Canales | (1991-02-16) 16 February 1991 (age 32) | 11 | 1 | Spain Real Betis | | 16 | 3MF | Rodri | (1996-06-22) 22 June 1996 (age 27) | 43 | 1 | England Manchester City | | --- | | 7 | 4FW | Álvaro Morata *(vice-captain)* | (1992-10-23) 23 October 1992 (age 30) | 64 | 30 | Spain Atlético Madrid | | 10 | 4FW | Marco Asensio | (1996-01-21) 21 January 1996 (age 27) | 37 | 2 | Spain Real Madrid | | 12 | 4FW | Ansu Fati | (2002-10-31) 31 October 2002 (age 20) | 9 | 2 | Spain Barcelona | | 15 | 4FW | Yeremy Pino | (2002-10-20) 20 October 2002 (age 20) | 11 | 2 | Spain Villarreal | | 19 | 4FW | Rodrigo | (1991-03-06) 6 March 1991 (age 32) | 28 | 8 | England Leeds United | | 20 | 4FW | Joselu | (1990-03-27) 27 March 1990 (age 33) | 4 | 3 | Spain Espanyol | | 21 | 4FW | Dani Olmo | (1998-05-07) 7 May 1998 (age 25) | 31 | 6 | Germany RB Leipzig | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up for the team in the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Robert Sánchez | (1997-11-18) 18 November 1997 (age 25) | 2 | 0 | England Brighton & Hove Albion | v.  Scotland, 28 March 2023 | | GK | David Soria | (1993-04-04) 4 April 1993 (age 30) | 0 | 0 | Spain Getafe | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | DF | Juan Bernat | (1993-03-01) 1 March 1993 (age 30) | 11 | 1 | France Paris Saint-Germain | 2023 UEFA Nations League Finals INJ | | DF | David García | (1994-02-14) 14 February 1994 (age 29) | 1 | 0 | Spain Osasuna | 2023 UEFA Nations League Finals INJ | | DF | José Gayà | (1995-05-25) 25 May 1995 (age 28) | 19 | 3 | Spain Valencia | v.  Scotland, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Alejandro Balde | (2003-10-18) 18 October 2003 (age 19) | 5 | 0 | Spain Barcelona | v.  Norway, 25 March 2023 | | DF | César Azpilicueta | (1989-08-28) 28 August 1989 (age 33) | 44 | 1 | England Chelsea | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Pau Torres | (1997-01-16) 16 January 1997 (age 26) | 23 | 1 | Spain Villarreal | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Eric García | (2001-01-09) 9 January 2001 (age 22) | 19 | 0 | Spain Barcelona | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Hugo Guillamón | (2000-01-31) 31 January 2000 (age 23) | 3 | 1 | Spain Valencia | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Sergio Ramos | (1986-03-30) 30 March 1986 (age 37) | 180 | 23 | Free agent | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE/RET | | DF | Gerard Piqué | (1987-02-02) 2 February 1987 (age 36) | 102 | 5 | *Retired* | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE/RET | | DF | Diego Llorente | (1993-08-16) 16 August 1993 (age 29) | 10 | 0 | Italy Roma | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Marcos Alonso | (1990-12-28) 28 December 1990 (age 32) | 9 | 0 | Spain Barcelona | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Arnau Martínez | (2003-04-25) 25 April 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Spain Girona | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | MF | Pedri | (2002-11-25) 25 November 2002 (age 20) | 18 | 0 | Spain Barcelona | v.  Norway, 25 March 2023 INJ | | MF | Sergio Busquets | (1988-07-16) 16 July 1988 (age 34) | 143 | 2 | Free agent | 2022 FIFA World Cup RET | | MF | Koke | (1992-01-08) 8 January 1992 (age 31) | 70 | 0 | Spain Atlético Madrid | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Marcos Llorente | (1995-01-30) 30 January 1995 (age 28) | 18 | 0 | Spain Atlético Madrid | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Carlos Soler | (1997-01-02) 2 January 1997 (age 26) | 14 | 4 | France Paris Saint-Germain | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Thiago Alcântara | (1991-04-11) 11 April 1991 (age 32) | 46 | 2 | England Liverpool | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Sergi Roberto | (1992-02-07) 7 February 1992 (age 31) | 11 | 1 | Spain Barcelona | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Brais Méndez | (1997-01-07) 7 January 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 1 | Spain Real Sociedad | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Oihan Sancet | (2000-04-25) 25 April 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Spain Athletic Bilbao | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | FW | Nico Williams | (2002-07-12) 12 July 2002 (age 20) | 8 | 1 | Spain Athletic Bilbao | 2023 UEFA Nations League FinalsINJ | | FW | Gerard Moreno | (1992-04-07) 7 April 1992 (age 31) | 17 | 5 | Spain Villarreal | v.  Norway, 25 March 2023 INJ | | FW | Bryan Gil | (2001-02-11) 11 February 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 0 | Spain Sevilla | v.  Norway, 25 March 2023 INJ | | FW | Ferran Torres | (2000-02-29) 29 February 2000 (age 23) | 35 | 15 | Spain Barcelona | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | FW | Pablo Sarabia | (1992-05-11) 11 May 1992 (age 31) | 26 | 9 | England Wolverhampton Wanderers | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- INJ Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury PRE Preliminary squad / standby WD Player withdrew from the squad due to non-injury issue RET Player retired from the national team SUS Player is serving suspension | ### Previous squads World Cup * 1934 FIFA World Cup squad * 1950 FIFA World Cup squad * 1962 FIFA World Cup squad * 1966 FIFA World Cup squad * 1978 FIFA World Cup squad * 1982 FIFA World Cup squad * 1986 FIFA World Cup squad * 1990 FIFA World Cup squad * 1994 FIFA World Cup squad * 1998 FIFA World Cup squad * 2002 FIFA World Cup squad * 2006 FIFA World Cup squad * **2010 FIFA World Cup squad** * 2014 FIFA World Cup squad * 2018 FIFA World Cup squad * 2022 FIFA World Cup squad European Championship * **UEFA Euro 1964 squad** * UEFA Euro 1980 squad * UEFA Euro 1984 squad * UEFA Euro 1988 squad * UEFA Euro 1996 squad * UEFA Euro 2000 squad * UEFA Euro 2004 squad * **UEFA Euro 2008 squad** * **UEFA Euro 2012 squad** * UEFA Euro 2016 squad * UEFA Euro 2020 squad UEFA Nations League Finals * 2021 UEFA Nations League Finals squad * **2023 UEFA Nations League Finals squad** Confederations Cup * 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup squad * 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup squad Olympic Games * 1920 Olympic Games squad * 1924 Olympic Games squad * 1928 Olympic Games squad Individual records ------------------ ### Player records Sergio Ramos holds the record for most appearances for the Spain's team with 180. In second place is Iker Casillas with 167, followed by Sergio Busquets with 143.[*failed verification*] David Villa holds the title of Spain's highest goalscorer, scoring 59 goals from 2005 to 2017, during which time he played for Spain on 98 occasions. Raúl González is the second highest goalscorer, scoring 44 goals in 102 appearances between 1996 and 2006. Between November 2006 and June 2009, Spain went undefeated for a record-equaling 35 consecutive matches before their loss to the United States in the Confederations Cup, a record shared with Brazil and Italy, and included a record 15-game winning streak. In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Spain became the inaugural European national team to lift the World Cup trophy outside Europe; along with Brazil, Germany and Argentina, Spain is one of the four national team to have won the FIFA World Cup outside its home continent. #### Most capped players Below is a list of the ten players with the most caps for Spain, as of 6 December 2022[update]. Players in **bold** are still active with Spain. | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Period | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Sergio Ramos | 180 | 23 | 2005–2021 | | 2 | Iker Casillas | 167 | 0 | 2000–2016 | | 3 | Sergio Busquets | 143 | 2 | 2009–2022 | | 4 | Xavi | 133 | 13 | 2000–2014 | | 5 | Andrés Iniesta | 131 | 13 | 2006–2018 | | 6 | Andoni Zubizarreta | 126 | 0 | 1985–1998 | | 7 | David Silva | 125 | 35 | 2006–2018 | | 8 | Xabi Alonso | 114 | 16 | 2003–2014 | | 9 | Cesc Fàbregas | 110 | 15 | 2006–2016 | | Fernando Torres | 110 | 38 | 2003–2014 | #### Youngest capped player * Gavi (17 years and 62 days) vs.  Italy, 6 October 2021 #### Oldest capped player * Jesús Navas (37 years and 209 days) vs.  Croatia, 18 June 2023 #### Top goalscorers Below is a list of the top ten goalscorers for Spain, as of 15 June 2023[update]. | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Average | Period | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | David Villa (list) | 59 | 98 | 0.6 | 2005–2017 | | 2 | Raúl (list) | 44 | 102 | 0.43 | 1996–2006 | | 3 | Fernando Torres (list) | 38 | 110 | 0.35 | 2003–2014 | | 4 | David Silva | 35 | 125 | 0.28 | 2006–2018 | | 5 | **Álvaro Morata** | 30 | 64 | 0.47 | 2014–present | | 6 | Fernando Hierro | 29 | 89 | 0.33 | 1989–2002 | | 7 | Fernando Morientes | 27 | 47 | 0.57 | 1998–2007 | | 8 | Emilio Butragueño | 26 | 69 | 0.38 | 1984–1992 | | 9 | Alfredo Di Stéfano (list) | 23 | 31 | 0.74 | 1957–1961 | | Sergio Ramos | 23 | 180 | 0.13 | 2005–2021 | | #### Youngest goalscorer * Gavi (17 years and 305 days) vs.  Czech Republic, 5 June 2022 #### Oldest goalscorer * Aritz Aduriz (35 years and 274 days) vs.  Macedonia, 12 November 2016 #### Most goals scored in a single match * Chacho (6 goals) vs.  Bulgaria, 13 May 1933 #### First goal scored * Juan Arzuaga vs.  France, 25 May 1913 (unofficial game) * Patricio Arabolaza vs.  Denmark, 28 August 1920 (official game) #### Captains List of Spain's captains in majors tournaments. * Mariano Arrate (3 caps as captain) was captain during Summer Olympics 1920. * Pedro Vallana (5) was captain during Summer Olympics 1924 and Summer Olympics 1928. * Ricardo Zamora (24) was captain during World Cup 1934. * Ignacio Eizaguirre (4) was captain during World Cup 1950. * Joan Segarra (15) was captain duringWorld Cup 1962. * Ferran Olivella (10) was captain during European Nations Cup 1964. * Francisco Gento (15) was captain during World Cup 1966. * Pirri (18) was captain during World Cup 1978. * Juan Manuel Asensi (14) was captain during Euro 1980. * Luis Arconada (48) was captain during World Cup 1982 and Euro 1984. * José Antonio Camacho (24) was captain during World Cup 1986 and Euro 1988. * Emilio Butragueño (31) was captain during World Cup 1990. * Andoni Zubizarreta (50) was captain during World Cup 1994, Euro 1996 and World Cup 1998. * Fernando Hierro (32) was captain during Euro 2000 and World Cup 2002. * Raúl González Blanco (42) was captain during Euro 2004 and World Cup 2006. * Iker Casillas (104) was captain during Euro 2008, World Cup 2010, Euro 2012, World Cup 2014 and Euro 2016. * Sergio Ramos (54) was captain during World Cup 2018. * Sergio Busquets (20) was captain during Euro 2020 and World Cup 2022. ### Manager records * Most manager appearances Vicente del Bosque: 114 Team records ------------ * Most consecutive wins (including friendlies): 15 (2008–2009) * Most consecutive wins achieved by an international coach from debut: 13 – Vicente del Bosque * Most penalty shoot-outs in one World Cup by one team: 2 at the 2002 FIFA World Cup (shared with  Argentina at the 1990 FIFA World Cup,  Netherlands and  Costa Rica at the 2014 FIFA World Cup, and  Russia and  Croatia at the 2018 FIFA World Cup) * Highest maximum number of points in World Cup qualification: 30 out of 30 (2010) (shared with  Germany for 2018) Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup Spain’s World Cup records does not compare to their European records. Although often entering tournaments as one of the favorites, Spain had somewhat lackluster tournaments throughout the years and often failed to make any significant impact. Spain’s first World Cup was in 1934, in that tournament Spain started off their campaign by defeating Brazil 3–1 to advance to the quarterfinals, where they lost to host Italy in a very controversial match that saw the Italians being favored by the referee. Before Spain success in 2010, their best result came in 1950, where they were able to reach the last four. Spain were paired with host Brazil, Uruguay and Sweden. Spain managed a draw against Uruguay but defeats from Brazil and Sweden meant that Spain would end up in fourth place at that years World Cup. 60 years after finishing up in fourth place, and after so many failed attempts and heartbreaks, in the 2010 FIFA World Cup held in South Africa, Spain who were the current European champions and the heavy favorites to win it, finally lived up to the expectations and became World Champions for the very first time. They defeated the Netherlands 1–0 in the final. Thus becoming the eight country to win the World Cup and the very first European team to lift the trophy outside of their continent.   **Champions**    **Runners-up**    **Third place**     Tournament played fully or partially on home soil   | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Italy 1934 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 1 | | France 1938 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | | | Brazil 1950 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **6** | **3** | **1** | **2** | **10** | **12** | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | | Switzerland 1954 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | | Sweden 1958 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 8 | | Chile 1962 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 4 | | England 1966 | 10th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 2 | | Mexico 1970 | *Did not qualify* | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 10 | 6 | | West Germany 1974 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 6 | | Argentina 1978 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 1 | | Spain 1982 | Second group stage | 12th | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 5 | *Qualified as host* | | Mexico 1986 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 11 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 8 | | Italy 1990 | Round of 16 | 10th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 20 | 3 | | United States 1994 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 6 | 12 | 8 | 3 | 1 | 27 | 4 | | France 1998 | Group stage | 17th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 4 | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 26 | 6 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 5 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 21 | 4 | | Germany 2006 | Round of 16 | 9th | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 4 | 12 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 25 | 5 | | South Africa 2010 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **6** | **0** | **1** | **8** | **2** | 10 | 10 | 0 | 0 | 28 | 5 | | Brazil 2014 | Group stage | 23rd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 7 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 3 | | Russia 2018 | Round of 16 | 10th | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 6 | 10 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 36 | 3 | | Qatar 2022 | 13th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 9 | 3 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 5 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | 1 Title | 16/22 | 67 | 31 | 17 | 19 | 108 | 75 | 125 | 87 | 26 | 12 | 291 | 81 | | **Spain's World Cup record** | | --- | | First match |  Spain 3–1 Brazil (27 May 1934; Genoa, Italy) | | Biggest win |  Spain 7–0 Costa Rica (23 November 2022; Doha, Qatar) | | Biggest defeat |  Brazil 6–1 Spain (13 July 1950; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) | | Best result | **Champions** in 2010 | | Worst result | Group Stage in 1962, 1966, 1978, 1998, 2014 | ### UEFA European Championship Spain is along with Germany the two most successful nations at the UEFA European Championship having won three titles each. La Roja is so far the only nation to have won back-to-back championships. They have hosted the European competition on one occasion in 1964 (one city was used to host games at Euro 2020) and have appeared in a total of 11 tournaments. The team won their very first international trophy on home soil in 1964, defeating the defending European champions Soviet Union 2–1. Spain would reach the finals of a European Championship twenty years later in 1984 where they lost the final to a France that was led by Ballon d'Or winner Michel Platini. Spain would not make another final appearance until 2008, where Spain’s golden generation began to form and with a beautiful style of football they conquered the European Championship defeating Germany 1–0 in the finals. Four years later Spain’s golden generation would make history by winning the championship yet again, this time defeating old time rivals Italy 4–0 in the final in Kiev, thus becoming so far the only national team to win back-to-back championships. | UEFA European Championship record | | Qualifying record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | France 1960 | *Withdrew* | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 2 | | Spain 1964 | **Champions** | **1st** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **0** | **4** | **2** | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 5 | | Italy 1968 | *Did not qualify* | 8 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 7 | 5 | | Belgium 1972 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 14 | 3 | | Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1976 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 11 | 9 | | Italy 1980 | Group stage | 7th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 5 | | France 1984 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **1** | **3** | **1** | **4** | **5** | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 24 | 8 | | West Germany 1988 | Group stage | 6th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 14 | 6 | | Sweden 1992 | *Did not qualify* | 7 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 17 | 12 | | England 1996 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 3 | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 25 | 4 | | Belgium Netherlands 2000 | 5th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 42 | 5 | | Portugal 2004 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 10 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 21 | 5 | | Austria Switzerland 2008 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **12** | **3** | 12 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 23 | 8 | | Poland Ukraine 2012 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **12** | **1** | 8 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 26 | 6 | | France 2016 | Round of 16 | 10th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 10 | 9 | 0 | 1 | 23 | 3 | | Europe 2020 | **Semi-finals** | **3rd** | **6** | **2** | **4** | **0** | **13** | **6** | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 31 | 5 | | Germany 2024 | *To be determined* | *2* | *1* | *0* | *1* | *3* | *2* | | Total | 3 Titles | 11/17 | 46 | 21 | 15 | 10 | 68 | 42 | 127 | 90 | 18 | 19 | 317 | 93 | | **Spain's European Championship record** | | --- | | First match |  Spain 2–1 Hungary (Madrid, Spain; 17 June 1964) | | Biggest win |  Spain 5–0 Slovakia (Seville, Spain; 23 June 2021) | | Biggest defeat |  France 2–0 Spain (Paris, France; 27 June 1984) West Germany 2–0 Spain (Munich, West Germany; 17 June 1988) Italy 2–0 Spain  (Saint-Denis, France; 27 June 2016) | | Best result | **Champions** in 1964, 2008, 2012 | | Worst result | Group stage in 1980, 1988, 2004 | ### UEFA Nations League Spain’s record at the Nations League is one of the better ones. La Roja have been a part of Division A since the creation of the tournament and they have reached the final four on two occasions. Spain’s best campaigns has been the 2020–21 season where they qualified to the finals by defeating Germany 6–0 in the last game of the group stages, and Italy 2–1 in the semi-finals. In the final they were defeated by France 2–1. The following campaign Spain qualified to the final four again, this time defeating Portugal 1-0 in their final group stage match. In the semifinals they met Italy yet again in a repeat of their previous semifinal two years ago. Spain defeated Italy yet again by the same score line, thus reaching a second consecutive final. Spain’s opponent in the final was Croatia whose golden generation had reached a World Cup final in 2018, and a third place finished in 2022. In a very hard fought game where both teams had chances of winning, the game ended 0-0 and went to penalties. Against all odds, Spain defeated Croatia (who had a 4-0 unbeaten run on penalties) and became Nations League champions for the very first time. Thus ending an 11 year drought of not winning any international trophies. | UEFA Nations League record | | --- | | League phase | | Finals | | Season | LG | GP | Pos | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | P/R | RK | Year | Pos | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | 2018–19 | A | 4 | 2nd | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 7 | Same position | 7th | Portugal 2019 | *Did not qualify* | | 2020–21 | A | 4 | 1st | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 13 | 3 | Same position | 2nd | Italy 2021 | **Runners-up** | **2** | **1** | **0** | **1** | **3** | **3** | **Squad** | | 2022–23 | A | 2 | 1st | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 5 | Same position | 1st | Netherlands 2023 | **Champions** | **2** | **1** | **1** | **0** | **2** | **1** | **Squad** | | 2024–25 | A | *To be determined* | 2025 | *To be determined* | | Total | 16 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 33 | 15 | 1st | Total | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 1 title | *\*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.* | **Spain's Nations League record** | | --- | | First match |  England 1–2 Spain (London, England; 8 September 2018) | | Biggest win |  Spain 6–0 Croatia (Elche, Spain; 11 September 2018) Spain 6–0 Germany (Seville, Spain; 17 November 2020) | | Biggest defeat |  Spain 2–3 England (Seville, Spain; 15 October 2018) Croatia 3–2 Spain (Zagreb, Croatia; 15 November 2018) Ukraine 1–0 Spain (Kyiv, Ukraine; 13 October 2020) Spain 1–2 Switzerland (Zaragoza, Spain; 24 September 2022) | | Best result | **Champions** in 2022–23 | | Worst result | 7th place in 2018–19 | ### FIFA Confederations Cup Spain made two appearances at the FIFA Confederations. Their first appearance came in 2009 where they achieved a third place medal. Spain had entered the competition as favorites to win it but shockingly lost 2–0 to the United States in the semi-finals. A year later Spain would conquer the World Cup trophy in South Africa. At the next edition Spain qualified again as World Champions. La Roja made their best result on this edition, reaching the final in Brazil losing to the host. The following year Spain failed to progress pass the group stage of the World Cup. | FIFA Confederations Cup record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Saudi Arabia 1992 | *UEFA did not participate* | | Saudi Arabia 1995 | *Did not qualify* | | Saudi Arabia 1997 | | Mexico 1999 | | South Korea Japan 2001 | | France 2003 | | Germany 2005 | | South Africa 2009 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **4** | **0** | **1** | **11** | **4** | | Brazil 2013 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **15** | **4** | | Russia 2017 | *Did not qualify* | | Total | Runners-up | 2/10 | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 26 | 8 | | **Spain's Confederations Cup record** | | --- | | First match |  Spain 5–0 New Zealand (Rustenburg, South Africa; 14 June 2009) | | Biggest win |  Spain 10–0 Tahiti (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 20 June 2013) | | Biggest defeat |  Brazil 3–0 Spain (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 30 June 2013) | | Best result | **Runners-up** in 2013 | | Worst result | Third place in 2009 | ### CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions This Intercontinental tournament remains the only competition which Spain has not taken part of although two matches against the Copa America champion Uruguay were played in 2013. The first meeting between the reigning European champions and Copa America champions happened in a friendly that was held in Qatar, Spain managed to defeat Uruguay 3–1. Their second meeting came months later in a competitive match at the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup and once again Spain managed to defeat their South American counterpart 2–1. | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | France 1985 | *Did not qualify* | | Argentina 1993 | | England 2022 | | Total | — | 0/3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | Head-to-head record ------------------- All-time results ---------------- The following table shows Spain's all-time international record, correct as of 14 June 2021. | | Played | Won | Drawn | Lost | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Total | 716 | 418 | 166 | 132 | 1434 | 643 | FIFA Rankings ------------- *Last update was on 28 November 2019.* Source: | Spain's FIFA world rankings | | --- | | | Rank | Year | GamesPlayed | Won | Lost | Drawn | Best | Worst | | Rank | Move | Rank | Move | | | 8 | 2019 | 10 | 8 | 0 | 2 | 6 | Increase 2 | 9 | Decrease 1 | | | 9 | 2018 | 14 | 7 | 2 | 5 | 6 | Increase 3 | 10 | Decrease 2 | | | 6 | 2017 | 10 | 8 | 0 | 2 | 6 | Increase 3 | 11 | Decrease 1 | | | 10 | 2016 | 15 | 9 | 2 | 4 | 3 | Increase 1 | 11 | Decrease 3 | | | 3 | 2015 | 9 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 3 | Increase 5 | 12 | Decrease 2 | |   | 9 | 2014 | 12 | 7 | 0 | 5 | 1 | Increase 1 | 10 | Decrease 7 | | | 1 | 2013 | 16 | 12 | 2 | 2 | 1 | Increase 0 | 1 | Decrease 0 | | | 1 | 2012 | 16 | 13 | 3 | 0 | 1 | Increase 0 | 1 | Decrease 0 | | | 1 | 2011 | 12 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 1 | Increase 1 | 2 | Decrease 1 | | | 1 | 2010 | 17 | 13 | 1 | 3 | 1 | Increase 1 | 2 | Decrease 1 | | | 1 | 2009 | 16 | 15 | 0 | 1 | 1 | Increase 1 | 2 | Decrease 1 | | | 1 | 2008 | 16 | 15 | 1 | 0 | 1 | Increase 3 | 4 | Decrease 0 | | | 4 | 2007 | 12 | 10 | 2 | 0 | 4 | Increase 2 | 12 | Decrease 2 | | | 12 | 2006 | 14 | 8 | 2 | 4 | 5 | Increase 1 | 12 | Decrease 3 | | | 5 | 2005 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 5 | Increase 2 | 9 | Decrease 2 | | | 5 | 2004 | 13 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 3 | Increase 0 | 5 | Decrease 1 | | | 3 | 2003 | 11 | 18 | 2 | 1 | 2 | Increase 1 | 3 | Decrease 1 | | | 3 | 2002 | 13 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 3 | Increase 4 | 8 | Decrease 1 | | | 7 | 2001 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 6 | Increase 2 | 8 | Decrease 2 | | | 7 | 2000 | 14 | 7 | 3 | 4 | 4 | Increase 1 | 7 | Decrease 0 | | | 4 | 1999 | 10 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 4 | Increase 6 | 9 | Decrease 2 | |     | 15 | 1998 | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 9 | Increase 16 | 25 | Decrease 12 | | | 11 | 1997 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | Increase 4 | 11 | Decrease 8 | | | 8 | 1996 | 11 | 6 | 5 | 0 | 4 | Increase 2 | 10 | Decrease 3 | | | 4 | 1995 | 9 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 2 | Increase 4 | 6 | Decrease 3 | | | 2 | 1994 | 15 | 9 | 4 | 2 | 2 | Increase 4 | 9 | Decrease 2 | | | 5 | 1993 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 5 | Increase 7 | 14 | Decrease 1 | |   **Best Ranking**    **Worst Ranking**    **Best Mover**    **Worst Mover**   | Honours ------- ### Title * **FIFA World Cup** + 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions: 2010** + Fourth place: 1950 * **UEFA European Championship** + 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions: 1964, 2008, 2012** + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 1984 + 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Third place: 2020 * **UEFA Nations League** + 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions: 2023** + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2021 * **FIFA Confederations Cup** + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2013 + 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Third place: 2009 * **Olympic Games** + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Silver medal: 1920 ### Awards * **FIFA Fair Play Trophy** + **Winners:** 2006, 2010, 2013, 2018 * **FIFA Team of the Year** + **Winners:** 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 * **Prince of Asturias Award for Sports** + **Winners:** 2010 * **Laureus World Team of the Year** + **Winners:** 2011 ### Chronology of Finals | Opponent | Tournament | Year | Result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Soviet Union Soviet Union | 1964 European Nations' Cup | 1964 | 2–1 | | | France France | UEFA Euro 1984 | 1984 | 0–2 | | | Germany Germany | UEFA Euro 2008 | 2008 | 1–0 | | | Netherlands Netherlands | 2010 FIFA World Cup | 2010 | 1–0 | | | Italy Italy | UEFA Euro 2012 | 2012 | 4–0 | | | Brazil Brazil | 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup | 2013 | 0–3 | | | France France | 2021 Nations League Final | 2021 | 1–2 | | | Croatia Croatia | 2023 Nations League Final | 2023 | 0-0 (4-5 p) | | | Overview | | --- | | Event | 1st place | 2nd place | 3rd place | 4th place | | FIFA World Cup | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | | UEFA European Championship | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | UEFA Nations League | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | | FIFA Confederations Cup | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | Olympic Games | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | | | Total | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | See also -------- * Spain national under-23 football team (Olympic football team) * Spain national under-21 football team * Spain national under-20 football team * Spain national under-19 football team * Spain national under-18 football team * Spain national under-17 football team * Spain national under-16 football team * Spain national under-15 football team * Spain women's national football team * Spain women's national under-23 football team * Spain women's national under-20 football team * Spain women's national under-19 football team * Spain women's national under-17 football team * La Liga * Football in Spain * Sport in Spain 1. ↑ Spanish players named in the *team of the tournament* were: goalkeeper and captain Iker Casillas; defenders Carles Puyol and Carlos Marchena; midfielders Xavi, Cesc Fàbregas, Andrés Iniesta and Marcos Senna; and strikers David Villa and Fernando Torres.

Spain national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain_national_football_team

**Social liberalism** (German: *Sozialliberalismus*, Spanish: *socioliberalismo*, Dutch: *Sociaalliberalisme*), also known as **new liberalism** in the United Kingdom, modern liberalism in the United States (where it is also simply known as *liberalism*), **left-liberalism** (German: *Linksliberalismus*) in Germany, and **progressive liberalism** (Spanish: *liberalismo progresista*) in Spanish-speaking countries, is a political philosophy and variety of liberalism that endorses social justice and the expansion of civil and political rights. It is economically based on the social market economy and views the common good as harmonious with the individual's freedom. Social liberals overlap with social democrats in accepting economic intervention more than other liberals; its importance is considered auxiliary compared to social democrats. Ideologies that emphasize its economic policy include **welfare liberalism**, New Deal liberalism in the United States, and **Keynesian liberalism**. Cultural liberalism is an ideology that highlights its cultural aspects. The world has widely adopted social liberal policies. Social liberal ideas and parties tend to be considered centre to centre-left, although there are deviations from these positions to both the political left or right. Addressing economic and social issues, such as poverty, welfare, infrastructure, health care and education using government intervention, while emphasising individual rights and autonomy are expectations under a social liberal government. In modern political discourse, social liberalism is associated with progressivism, a left-liberalism contrasted to the right-leaning neoliberalism, and combines support for a mixed economy with cultural liberalism. *Social liberalism* may also refer to American progressive stances on sociocultural issues, such as reproductive rights and same-sex marriage, in contrast with American social conservatism. Cultural liberalism is often referred to as *social liberalism* because it expresses the social dimension of liberalism; however, it is not the same as the broader political ideology known as social liberalism. In American politics, a *social liberal* may hold either conservative (economic liberal) or liberal (economic progressive) views on fiscal policy. Origins ------- ### United Kingdom By the end of the 19th century, downturns in economic growth challenged the principles of classical liberalism, a growing awareness of poverty and unemployment present within modern industrial cities, and the agitation of organised labour. A significant political reaction against the changes introduced by industrialisation and *laissez-faire* capitalism came from one-nation conservatives concerned about social balance and the introduction of the famous Education Act 1870. However, socialism later became a more important force for change and reform. Some Victorian writers—including Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle and Matthew Arnold—became early influential critics of social injustice. John Stuart Mill contributed enormously to liberal thought by combining elements of classical liberalism with what eventually became known as the new liberalism. Mill developed this philosophy by liberalising the concept of consequentialism to promote a rights based system. He also developed his liberal dogma by combining the idea of using a utilitarian foundation to base upon the idea of individual rights. The new liberals tried to adapt the old language of liberalism to confront these difficult circumstances, which they believed could only be resolved through a broader and more interventionist conception of the state. Ensuring that individuals did not physically interfere with each other or merely by impartially having formulated and applied laws could not establish an equal right to liberty. More positive and proactive measures were required to ensure that every individual would have an equal opportunity for success. #### New Liberals In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a group of British thinkers known as the New Liberals made a case against *laissez-faire* classical liberalism. It argued in favour of state intervention in social, economic and cultural life. What they proposed is now called social liberalism. The New Liberals, including intellectuals Thomas Hill Green, Leonard Hobhouse and John A. Hobson, saw individual liberty achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances. In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented and interventionist state could alleviate these conditions. The Liberal governments of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and H. H. Asquith, mainly thanks to Chancellor of the Exchequer and later Prime Minister David Lloyd George, established the foundations of the welfare state in the United Kingdom before World War I. The comprehensive welfare state built in the United Kingdom after World War II, although primarily accomplished by the Labour Party's Attlee ministry, was significantly designed by two Liberals, namely John Maynard Keynes (who laid the foundations in economics with the Keynesian Revolution) and William Beveridge (whose Beveridge Report was used to design the welfare system). Historian Peter Weiler has argued: > Although still partially informed by older Liberal concerns for character, self-reliance, and the capitalist market, this legislation nevertheless marked a significant shift in Liberal approaches to the state and social reform, approaches that later governments would slowly expand and that would grow into the welfare state after the Second World War. What was new in these reforms was the underlying assumption that the state could be a positive force, that the measure of individual freedom ... was not how much the state left people alone, but whether he gave them the capacity to fill themselves as individuals. > > ### Germany In 1860s Germany, left-liberal politicians like Max Hirsch, Franz Duncker, and Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch established trade unions—modelled on their British counterparts—to help workers improve working and economic conditions through reconciliation of interests and cooperation with their employers rather than class struggle. Schulze-Delitzsch is also the founding father of the German cooperative movement and the organiser of the world's first credit unions. Some liberal economists, such as Lujo Brentano or Gerhart von Schulze-Gävernitz, established the *Verein für Socialpolitik* (German Economic Association) in 1873 to promote social reform based on the historical school of economics and therefore rejecting classical economics, proposing a third way between Manchester Liberalism and socialist revolution in the 1871-founded German Empire. However, the German left-liberal movement fragmented into wings and new parties over the 19th century. The main objectives of the left-liberal parties—the German Progress Party and its successors—were free speech, freedom of assembly, representative government, secret and equal but obligation-tied suffrage, and protection of private property. At the same time, they were strongly opposed to creating a welfare state, which they called state socialism. The main differences between the left-liberal parties were: * The national ambitions. * The different substate people's goals. * Free trade against *Schutzzollpolitik.* * *The* building of the national economy. The term 'social liberalism' (German: *Sozialliberalismus*) was used first in 1891 by Austria-Hungarian economist and journalist Theodor Hertzka. Subsequently, in 1893, the historian and social reformer Ignaz Jastrow also used this term and joined the German Economic Association. He published the socialist democratic manifesto "Social-liberal: Tasks for Liberalism in Prussia" to create an "action group" for the general people's welfare in the Social Democratic Party of Germany, which they rejected. The National-Social Association, founded by the Protestant pastor Friedrich Naumann also maintained contacts with the left liberals. He tried to draw workers away from Marxism by proposing a mix of nationalism and Protestant-Christian-value-inflected social liberalism to overcome class antagonisms by non-revolutionary means. Naumann called this a "proletarian-bourgeois integral liberalism". Although the party could not win any seats and soon dissolved, he remained influential in theoretical German left-liberalism. In the Weimar Republic, the German Democratic Party was founded and came into an inheritance of the left-liberal past and had a leftist social wing and a rightist economic wing but heavily favoured the democratic constitution over a monarchist one. Its ideas of a socially balanced economy with solidarity, duty, and rights among all workers struggled due to the economic sanctions of the Treaty of Versailles, but it influenced local cooperative enterprises. After 1945, the Free Democrats included most of the social liberals while others joined the Christian Democratic Union of Germany. Until the 1960s, post-war ordoliberalism was the model for Germany. It had a theoretical social liberal influence based on duty and rights. As the Free Democrats discarded social liberal ideas in a more conservative and economically liberal approach in 1982, some members left the party and formed the social liberal Liberal Democrats. ### France In France, solidaristic thinkers, including Alfred Fouillée and Émile Durkheim, developed the social-liberal theory in the Third Republic. Sociology inspired them, and they influenced radical politicians like Léon Bourgeois. They explained that a more extensive division of labour caused more opportunity and individualism and inspired more complex interdependence. They argued that the individual had a debt to society, promoting progressive taxation to support public works and welfare schemes. However, they wanted the state to coordinate rather than manage, encouraging cooperative insurance schemes among individuals. Their main objective was to remove barriers to social mobility rather than create a welfare state. ### United States Social liberalism was a term in the United States to differentiate it from classical liberalism or *laissez-faire*. It dominated political and economic thought for several years until the word branched off from it around the Great Depression and the New Deal. In the 1870s and the 1880s, the American economists Richard Ely, John Bates Clark, and Henry Carter Adams—influenced both by socialism and the Evangelical Protestant movement—castigated the conditions caused by industrial factories and expressed sympathy toward labour unions. However, none developed a systematic political philosophy, and they later abandoned their flirtations with socialist thinking. In 1883, Lester Frank Ward published the two-volume *Dynamic Sociology*. He formalized the basic tenets of social liberalism while at the same time attacking the *laissez-faire* policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner. The historian Henry Steele Commager ranked Ward alongside William James, John Dewey, and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and called him the father of the modern welfare state. A writer from 1884 until the 1930s, John Dewey—an educator influenced by Hobhouse, Green, and Ward—advocated socialist methods to achieve liberal goals. John Dewey's expanding popularity as an economist also coincided with the greater Georgist movement that rose in the 1910s, pinnacling with the presidency of Woodrow Wilson. America later incorporated some social liberal ideas into the New Deal, which developed as a response to the Great Depression when Franklin D. Roosevelt came into office. Implementation -------------- The welfare state grew gradually and unevenly from the late 19th century but fully developed following World War II, along with the mixed market economy and general welfare capitalism. Also called embedded liberalism, social liberal policies gained broad support across the political spectrum because they reduced society's disruptive and polarizing tendencies without challenging the capitalist economic system. Businesses accepted social liberalism in the face of widespread dissatisfaction with the boom and bust cycle of the earlier financial system as it seemed to them to be a lesser evil than more left-wing modes of government. Characteristics of social liberalism were cooperation between big business, government, and labour unions. Governments could assume a vital role because the wartime economy had strengthened their power, but the extent to which this occurred varied considerably among Western democracies. Social liberalism is also a generally internationalist ideology. Social liberalism has also historically been an advocate for liberal feminism among other forms social progress. Social liberals tend to find a compromise between the perceived extremes of unrestrained capitalism and state socialism to create an economy built on regulated capitalism. Due to a reliance on what they believe to be a too centralized government to achieve its goals, critics have called this strain of liberalism a more authoritarian ideological position compared to the original schools of liberal thought, especially in the United States, where conservatives have called presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson authoritarians.[*undue weight? – discuss*] ### United Kingdom The first notable implementation of social liberal policies occurred under the Liberal Party in Britain from 1906 until 1914. These initiatives became known as the Liberal welfare reforms. The main elements included pensions for poor older adults, and health, sickness, and unemployment insurance. These changes were accompanied by progressive taxation, particularly in the People's Budget of 1909. The old system of charity relying on the Poor Laws and supplemented by private charity, public cooperatives, and private insurance companies was in crisis, giving the state added impetus for reform. The Liberal Party caucus elected in 1906 also contained more professionals, including academics and journalists, sympathetic to social liberalism. The large business owners had mostly deserted the Liberals for the Conservatives, the latter becoming the favourite party for commercial interests. Both business interests and trade unions regularly opposed the reforms. Liberals most identified with these reforms were Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, John Maynard Keynes, David Lloyd George (especially as Chancellor of the Exchequer), and Winston Churchill (as President of the Board of Trade), in addition to the civil servant (and later Liberal MP) William Beveridge. Most of the social democratic parties in Europe (notably the British Labour Party) have taken on strong influences of social liberal ideology. Despite Britain's two major parties coming from the traditions of socialism and conservatism, the most substantive political and economic debates of recent times were between social liberal and classical liberal concepts. ### Germany Alexander Rüstow, a German economist, first proposed the German variant of economically social liberalism. In 1932, he dubbed this kind of social liberalism neoliberalism while speaking at the Social Policy Association. However, that term now carries a meaning different from the one proposed by Rüstow. Rüstow wanted an alternative to socialism and the classical liberal economics developed in the German Empire. In 1938, Rüstow met with various economic thinkers—including Ludwig Mises, Friedrich Hayek, and Wilhelm Röpke—to determine how and what could renew liberalism. Rüstow advocated a powerful state to enforce free markets and state intervention to correct market failures. However, Mises argued that monopolies and cartels operated because of state intervention and protectionism and claimed that the only legitimate role for the state was to abolish barriers to market entry. He viewed Rüstow's proposals as negating market freedom and saw them as similar to socialism. Following World War II, the West German government adopted Rüstow's neoliberalism, now usually called ordoliberalism or the social market economy, under Ludwig Erhard. He was the Minister of Economics and later became Chancellor. Erhard lifted price controls and introduced free markets. While Germany's post-war economic recovery was due to these policies, the welfare state—which Bismarck had established—became increasingly costly. ### Turkey The Kemalist economic model was designed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1930s, founder of the Republic of Turkey, after an unsuccessful attempt to embrace a regulated market economy from İzmir Economic Congress until the 1929 Depression. He put the principle of "etatism" in his Six Arrows and stated that etatism was a unique economic system for Turkey and that it was different from socialism, communism, and collectivism. Atatürk explained his economic idea as follows: > State can't take the place of individuals, but, it must take into consideration the individuals to make them improve and develop theirselves. Etatism includes the work that individuals won't do because they can't make profit or the work which are necessary for national interests. Just as it is the duty of the state to protect the freedom and independence of the country and to regulate internal affairs, the state must take care of the education and health of its citizens. The state must take care of the roads, railways, telegraphs, telephones, animals of the country, all kinds of vehicles and the general wealth of the nation to protect the peace and security of the country. During the administration and protection of the country, the things we just counted are more important than cannons, rifles and all kinds of weapons. (...) Private interests are generally the opposite of the general interests. Also, private interests are based on rivalries. But, you can't create a stable economy only with this. People who think like that are delusional and they will be a failure. (...) And, work of an individual must stay as the main basis of economic growth. Not preventing an individual's work and not obstructing the individual's freedom and enterprise with the state's own activities is the main basis of the principle of democracy. > > Moreover, Atatürk said this in his opening speech on 1 November 1937: "Unless there is an absolute necessity, the markets can't be intervened; also, no markets can be completely free." Also it was said by İsmet İnönü that Atatürk's principle of etatism was Keynesian and a Turkish variant of New Deal. ### Rest of Europe The post-war governments of other countries in Western Europe also followed social liberal policies. These policies were implemented primarily by Christian democrats and social democrats as liberal parties in Europe declined in strength from their peak in the 19th century. ### United States American political discourse resisted this social turn in European liberalism. While the economic policies of the New Deal appeared Keynesian, there was no revision of liberal theory in favour of more significant state initiatives. Even though the United States lacked an effective socialist movement, New Deal policies often appeared radical and were attacked by the right. American liberalism would eventually evolve into a more anti-communist ideology as a result. American exceptionalism was likely the reason for the separate development of modern liberalism in the United States, which kept mainstream American ideology within a narrow range. John Rawls' principal work, *A Theory of Justice* (1971), can be considered a flagship exposition of social liberal thinking, noted for its use of analytic philosophy and advocating the combination of individual freedom and a fairer distribution of resources. According to Rawls, every individual should be allowed to choose and pursue their conception of what is desirable. At the same time, the greater society must maintain a socially just distribution of goods. Rawls argued that differences in material wealth are tolerable if general economic growth and wealth also benefit the poorest. *A Theory of Justice* countered utilitarian thinking in the tradition of Jeremy Bentham, instead following the Kantian concept of a social contract, picturing society as a mutual agreement between rational citizens, producing rights and duties as well as establishing and defining roles and tasks of the state. Rawls put the equal liberty principle in the first place, providing every person with equal access to the same set of fundamental liberties, followed by the fair equality of opportunity and difference, thus allowing social and economic inequalities under the precondition that privileged positions are accessible to everyone, that everyone has equal opportunities and that even the least advantaged members of society benefit from this framework. This framework repeated itself in the equation of *Justice as Fairness*. Rawls proposed these principles not just to adherents of liberalism but as a basis for all democratic politics, regardless of ideology. The work advanced social liberal ideas immensely within the 1970s political and philosophic academia. Rawls may therefore be a "patron saint" of social liberalism. Decline ------- Following economic problems in the 1960s and 1970s, liberal thought underwent some transformation. Keynesian financial management faced criticism for interfering with the free market. At the same time, increased welfare spending funded by higher taxes prompted fears of lower investment, lower consumer spending, and the creation of a "dependency culture." Trade unions often caused high wages and industrial disruption, while total employment was considered unsustainable. Writers such as Milton Friedman and Samuel Brittan, whom Friedrich Hayek influenced, advocated a reversal of social liberalism. Their policies—often called neoliberalism—had a significant influence on Western politics, most notably on the governments of United Kingdom Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and the United States President Ronald Reagan. They pursued policies of deregulation of the economy and reduction in spending on social services. Part of the reason for the collapse of the social liberal coalition was a challenge in the 1960s and 1970s from financial interests that could operate independently of national governments. A related reason was the comparison of ideas such as socialized medicine, advocated by politicians such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, facing criticisms and being dubbed as socialist by conservatives during the midst of the Red Scare, notably by the previously mentioned Reagan. Another cause was the decline of organized labour which had formed part of the coalition but was also a support for left-wing ideologies challenging the liberal consensus. Related to this were the downfall of working-class consciousness and the growth of the middle class. The push by the United States, which had been least accepting of social liberalism for trade liberalization, further eroded support. Contemporary revival of social liberal thought ---------------------------------------------- From the end of the 20th century, at the same time that it was losing political influence, social liberalism experienced an intellectual revival with several substantial authors, including John Rawls (political philosophy), Amartya Sen (philosophy and economy), Ronald Dworkin (philosophy of law), Martha Nussbaum (philosophy), Bruce Ackerman (constitutional law), and others. Parties and organisations ------------------------- In Europe, social liberal parties tend to be small or medium-sized centrist and centre-left parties. Examples of successful European social liberal parties participating in government coalitions at national or regional levels include the Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom, the Democrats 66 in the Netherlands, and the Danish Social Liberal Party. In continental European politics, social liberal parties are integrated into the Renew Europe group in the European Parliament, the third biggest group in the parliament, and includes social liberal parties, market liberal parties, and centrist parties. Other groups such as the European People's Party, the Greens–European Free Alliance, and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats also house some political parties with social-liberal factions. In North America, social liberalism (as Europe would refer to it) tends to be the dominant form of liberalism present, so in common parlance, "liberal" refers to social liberals. In Canada, social liberalism is held by the Liberal Party of Canada, while in the United States, social liberalism is a significant force within the Democratic Party. Giving an exhaustive list of social liberal parties worldwide is difficult, mainly because political organisations are not always ideologically pure, and party ideologies often change over time. However, peers such as the Africa Liberal Network, the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party, the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats, the European Liberal Forum, the Liberal International, and the Liberal Network for Latin America or scholars usually accept them as parties who are following social liberalism as a core ideology. ### Social liberal parties or parties with social liberal factions Social liberal political parties that are more left-biased than general *centre-left* parties are not described here. (See list of progressive parties) * Åland: Liberals for Åland * Argentina: Radical Civic Union * Australia: Liberal Party of Australia (factions), Australian Labor Party (factions) * Bahamas: Progressive Liberal Party * Belgium: DéFI, Party for Freedom and Progress, Vivant * Bosnia and Herzegovina: Our Party * Brazil : Cidadania, Brazilian Social Democracy Party * Canada: Liberal Party of Canada * Chile: Radical Party of Chile, Liberal Party of Chile * Croatia: Croatian People's Party – Liberal Democrats, Centre, Civic Liberal Alliance, Istrian Democratic Assembly * Czech Republic: Czech Pirate Party * Denmark: Danish Social Liberal Party * Egypt: Constitution Party * Estonia: Estonian Centre Party, Estonian Greens, Estonia 200 * Faroe Islands: Self-Government Party * Finland: Centre Party, Green League, National Coalition Party, Swedish People's Party of Finland * France: La République En Marche!, Radical Party of the Left, Territories of Progress, The New Democrats * Germany: Alliance 90/The Greens, Liberal Democrats, Social Democratic Party of Germany (factions). * Greenland: Democrats * Hungary: Democratic Coalition * Iceland: Bright Future * India: Indian National Congress * Indonesia: Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle * Israel: Israel Resilience Party, Yesh Atid * Italy: Democratic Party (factions), Italia Viva, Italian Republican Party, Action * Japan: Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan * Kosovo: Democratic Party of Kosovo * Latvia: Development/For! * Lesotho: Revolution for Prosperity * Luxembourg: Democratic Party * Malaysia: Democratic Action Party, People's Justice Party * Montenegro: Positive Montenegro, United Reform Action * Morocco: Citizens' Forces * Myanmar: National League for Democracy, National Democratic Force * Netherlands: Democrats 66 * New Zealand: New Zealand Labour Party (factions) * Norway: Liberal Party * Philippines: Liberal Party * Poland: Polish Initiative, Your Movement, Union of European Democrats * Portugal: Together for the People * Romania: PRO Romania * Russia: Yabloko * Serbia: Democratic Party * Slovakia: Progressive Slovakia * Slovenia: List of Marjan Šarec, Party of Alenka Bratušek * South Africa: Democratic Alliance * South Korea: Democratic Party of Korea, Justice Party * Sweden: Liberals (factions), Centre Party * Taiwan: Democratic Progressive Party * Trinidad and Tobago: People's National Movement * Turkey: Good Party Democracy and Progress Party * United Kingdom: Liberal Democrats, Liberal Party * United States: Democratic Party ### Historical social liberal parties or parties with social liberal factions * Andorra: Democratic Renewal * Australia: Australian Democrats * Belgium: Spirit * France: Radical Movement * Germany: Free-minded People's Party, German Democratic Party, German People's Party, Progressive People's Party * Greece: The River * Hungary: Alliance of Free Democrats * Iceland: Liberal Party, Union of Liberals and Leftists * Israel: Independent Liberals, Kulanu, Progressive Party * Italy: Action Party, Radical Party, Italian Liberal Party, Democratic Alliance, Democratic Union, The Democrats * Japan: Japan Socialist Party (factions), Democratic Party of Japan * Latvia: Society for Political Change * Lithuania: New Union (Social Liberals) * Luxembourg: Radical Socialist Party * Malta: Democratic Party * Moldova: Our Moldova Alliance * Netherlands: Free-thinking Democratic League * Poland: Democratic Party – demokraci.pl, Spring, * Russian: Constitutional Democratic Party * Slovenia: Liberal Democracy of Slovenia, Zares * South Korea: Progressive Party (1956), Uri Party, Grand Unified Democratic New Party * Spain: Union, Progress and Democracy * Switzerland: Ring of Independents * United Kingdom: Liberal Party, Social Democratic Party Notable thinkers ---------------- Some notable scholars and politicians ordered by date of birth who are generally considered as having made significant contributions to the evolution of social liberalism as a political ideology include: * Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) * John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) * Thomas Hill Green (1836–1882) * Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913) * Lujo Brentano (1844–1931) * Bernard Bosanquet (1848–1923) * Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) * Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) * John Atkinson Hobson (1858–1940) * John Dewey (1859–1952) * Friedrich Naumann (1860–1919) * Gerhart von Schulze-Gävernitz (1864–1943) * Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse (1864–1929) * Tokuzō Fukuda (1874–1930) * William Beveridge (1879–1963) * Hans Kelsen (1881–1973) * Mohammad Mossadegh (1882–1967) * John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946) * Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) * Lester B. Pearson (1897–1972) * Pierre Elliot Trudeau (1919–2000) * Bertil Ohlin (1899–1979) * Piero Gobetti (1901–1926) * Karl Popper (1902–1994) * Guido Calogero [it] (1904–1986) * Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997) * Norberto Bobbio (1909–2004) * Masao Maruyama (1914–1996) * John Rawls (1921–2002) * Don Chipp (1925–2006) * Karl-Hermann Flach (1929–1973) * Vlado Gotovac (1930–2000) * Richard Rorty (1931–2007) * Ronald Dworkin (1931–2013) * Amartya Sen (born 1933) * José G. Merquior (1941–1991) * Bruce Ackerman (born 1943) * Roh Moo-hyun (1946–2009) * Martha Nussbaum (born 1947) * Grigory Yavlinsky (born 1952) * Paul Krugman (born 1953) * Dirk Verhofstadt (born 1955) * Justin Trudeau (born 1971) * Robert Biedroń (born 1976) See also -------- * Classical liberalism * Classical radicalism * Constitutional liberalism * Left-libertarianism * Liberalism by country * Modern liberalism in the United States * Neo-libertarianism * Progressivism * Social democracy * Social-liberal coalition * Social market economy Sources ------- * Adams, Ian (2001). *Political ideology today*. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001. ISBN 0 7190 6019 2. * De Ruggiero, Guido (1959). *The History of European Liberalism*. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0844619705 * Faulks, Keith (1999). *Political Sociology: A Critical Introduction*. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0 7486 1356 0. * Feuchtwanger, E. J. (1985). *Democracy and Empire: Britain 1865-1914*. London: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-7131-6162-0. * Richardson, James L. (2001). *Contending Liberalisms in World Politics*. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. ISBN 1-55587-915-2. * Slomp, Hans (2000). *European Politics Into the Twenty-first Century: Integration and Division*. Westport: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-96814-6. Further reading --------------- * Green, Thomas Hill (2006). *Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation*. New Jersey: The Lawbook Exchange. ISBN 1584776145. * Hobhouse, L. T. (1994). *Liberalism and Other Writings*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521437261. * Hobson, John Atkinson (2000). *The Crisis of Liberalism: New Issues of Democracy*. Delaware: Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1421227819. * Martin, Keith D. (2010). *A Liberal Mandate: Reflections on Our Founding Vision and Rants on How We Have Failed to Achieve It*. MSilver Spring: Wet Press. ISBN 9780578043654. * Merquior, J. G. (1991). *Liberalism Old and New*. Cambridge: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0805786279. * Mill, John Stuart (1989). *'On Liberty' and Other Writings*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521379172. * Rawls, John (2005). *A Theory of Justice*. Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674017722. * Rawls, John (2005). *Political Liberalism*. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231130899. * Simhony, Avital; Weinstein, David (2001). *The New Liberalism: Reconciling Liberty and Community*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521794048.

Social liberalism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_liberalism

A typical Sudoku puzzle, with nine rows and nine columns that intersect at square spaces. Some of the cells are filled with a number; others are blank cells to be solved.A typical Sudoku puzzleThe previous puzzle, showing its solution.The solution to the puzzle above **Sudoku** (/suːˈdoʊkuː, -ˈdɒk-, sə-/; Japanese: 数独, romanized: *sūdoku*, lit. 'digit-single'; originally called **Number Place**) is a logic-based, combinatorial number-placement puzzle. In classic Sudoku, the objective is to fill a 9 × 9 grid with digits so that each column, each row, and each of the nine 3 × 3 subgrids that compose the grid (also called "boxes", "blocks", or "regions") contain all of the digits from 1 to 9. The puzzle setter provides a partially completed grid, which for a well-posed puzzle has a single solution. French newspapers featured variations of the Sudoku puzzles in the 19th century, and the puzzle has appeared since 1979 in puzzle books under the name Number Place. However, the modern Sudoku only began to gain widespread popularity in 1986 when it was published by the Japanese puzzle company Nikoli under the name Sudoku, meaning "single number". It first appeared in a U.S. newspaper, and then *The Times* (London), in 2004, thanks to the efforts of Wayne Gould, who devised a computer program to rapidly produce unique puzzles. History ------- ### Predecessors Number puzzles appeared in newspapers in the late 19th century, when French puzzle setters began experimenting with removing numbers from magic squares. *Le Siècle*, a Paris daily, published a partially completed 9×9 magic square with 3×3 subsquares on November 19, 1892. It was not a Sudoku because it contained double-digit numbers and required arithmetic rather than logic to solve, but it shared key characteristics: each row, column, and subsquare added up to the same number. On July 6, 1895, *Le Siècle*'s rival, *La France*, refined the puzzle so that it was almost a modern Sudoku and named it *carré magique diabolique* ('diabolical magic square'). It simplified the 9×9 magic square puzzle so that each row, column, and broken diagonals contained only the numbers 1–9, but did not mark the subsquares. Although they were unmarked, each 3×3 subsquare did indeed comprise the numbers 1–9, and the additional constraint on the broken diagonals led to only one solution. These weekly puzzles were a feature of French newspapers such as *L'Écho de Paris* for about a decade, but disappeared about the time of World War I. ### Modern Sudoku The modern Sudoku was most likely designed anonymously by Howard Garns, a 74-year-old retired architect and freelance puzzle constructor from Connersville, Indiana, and first published in 1979 by Dell Magazines as Number Place (the earliest known examples of modern Sudoku). Garns' name was always present on the list of contributors in issues of *Dell Pencil Puzzles and Word Games* that included Number Place and was always absent from issues that did not. He died in 1989 before getting a chance to see his creation as a worldwide phenomenon. Whether or not Garns was familiar with any of the French newspapers listed above is unclear. The puzzle was introduced in Japan by Maki Kaji (鍜治 真起, *Kaji Maki*), president of the Nikoli puzzle company, in the paper *Monthly Nikolist* in April 1984 as *Sūji wa dokushin ni kagiru* (数字は独身に限る), which can be translated as "the digits must be single", or as "the digits are limited to one occurrence" (In Japanese, *dokushin* means an "unmarried person"). The name was later abbreviated to *Sudoku* (数独), taking only the first kanji of compound words to form a shorter version. "Sudoku" is a registered trademark in Japan and the puzzle is generally referred to as Number Place (ナンバープレース, *Nanbāpurēsu*) or, more informally, a shortening of the two words, Num(ber) Pla(ce) (ナンプレ, **Nanpure**). In 1986, Nikoli introduced two innovations: the number of givens was restricted to no more than 32, and puzzles became "symmetrical" (meaning the givens were distributed in rotationally symmetric cells). It is now published in mainstream Japanese periodicals, such as the *Asahi Shimbun*. ### Spread outside Japan In 1997, Hong Kong judge Wayne Gould saw a partly completed puzzle in a Japanese bookshop. Over six years, he developed a computer program to produce unique puzzles rapidly. Knowing that British newspapers have a long history of publishing crosswords and other puzzles, he promoted Sudoku to *The Times* in Britain, which launched it on November 12, 2004 (calling it Su Doku). The first letter to *The Times* regarding Su Doku was published the following day on November 13 from Ian Payn of Brentford, complaining that the puzzle had caused him to miss his stop on the tube. Sudoku puzzles rapidly spread to other newspapers as a regular feature. The rapid rise of Sudoku in Britain from relative obscurity to a front-page feature in national newspapers attracted commentary in the media and parody (such as when *The Guardian*'s *G2* section advertised itself as the first newspaper supplement with a Sudoku grid on every page). Recognizing the different psychological appeals of easy and difficult puzzles, *The Times* introduced both, side by side, on June 20, 2005. From July 2005, Channel 4 included a daily Sudoku game in their teletext service. On August 2, the BBC's program guide *Radio Times* featured a weekly Super Sudoku with a 16×16 grid. In the United States, the first newspaper to publish a Sudoku puzzle by Wayne Gould was *The Conway Daily Sun* (New Hampshire), in 2004. The world's first live TV Sudoku show, *Sudoku Live*, was a puzzle contest first broadcast on July 1, 2005, on Sky One. It was presented by Carol Vorderman. Nine teams of nine players (with one celebrity in each team) representing geographical regions competed to solve a puzzle. Each player had a hand-held device for entering numbers corresponding to answers for four cells. Phil Kollin of Winchelsea, England, was the series grand prize winner, taking home over £23,000 over a series of games. The audience at home was in a separate interactive competition, which was won by Hannah Withey of Cheshire. Later in 2005, the BBC launched *SUDO-Q*, a game show that combined Sudoku with general knowledge. However, it used only 4×4 and 6×6 puzzles. Four seasons were produced before the show ended in 2007. In 2006, a Sudoku website published songwriter Peter Levy's Sudoku tribute song, but quickly had to take down the MP3 file due to heavy traffic. British and Australian radio picked up the song, which is to feature[*when?*] in a British-made Sudoku documentary. The Japanese Embassy also nominated the song for an award, with Levy doing talks with Sony in Japan to release the song as a single. Sudoku software is very popular on PCs, websites, and mobile phones. It comes with many distributions of Linux. The software has also been released on video game consoles, such as the Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable, the Game Boy Advance, Xbox Live Arcade, the Nook e-book reader, Kindle Fire tablet, several iPod models, and the iPhone. Many Nokia phones also had Sudoku. In fact, just two weeks after Apple Inc. debuted the online App Store within its iTunes Store on July 11, 2008, nearly 30 different Sudoku games were already in it, created by various software developers, specifically for the iPhone and iPod Touch. One of the most popular video games featuring Sudoku is *Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!*. Critically and commercially well-received, it generated particular praise for its Sudoku implementation and sold more than 8 million copies worldwide. Due to its popularity, Nintendo made a second *Brain Age* game titled *Brain Age2*, which has over 100 new Sudoku puzzles and other activities. In June 2008, an Australian drugs-related jury trial costing over A$ 1 million was aborted when it was discovered that four or five of the twelve jurors had been playing Sudoku instead of listening to the evidence. Variants -------- A Sudoku puzzle grid with many colors, with nine rows and nine columns that intersect at square spaces. Some of the spaces are filled with a digit; others are blank spaces to be solved.A *nonomino* or jigsaw Sudoku, as seen in *The Sunday Telegraph*The previous puzzle, solved with digits in the blank spaces.And its solution (red numbers) ### Variations of grid sizes or region shapes Although the 9×9 grid with 3×3 regions is by far the most common, many other variations exist. Sample puzzles can be 4×4 grids with 2×2 regions; 5×5 grids with *pentomino* regions have been published under the name Logi-5; the World Puzzle Championship has featured a 6×6 grid with 2×3 regions and a 7×7 grid with six *heptomino* regions and a disjoint region. Larger grids are also possible, or different irregular shapes (under various names such as *Suguru*, *Tectonic*, *Jigsaw Sudoku* etc.). *The Times* offers a 12×12-grid "Dodeka Sudoku" with 12 regions of 4×3 squares. Dell Magazines regularly publishes 16×16 "Number Place Challenger" puzzles (using the numbers 1–16 or the letters A-P). Nikoli offers 25×25 "Sudoku the Giant" behemoths. A 100×100-grid puzzle dubbed Sudoku-zilla was published in 2010. #### Mini Sudoku Under the name "Mini Sudoku", a 6×6 variant with 3×2 regions appears in the American newspaper *USA Today* and elsewhere. The object is the same as that of standard Sudoku, but the puzzle only uses the numbers 1 through 6. A similar form, for younger solvers of puzzles, called "The Junior Sudoku", has appeared in some newspapers, such as some editions of *The Daily Mail*. ### Imposing additional constraints Another common variant is to add limits on the placement of numbers beyond the usual row, column, and box requirements. Often, the limit takes the form of an extra "dimension"; the most common is to require the numbers in the main diagonals of the grid to also be unique. The aforementioned "Number Place Challenger" puzzles are all of this variant, as are the Sudoku X puzzles in *The Daily Mail*, which use 6×6 grids. ### Killer Sudoku A Killer Sudoku puzzleAnd its solution The **Killer Sudoku** variant combines elements of Sudoku and Kakuro. ### Different symbols A Wordoku puzzleAnd its solution (red characters) Since standard Sudoku does not involve arithmetic, the digits 1 to 9 can be replaced with nine arbitrary symbols, such as geometric shapes, Roman numerals (e.g. *Quadratum latinum*, published in the Latin puzzle magazine *Hebdomada aenigmatum*) or letters, and there is no functional difference. When letters are used, the puzzle is sometimes known as **Wordoku**. Some variants, such as in the *TV Guide Magazine*, include a word reading along a main diagonal, row, or column once solved; determining the word in advance can be viewed as a solving aid. A Wordoku might contain words other than the main word. ### Hyper Sudoku / Windoku A Sudoku puzzle grid with four blue quadrants and nine rows and nine columns that intersect at square spaces. Some of the spaces are filled with one number each; others are blank spaces to be solved.Hypersudoku puzzleThe previous puzzle, solved with numbers in the blanks spaces.And its solution **Hyper Sudoku** or **Windoku** uses the classic 9×9 grid with 3×3 regions, but defines four additional interior 3×3 regions in which the numbers 1–9 must appear exactly once. It was invented by *Peter Ritmeester* and first published by him in Dutch Newspaper *NRC Handelsblad* in October 2005, and since April 2007 on a daily basis in *The International New York Times* (International Herald Tribune). The first time it was called Hyper Sudoku was in *Will Shortz's Favorite Sudoku Variations* (February 2006). It is also known as Windoku because with the grid's four interior regions shaded, it resembles a window with glazing bars. ### Twin Sudoku In Twin Sudoku two regular grids share a 3×3 box. This is one of many possible types of overlapping grids. The rules for each individual grid are the same as in normal Sudoku, but the digits in the overlapping section are shared by each half. In some compositions neither individual grid can be solved alone – the complete solution is only possible after each individual grid has at least been partially solved. ### Other variants Puzzles constructed from more than two grids are also common. Five 9×9 grids that overlap at the corner regions in the shape of a *quincunx* is known in Japan as *Gattai* 5 (five merged) Sudoku. In *The Times*, *The Age*, and *The Sydney Morning Herald*, this form of puzzle is known as Samurai Sudoku. *The Baltimore Sun* and the *Toronto Star* publish a puzzle of this variant (titled High Five) in their Sunday edition. Often, no givens are placed in the overlapping regions. Sequential grids, as opposed to overlapping, are also published, with values in specific locations in grids needing to be transferred to others. A tabletop version of Sudoku can be played with a standard 81-card Set deck (see Set game). A three-dimensional Sudoku puzzle was published in *The Daily Telegraph* in May 2005. *The Times* also publishes a three-dimensional version under the name Tredoku. Also, a Sudoku version of the Rubik's Cube is named Sudoku Cube. Many other variants have been developed. Some are different shapes in the arrangement of overlapping 9×9 grids, such as butterfly, windmill, or flower. Others vary the logic for solving the grid. One of these is "Greater Than Sudoku". In this, a 3×3 grid of the Sudoku is given with 12 symbols of Greater Than (>) or Less Than (<) on the common line of the two adjacent numbers. Another variant on the logic of the solution is "Clueless Sudoku", in which nine 9×9 Sudoku grids are each placed in a 3×3 array. The center cell in each 3×3 grid of all nine puzzles is left blank and forms a tenth Sudoku puzzle without any cell completed; hence, "clueless". A new variant mixes Sudoku with the sliding tile puzzle in Sudoku Slide Extreme. In this variant, all of the positions are filled in. Tiles are moved to the proper position to solve the puzzle. This variant contains power-ups and a campaign mode. Examples and other variants can be found in the Glossary of Sudoku. Mathematics of Sudoku --------------------- This section refers to classic Sudoku, disregarding jigsaw, hyper, and other variants. A completed Sudoku grid is a special type of Latin square with the additional property of no repeated values in any of the nine blocks (or *boxes* of 3×3 cells). The relationship between the two theories is known, after it was proven that a first-order formula that does not mention blocks is valid for Sudoku if and only if it is valid for Latin squares. The general problem of solving Sudoku puzzles on *n*2×*n*2 grids of *n*×*n* blocks is known to be NP-complete. Many computer algorithms, such as backtracking and dancing links can solve most 9×9 puzzles efficiently, but combinatorial explosion occurs as *n* increases, creating limits to the properties of Sudokus that can be constructed, analyzed, and solved as *n* increases. A Sudoku puzzle can be expressed as a graph coloring problem. The aim is to construct a 9-coloring of a particular graph, given a partial 9-coloring. The fewest clues possible for a proper Sudoku is 17 (proven January 2012, and confirmed September 2013). A total of 49,158 Sudokus with 17 clues have been found, many by Japanese enthusiasts. Sudokus with 18 clues and rotational symmetry have been found, and there is at least one Sudoku that has 18 clues, exhibits two-way diagonal symmetry and is automorphic. The maximum number of clues that can be provided while still not rendering a unique solution is four short of a full grid (77); if two instances of two numbers each are missing from cells that occupy the corners of an orthogonal rectangle, and exactly two of these cells are within one region, the numbers can be assigned two ways. Since this applies to Latin squares in general, most variants of Sudoku have the same maximum. The number of classic 9×9 Sudoku solution grids is 6,670,903,752,021,072,936,960 (sequence A107739 in the OEIS), or around 6.67×1021. This is roughly 1.2×10−6 times the number of 9×9 Latin squares. Various other grid sizes have also been enumerated—see the main article for details. The number of essentially different solutions, when symmetries such as rotation, reflection, permutation, and relabelling are taken into account, was shown to be just 5,472,730,538 (sequence A109741 in the OEIS). Unlike the number of complete Sudoku grids, the number of minimal 9×9 Sudoku puzzles is not precisely known. (A minimal puzzle is one in which no clue can be deleted without losing the uniqueness of the solution.) However, statistical techniques combined with a puzzle generator show that about (with 0.065% relative error) 3.10 × 1037 minimal puzzles and 2.55 × 1025 nonessentially equivalent minimal puzzles exist. Competitions ------------ * The first World Sudoku Championship was held in Lucca, Italy, from March 10 to 11, 2006. The winner was Jana Tylová of the Czech Republic. The competition included numerous variants. * The second World Sudoku Championship was held in Prague, Czech Republic, from March 28 to April 1, 2007. The individual champion was Thomas Snyder of the US. The team champion was Japan. * The third World Sudoku Championship was held in Goa, India, from April 14 to 16, 2008. Thomas Snyder repeated as the individual overall champion and also won the first-ever Classic Trophy (a subset of the competition counting only classic Sudoku). The Czech Republic won the team competition. * The fourth World Sudoku Championship was held in Žilina, Slovakia, from April 24 to 27, 2009. After past champion Thomas Snyder of the US won the general qualification, Jan Mrozowski of Poland emerged from a 36-competitor playoff to become the new World Sudoku Champion. Host nation Slovakia emerged as the top team in a separate competition of three-membered squads. * The fifth World Sudoku Championship was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from April 29 to May 2, 2010. Jan Mrozowski of Poland successfully defended his world title in the individual competition, while Germany won a separate team event. The puzzles were written by Thomas Snyder and Wei-Hwa Huang, both past U.S. Sudoku champions. * The 12th World Sudoku Championship (WSC) was held in Bangalore, India, from October 15 to 22, 2017. Kota Morinishi of Japan won the Individual WSC and China won the team event. * The 13th World Sudoku Championship took place in the Czech Republic. * In the United States, *The Philadelphia Inquirer* Sudoku National Championship has been held three times, each time offering a $10,000 prize to the advanced division winner and a spot on the U.S. National Sudoku Team traveling to the world championships. The winners of the event were Thomas Snyder (2007), Wei-Hwa Huang (2008), and Tammy McLeod (2009). In the 2009 event, the third-place finalist in the advanced division, Eugene Varshavsky, performed quite poorly onstage after setting a very fast qualifying time on paper, which caught the attention of organizers and competitors including past champion Thomas Snyder, who requested organizers reconsider his results due to a suspicion of cheating. Following an investigation and a retest of Varshavsky, the organizers disqualified him and awarded the third-place to Chris Narrikkattu. See also -------- * 36 Cube * Blendoku * Constraint satisfaction problem * Cracking the Cryptic * Futoshiki * Glossary of Sudoku * Hashiwokakero * Hidato * KenKen * List of Nikoli puzzle types * Logic puzzle * Nonogram * Str8ts * Sudoku solving algorithms Further reading --------------- * Delahaye, Jean-Paul (June 2006). "The Science Behind Sudoku" (PDF). *Scientific American*. **294** (6): 80–87. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294f..80D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0606-80. JSTOR 26061494. PMID 16711364. * Provan, J. Scott (October 2009). "Sudoku: Strategy Versus Structure". *American Mathematical Monthly*. **116** (8): 702–7. doi:10.4169/193009709X460822. S2CID 38433481. Also as UNC/STOR/08/04.

Sudoku

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudoku

**Biotechnology** is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. The term *biotechnology* was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919, to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances. Biotechnology has had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to environmental science. One of the key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering, which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, creating new traits or modifying existing ones. Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in the lab for research and medical purposes, and fermentation, which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese. The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of essential products like life-saving drugs, biofuels, genetically modified crops, and innovative materials. It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites. Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights. As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields. Definition ---------- The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of the plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical Society defines *biotechnology* as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock. As per the European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology is based on the basic biological sciences (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, genetics, microbiology) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology. Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products). The utilization of biological processes, organisms or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology. By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials *directly*) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Relatedly, biomedical engineering is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies *biotechnology* (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or chemical engineering such as tissue engineering, biopharmaceutical engineering, and genetic engineering. History ------- Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.[*clarification needed*] These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation, which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form. Before the time of Charles Darwin's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection. For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve the production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops. In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using *Clostridium acetobutylicum,* to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I. Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold *Penicillium*. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic compound formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of *Diamond v. Chakrabarty*. Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had modified a bacterium (of the genus *Pseudomonas*) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the *Pseudomonas* bacterium). The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959. Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters. The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970. It is a special type of MOSFET, where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode. The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology. By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. A factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population. Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production. Examples -------- Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example: * Bioinformatics (also called "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as *computational biology*, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale". Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. * Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications. This branch of biotechnology is the most used for the industries of refining and combustion principally on the production of bio-oils with photosynthetic micro-algae. * Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. It is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards biotic and abiotic stress, plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture. On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste. * Red biotechnology is the use of biotechnology in the medical and pharmaceutical industries, and health preservation. This branch involves the production of vaccines and antibiotics, regenerative therapies, creation of artificial organs and new diagnostics of diseases. As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests. * White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods. * "Yellow biotechnology" refers to the use of biotechnology in food production (food industry), for example in making wine (winemaking), cheese (cheesemaking), and beer (brewing) by fermentation. It has also been used to refer to biotechnology applied to insects. This includes biotechnology-based approaches for the control of harmful insects, the characterisation and utilisation of active ingredients or genes of insects for research, or application in agriculture and medicine and various other approaches. * Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of biodiversity and the remotion of pollutants. * Brown biotechnology is related to the management of arid lands and deserts. One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources. * Violet biotechnology is related to law, ethical and philosophical issues around biotechnology. * Dark biotechnology is the color associated with bioterrorism or biological weapons and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops. ### Medicine In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as pharmaceutical drug discoveries and production, pharmacogenomics, and genetic testing (or genetic screening). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in Oncology with Neurology and Rare Diseases being the other two big applications. Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity. The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects. Such approaches promise the advent of "personalized medicine"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup. Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium *Escherichia coli*. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy. The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the Human Genome Project) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well. Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling. ### Agriculture Genetically modified crops ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation. Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres). 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had specific changes introduced into their DNA with the methods of genetic engineering. These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding. Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato. To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption. There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe. The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess. Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law. Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like Golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives. Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food. Transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries. ### Industrial Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation. It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels. In the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy. Synthetic biology is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based. Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms, such as *Escherichia coli*, by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels. For instance, *E. coli* and *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes. Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of *E. coli* by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward the production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol, which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the *Escherichia coli* by CRISPR to induce point mutation in the *glt*A gene, knockout of the *sad* gene, and knock-in six genes (*cat*1, *suc*D, *4hbd*, *cat*2, *bld*, and *bdh*). Whereas CRISPRi system used to knockdown the three competing genes (*gab*D, *ybg*C, and *tes*B) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L. ### Environmental Environmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation. The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively. Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology. ### Regulation The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety. The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ. Learning -------- In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges. References and notes -------------------- 1. ↑ "Biotechnology". *IUPAC Goldbook*. 2014. doi:10.1351/goldbook.B00666. Archived from the original on January 20, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022. 2. ↑ Ereky, Karl. (June 8, 1919). *Biotechnologie der Fleisch-, Fett-, und Milcherzeugung im landwirtschaftlichen Grossbetriebe: für naturwissenschaftlich gebildete Landwirte verfasst*. P. Parey. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 16, 2022 – via Hathi Trust. 3. ↑ "Biotechnology". *portal.acs.org*. American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. 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We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops. The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns. 61. ↑ "State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on January 9, 2019. Retrieved August 30, 2019. Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants – mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape – without any observed adverse effects (ICSU). 62. ↑ Ronald, Pamela (May 1, 2011). "Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security". *Genetics*. **188** (1): 11–20. doi:10.1534/genetics.111.128553. PMC 3120150. PMID 21546547. There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010). 63. ↑ But see also: Domingo, José L.; Bordonaba, Jordi Giné (2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants" (PDF). *Environment International*. **37** (4): 734–742. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003. PMID 21296423. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies. Krimsky, Sheldon (2015). "An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment". *Science, Technology, & Human Values*. **40** (6): 883–914. doi:10.1177/0162243915598381. S2CID 40855100. I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story. And contrast: Panchin, Alexander Y.; Tuzhikov, Alexander I. (January 14, 2016). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". *Critical Reviews in Biotechnology*. **37** (2): 213–217. doi:10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684. ISSN 0738-8551. PMID 26767435. S2CID 11786594. Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality. and Yang, Y.T.; Chen, B. (2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health". *Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture*. **96** (4): 1851–1855. doi:10.1002/jsfa.7523. PMID 26536836. It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA *(citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011)*. Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date. Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome. 64. ↑ "Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors On Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. October 20, 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2019. The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques. Pinholster, Ginger (October 25, 2012). "AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers"" (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 65. ↑ European Commission. Directorate-General for Research (2010). *A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010)* (PDF). Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. doi:10.2777/97784. ISBN 978-92-79-16344-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 66. ↑ "AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods". American Medical Association. January 2001. Archived from the original on April 2, 2016. Retrieved August 30, 2019 – via International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications."REPORT 2 OF THE COUNCIL ON SCIENCE AND PUBLIC HEALTH (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods" (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 7, 2012. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 67. ↑ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion". Library of Congress. June 30, 2015. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved August 30, 2019. Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs. 68. ↑ National Academies Of Sciences, Engineering; Division on Earth Life Studies; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016). *Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects*. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US). p. 149. doi:10.17226/23395. ISBN 978-0-309-43738-7. PMID 28230933. Archived from the original on November 16, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2019. *Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops:* On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts. 69. ↑ "Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on November 4, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2019. Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods. GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods. 70. ↑ Haslberger, Alexander G. (2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects". *Nature Biotechnology*. **21** (7): 739–741. doi:10.1038/nbt0703-739. PMID 12833088. S2CID 2533628. These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects. 71. ↑ Some medical organizations, including the British Medical Association, advocate further caution based upon the precautionary principle: "Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement" (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2019. In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available. When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis. Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects. The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit. 72. ↑ Funk, Cary; Rainie, Lee (January 29, 2015). "Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on January 9, 2019. Retrieved August 30, 2019. The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points. 73. ↑ Marris, Claire (2001). "Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths". *EMBO Reports*. **2** (7): 545–548. doi:10.1093/embo-reports/kve142. PMC 1083956. PMID 11463731. 74. ↑ Final Report of the PABE research project (December 2001). "Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe". Commission of European Communities. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 75. ↑ Scott, Sydney E.; Inbar, Yoel; Rozin, Paul (2016). "Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States" (PDF). *Perspectives on Psychological Science*. **11** (3): 315–324. doi:10.1177/1745691615621275. PMID 27217243. S2CID 261060. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. 76. ↑ "Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms". Library of Congress. June 9, 2015. Archived from the original on April 3, 2019. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 77. ↑ Bashshur, Ramona (February 2013). "FDA and Regulation of GMOs". American Bar Association. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 78. ↑ Sifferlin, Alexandra (October 3, 2015). "Over Half of E.U. Countries Are Opting Out of GMOs". *Time*. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 79. ↑ Lynch, Diahanna; Vogel, David (April 5, 2001). "The Regulation of GMOs in Europe and the United States: A Case-Study of Contemporary European Regulatory Politics". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on September 29, 2016. Retrieved August 30, 2019. 80. ↑ Pollack A (April 13, 2010). "Study Says Overuse Threatens Gains From Modified Crops". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on November 21, 2017. Retrieved February 24, 2017. 81. ↑ Brookes, Graham; Barfoot, Peter (May 8, 2017). "Farm income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2015". *GM Crops & Food*. **8** (3): 156–193. doi:10.1080/21645698.2017.1317919. ISSN 2164-5698. PMC 5617554. PMID 28481684. 82. ↑ Tyczewska, Agata; Twardowski, Tomasz; Woźniak-Gientka, Ewa (January 2023). "Agricultural biotechnology for sustainable food security". *Trends in Biotechnology*. **41** (3): 331–341. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.12.013. ISSN 0167-7799. PMC 9881846. PMID 36710131. S2CID 256304868. 83. ↑ Sairam, R. V.; Prakash, C. S. (July 2005). "OBPC Symposium: maize 2004 & beyond—Can agricultural biotechnology contribute to global food security?". *In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant*. **41** (4): 424–430. doi:10.1079/ivp2005663. ISSN 1054-5476. S2CID 25855065. 84. ↑ Kumar, Pankaj; Kumar, Arun; Dhiman, Karuna; Srivastava, Dinesh Kumar (2021), "Recent Progress in Cereals Biofortification to Alleviate Malnutrition in India: An Overview", *Agricultural Biotechnology: Latest Research and Trends*, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 253–280, doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2339-4\_11, ISBN 978-981-16-2338-7, S2CID 245834290, retrieved February 14, 2023 85. ↑ Industrial Biotechnology and Biomass Utilisation Archived April 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine 86. ↑ "Industrial biotechnology, A powerful, innovative technology to mitigate climate change". Archived from the original on January 2, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2014. 87. ↑ Clarke, Lionel; Kitney, Richard (February 28, 2020). "Developing synthetic biology for industrial biotechnology applications". *Biochemical Society Transactions*. **48** (1): 113–122. doi:10.1042/BST20190349. ISSN 0300-5127. PMC 7054743. PMID 32077472. 88. ↑ McCarty, Nicholas S.; Ledesma-Amaro, Rodrigo (February 2019). "Synthetic Biology Tools to Engineer Microbial Communities for Biotechnology". *Trends in Biotechnology*. **37** (2): 181–197. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2018.11.002. ISSN 0167-7799. PMC 6340809. PMID 30497870. 89. ↑ Zhou, Kang; Qiao, Kangjian; Edgar, Steven; Stephanopoulos, Gregory (April 2015). "Distributing a metabolic pathway among a microbial consortium enhances production of natural products". *Nature Biotechnology*. **33** (4): 377–383. doi:10.1038/nbt.3095. ISSN 1087-0156. PMC 4867547. PMID 25558867. 90. ↑ Wu, Meng-Ying; Sung, Li-Yu; Li, Hung; Huang, Chun-Hung; Hu, Yu-Chen (December 15, 2017). "Combining CRISPR and CRISPRi Systems for Metabolic Engineering of E. coli and 1,4-BDO Biosynthesis". *ACS Synthetic Biology*. **6** (12): 2350–2361. doi:10.1021/acssynbio.7b00251. ISSN 2161-5063. PMID 28854333. 91. ↑ Pakshirajan, Kannan; Rene, Eldon R.; Ramesh, Aiyagari (2014). "Biotechnology in environmental monitoring and pollution abatement". *BioMed Research International*. **2014**: 235472. doi:10.1155/2014/235472. ISSN 2314-6141. PMC 4017724. PMID 24864232. 92. ↑ Danso, Dominik; Chow, Jennifer; Streit, Wolfgang R. (October 1, 2019). "Plastics: Environmental and Biotechnological Perspectives on Microbial Degradation". *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*. **85** (19). Bibcode:2019ApEnM..85E1095D. doi:10.1128/AEM.01095-19. ISSN 1098-5336. PMC 6752018. PMID 31324632. 93. ↑ Daniel A. Vallero, *Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach*, Academic Press, Amsterdam, NV; ISBN 978-0-12-375089-1; 2010. 94. ↑ Gaskell G, Bauer MW, Durant J, Allum NC (July 1999). "Worlds apart? The reception of genetically modified foods in Europe and the U.S". *Science*. **285** (5426): 384–7. doi:10.1126/science.285.5426.384. PMID 10411496. S2CID 5131870. 95. ↑ "The History and Future of GM Potatoes". *Potato Pro*. March 10, 2010. Archived from the original on October 12, 2013. Retrieved January 1, 2014. 96. ↑ Wesseler J, Kalaitzandonakes N (2011). "Present and Future EU GMO policy". In Oskam A, Meesters G, Silvis H (eds.). *EU Policy for Agriculture, Food and Rural Areas* (2nd ed.). Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 23–332. 97. ↑ Beckmann VC, Soregaroli J, Wesseler J (2011). "Coexistence of genetically modified (GM) and non-modified (non GM) crops: Are the two main property rights regimes equivalent with respect to the coexistence value?". In Carter C, Moschini G, Sheldon I (eds.). *Genetically modified food and global welfare*. Frontiers of Economics and Globalization Series. Vol. 10. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. pp. 201–224. 98. ↑ "Biotechnology Predoctoral Training Program". *National Institute of General Medical Sciences*. December 18, 2013. Archived from the original on October 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2014.

Biotechnology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology

Isfahan Province Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1966 | 1,703,701 | —     | | 1986 | 3,294,916 | +93.4% | | 2006 | 4,559,256 | +38.4% | | 2011 | 4,879,312 | +7.0% | | 2016 | 5,120,850 | +5.0% | | amar.org.ir | **Isfahan Province** (Persian: استان اصفهان, romanized: *Ostāne Esfahan*), also transliterated as *Esfahan*, *Espahan*, *Isfahan*, or *Isphahan*, is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. The capital of the province is the city of Isfahan. It is located in the center of the country in Iran's Region 2, whose secretariat is located in Isfahan. At the 2006 National Census, the province's population was 4,499,327 in 1,223,684 households, with a literacy rate of 88.65 percent. The following census in 2011 counted 4,879,312 people in 1,454,162 households. At the most recent census in 2016, the population of the province was 5,120,850 in 1,607,482 households. Geography --------- The Isfahan province covers an area of approximately 107,018 square km and is situated in the center of Iran. To its north, stand the Markazi (Central) Province and the provinces of Qom and Semnan. To its south, it is bordered by the provinces of Fars, and Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province. Aminabad is the most southern city of Isfahan province just 2 km north of the border. To the east, it is bordered by the province of Yazd. To the west, it is bordered by the province of Lurestan and to the southwest of the province of Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiyari. The province experiences a moderate and dry climate on the whole, ranging between 40.6 °C (105.08 °F) and 10.6 °C (51 °F) on a cold day in the winter season. The average annual temperature has been recorded as 16.7 °C (62 °F) and the annual rainfall on average has been reported as 116.9 mm. The city of Sepahan (Esfahan) however experiences an excellent climate, with four distinct seasons. With an elevation of 4,040 metres, the Shahankuh is the highest peak in Isfahan Province. This mountain is located about 20 kilometres southwest of the city of Fereydunshahr in the western part of Isfahan Province. Isfahan province has 52 rivers, mostly small and temporary, with the exception of the Zāyanderud, which totals 405 km in length a basin area of 27,100 km2. ### Biodiversity *Aphanius isfahanensis* (Farsi: کپوردندان\_اصفهان) is a species of Cyprinodontid fish endemic to the Zayandehrud river basin (see genus Aphanius). It is known only from three sites across the province. *Allium chlorotepalum* is an endemic species of Isfahan province, *Astragalus vernaculus* is also common in the west of the province. History ------- Historians have recorded *Espahan*, *Sepahan* or *Isfahan* initially as a defense and military base. The security and protection of the gradually increasing castles and fortifications, thereby, would provide the protection of residents nearby, therefore leading to the growth of large settlements nearby. These historical castles were *Atashgah*, *Sarooyieh*, *Tabarok*, *Kohan Dej*, and *Gard Dej*. The oldest of these is *Ghal'eh Sefeed* and the grounds at *Tamijan* from prehistoric times. The historic village of Abyaneh, a nationwide attraction, also has Sassanid ruins and fire temples among other historical relics. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Isfahan province enjoyed high standards of prosperity as it became the capital of Safavid Persia. While the city of Sepahan (Esfahan) was their seat of monarchical, Kashan was their place of vacation and leisure. Administrative divisions ------------------------ Isfahan Province Population History| Administrative Divisions | 2006 | 2011 | 2016 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aran va Bidgol County | 89,961 | 97,409 | 103,517 | | Ardestan County | 43,585 | 41,405 | 42,105 | | Borkhar County1 | — | 108,933 | 122,419 | | Borkhar and Meymeh County2 | 277,783 | — | — | | Buin Miandasht County3 | — | — | 24,163 | | Chadegan County | 33,684 | 33,942 | 32,479 | | Dehaqan County | 34,149 | 34,844 | 34,511 | | Falavarjan County | 232,019 | 247,014 | 249,814 | | Faridan County | 81,622 | 79,743 | 49,890 | | Fereydunshahr County | 38,955 | 38,334 | 35,654 | | Golpayegan County | 82,601 | 87,479 | 90,086 | | Harand County4 | — | — | — | | Isfahan County | 1,963,315 | 2,174,172 | 2,243,249 | | Jarqavieh County4 | — | — | — | | Kashan County | 297,000 | 323,371 | 364,482 | | Khansar County | 31,542 | 32,423 | 33,049 | | Khomeyni Shahr County | 282,888 | 311,629 | 319,727 | | Khur and Biabanak County5 | — | 17,793 | 19,761 | | Kuhpayeh County4 | — | — | — | | Lenjan County | 225,559 | 246,510 | 262,912 | | Mobarakeh County | 132,925 | 143,474 | 150,441 | | Nain County | 54,298 | 38,077 | 39,261 | | Najafabad County | 279,014 | 300,288 | 319,205 | | Natanz County | 43,947 | 42,239 | 43,977 | | Semirom County | 70,735 | 65,047 | 74,109 | | Shahin Shahr and Meymeh County1 | — | 196,584 | 234,667 | | Shahreza County | 139,702 | 149,555 | 159,797 | | Tiran and Karvan County | 64,043 | 69,047 | 71,575 | | Varzaneh County4 | — | — | — | | **Total** | **4,499,327** | **4,879,312** | **5,120,850** | | 1A successor to Borkhar and Meymeh County2Split into two counties3Separated from Faridan County4Separated from Isfahan County5Separated from Nain County | ### Cities According to the 2016 census, 4,507,430 people (over 88% of the population of Isfahan province) live in the following cities: Abrisham 22,429, Abuzeydabad 5,976, Afus 3,696, Alavijeh 8,067, Anarak 1,903, Aran and Bidgol 65,404, Ardestan 15,744, Asgaran 4,858, Asgharabad 6,876, Badrud 14,723, Bafran 1,978, [Bagh-e Bahadoran]] 10,279, Bagh-e Shad 4,356, Baharan Shahr 11,284, Baharestan 79,023, Barf Anbar 5,382, Barzok 4,588, Buin Miandasht 9,889, Chadegan 9,924, Chamgardan 15,574, Chermahin 13,732, Damaneh 4,366, Daran 20,078, Dastgerd 17,775, Dehaq 8,272, Dehaqan 17,945, Dizicheh 18,935, Dorcheh Piaz 47,800, Dowlatabad 40,945, Ezhiyeh 3,156, Falavarjan 37,704, Farrokhi 2,968, Fereydunshahr 13,603, Fuladshahr 88,426, Gaz 24,433, Goldasht 25,235, Golpayegan 58,936, Golshahr 9,904, Golshan 5,437, Gorgab 9,690, Guged 6,012, Habibabad 9,491, Hana 4,922, Harand 7,829, Hasanabad 4,478, Imanshahr 14,633, **Isfahan 1,961,260**, Jandaq 4,665, Jowsheqan-e Qali 4,181, Jowzdan 6,998, Kamu va Chugan 2,434, Karkevand 7,058, Kahriz Sang 10,442, Kashan 304,487, Kelishad va Sudarjan 25,635, Khaledabad 3,023, Khansar 21,883, Khomeyni Shahr 247,128, Khur 6,765, Komeshcheh 5,100, Khvorzuq 29,154, Komeh 2,305, Kuhpayeh 5,518, Kushk 13,248, Lay Bid 1,832, Mahabad 3,727, Majlesi 9,363, Manzariyeh 7,164, Meshkat 5,357, Meymeh 5,651, Mobarakeh 69,449, Mohammadabad 5,032, Nain 27,379, Najafabad 235,281, Nasrabad 6,425, Natanz 14,122, Neyasar 2,319, Nikabad 4,364, Nushabad 11,838, Pir Bakran 13,469, Qahderijan 34,226, Qahjavarestan 9,712, Qamsar 3,877, Rezvanshahr 3,606, Rozveh 4,332, Sagzi 5,063, Sedeh Lenjan 19,101, Sefidshahr 5,804, Semirom 26,942, Shahin Shahr 173,329, Shapurabad 5,915, Shahreza 134,952, Sin 5,495, Talkhuncheh 9,924, Tarq Rud 1,749, Tiran 21,703, Tudeshk 4,275, Vanak 1,665, Varnamkhast 18,700, Varzaneh 12,714, Vazvan 5,952, Zarrin Shahr 55,817, Zavareh 8,320, Zayandeh Rud 9,463, Zazeran 7,962, Ziar 3,918, and Zibashahr 10,200. Demographics ------------ Isfahan province encompasses various sects today. The majority of the people in the province are Persian speakers, but Bakhtiari Lurs, Kurds, Georgians, Armenians, Qashqais and Persian Jews also reside in the province. The official language of the province is Persian, though different ethnic groups and tribes speak languages of their own, including Judeo-Persian, Armenian, Georgian, Qashqai Turkic, Kurdish and Bakhtiari Lurish. Isfahan province is noted for the large number of cultural luminaries which it has produced, including poets, scholars, philosophers, theologians and scientists of national renown. Language -------- First language in Isfahan Province   Persian (79.52%)  Luri (7.20%)  Turkic (5.62%)  Central Plateau Group (3.33%)  Georgian (0.15%)  Biyabanaki (0.07%)  Armenian (0.05%)  Other, unknown (4.06%) A majority of the population speak Persian as first language with a minority of Luri, Turkic, Georgian, Biyabanaki and Armenian speakers. Modern economy -------------- Nine tons of saffron are produced by this province by the year. It's the biggest milk and dairy producer in Iran. ### High tech The state has 18k active fiber optically connected network ports as of mid 2023. ### Military Iranian armed forces the Islamic Republic military has several locations inside Isfahan province , There is also Esfahan nuclear fuel research and production center nfrpc. Hesa specializes in aerospace and helicopter maintenance and weaponry. ### Tourism #### Bridges Main Isfahan attractions include * Shahrestan bridge * Khajoo (Khaju) Bridge in Isfahan * siosepol or Si-O-Se-Pol bridge * Choobi Bridge (Joubi Bridge) Cuisine ------- According to the Isfahan atlas[*who?*], well-known local dishes include Shefte [fa], Kachi, Kebab Golpayegan, Samanu Shahreza, Carrot stew [fa] Khansar , Yokhe bread (Kaak) and Semirom. Education --------- ### Public universities * Isfahan University of Technology * Isfahan University * Isfahan University of Medical Sciences * Kashan University of Medical Sciences * Isfahan University of Art * Malek-Ashtar University of Technology * University of Kashan ### Islamic Azad Universities Several well-known Islamic Azad University campuses in Iran are located in the province: * Islamic Azad University of Falavarjan * Islamic Azad University of Meymeh * Islamic Azad University of Kashan * Islamic Azad University of Majlesi * Islamic Azad University of Shahreza * Islamic Azad University of Najafabad * Islamic Azad University of Khomeynishahr * Islamic Azad University of Isfahan * Islamic Azad University of Khorasgan Gallery ------- * Cultural Heritage of IranCultural Heritage of Iran * Kashan is another cultural jewel of the province. Seen here is the Agha Bozorg Mosque.Kashan is another cultural jewel of the province. Seen here is the Agha Bozorg Mosque. * * * * * See also -------- * Georgians in Iran * History of Iran * List of the historical structures in the Isfahan province * List of cities in Isfahan Province by population * Ostandari Isfahan Further reading --------------- * Muliani, S. (2001) *The Georgians’ position in the Iranian history and civilization (Jaygah-e Gorjiha dar Tarikh va Farhang va Tammadon-e Iran)* , Sepahan (Esfahan): Yekta * Rahimi, M.M. (2001) *The Georgians of Iran; Fereydunshahr (Gorjiha-ye Iran; Fereydunshahr)*, Sepahan (Esfahan): Yekta * Sepiani, M. (1979) *Georgian Iranians (Iranian-e Gorji)*, Sepahan (Esfahan): Arash * Isfahan's tourist exhibition mentions the Georgians from Fereydunshahr and Fereydan. The report of this exhibition is available in the web site of the Iranian Cultural Heritage News agency. Archived April 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine * Saakashvili visited Fereydunshahr and put flowers on the graves of the Iranian Georgian martyrs' graves, showing respect towards this community. Archived November 29, 2005, at the Wayback Machine

Isfahan province

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_province

The **Yucatán Peninsula** (/ˌjuːkəˈtɑːn/, also UK: /ˌjʊk-/, US: /-ˈtæn, ˌjuːkɑːˈtɑːn/; Spanish: *Península de Yucatán* pronounced [jukaˈtan]) is a large peninsula in southeast Mexico and adjacent portions of Belize and Guatemala. The peninsula extends towards the northeast, separating the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west of the peninsula from the Caribbean Sea to the east. The Yucatán Channel, between the northeastern corner of the peninsula and Cuba, connects the two bodies of water. The peninsula is approximately 181,000 km2 (70,000 sq mi) in area. It has low relief and is almost entirely composed of porous limestone. The peninsula lies east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the narrowest point in Mexico separating the Atlantic Ocean, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, from the Pacific Ocean. Some consider the isthmus to be the geographic boundary between Central America and the rest of North America, placing the peninsula in Central America. Politically all of Mexico, including the Yucatán, is generally considered part of North America, while Guatemala and Belize are considered part of Central America. Etymology --------- The proper derivation of the word Yucatán is widely debated. 17th century Franciscan historian Diego López de Cogolludo offers two theories in particular. In the first one, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, having first arrived to the peninsula in 1517, inquired the name of a certain settlement and the response in Yucatec Mayan was "I don't understand", which sounded like *yucatán* to the Spaniards. There are many possibilities of what the natives could have actually said, among which "*mathan cauyi athán*", "*tectecán*", "*ma'anaatik ka t'ann*" and "*ci u t'ann*". This origin story was first told by Hernán Cortés in his letters to Charles V. Later 16th century historians Motolinia and Francisco López de Gómara also repeat this version. In some versions the expedition is not the one captained by Córdoba but instead the one a year later captained by Juan de Grijalva. The second major theory is that the name is in some way related to the yuca crop, as written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo. Others theories claim that it is a derivative of Chontal Tabascan word *yokat'an* meaning speaker of the Yoko ochoco language, or an incorrect Nahuatl term *yokatlan* as supposedly "place of richness" (*yohcāuh* cannot be paired with *tlán*). History ------- ### Pre-human The Yucatán Peninsula is the site of the Chicxulub crater impact, which was created 66 million years ago by an asteroid of about 10 to 15 kilometers (6 to 9 miles) in diameter at the end of the Cretaceous Period. ### Prehistory In 2020, an underwater archaeological expedition led by Jerónimo Avilés excavated Chan Hol cave, near the Tulum archaeological site in the state of Quintana Roo on the peninsula, and revealed the skeleton of a woman approximately 30 years of age who lived at least 9,900 years ago. According to craniometric measurements, the skull is believed to conform to the mesocephalic pattern, like the other three skulls found in Tulum caves. Three different scars on the skull of the woman showed that she was hit with something hard and her skull bones were broken. Her skull also had crater-like deformations and tissue deformities that appeared to be caused by a bacterial relative of syphilis. According to study lead researcher Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, "It really looks as if this woman had a very hard time and an extremely unhappy end of her life. Obviously, this is speculative, but given the traumas and the pathological deformations on her skull, it appears a likely scenario that she may have been expelled from her group and was killed in the cave, or was left in the cave to die there”. The newly discovered skeleton was 140 meters away from the Chan Hol 2 site. Although archaeologists assumed the divers had found the remains of the missing Chan Hol 2, the analysis soon proved that these assumptions were erroneous. Stinnesbeck compared the new bones to old photographs of Chan Hol 2 and showed that the two skeletons represent different individuals. Due to their distinctive features, study co-researcher Samuel Rennie suggest the existence of at least two morphologically diverse groups of people living separately in Mexico during the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene. ### Maya The Yucatán Peninsula constitutes a significant proportion of the ancient Maya lowlands and was the central location of the Maya Civilization. The Mayan culture also extended south of the Yucatán Peninsula into Guatemala, Honduras, and the highlands of Chiapas. There are many Maya archaeological sites throughout the peninsula; some of the better-known are Chichen Itza, Coba, Tulum, and Uxmal. Indigenous Maya and Mestizos of partial Maya descent make up a sizable portion of the region's population, and Mayan languages are widely spoken there. ### Spanish conquest Geology ------- The peninsula is the exposed portion of the larger Yucatán Platform, all of which is composed of carbonate and soluble rocks, being mostly limestone although dolomite and evaporites are also present at various depths. The whole of the Yucatán Peninsula is an unconfined flat lying karst landscape. Sinkholes, known locally as cenotes, are widespread in the northern lowlands. According to the Alvarez hypothesis, the mass extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs at the transition from the Cretaceous to the Paleogene Period, the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), 66 million years ago was caused by an asteroid impact somewhere in the greater Caribbean Basin. The deeply buried Chicxulub crater is centered off the north coast of the peninsula near the town of Chicxulub. The now-famous "Ring of Cenotes," a geologic structure composed of sinkholes arranged in a semi-circle, outlines one of the shock-waves from this impact event in the approximately 66-million-year-old rock. The existence of the crater has been supported by evidence including the aforementioned "Ring of Cenotes", as well as the presence of impact debris such as shocked quartz and tektites, a type of glass formed during meteorite impacts. The Arrowsmith Bank is a submerged bank located off the northeastern end of the peninsula. Climate ------- The peninsula has a tropical climate, which ranges from semi-arid in the northwest to humid in the south. Average annual rainfall ranges from less than 800 mm (30 inches) in the driest parts of the northwest up to 2,000 mm (80 inches) in the Petén Basin to the south. Rainfall varies seasonally, with August and September generally the wettest months. Like much of the Caribbean, the peninsula lies within the Atlantic Hurricane Belt, and with its almost uniformly flat terrain it is vulnerable to these large storms coming from the east, and the area has been devastated by many hurricanes, such as Hurricane Gilbert, Hurricane Emily, Hurricane Wilma, and Hurricane Dean. Strong storms called *nortes* can quickly descend on the Yucatán Peninsula any time of year. Although these storms pummel the area with heavy rains and high winds, they tend to be short-lived, clearing after about an hour. The average percentage of days with rain per month ranges from a monthly low of 7% in April to a high of 25% in October. Breezes can have a cooling effect, humidity is generally high, particularly in the remaining rainforest areas. Water resources --------------- Due to the extreme karst nature of the whole peninsula, the northern half is devoid of aboveground rivers. Where lakes and swamps are present, the water is marshy and generally unpotable. Due to its coastal location, the whole of the peninsula is underlain by an extensive contiguous density stratified coastal aquifer, where a fresh water lens formed from meteoric water floats on top of intruding saline water from the coastal margins. The thousands of sinkholes known as cenotes throughout the region provide access to the groundwater system. The cenotes have long been relied on by ancient and contemporary Maya people. Ecology ------- The vegetation and plant communities of the peninsula vary from north to south. The Yucatán dry forests occupy the dry northwestern peninsula, and include dry forests and scrublands and cactus scrub. The Yucatán moist forests occur across the middle and east of the peninsula, and are characterized by semi-deciduous forests where 25 to 50% of the trees lose their leaves during the summer dry season. The Belizian pine forests are found in several enclaves across central Belize. The southernmost portion of the peninsula is in the Petén–Veracruz moist forests ecoregion, an evergreen rain forest. Northern Guatemala (El Petén), Mexico (Campeche and Quintana Roo), and western Belize are still occupied by the largest continuous tracts of tropical rainforest in Central America. However, these forests are suffering extensive deforestation. Mangroves occur along the coast, with the Usumacinta mangroves around the Laguna de Términos in the southwest, the Petenes mangroves along the west coast, Ría Lagartos mangroves along the northern shore of the peninsula, and the Mayan Corridor mangroves and Belizean Coast mangroves to the east along the Caribbean Sea. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System is an immense coral barrier reef which stretches over 1,100 km (700 miles) along the eastern coast of the peninsula. Governance ---------- The peninsula comprises the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo, as well as Guatemala's Petén Department and almost the whole of Belize. Economy ------- In the late historic and early modern eras, the Yucatán Peninsula was largely a cattle ranching, logging, chicle and henequen production area. Since the 1970s, the Yucatán Peninsula has reoriented its economy towards tourism, especially in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. Aside from tourism, another source of income that is important in the Peninsula is logging as well as chicle industries specifically in Belize. Oil was also found in certain parts of the Yucatán, bringing in more economic opportunities. Once a small fishing village, Cancún in the northeast of the peninsula has grown into a thriving city. The Riviera Maya, which stretches along the east coast of the peninsula between Cancún and Tulum, houses over 50,000 beds. The best-known locations are the former fishing town of Playa del Carmen, the ecological parks Xcaret and Xel-Há and the Maya ruins of Tulum and Coba. Population ---------- Population throughout the Yucatán Peninsula is very different throughout each part of the Peninsula. Population density and ethnic composition are two factors that play into the total population. The most populated area is Mérida in Yucatán state as well as the areas that surround that region. The least populated part of the peninsula is Quintana Roo which is a state located in the Southeastern part of Mexico. In terms of ethnic composition, a majority of the population consisted of both Maya and Mestizos. See also -------- * Cenote 1. 1 2 "Yucatán". *Collins English Dictionary*. HarperCollins. Retrieved 26 July 2019. 2. ↑ "Yucatán". *Lexico UK English Dictionary*. Oxford University Press.[*dead link*] 3. ↑ "Yucatán". *The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language* (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 26 July 2019. 4. ↑ "Yucatán". *Merriam-Webster Dictionary*. Retrieved 26 July 2019. 5. 1 2 McColl, R. W. (2005). *Encyclopedia of World Geography*. New York: Facts On File. pp. 1002–1003. ISBN 0816057869. 6. 1 2 3 4 Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). *Natural Wonders of the World*. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 420. ISBN 0-89577-087-3. 7. 1 2 3 4 Mayr, Renate Johanna (2014). *Belize : tracking the path of its history : from the heart of the Maya Empire to a retreat for buccaneers, a safe-haven for ex-pirates and pioneers, a crown colony and a modern nation*. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 36. ISBN 9783643904812. Retrieved 9 February 2020. 8. ↑ Castaneda, Quetzil (1 August 2002). "Post/Colonial Toponymy: Writing Forward 'in Reverse'". *Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies Travesia*. **11** (2): 119-134. doi:10.1080/1356932022000004166. S2CID 161263168. 9. 1 2 Kane, Njord (2016). *The Maya: The Story of a People*. Spangenhelm Publishing. ISBN 9781943066049. Retrieved 9 February 2020. 10. ↑ González, John Morán; Lomas, Laura (2018). *The Cambridge History of Latina/o American Literature*. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 9781316873670. Retrieved 9 February 2020. 11. ↑ Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Cortés al emperador Carlos V (in Spanish). Paris: A. Chaix y ca. 1866. p. 1 footnote 2. Retrieved 13 December 2010. 12. ↑ "Ibero-American Electronic Text Series: Primera Carta de Relación, PREÁMBULO" (in Spanish). Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. 1945. Retrieved 13 December 2010. 13. 1 2 3 4 Hajovsky, Ric (2011). "How Yucatan got its name". Everything Cozumel. Retrieved 3 February 2020. 14. ↑ Beding, Silvio A. (2016). *The Christopher Columbus encyclopedia*. Springer. p. 304. ISBN 9781349125739. Retrieved 9 February 2020. 15. 1 2 3 4 Osterloff, Emily (2018). "How an asteroid ended the age of the dinosaurs". London: Natural History Museum. Archived from the original on 26 April 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022. 16. ↑ Renne, P. R.; Deino, A. L.; Hilgen, F. J.; Kuiper, K. F.; Mark, D. F.; Mitchell, W. S.; Morgan, L. E.; Mundil, R.; Smit, J. (2013). "Time Scales of Critical Events Around the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary". *Science*. **339** (6120): 684–687. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..684R. doi:10.1126/science.1230492. PMID 23393261. S2CID 6112274. 17. ↑ Stinnesbeck, Wolfgang; Rennie, Samuel R.; Olguín, Jerónimo Avilés; Stinnesbeck, Sarah R.; Gonzalez, Silvia; Frank, Norbert; Warken, Sophie; Schorndorf, Nils; Krengel, Thomas; Morlet, Adriana Velázquez; González, Arturo González (5 February 2020). "New evidence for an early settlement of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico: The Chan Hol 3 woman and her meaning for the Peopling of the Americas". *PLOS ONE*. **15** (2): e0227984. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1527984S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0227984. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7001910. PMID 32023279. 18. ↑ PLOS (5 February 2020). "9,900-Year-Old Skeleton Discovered in Submerged Mexican Cave Has a Distinctive Skull". *SciTechDaily*. Retrieved 19 March 2020. 19. ↑ Geggel, Laura (5 February 2020). "9,900-year-old skeleton of horribly disfigured woman found in Mexican cave". *livescience.com*. Retrieved 19 March 2020. 20. ↑ "Yucatan Peninsula Archaeological Map | 27 Ancient Maya Sites". *mayaruins.com*. 21. ↑ Yarris, Lynn (9 March 2010). "Alvarez Theory on Dinosaur Die-Out Upheld: Experts Find Asteroid Guilty of Killing the Dinosaurs". *News Center*. Retrieved 8 December 2020. 22. ↑ "Chicxulub Crater and Ring of Cenotes". *Karst Geochemistry and Hydrogeology*. 4 April 2018. Retrieved 8 December 2020. 23. ↑ "Arrowsmith Bank, Undersea Features - Geographical Names, map, geographic coordinates". *geographic.org*. 24. ↑ Torrescano-Valle, Nuria, et al. (2015). "Physical Settings, Environmental History with an Outlook on Global Change." In Islebe, Gerald Alexander, Sophie Calmé, et al. (eds.) *Biodiversity and Conservation of the Yucatán Peninsula*. Springer International Publishing, 2015. ISBN 978-3-319-06529-8. 25. ↑ http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/articles/mexico/Yucatan-Weather-Climate/704 [*dead link*] 26. ↑ BBC: *Planet Earth*, part 4: Caves. 27. 1 2 Olson, D. M, E. Dinerstein; et al. (2001). "Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth". *BioScience*. **51** (11): 933–938. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0933:TEOTWA]2.0.CO;2.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 28. ↑ Heilprin, Angelo (1891). "Observations on the Flora of Northern Yucatan". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **29** (136): 137–144. JSTOR 982931. 29. ↑ "Yucatán Peninsula". *Encyclopaedia Britannica*. Retrieved 7 August 2018. 30. 1 2 "Yucatán Peninsula | peninsula, Central America". *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Retrieved 10 December 2020. * Juan Luis Pena Chapa, Manuel Martin Castillo, and Juan Carlos Gonzalez Avila, *The Performance of the Economy of the Yucatan Peninsula from 1970–1993* * Marcio L. Teixeira,*The Impact of the Geologic History of the Yucatán Peninsula on the Present Day Aquifer*,2004 * Angelo Heilprin,*Observations on the Flora of Northern Yucatan* * Yucatan Peninsula: Gateway to the Mayan Mysteries and Beachside Bliss

Yucatán Peninsula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula

**Chandragupta Maurya** (350-295 BCE) was the first emperor of the Mauryan Empire in Ancient India. He extensively expanded the Kingdom of Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Magadhan kingdom under the Mauryas expanded to become an empire that reached its peak under the reign of his grandson, Asoka, from 268 BCE to 231 BCE. The nature of the political formation that existed in Chandragupta's time is not certain. The Mauryan empire was a loose-knit one with large autonomous regions within its limits. Chandragupta Maurya was an important figure in the history of India, who laid the foundations of the first state that united most of India. Chandragupta, under the tutelage of Chanakya, created a new empire based on the principles of statecraft, built a large army, and continued expanding the boundaries of his empire until ultimately renouncing it for an ascetic life in his final years. Prior to his consolidation of power, Alexander the Great had invaded the North-West Indian subcontinent before abandoning his campaign in 324 BCE due to a mutiny caused by the prospect of facing another large empire, presumably the Nanda Empire. Chandragupta defeated and conquered both the Nanda Empire and the Greek satraps that were appointed or formed from Alexander's Empire in South Asia. He set out to conquer the Nanda Empire centered in Pataliputra, Magadha. Afterwards, Chandragupta expanded and secured his western border, where he was confronted by Seleucus I Nicator in the Seleucid–Mauryan war. After two years of war, Chandragupta was considered to have gained the upper hand in the conflict and annexed satrapies up to the Hindu Kush. Instead of prolonging the war, both parties settled on a marriage treaty between Chandragupta and Seleucus I Nicator's daughter Helena. Chandragupta's empire extended throughout most of the Indian subcontinent, spanning from modern day Bengal to Afghanistan across North India as well as making inroads into Central and South India. Contemporary Greek evidence states that Chandragupta did not give up performing the rites of sacrificing animals associated with Vedic Brahminism, an ancient form of Hinduism; he delighted in hunting and otherwise leading a life remote from the Jain practice of *Ahimsa* or nonviolence towards living beings. Chandragupta's reign, and the Maurya Empire, set an era of economic prosperity, reforms, infrastructure expansions, and tolerance. Many religions thrived within his realms and his descendants' empire. Buddhism, Jainism and Ājīvika gained prominence alongside Vedic and Brahmanistic traditions, and minority religions such as Zoroastrianism and the Greek pantheon were respected. A memorial for Chandragupta Maurya exists on the Chandragiri hill along with a seventh-century hagiographic inscription. Historical sources ------------------ Chandragupta's life and accomplishments are described in ancient and historical Greek, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts, but they significantly vary in detail. Chandragupta was born about 340 BC and died at about 295 BC. His main biographical sources in chronological order are: * Greek and Roman sources, which are the oldest surviving records that mention Chandragupta or circumstances related to him; these include works written by Nearchus, Onesicritus, Aristobulus of Cassandreia, Strabo, Megasthenes, Diodorus, Arrian, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch and Justin. * Hindu texts such as the Puranas and Arthashastra; later composed Hindu sources include legends in Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa, Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara and Kshemendra's Brihatkathamanjari. * Buddhist sources are those dated in fourth-century or after, including the Sri Lankan Pali texts Dipavamsa (*Rajavamsa* section), Mahavamsa, Mahavamsa tika and Mahabodhivamsa. * 7th to 10th century Jain inscriptions at Shravanabelgola; these are disputed by scholars as well as the Svetambara Jain tradition. The second Digambara text interpreted to be mentioning the Maurya emperor is dated to about the 10th-century such as in the *Brhatkathakosa* of Harisena (Jain monk), while the complete Jain legend about Chandragupta is found in the 12th-century Parisishtaparvan by Hemachandra. The Greek and Roman texts do not mention Chandragupta directly, except for a second-century text written by the Roman historian Justin. They predominantly mention the last Nanda emperor, who usurped the throne of the king before him. Justin states that Chandragupta was of humble origin, and includes stories of miraculous legends associated with him, such as a wild elephant appearing and submitting itself to him as a ride to him before a battle. Justin's text notes that Chandragupta and Chanakya defeated and removed Nanda from his throne. Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which, if true, would mean his rule started before 321 BCE. He is described as a great king, but not as great in power and influence as Porus in northwestern India or Agrammes (Dhana Nanda) in eastern India. As Alexander did not cross the Beas river, Chandragupta's territory probably included the Punjab region. The pre-4th century Hindu Puranic texts mostly mirror the Greek sources. These texts do not discuss the details of Chandragupta's ancestry, but rather cover the ancestry of the last Nanda king. The Nanda king is described to be cruel, against dharma and shastras, and born out of an illicit relationship followed by a coup. The Chanakya's *Arthasastra* refers to the Nanda rule as against the spiritual, cultural, and military interests of the country, a period where intrigue and vice multiplied. Chanakya states that Chandragupta returned dharma, nurtured diversity of views, and ruled virtuously that kindled love among the subjects for his rule. Buddhist texts such as *Mahavamsa* describe Chandragupta to be of Kshatriya origin. These sources, written about seven centuries after his dynasty ended, state that both Chandragupta and his grandson Ashoka – a patron of Buddhism – were from a branch of the Shakya noble family, from which Gautama Buddha descended. These Buddhist sources attempt to link the dynasty of their patron Ashoka directly to the Buddha. The sources claim that the family branched off to escape persecution from a king of the Kosala Kingdom and Chandragupta's ancestors moved into a secluded Himalayan kingdom known for its peacocks. The Buddhist sources explain the epithet *maurya* comes from these peacocks, or *Mora* in Pali (Sanskrit: Mayura). The Buddhist texts are inconsistent; some offer other legends to explain his epithet. For example, they mention a city named "Moriya-nagara" where all buildings were made of bricks colored like the peacock's neck. The *Maha-bodhi-vasa* states he hailed from Moriya-nagara, while the *Digha-Nikaya* states he came from the maurya clan of Pipphalivana. The Buddhist sources also mention that "Brahmin Chanakya" was his counselor and with whose support Chandragupta became the king at Patliputra. . He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (which has same etymology as of Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae on the account of same life events. The 12th-century Digambara text *Parishishtaparvan* by Hemachandra is the main and earliest Jain source of the complete legend of Chandragupta. It was written nearly 1,400 years after Chandragupta's death. Canto 8, verses 170 to 469, describes the legend of Chandragupta and Chanakya's influence on him. Other Digambara Jain sources state he moved to Karnataka after renouncing his kingdom and performed Sallekhana – the Jain religious ritual of peacefully welcoming death by fasting. The earliest mention of Chandragupta's ritual death is found in Harisena's *Brhatkathakosa*, a Sanskrit text of stories about Digambara Jains. The *Brhatkathakosa* describes the legend of Bhadrabahu and mentions Chandragupta in its 131st story. However, the story makes no mention of the Maurya empire, and mentions that his disciple Chandragupta lived in and migrated from Ujjain – a kingdom (northwest Madhya Pradesh) about a thousand kilometers west of the Magadha and Patliputra (central Bihar). This has led to the proposal that Harisena's Chandragupta may be a later era, different person. Date ---- None of the ancient texts mention when Chandragupta was born. Plutarch claims that he was a young man when he met Alexander during the latter's invasion of India (c. 326-325 BCE). Assuming the Plutarch account is true, Raychaudhuri proposed in 1923 that Chandragupta may have been born after 350 BCE. According to other Greco-Roman texts, Chandragupta attacked the Greek-Indian governors after Alexander's death (c. 323 BCE) with Seleucus I Nicator entering into a treaty with Chandragupta years later. Seleucus Nicator, under this treaty, gave up Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Makran), and Paropanisadai (Paropamisadae, Kabul) to Chandragupta, in exchange for 500 war elephants. The texts do not include the start or end year of Chandragupta's reign. According to some Hindu and Buddhist texts, Chandragupta ruled for 24 years. The Buddhist sources state Chandragupta Maurya ruled 162 years after the death of the Buddha. However, the Buddha's birth and death vary by source and all these lead to a chronology that is significantly different from the Greek-Roman records. Similarly, Jain sources composed give different gaps between Mahavira's death and his accession. As with the Buddha's death, the date of Mahavira's death itself is also a matter of debate, and the inconsistencies and lack of unanimity among the Jain authors cast doubt on Jain sources. This Digambara Jain chronology, also, is not reconcilable with the chronology implied in other Indian and non-Indian sources. Historians such as Irfan Habib and Vivekanand Jha assign Chandragupta's reign to c. 322-298 BCE. Upinder Singh dates his rule from 324 or 321 BCE to 297 BCE. Kristi Wiley states he reigned between 320 and 293 BCE. Early life ---------- One medieval commentator states Chandragupta to be the son of one of the Nanda's wives with the name Mura. Other sources describe Mura as a concubine of the king. Another Sanskrit dramatic text Mudrarakshasa uses the terms *Vrishala* and *Kula-Hina* (meaning - "not descending from a recognized clan or family.") to describe Chandragupta. The word *Vrishala* has two meanings: one is the *son of a Shudra*; the other means the *best of kings*. A later commentator used the former interpretation to posit that Chandragupta had a Shudra background. However, historian Radha Kumud Mukherjee opposed this theory, and stated that the word should be interpreted as "the best of kings". The same drama also refers to Chandragupta as someone of humble origin, like Justin. According to the 11th-century texts of the Kashmiri Hindu tradition – Kathasaritsagara and *Brihat-Katha-Manjari* – the Nanda lineage was very short. Chandragupta was a son of Purva-Nanda, the older Nanda based in Ayodhya. The common theme in the Hindu sources is that Chandragupta came from a humble background and with Chanakya, he emerged as a dharmic king loved by his subjects. According to the Digambara legend by Hemachandra, Chanakya was a Jain layperson and a Brahmin. When Chanakya was born, Jain monks prophesied that Chanakya will one day grow up to help make someone an emperor and will be the power behind the throne. Chanakya believed in the prophecy and fulfilled it by agreeing to help the daughter of a peacock-breeding community chief deliver a baby boy. In exchange, he asked the mother to give up the boy and let him adopt him at a later date. The Jain Brahmin then went about making money through magic, and returned later to claim young Chandragupta, whom he taught and trained. Together, they recruited soldiers and attacked the Nanda kingdom. Eventually, they won and proclaimed Patliputra as their capital. Career ------ ### Influence of Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta) The Buddhist and Hindu sources present different versions of how Chandragupta met Chanakya. Broadly, they mention young Chandragupta creating a mock game of a royal court that he and his cowherd friends played near Vinjha forest. Chanakya saw him give orders to the others, bought him from the hunter, and adopted Chandragupta. Chanakya taught and admitted him in Taxila to study the Vedas, military arts, law, and other sastras. After Taxila, Chandragupta and Chanakya moved to Pataliputra, the capital and a historic learning center in the eastern Magadha kingdom of India. They met Nanda there according to Hindu sources, and Dhana Nanda according to Pali-language Buddhist sources. Chandragupta became a commander of the Nanda army, but according to Justin, Chandragupta offended the Nanda king ("Nandrum" or "Nandrus") who ordered his execution. An alternative version states that it was the Nanda king who was publicly insulted by Chanakya. Chandragupta and Chanakya escaped and became rebels who planned to remove the Nanda king from power. The *Mudrarakshasa* also states that Chanakya swore to destroy the Nanda dynasty after he felt insulted by the king. The Roman text by Justin mentions a couple of miraculous incidents that involved Sandracottus (Chandragupta) and presents these legends as omens and portents of his fate. In the first incident, when Chandragupta was asleep after having escaped from Nandrum, a big lion came up to him, licked him, and then left. In the second incident, when Chandragupta was readying for war with Alexander's generals, a huge wild elephant approached him and offered itself to be his steed. ### Building the empire According to the Buddhist text *Mahavamsa Tika*, Chandragupta and Chanakya raised an army by recruiting soldiers from many places after the former completed his education at Taxila. Chanakya made Chandragupta the leader of the army. The Digambara Jain text *Parishishtaparvan* states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka. According to Justin, Chandragupta organized an army. Early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri, the original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber. The Buddhist *Mahavamsa Tika* and Jain *Parishishtaparvan* records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital. He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There Dhana Nanda accepted defeat, and was killed by Buddhist accounts, or deposed and exiled by Hindu accounts. ### Conquest of the Nanda empire Greco-Roman writer Plutarch stated, in his *Life of Alexander*, that the Nanda king was so unpopular that had Alexander tried, he could have easily conquered India. After Alexander ended his campaign and left, Chandragupta's army conquered the Nanda capital Pataliputra around 322 BCE with Chanakya's counsel. Historically reliable details of Chandragupta's campaign into Pataliputra are unavailable and the legends written centuries later are inconsistent. Buddhist texts such as *Milindapanha* claim Magadha was ruled by the Nanda dynasty, which, with Chanakya's counsel, Chandragupta conquered to restore *dhamma*. The army of Chandragupta and Chanakya first conquered the Nanda outer territories before invading Pataliputra. In contrast to the easy victory of Buddhist sources, the Hindu and Jain texts state that the campaign was bitterly fought because the Nanda dynasty had a powerful and well-trained army. The conquest was fictionalised in *Mudrarakshasa*, in which Chandragupta is said to have first acquired Punjab and allied with a local king named Parvatka under the Chanakya's advice before advancing on the Nanda Empire. Chandragupta laid siege to Kusumapura (now Patna), the capital of Magadha, by deploying guerrilla warfare methods with the help of mercenaries from conquered areas. Historian P. K. Bhattacharyya states that the empire was built by a gradual conquest of provinces after the initial consolidation of Magadha. According to the Digambara Jain version by Hemachandra, the success of Chandragupta and his strategist Chanakya was stopped by a Nanda town that refused to surrender. Chanakya disguised himself as a mendicant and found seven mother goddesses (*saptamatrika*) inside. He concluded these goddesses were protecting the town people. The townspeople sought the disguised mendicant's advice on how to end the blockade of the army surrounding their town. Hemacandra wrote Chanakya swindled them into removing the mother goddesses. The townspeople removed the protective goddesses and an easy victory over the town followed. Thereafter, the alliance of Chandragupta and Parvataka overran the Nanda kingdom and attacked Patliputra with an "immeasurable army". With a depleted treasury, exhausted merit, and insufficient intelligence, the Nanda king lost. These legends state that the Nanda king was defeated, but allowed to leave Pataliputra alive with a chariot full of items his family needed. The Jain sources attest that his daughter fell in love at first sight with Chandragupta and married him. With the defeat of Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in ancient India. ### Conquest of north-west regions The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great ended before Chandragupta came into power. Alexander had left India in 325 BCE and assigned the northwestern Indian subcontinent territories to Greek governors. The nature of early relationship between these governors and Chandragupta is unknown. Justin mentions Chandragupta as a rival of the Alexander's successors in north-western India. He states that after Alexander's death, Chandragupta freed Indian territories from the Greeks and executed some of the governors. According to Boesche, this war with the northwestern territories was in part fought by mercenaries hired by Chandragupta and Chanakya, and these wars may have been the cause of the demise of two of Alexander's governors, Nicanor and Philip. Megasthenes served as a Greek ambassador in his court for four years. ### War and marriage alliance with Seleucus According to Appian, Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's Macedonian generals who in 312 BCE established the Seleucid Kingdom with its capital at Babylon, brought Persia and Bactria under his own authority, putting his eastern front facing the empire of Chandragupta. Seleucus and Chandragupta waged war until they came to an understanding with each other. Seleucus married off his daughter, Berenice, to Chandragupta to forge an alliance. R. C. Majumdar and D. D. Kosambi note that Seleucus appeared to have fared poorly after ceding large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. The Maurya Empire added Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Paropamisadae (Gandhara). According to Strabo, Seleucus Nicator gave these regions to Chandragupta along with a marriage treaty, and in return received five hundred elephants. The details of the engagement treaty are not known. However, since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that the marital alliance went the other way, with Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying a Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus. The Mahavamsa also states that, seven months after the war ended, Seleucus gave one of his daughters, Berenice (known in Pali as *Suvarnnaksi*) in marriage to Chandragupta. Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants to Seleucus, which played a key role in Seleucus' victory at the Battle of Ipsus. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched Megasthenes as an ambassador to Chandragupta's court, and later Antiochos sent Deimakos to his son Bindusara at the Maurya court at Patna. ### Southern conquest After annexing Seleucus' provinces west of the Indus river, Chandragupta had a vast empire extending across the northern Indian sub-continent from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Chandragupta began expanding his empire southwards beyond the Vindhya Range and into the Deccan Plateau. By the time his conquests were complete, Chandragupta's empire extended over most of the subcontinent. Two poetic anthologies from the Tamil Sangam literature corpus – *Akananuru* and *Purananuru* – allude to the Nanda rule and Maurya empire. For example, poems 69, 281 and 375 mention the army and chariots of the Mauryas, while poems 251 and 265 may be alluding to the Nandas. However, the poems dated between first-century BCE to fifth-century CE do not mention Chandragupta Maurya by name, and some of them could be referring to a different Moriya dynasty in the Deccan region in the fifth century CE. According to Upinder Singh, these poems may be mentioning Mokur and Koshar kingdoms of Vadugars (northerners) in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, with one interpretation being that the Maurya empire had an alliance with these at some point of time. ### Names and titles Greek writer Phylarchus (c. third century BCE), who is quoted by Athenaeus, calls Chandragupta "Sandrokoptos". The later Greco-Roman writers Strabo, Arrian, and Justin (c. second century) call him "Sandrocottus". In Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as **Sandrakottos** (Greek: Σανδράκοττος) and **Androcottus** (Greek: Ανδροκόττος). The king's epithets mentioned in the Sanskrit play *Mudrarakshasa* include "Chanda-siri" (Chandra-shri), "Piadamsana" (Priya-darshana), and Vrishala. Piadamsana is similar to Piyadasi, an epithet of his grandson Ashoka. The word "Vrishala" is used in Indian epics and law books to refer to non-orthodox people. According to one theory, it may be derived from the Greek royal title Basileus, but there is no concrete evidence of this: the Indian sources apply it to several non-royals, especially wandering teachers and ascetics. Empire ------ There are no records of Chandragupta's military conquests and the reach of his empire. It is based on inferences from Greek and Roman historians and the religious Indian texts written centuries after his death. Based on these, the North-West reach of his empire included parts of present-day Afghanistan that Seleucus I Nicator ceded to him including Kabul, Kandahar, Taxila and Gandhara. These are the areas where his grandson Ashoka left the major Kandahar rock edict and other edicts in the Greek and Aramaic languages. In the west, Chandragupta's rule over present-day Gujarat is attested to by Ashoka's inscription in Junagadh. On the same rock, about 400 years later, Rudradaman inscribed a longer text sometime about the mid second–century. Rudradaman's inscription states that the Sudarshana lake in the area was commissioned during the rule of Chandragupta through his governor Vaishya Pushyagupta and conduits were added during Ashoka's rule through Tushaspha. The Mauryan control of the region is further corroborated by the inscription on the rock, which suggests that Chandragupta controlled the Malwa region in Central India, located between Gujarat and Pataliputra. There is uncertainty about the other conquests that Chandragupta may have achieved, especially in the Deccan region of southern India. At the time of his grandson Ashoka's ascension in c. 268 BCE, the empire extended up to present-day Karnataka in the south, so the southern conquests may be attributed to either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara. If the Jain tradition about Chandragupta ending his life as a renunciate in Karnakata is considered correct, it appears that Chandragupta initiated the southern conquest. Maurya with his counsellor Chanakya together built one of the largest empires ever on the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta's empire extended from Bengal to central Afghanistan encompassing most of the Indian subcontinent except for parts that are now Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Odisha. Rule ---- After unifying much of India, Chandragupta and Chanakya passed a series of major economic and political reforms. Chandragupta established a strong central administration from Pataliputra (now Patna). Chandragupta applied the statecraft and economic policies described in Chanakya's text *Arthashastra*. There are varying accounts in the historic, legendary, and hagiographic literature of various Indian religions about Chandragupta's rule, but Allchin and Erdosy' are suspect; they state, "one cannot but be struck by the many close correspondences between the (Hindu) Arthashastra and the two other major sources the (Buddhist) Asokan inscriptions and (Greek) Megasthenes text". The Maurya rule was a structured administration; Chandragupta had a council of ministers (*amatya*), with Chanakya was his chief minister. The empire was organised into territories (*janapada*), centres of regional power were protected with forts (*durga*), and state operations were funded with treasury (*kosa*). Strabo, in his *Geographica* composed about 300 years after Chandragupta's death, describes aspects of his rule in his chapter XV.46–69. He had councillors for matters of justice and assessors to collect taxes on commercial activity and trade goods. He routinely performed Vedic sacrifices, Brahmanical rituals,[*failed verification*] and hosted major festivals marked by procession of elephants and horses. His officers inspected situations requiring law and order in the cities; the crime rate was low. According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta's rule was marked by three parallel administrative structures. One managed the affairs of villages, ensuring irrigation, recording land ownership, monitoring tools supply, enforcing hunting, wood products and forest-related laws, and settling disputes. Another administrative structure managed city affairs, including all matters related to trade, merchant activity, visit of foreigners, harbors, roads, temples, markets, and industries. They also collected taxes and ensured standardized weights and measures. The third administrative body overlooked the military, its training, its weapons supply, and the needs of the soldiers. Chanakya was concerned about Chandragupta's safety and developed elaborate techniques to prevent assassination attempts. Various sources report Chandragupta frequently changed bedrooms to confuse conspirators. He left his palace only for certain tasks: to go on military expeditions, to visit his court for dispensing justice, to offer sacrifices, for celebrations, and for hunting. During celebrations, he was well-guarded, and on hunts, he was surrounded by female guards who were presumed to be less likely to participate in a coup conspiracy. These strategies may have resulted from the historical context of the Nanda king who had come to power by assassinating the previous king. During Chandragupta's reign and that of his dynasty, many religions thrived in India, with Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika gaining prominence along with other folk traditions. Infrastructure projects ----------------------- The empire built a strong economy from a solid infrastructure such as irrigation, temples, mines, and roads. Ancient epigraphical evidence suggests Chandragupta, under counsel from Chanakya, started and completed many irrigation reservoirs and networks across the Indian subcontinent to ensure food supplies for the civilian population and the army, a practice continued by his dynastic successors. Regional prosperity in agriculture was one of the required duties of his state officials. The strongest evidence of infrastructure development is found in the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman in Gujarat, dated to about 150 CE. It states, among other things, that Rudradaman repaired and enlarged the reservoir and irrigation conduit infrastructure built by Chandragupta and enhanced by Asoka. Chandragupta's empire also built mines, manufacturing centres, and networks for trading goods. His rule developed land routes to transport goods across the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta expanded "roads suitable for carts" as he preferred those over narrow tracks suitable for only pack animals. According to Kaushik Roy, the Maurya dynasty rulers were "great road builders". The Greek ambassador Megasthenes credited this tradition to Chandragupta after the completion of a thousand-mile-long highway connecting Chandragupta's capital Pataliputra in Bihar to Taxila in the north-west where he studied. The other major strategic road infrastructure credited to this tradition spread from Pataliputra in various directions, connecting it with Nepal, Kapilavastu, Dehradun, Mirzapur, Odisha, Andhra, and Karnataka. Roy stated this network boosted trade and commerce, and helped move armies rapidly and efficiently. Chandragupta and Chanakya seeded weapon manufacturing centres, and kept them as a state monopoly of the state. The state, however, encouraged competing private parties to operate mines and supply these centres. They considered economic prosperity essential to the pursuit of dharma (virtuous life) and adopted a policy of avoiding war with diplomacy yet continuously preparing the army for war to defend its interests and other ideas in the *Arthashastra*. Arts and architecture --------------------- The evidence of arts and architecture during Chandragupta's time is mostly limited to texts such as those by Megasthenes and Kautilya. The edict inscriptions and carvings on monumental pillars are attributed to his grandson Ashoka. The texts imply the existence of cities, public works, and prosperous architecture but the historicity of these is in question. Archeological discoveries in the modern age, such as those Didarganj Yakshi discovered in 1917 buried beneath the banks of the Ganges suggest exceptional artisanal accomplishment. The site was dated to third century BCE by many scholars but later dates such as the Kushan era (1st-4th century CE) have also been proposed. The competing theories state that the art linked to Chandragupta Maurya's dynasty was learnt from the Greeks and West Asia in the years Alexander the Great waged war; or that these artifacts belong to an older indigenous Indian tradition. Frederick Asher of the University of Minnesota says "we cannot pretend to have definitive answers; and perhaps, as with most art, we must recognize that there is no single answer or explanation". Succession, renunciation, and death (Sallekhana) ------------------------------------------------ The circumstances and year of Chandragupta's death are unclear and disputed. According to Digambara Jain accounts, Bhadrabahu forecast a 12-year famine because of all the killing and violence during the conquests by Chandragupta Maurya. He led a group of Jain monks to south India, where Chandragupta Maurya joined him as a monk after abdicating his kingdom to his son Bindusara. Together, states a Digambara legend, Chandragupta and Bhadrabahu moved to Shravanabelagola, in present-day south Karnataka. These Jain accounts appeared in texts such as *Brihakathā kośa* (931 CE) of Harishena, *Bhadrabāhu charita* (1450 CE) of Ratnanandi, *Munivaṃsa bhyudaya* (1680 CE) and *Rajavali kathe*. Chandragupta lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death as per the Jain practice of *sallekhana*, according to the Digambara legend. In accordance with the Digambara tradition, the hill on which Chandragupta is stated to have performed asceticism is now known as Chandragiri hill, and Digambaras believe that Chandragupta Maurya erected an ancient temple that now survives as the Chandragupta basadi. According to Roy, Chandragupta's abdication of throne may be dated to c. 298 BCE, and his death between 297 BCE and 293 BCE. His grandson was emperor Ashoka who is famed for his historic pillars and his role in helping spread Buddhism outside of ancient India. Regarding the inscriptions describing the relation of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, Radha Kumud Mookerji writes, > The oldest inscription of about 600 AD associated "the pair (*yugma*), Bhadrabahu along with Chandragupta *Muni*." Two inscriptions of about 900 AD on the Kaveri near Seringapatam describe the summit of a hill called Chandragiri as marked by the footprints of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta *munipati*. A Shravanabelagola inscription of 1129 mentions Bhadrabahu "*Shrutakevali*", and Chandragupta who acquired such merit that he was worshipped by the forest deities. Another inscription of 1163 similarly couples and describes them. A third inscription of the year 1432 speaks of *Yatindra* Bhadrabahu, and his disciple Chandragupta, the fame of whose penance spread into other words. > > Along with texts, several Digambara Jain inscriptions dating from the 7th–15th century refer to Bhadrabahu and a Prabhacandra. Later Digambara tradition identified the Prabhacandra as Chandragupta, and some modern era scholars have accepted this Digambara tradition while others have not, Several of the late Digambara inscriptions and texts in Karnataka state the journey started from Ujjain and not Patliputra (as stated in some Digambara texts). Jeffery D. Long – a scholar of Jain and Hindu studies – says in one Digambara version, it was Samprati Chandragupta who renounced, migrated and performed *sallekhana* in Shravanabelagola. Long states scholars attribute the disintegration of the Maurya empire to the times and actions of Samprati Chandragupta – the grandson of Ashoka and great-great-grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. The two Chandraguptas have been confused to be the same in some Digambara legends. Scholar of Jain studies and Sanskrit Paul Dundas says the Svetambara tradition of Jainism disputes the ancient Digambara legends. According to a fifth-century text of the Svetambara Jains, the Digambara sect of Jainism was founded 609 years after Mahavira's death, or in first-century CE. Digambaras wrote their own versions and legends after the fifth-century, with their first expanded Digambara version of sectarian split within Jainism appearing in the tenth-century. The Svetambaras texts describe Bhadrabahu was based near Nepalese foothills of the Himalayas in third-century BCE, who neither moved nor travelled with Chandragupta Maurya to the south; rather, he died near Patliputra, according to the Svetambara Jains. The 12th-century Svetambara Jain legend by Hemachandra presents a different picture. The Hemachandra version includes stories about Jain monks who could become invisible to steal food from royal storage and the Jain Brahmin Chanakya using violence and cunning tactics to expand Chandragupta's kingdom and increase royal revenues. It states in verses 8.415 to 8.435, that for 15 years as king, Chandragupta was a follower of non-Jain "ascetics with the wrong view of religion" (non-Jain) and "lusted for women". Chanakya, who was a Jain follower, persuaded Chandragupta to convert to Jainism by showing that Jain ascetics avoided women and focused on their religion. The legend mentions Chanakya aiding the premature birth of Bindusara, It states in verse 8.444 that "Chandragupta died in meditation (can possibly be *sallekhana*.) and went to heaven". According to Hemachandra's legend, Chanakya also performed *sallekhana*. According to V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar – an Indologist and historian, several of the Digambara legends mention Prabhacandra, who had been misidentified as Chandragupta Maurya particularly after the original publication on Shravanabelagola epigraphy by B. Lewis Rice. The earliest and most important inscriptions mention Prabhacandra, which Rice presumed may have been the "clerical name assumed by Chadragupta Maurya" after he renounced and moved with Bhadrabahu from Patliputra. Dikshitar stated there is no evidence to support this and Prabhacandra was an important Jain monk scholar who migrated centuries after Chandragupta Maurya's death. Other scholars have taken Rice's deduction of Chandragupta Maurya retiring and dying in Shravanabelagola as the working hypothesis, since no alternative historical information or evidence is available about Chandragupta's final years and death. Legacy ------ A memorial to Chandragupta Maurya exists on Chandragiri hill in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. The Indian Postal Service issued a commemorative postage stamp honouring Chandragupta Maurya in 2001. In popular culture ------------------ * *Mudrarakshasa* is a political drama in Sanskrit by Vishakhadatta composed 600 years after the conquest of Chandragupta – probably between 300 CE and 700 CE. * D. L. Roy wrote a Bengali drama named *Chandragupta* based on the life of Chandragupta. The story of the play is loosely borrowed from the Puranas and the Greek history. * Chanakya's role in the formation of the Maurya Empire is the essence of a historical/spiritual novel *The Courtesan and the Sadhu* by Dr. Mysore N. Prakash. * *Chandragupta* is a 1920 Indian silent film about the Mauryan king. * *Chandragupta* is a 1934 Indian film directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar. * *Chandraguptha Chanakya* is an Indian Tamil-language historical drama film directed by C. K. Sachi, starring Bhavani K. Sambamurthy as Chandragupta. * *Samrat Chandragupta* is a 1945 Indian historical film by Jayant Desai. * *Samrat Chandragupt* is a 1958 Indian historical fiction film by Babubhai Mistry, a remake of the 1945 film. It stars Bharat Bhushan in the titular role of the emperor. * The story of Chanakya and Chandragupta was made into a film in Telugu in 1977 titled *Chanakya Chandragupta*. * The television series *Chanakya* is an account of the life and times of Chanakya, based on the play "Mudra Rakshasa" (The Signet Ring of "Rakshasa"). * In 2011, a television series called *Chandragupta Maurya* was telecast on Imagine TV. * In 2016, the television series *Chandra Nandini* was a fictionalized romance saga. * In 2018, a television series called *Chandragupta Maurya* portrays the life of Chandragupta Maurya. * He is a leader of the Indian civilization in the *Rise and Fall* expansion of the 4X video game Civilization VI. * *Nobunaga the Fool*, a Japanese stage play and anime, features a character named Chandragupta based on the emperor. * In the 2001 film *Aśoka*, directed by Santosh Sivan, Bollywood producer Umesh Mehra played the role of Chandragupta Maurya. 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(1923), *Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty*, Oxford University Press (1996 reprint, with B. N. Mukerjee Introduction) * Raychaudhuri, H. C. (1967), "India in the Age of the Nandas / Chandragupta and Bindusara", in K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.), *Age of the Nandas and Mauryas* (Second ed.), Motilal Banarsidass (1988 reprint), ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1 * Roy, Kaushik (2012), *Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-01736-8 * Salomon, Richard (1998), *Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages*, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3 * Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), *The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century*, Cambridge University Press * Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1988), *Age of the Nandas and Mauryas*, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1 * Sen, R.K. (1895), "Origin of the Maurya of Magadha and of Chanakya", *Journal of the Buddhist Text Society of India*, The Society * Singh, Upinder (2016), *A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century*, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6 * Singh, Upinder (2017), *Political Violence in Ancient India*, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-97527-9 * Stoneman, Richard (2019), *The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks*, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-18538-5 * Thapar, Romila (1961), *Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas*, Oxford University Press * Thapar, Romila (2004) [first published by Penguin in 2002], *Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300*, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8 * Thapar, Romila (2013), *The Past Before Us*, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2 * Trautmann, Thomas R. (1970), "Alexander and Nandrus in Justin 15.4.16.", *Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute*, **51** (1/4) * Upādhye, Ādinātha Neminātha (1977), *Mahāvīra and His Teachings*, Bhagavān Mahāvīra 2500th Nirvāṇa Mahotsava Samiti * Vallely, Anne (2018), Kitts, Margo (ed.), *Martyrdom, Self-Sacrifice, and Self-Immolation: Religious Perspectives on Suicide*, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-065648-5 * Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (2006), *Woman in Indian Sculpture*, Abhinav, ISBN 978-81-7017-474-5 * Wiley, Kristi L. (16 July 2009), *The A to Z of Jainism*, Scarecrow, ISBN 978-0-8108-6821-2 * Zvelebil, Kamil (1973), *The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India*, BRILL, ISBN 90-04-03591-5 Further reading --------------- * Bongard-Levin, Grigory Maksimovich (1985). *Mauryan India*. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. OCLC 14395730. * Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), *The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire*, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0 * Mani, Braj Ranjan (2005), *Debrahmanising history: dominance and resistance in Indian society*, Manohar, ISBN 978-81-7304-640-7 * Roy, Kaushik (2015), *Warfare in Pre-British India–1500BCE to 1740CE*, Routledge * Sagar, Krishna Chandra (1992), *Foreign Influence on Ancient India*, Northern Book Centre, ISBN 9788172110284 | | | --- | | Chandragupta Maurya **Maurya dynasty** | | Preceded byDhana Nanda(as king of the Magadha Empire) | **Emperor of the Maurya Empire** 322–297 BCE | Succeeded byBindusara |

Chandragupta Maurya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya

**Kale** (/keɪl/), or **leaf cabbage**, belongs to a group of cabbage (*Brassica oleracea*) cultivars grown for their edible leaves, although some are used as ornamentals. Kale plants have green or purple leaves, and the central leaves do not form a head (as with headed cabbage). Kales are considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most of the many domesticated forms of *Brassica oleracea*. Etymology --------- *Kale* originates from Northern Middle English *cale* (compare Scots *kail* and German *Kohl*) for various cabbages. The ultimate origin is Latin *caulis* 'cabbage'. History ------- Kale originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Anatolia, where it was cultivated for food beginning by 2000 BCE at the latest. Curly-leaved varieties of cabbage already existed along with flat-leaved varieties in Greece in the 4th century BC. These forms, which were referred to by the Romans as Sabellian kale, are considered to be the ancestors of modern kales. The earliest record of cabbages in western Europe is of hard-heading cabbage in the 13th century. Records in 14th-century England distinguish between hard-heading cabbage and loose-leaf kale. Russian traders introduced Russian kale into Canada and then into the United States in the 19th century. USDA botanist David Fairchild is credited with introducing kale (and many other crops) to Americans, having brought it back from Croatia, although Fairchild himself disliked cabbages, including kale. At the time, kale was widely grown in Croatia mostly because it was easy to grow and inexpensive, and could desalinate soil. For most of the twentieth century, kale was primarily used in the United States for decorative purposes; it became more popular as an edible vegetable in the 1990s due to its nutritional value. During World War II, the cultivation of kale (and other vegetables) in the U.K. was encouraged by the Dig for Victory campaign. The vegetable was easy to grow and provided important nutrients missing from a diet because of rationing. Cultivation ----------- Kale is usually an annual plant grown from seed with a wide range of germination temperatures. It is hardy and thrives in wintertime, and can survive in temperatures as low as −15 °C (5 °F). Kale can become sweeter after a heavy frost. Cultivars --------- One may differentiate between kale varieties according to the low, intermediate, or high length of the stem, along with the variety of leaf types. The leaf colours range from light green to green, dark green, violet-green, and violet-brown. Classification by leaf type: * Curly-leaf (Scots kale, blue curled kale) * Bumpy-leaf (black cabbage, better known by its Italian translation 'cavolo nero', and also known as Tuscan Cabbage, Tuscan Kale, lacinato and dinosaur kale) * Sparkly-leaf (shiny and glossy) * Plain-leaf (flat-leaf types like red Russian and white Russian kale) * Leaf and spear, or feathery-type leaf (a cross between curly- and plain-leaf) * Ornamental (less palatable and tougher leaves) Because kale can grow well into winter, one variety of *rape kale* is called "*hungry gap"* after the period in winter in traditional agriculture when little else could be harvested. An extra-tall variety is known as *Jersey kale* or *cow cabbage*. *Kai-lan* or *Chinese kale* is a cultivar often used in Chinese cuisine. In Portugal, the bumpy-leaved kale is mostly called "couve galega" (Galician kale or Portuguese Cabbage). ### Ornamental kale Many varieties of kale and cabbage are grown mainly for ornamental leaves that are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue, or violet in the interior of the rosette. The different types of ornamental kale are peacock kale, coral prince, kamone coral queen, color up kale, and chidori kale. *Ornamental kale* is as edible as any other variety, but potentially not as palatable.[*verification needed*] Kale leaves are increasingly used as an ingredient for vegetable bouquets and wedding bouquets. Nutritional value ----------------- Raw kale is composed of 84% water, 9% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a 100 g (3+1⁄2 oz) serving, raw kale provides 207 kilojoules (49 kilocalories) of food energy and a large amount of vitamin K at 3.7 times the Daily Value (DV) (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin B6, folate, and manganese (see table "Kale, raw"). Kale is a good source (10–19% DV) of thiamin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, vitamin E, and several dietary minerals, including iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus (see table "Kale, raw"). Boiling raw kale diminishes most of these nutrients, while values for vitamins A, C, and K and manganese remain substantial (see table "Kale, cooked"). ### Phytochemicals Kale is a source of the carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin (tables). As with broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables, kale contains glucosinolate compounds, such as glucoraphanin, which contributes to the formation of sulforaphane, a compound under preliminary research for its potential to affect human health beneficially. Boiling kale decreases the level of glucosinate compounds, whereas steaming, microwaving, or stir frying does not cause significant loss. Kale is high in oxalic acid, the levels of which can be reduced by cooking. Kale contains high levels of polyphenols, such as ferulic acid, with levels varying due to environmental and genetic factors. Culinary uses ------------- ### As a snack product Flavored "**kale chips**" have been produced as a potato chip substitute. ### Regional uses #### Europe In the Netherlands, a traditional winter dish called "boerenkoolstamppot" is a mix of curly kale and mashed potatoes, sometimes with fried bacon, and served with rookworst ("smoked sausage"). In Northern Germany, there is a winter tradition known as "Kohlfahrt" ("kale trip"), where a group of people will go on a hike through the woods during the day before gathering at an inn or private residence where kale is served, usually with bacon and Kohlwurst ("kale sausage"). Kale is considered a Northern German staple and comfort food. In Italy, cavolo nero kale is an ingredient of the Tuscan soup ribollita. A traditional Portuguese soup, *caldo verde*, combines pureed potatoes, very finely sliced kale, olive oil and salt. Additional ingredients can include broth and sliced, cooked spicy sausage. In Scotland, kale provided such a base for a traditional diet that the word in some Scots dialects is synonymous with food. To be "off one's kail" is to feel too ill to eat. In Ireland, kale is mixed with mashed potatoes to make the traditional dish *colcannon*. It is popular on Halloween, when it may be served with sausages. #### Asia In Sri Lanka, it is known as *kola gova* or ela gova. It is cultivated for edible use. A dish called 'kale mallung' is served almost everywhere on the island, along with rice. In literature ------------- The *Kailyard* school of Scottish writers, which included J. M. Barrie (creator of Peter Pan), consisted of authors who wrote about traditional rural Scottish life (*kailyard* = 'kale field'). In Cuthbertson's book *Autumn in Kyle and the charm of Cunninghame*, he states that Kilmaurs in East Ayrshire was famous for its kale, which was an important foodstuff. A story is told in which a neighbouring village offered to pay a generous price for some kale seeds, an offer too good to turn down. The locals agreed, but a gentle roasting on a shovel over a coal fire ensured the seeds never germinated. Gallery ------- * Curly-leaf kaleCurly-leaf kale * Red Russian kaleRed Russian kale * Tuscan kaleTuscan kale * Making kale chips in IllinoisMaking kale chips in Illinois * A traditional New Years Danish dish: boiled ham, glazed potatoes and stewed kaleA traditional New Years Danish dish: boiled ham, glazed potatoes and stewed kale * A kale-based dish with other vegetables and sourdough bread, served at a restaurant in AustraliaA kale-based dish with other vegetables and sourdough bread, served at a restaurant in Australia See also -------- * Bowen's Kale * *Crambe maritima* – sea kale * Leaf vegetable * Kalettes * Cabbage

Kale

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kale

Drum - Cadence A Drum cadences performed by the United States Navy Band --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* In physics, **sound** is a vibration that propagates as an acoustic wave, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid. In human physiology and psychology, sound is the *reception* of such waves and their *perception* by the brain. Only acoustic waves that have frequencies lying between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz, the audio frequency range, elicit an auditory percept in humans. In air at atmospheric pressure, these represent sound waves with wavelengths of 17 meters (56 ft) to 1.7 centimeters (0.67 in). Sound waves above 20 kHz are known as ultrasound and are not audible to humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz are known as infrasound. Different animal species have varying hearing ranges. Acoustics --------- Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gasses, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound, and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an *acoustician*, while someone working in the field of acoustical engineering may be called an *acoustical engineer*. An audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound. Applications of acoustics are found in almost all aspects of modern society, subdisciplines include aeroacoustics, audio signal processing, architectural acoustics, bioacoustics, electro-acoustics, environmental noise, musical acoustics, noise control, psychoacoustics, speech, ultrasound, underwater acoustics, and vibration. Definition ---------- Sound is defined as "(a) Oscillation in pressure, stress, particle displacement, particle velocity, etc., propagated in a medium with internal forces (e.g., elastic or viscous), or the superposition of such propagated oscillation. (b) Auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described in (a)." Sound can be viewed as a wave motion in air or other elastic media. In this case, sound is a stimulus. Sound can also be viewed as an excitation of the hearing mechanism that results in the perception of sound. In this case, sound is a sensation. Physics ------- Sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a sound source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium. As the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, and displacement of the medium vary in time. At an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave. This is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases (that is, the vibrations of particles in the gas or liquid transport the vibrations, while the *average* position of the particles over time does not change). During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium. The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things: * A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium. * Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the wind if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the sound wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind. * The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible. When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, it may be refracted (either dispersed or focused). The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum. ### Waves Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation. Sound waves may be viewed using parabolic mirrors and objects that produce sound. The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of the displacement velocity of particles of the medium. Longitudinal plane pressure pulse waveLongitudinal plane waveTransverse plane wave in linear polarization, i.e. oscillating only in the y-directionTransverse plane waveLongitudinal and transverse plane wave Although there are many complexities relating to the transmission of sounds, at the point of reception (i.e. the ears), sound is readily dividable into two simple elements: pressure and time. These fundamental elements form the basis of all sound waves. They can be used to describe, in absolute terms, every sound we hear. In order to understand the sound more fully, a complex wave such as the one shown in a blue background on the right of this text, is usually separated into its component parts, which are a combination of various sound wave frequencies (and noise). Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which are characterized by these generic properties: * Frequency, or its inverse, wavelength * Amplitude, sound pressure or Intensity * Speed of sound * Direction Sound that is perceptible by humans has frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air at standard temperature and pressure, the corresponding wavelengths of sound waves range from 17 m (56 ft) to 17 mm (0.67 in). Sometimes speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector; wave number and direction are combined as a wave vector. Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional property, *polarization*, and are not a characteristic of sound waves. ### Speed The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental property of the material. The first significant effort towards measurement of the speed of sound was made by Isaac Newton. He believed the speed of sound in a particular substance was equal to the square root of the pressure acting on it divided by its density: c = p ρ . {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\frac {p}{\rho }}}.} {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\frac {p}{\rho }}}.} This was later proven wrong and the French mathematician Laplace corrected the formula by deducing that the phenomenon of sound travelling is not isothermal, as believed by Newton, but adiabatic. He added another factor to the equation—*gamma*—and multiplied γ {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\gamma }}} {\sqrt {\gamma }} by p / ρ {\displaystyle {\sqrt {p/\rho }}} {\displaystyle {\sqrt {p/\rho }}}, thus coming up with the equation c = γ ⋅ p / ρ {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\gamma \cdot p/\rho }}} {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\gamma \cdot p/\rho }}}. Since K = γ ⋅ p {\displaystyle K=\gamma \cdot p} K = \gamma \cdot p, the final equation came up to be c = K / ρ {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {K/\rho }}} {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {K/\rho }}}, which is also known as the Newton–Laplace equation. In this equation, *K* is the elastic bulk modulus, *c* is the velocity of sound, and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } \rho is the density. Thus, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the bulk modulus of the medium to its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 °C (68 °F) air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula *v* [m/s] = 331 + 0.6 *T* [°C]. The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive, being subject to a second-order anharmonic effect, to the sound amplitude, which means there are non-linear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array). If relativistic effects are important, the speed of sound is calculated from the relativistic Euler equations. In fresh water the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). Sound moves the fastest in solid atomic hydrogen at about 36,000 m/s (129,600 km/h; 80,530 mph). ### Sound pressure level *Sound pressure* is the difference, in a given medium, between average local pressure and the pressure in the sound wave. A square of this difference (i.e., a square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time and/or space, and a square root of this average provides a root mean square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa RMS sound pressure (94 dBSPL) in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm − 2 {\displaystyle -{\sqrt {2}}} -{\sqrt {2}} Pa) and (1 atm + 2 {\displaystyle +{\sqrt {2}}} +{\sqrt {2}} Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. As the human ear can detect sounds with a wide range of amplitudes, sound pressure is often measured as a level on a logarithmic decibel scale. The *sound pressure level* (SPL) or *L*p is defined as L p = 10 log 10 ⁡ ( p 2 p r e f 2 ) = 20 log 10 ⁡ ( p p r e f )  dB {\displaystyle L\_{\mathrm {p} }=10\,\log \_{10}\left({\frac {{p}^{2}}{{p\_{\mathrm {ref} }}^{2}}}\right)=20\,\log \_{10}\left({\frac {p}{p\_{\mathrm {ref} }}}\right){\mbox{ dB}}\,} L_{\mathrm {p} }=10\,\log _{10}\left({\frac {{p}^{2}}{{p_{\mathrm {ref} }}^{2}}}\right)=20\,\log _{10}\left({\frac {p}{p_{\mathrm {ref} }}}\right){\mbox{ dB}}\, where *p* is the root-mean-square sound pressure and p r e f {\displaystyle p\_{\mathrm {ref} }} p_{\mathrm {ref} } is a *reference sound pressure*. Commonly used reference sound pressures, defined in the standard ANSI S1.1-1994, are 20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. Without a specified reference sound pressure, a value expressed in decibels cannot represent a sound pressure level. Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, sound pressures are often frequency weighted so that the measured level matches perceived levels more closely. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined several weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to match the response of the human ear to noise and A-weighted sound pressure levels are labeled dBA. C-weighting is used to measure peak levels. Perception ---------- A distinct use of the term *sound* from its use in physics is that in physiology and psychology, where the term refers to the subject of *perception* by the brain. The field of psychoacoustics is dedicated to such studies. Webster's 1936 dictionary defined sound as: "1. The sensation of hearing, that which is heard; specif.: a. Psychophysics. Sensation due to stimulation of the auditory nerves and auditory centers of the brain, usually by vibrations transmitted in a material medium, commonly air, affecting the organ of hearing. b. Physics. Vibrational energy which occasions such a sensation. Sound is propagated by progressive longitudinal vibratory disturbances (sound waves)." This means that the correct response to the question: "if a tree falls in the forest with no one to hear it fall, does it make a sound?" is "yes", and "no", dependent on whether being answered using the physical, or the psychophysical definition, respectively. The physical reception of sound in any hearing organism is limited to a range of frequencies. Humans normally hear sound frequencies between approximately 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), The upper limit decreases with age. Sometimes *sound* refers to only those vibrations with frequencies that are within the hearing range for humans or sometimes it relates to a particular animal. Other species have different ranges of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such as fire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound. Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see above). Soundscape is the component of the acoustic environment that can be perceived by humans. The acoustic environment is the combination of all sounds (whether audible to humans or not) within a given area as modified by the environment and understood by people, in context of the surrounding environment. There are, historically, six experimentally separable ways in which sound waves are analysed. They are: pitch, duration, loudness, timbre, sonic texture and spatial location. Some of these terms have a standardised definition (for instance in the ANSI Acoustical Terminology ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013). More recent approaches have also considered temporal envelope and temporal fine structure as perceptually relevant analyses. ### Pitch Pitch is perceived as how "low" or "high" a sound is and represents the cyclic, repetitive nature of the vibrations that make up sound. For simple sounds, pitch relates to the frequency of the slowest vibration in the sound (called the fundamental harmonic). In the case of complex sounds, pitch perception can vary. Sometimes individuals identify different pitches for the same sound, based on their personal experience of particular sound patterns. Selection of a particular pitch is determined by pre-conscious examination of vibrations, including their frequencies and the balance between them. Specific attention is given to recognising potential harmonics. Every sound is placed on a pitch continuum from low to high. For example: white noise (random noise spread evenly across all frequencies) sounds higher in pitch than pink noise (random noise spread evenly across octaves) as white noise has more high frequency content. Figure 1 shows an example of pitch recognition. During the listening process, each sound is analysed for a repeating pattern (See Figure 1: orange arrows) and the results forwarded to the auditory cortex as a single pitch of a certain height (octave) and chroma (note name). ### Duration Duration is perceived as how "long" or "short" a sound is and relates to onset and offset signals created by nerve responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from the time the sound is first noticed until the sound is identified as having changed or ceased. Sometimes this is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound. For example; in a noisy environment, gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as if they are continuous because the offset messages are missed owing to disruptions from noises in the same general bandwidth. This can be of great benefit in understanding distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from interference, as (owing to this effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous. Figure 2 gives an example of duration identification. When a new sound is noticed (see Figure 2, Green arrows), a sound onset message is sent to the auditory cortex. When the repeating pattern is missed, a sound offset messages is sent. ### Loudness Loudness is perceived as how "loud" or "soft" a sound is and relates to the totalled number of auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time periods, most likely over the duration of theta wave cycles. This means that at short durations, a very short sound can sound softer than a longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity level. Past around 200 ms this is no longer the case and the duration of the sound no longer affects the apparent loudness of the sound. Figure 3 gives an impression of how loudness information is summed over a period of about 200 ms before being sent to the auditory cortex. Louder signals create a greater 'push' on the Basilar membrane and thus stimulate more nerves, creating a stronger loudness signal. A more complex signal also creates more nerve firings and so sounds louder (for the same wave amplitude) than a simpler sound, such as a sine wave. ### Timbre Timbre is perceived as the quality of different sounds (e.g. the thud of a fallen rock, the whir of a drill, the tone of a musical instrument or the quality of a voice) and represents the pre-conscious allocation of a sonic identity to a sound (e.g. “it's an oboe!"). This identity is based on information gained from frequency transients, noisiness, unsteadiness, perceived pitch and the spread and intensity of overtones in the sound over an extended time frame. The way a sound changes over time (see figure 4) provides most of the information for timbre identification. Even though a small section of the wave form from each instrument looks very similar (see the expanded sections indicated by the orange arrows in figure 4), differences in changes over time between the clarinet and the piano are evident in both loudness and harmonic content. Less noticeable are the different noises heard, such as air hisses for the clarinet and hammer strikes for the piano. ### Texture Sonic texture relates to the number of sound sources and the interaction between them. The word *texture*, in this context, relates to the cognitive separation of auditory objects. In music, texture is often referred to as the difference between unison, polyphony and homophony, but it can also relate (for example) to a busy cafe; a sound which might be referred to as *cacophony*. ### Spatial location Spatial location represents the cognitive placement of a sound in an environmental context; including the placement of a sound on both the horizontal and vertical plane, the distance from the sound source and the characteristics of the sonic environment. In a thick texture, it is possible to identify multiple sound sources using a combination of spatial location and timbre identification. Frequency --------- ### Ultrasound Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. Ultrasound is not different from audible sound in its physical properties, but cannot be heard by humans. Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertz. Medical ultrasound is commonly used for diagnostics and treatment. ### Infrasound Infrasound is sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. Although sounds of such low frequency are too low for humans to hear, whales, elephants and other animals can detect infrasound and use it to communicate. It can be used to detect volcanic eruptions and is used in some types of music. See also -------- Sound sources * Earphones * Musical instrument * Sonar * Sound box * Sound reproduction Sound measurement * Acoustic impedance * Acoustic velocity * Characteristic impedance * Mel scale * Particle acceleration * Particle amplitude * Particle displacement * Particle velocity * Phon * Sone * Sound energy flux * Sound impedance * Sound intensity level * Sound power * Sound power level General * Acoustic theory * Beat * Doppler effect * Echo * Infrasound — sound at extremely low frequencies * List of unexplained sounds * Musical tone * Resonance * Reverberation * Sonic weaponry * Sound synthesis * Soundproofing * Structural acoustics

Sound

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound

**Cuernavaca** (Spanish pronunciation: [kweɾnaˈβaka] (); Classical Nahuatl: *Cuauhnāhuac* [kʷawˈnaːwak] "near the woods", ) is the capital and largest city of the state of Morelos in Mexico. Along with Chalcaltzingo, it is likely one of the origins of the Mesoamerican civilization. Olmec works of art, currently displayed in the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City were found in the Gualupita III archeological site. The city is located around a 90-minute drive south of Mexico City using the Federal Highway 95D. The name *Cuernavaca* is a euphonism derived from the Nahuatl toponym *Cuauhnāhuac* and means 'surrounded by or close to trees'. The name was Hispanicized to *Cuernavaca*; Hernán Cortés called it *Coadnabaced* in his letters to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo used the name *Cuautlavaca* in his chronicles. The coat-of-arms of the municipality is based on the pre-Columbian pictograph emblem of the city which depicts a tree trunk (*cuahuitl*) with three branches, with foliage, and four roots colored red. There is a cut in the trunk in the form of a mouth, from which emerges a speech scroll, probably representing the language Nahuatl and by extension the locative suffix *-nāhuac*, meaning 'near'. Cuernavaca has long been a favorite escape for Mexico City and foreign visitors because of its warm, stable climate and abundant vegetation. The municipality was designated a Forest Protection Zone by President Lázaro Cárdenas in 1937 to protect the aquifers, the vegetation and the quality of life of residents both in Mexico City and locally. The city was nicknamed the "City of Eternal Spring" by Alexander von Humboldt in the 19th century. Aztec emperors had summer residences there, and considering its location of just a 1½-hour drive from Mexico City, today many Mexico City residents maintain homes there. Cuernavaca is also host to a large foreign resident population, including large numbers of students who come to study the Spanish language. The city -------- ### City of Eternal Spring Cuernavaca was one of the cities of the world nicknamed "City of Eternal Spring". This appelative derived from Alexander von Humboldt's *Researches concerning the institutions & monuments of the ancient inhabitants of America...:* > To the south east of the city of Cuernuvaca (the ancient Quauhnahuac), on the western declivity of the Cordillera of Anahuac, in that happy region, designated by the inhabitants under the name of *tierra templada* (temperate region) because it is the reign of perpetual spring, rises an insolated hill, which, according to the barometrical measurement of Mr. Alzate, is one hundred and seven metres high. > > — Humboldt (1810) The city is located in a tropical region, but its temperature is fairly constant at 21–26 °C (70–79 °F). It is located on the southern slope of the *Sierra de Chichinautzin* mountains. In the morning, warm air flows up the mountains from the valley below and in the late afternoon, cooler air flows down from the higher elevations. One ubiquitous flowering plant in the city is the bougainvillea. This pleasant climate has attracted royalty and nobles since Aztec times. Foreign princes, archdukes, and other nobles have been attracted to this place because of its flowers, sun, fruits, fresh-water springs, and waterfalls. Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico set up a country residence in the city. Philanthropist Barbara Hutton, who held several royal titles through marriage, had a home on the outskirts of the city. Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy (b. 1943) lived there from 1971 to 1999, and the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, lived in exile in the city following the Iranian Revolution. Although a native of the U.S., Bauhaus designer Michael van Beuren established his residence in a family hacienda in Cuernavaca while fleeing the rise of the Nazi regime in Germany (where he studied and practiced his profession), and a colony of Bauhaus designers grew in the city during World War II. ### Cuernavaca metropolitan area Cuernavaca always has been a popular place for people from Mexico City to escape the city. In the 20th century, the climate and flora began to attract many foreigners as well. Population increase in this urban area began in 1940, but the metro area was not created, nor recognized, until the 1960s. From this time the population and the extension of the metropolitan area have grown. From 1960 to 1980, the population had grown from 85,620 to 368,166. From the 1980s to the present, the municipalities of Emiliano Zapata, Jiutepec, Temixco, Tepoztlán, and Xochitepec have been added to the metropolitan area. These municipalities have seen the highest rates of growth, however; population and economic activity remain concentrated in the city of Cuernavaca proper. The metropolitan area has a population of 912,024 and the municipality has 366,321 inhabitants, as of 2015. Over the decades since 1970, this metropolitan area has become more economically and socially integrated with the Mexico City metropolitan area. Many people from Mexico City own second homes there for weekend retreats, both for the climate and for the well-developed infrastructure. Starting in the 1980s permanent migration of Mexico City residents began, spurred by pollution and crime problems in the capital. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake also pushed many well-to-do families there, fearful of the next catastrophe. In many of these cases, the main breadwinner commutes each day to work in Mexico City. This has produced a considerable increase in housing developments on the outskirts of the city, especially in the late 1990s and 2000s. This influx has had a positive economic benefit for the city but has put pressure on the infrastructure as well. 85% of the city of Cuernavaca is dedicated to housing, and much of this is in middle-class housing developments such as *Rancho Cortés, Rancho Tetela*, and *Colonia del Bosque*, which are located on the outskirts of the city. Lower-income housing is concentrated in the city proper. History ------- ### Indigenous peoples Burials dated to c. 1000 BCE have been found in Gualupita, Morelos, in the north of the city. The first major culture to inhabit this area was the Tlahuica, whose main settlement was where the city of Cuernavaca is today. The Tlahuicas have inhabited this area at least since the 12th century. The first incursions south into the area by peoples of the Valley of Mexico occurred in the 12th century, when a lord named Xolotl (ruler of Tetzcoco) conquered most of the Valley of Mexico. An allied Chichimeca tribe also moved south into what is now northern Morelos state, making Techintecuitla lord of the Cuauhnahuac (as they called the city) area, with the Tlahuicas concentrated in the nearby towns of Yecapixtla and Yautecatle. According to the Tlatelolco Annals, in 1365, the lord of Cuauhnahuac, Macuilxochitl, tried to conquer lands as far as the Valley of Mexico, but was met by the lord of Chalco, Tzalcualtitlan, with similar ambitions. The first Aztec emperor, Acamapichtli, began to expand his empire to the south of the Valley of Mexico and beyond in the 1370s. His successor, Huitzilihuitl, was eager to press on into what is now Morelos state because of the cotton grown there, it was called *Tlalnahuatl* at that time. He asked to marry the daughter of the ruler of Tlalnahuatl but was rejected. That rejection started a war that ended with an Aztec victory in 1396. *Huitziliuitl* then married the princess and Moctezuma I was born of the union. Credit for the conquest of Cuernavaca is given to Acamapichtli in the *Mendocino Codex*, but later writings cite Itzcóatl, or even Moctezuma I, as the conqueror. The conquered dominion, *Tlalnahuac*, was roughly the size of the modern state of Morelos, and subsequently was renamed as *Cuauhnahuac* by the Aztecs. From 1403 to 1426, this province grew in strength, subduing neighboring peoples such as the *Coauixcas*. Eventually, the province, then ruled by Miquiuix, rebelled against the Aztec Empire. This rebellion was put down by Totoquihuatzin and Netzahualcoyotl in 1433. This area then joined in the conquests of what now are known as Taxco, Tepecuacuilco, and Ocuilán. For tribute purposes, the dominion was divided into two zones, one headed by Cuauhnahuac and the other by Huaxtepec. ### Spanish Conquest and colonization At the time of the Spanish Conquest, Itzohuatzin was governing Cuauhnahuac. It was a rich city and densely populated, with large farms and its characteristic ravines bridged over. The Spanish marched on Cuernavaca even before taking the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. They were led by Gonzalo de Sandoval and he was joined later by the conquistador, Hernán Cortés. The bridges were destroyed to prevent the Spanish from entering the city, but they were able to cross on a fallen tree. The Spanish troops pillaged and burned the city before retiring to nearby Acapantzingo, where they celebrated the first mass in Morelos on Sunday, 14 April 1521, before continuing their march on the capital. The Spanish had difficulty pronouncing the Nahua name of the city and changed it to *Cuernavaca.* Cortés returned to Cuernavaca in 1523, stopping in Tlaltenango, where he founded the Church of San José and constructed the first sugar plantation. The fertility of these lands compelled the conquistador to found his favorite residence here. Juana de Zúñiga, Cortes's wife, lived in Cuernavaca in the palace that was constructed in 1526. Cortes then moved the hacienda in Tlaltenango to Amatitlan. The Franciscans arrived in Cuernavaca in 1529 and founded their 5th monastery in New Spain there. This first group included *Martín de Lua, Francisco Martínez, Luis Ortiz, Juan de Cervo, Francisco de Soto, Andrés de Córdova, Martín de Jesús, Juan Juárez, Juan de Motolinía*, and *Juan García de Cervo*. Originally they lived at the San Francisquito hermitage, but later they constructed the open-air chapel, Capilla Abierta, at what was to become a monastery and eventually the Cuernavaca Cathedral. They extended their presence into the neighboring communities of Tetecala, Jiutepec, and Tlaquiltenango, among others, eventually forming the province of Santo Evangelio, which would be part of the province of Mexico in 1543. In 1646, this province was reorganized several times. Cuernavaca and Cuautla became high mayorships which answered directly to the viceregal authorities in Mexico City. In 1786, New Spain was divided into twelve provinces and in 1824, Cuernavaca was initially a district of Mexico City. ### Independence to Revolution During the Mexican War of Independence, José María Morelos was imprisoned at the Palacio de Cortés in November 1815. Agustín de Iturbide's army passed through Cuernavaca to fight Vicente Guerrero in 1820 and came through again in 1821, as the head of the Ejército Trigarante. After Independence and with the Constitution of 1824, the territory now known as the State of Morelos became part of the State of Mexico. Between 1827 and 1829, Cuernavaca was a district of this state. From 1829 to 1833, it was called a prefecture. In 1833, the State of Mexico declared the Atlacomulco Hacienda, which contains the Palacio de Cortés and Cortés's houses in Coyoacán, to be public property. In 1834, Ignacio Echevarría and José María Tornel drafted the Plan of Cuernavaca, which permitted Antonio López de Santa Anna to disregard the laws protecting church property, exile Valentín Gómez Farías, reopen the university, and dissolve the tribunal that was set to convict Anastasio Bustamante for the assassination of Vicente Guerrero. In the same year, the State of Mexico declared Cuernavaca to be a city. During the Mexican–American War (1846-1847), Cuernavaca was captured by the Cadwalader Brigade and was forced to pay retributions to the U.S. Army after the Cuernavaca Infantry under Francisco Modesto Olabuibel fell. During the Ayutla Rebellion in 1854, Santa Anna was forced out of the capital of Mexico City in 1855. He moved his government to Cuernavaca, reorganized it, and named a junta to elect an interim president. This junta consisted of Valentín Gómez Farías, Melchor Ocampo, Benito Juárez, Francisco de P. Zendejas, Diego Álvarez, and Joaquín Moreno. They then voted for Alvarez as president. This new president swore to uphold the Plan of Ayutla and his inauguration was celebrated with much pomp in the city. Ministers from Guatemala, the United States, and Great Britain, as well as the Apostolic Delegate and the Consuls of Belgium, Chile, and some Asian countries, moved to Cuernavaca and recognized the government Álvarez. In 1853, the District of Cuernavaca and the District of Mexico were declared separate. During the Reform War (1857–1860) when conservatives rejected the liberal constitution of 1857, Juan Vicario voiced the cry of "Religión y Fueros" (Religion and Immunity) in Cuernavaca on 13 January 1858. In 1861, the Government of the State of Mexico created the districts of Cuernavaca, Jonacatepec, Tautepec, and Tetecala. In order to facilitate operations against the French during the French Intervention, President Juarez divided the State of Mexico into three military districts. The third consisted of the territories of Cuernavaca, Yautepec, and Tetecala, with its capital in the city of Cuernavaca. Soon thereafter, this district fell into French hands. Maximilian I converted the Borda Garden into his summer residence and bought land in nearby Acapantzingo to construct a chalet. This prompted the construction of the Mexico-Cuernavaca highway. When the French-installed monarch fell in 1867, Republican forces under Francisco Leyva, Ignacio Figueroa, and Ignacio Manuel Altamirano laid siege to Cuernavaca, which was defended by General Joaquín Ayestarán. The attackers cut off water supplies to the city and attacked on 3 January, but were met with a long series of street battles throughout the city. During the fighting, the general was killed and the Republican forces withdrew, victorious, to Mexico City, but only after burning a large portion of the city. The State of Morelos was created in April 1869, with General Francisco Leyva as its first governor. Cuernavaca was declared the capital of the new state in November of the same year. In 1877, under Governor Carlos Pacheco, the Toluca-Cuernavaca highway was built and a rail connection created between Cuernavaca and Mexico City. The Porfirio Díaz Theater was opened in February 1882, and the first Public Health Board in the city was established the same year. In 1891, the Diocese of Cuernavaca was established by Pope Leo XII, comprising the entire state of Morelos, with Hipolito Vera as the first bishop of Cuernavaca. The first locomotive arrived on 1 December 1897, and a bridge was constructed to connect the center of the city with the train station. The Bank of Morelos was founded in 1903. ### Mexican Revolution and 20th century In 1909, the anti-reelection movement was established in Cuernavaca, and by the end of this same year guerilla operations against the Diaz government were headed by Genovevo de la O in Santa María Ahuacatitlán. Emiliano Zapata took over the movement in the south and named De la O in charge of the Cuernavaca area. On 21 May 1911, Cuernavaca was evacuated by government troops, leaving the entire state in rebel hands. Professor Brunk, describing Zapata's triumph, writes "On the twenty-sixth, at 4 o'clock on a bright Friday afternoon, Zapata rode triumphantly into that city at the head of four thousand troops. Waving images of the Virgin of Guadalupe overhead, these revolutionaries were a ragged lot in the eyes of the urbane. But to the throngs who greeted them - the common people of Morelos, the young girls with armfuls of bougainvillea - they were conquering heroes." President Francisco I. Madero visited the city on 12 June 1911, and he attended a banquet in the Borda Garden. The city later fell to the forces of Huerta, and Zapata began to lay siege to Cuernavaca in May 1914 with 3,600 men, falling by August. Later, on 26 January 1915, the Revolutionary government was moved to the city, in defiance of Carranza and the Constitutionalists. However, Zapata lost control of Cuernavaca on 2 May 1916 and was forced to return to guerilla warfare. The Spanish flu came to Cuernavaca in 1918, leaving only 3,000 survivors, although by May 1920 it had a population of 12,799. Wealthy North Americans and Europeans established secondary residences in Cuernavaca and took long vacations there or frequently traveled back and forth, while servants maintained the haciendas in their absence. Sometimes, their offspring have made Cuernavaca their permanent residence, creating an enclave of natives with international roots bearing the influence of their cultures. For example, when the American designer, Michael van Beuren fled Germany with members of Bauhaus, where he was practicing his profession, he took up residence at the vacation hacienda of his parents in Cuernavaca, and stayed permanently, establishing his factory nearby and raising his family there. Others in his family began to reside there year 'round. Their children were natives of Mexico. Video on YouTube After his installation as U.S. Ambassador to Mexico in 1927, American businessman Dwight Morrow established a weekend home in Cuernavaca on the street that today bears his name. It was here that his daughter Anne met famed aviator Charles Lindbergh, whom Morrow had invited to Mexico. In celebration of his daughter's engagement to Lindbergh and to thank the people of Cuernavaca, in 1929 Morrow commissioned Diego Rivera to paint the mural "History of Morelos, Conquest and Revolution" at the Palacio de Cortes. During the 1920s and 1930s, Cuernavaca became a place to vacation and gamble when the Hotel de la Selva was converted into the Casino de la Selva, which attracted people such as Rita Hayworth, Bugsy Siegel, and Al Capone to Cuernavaca, however, gambling was shut down by Lázaro Cárdenas in 1934. He is the same president who declared the area a ZPG (Forest Protection Zone). The casino hosted very important artistic works, including murals of Alvarez Icaza, Messeguer, and the architecture of Candela. The main vault was considered to be the "Mexican Sistine Chapel" by Nobel Prize author, Gabriel García Márquez. 1936 was the year that Malcolm Lowry wrote his short story, "Under The Volcano", which inspired his 1947 novel of the same name. It has never gone out of print and was made into a movie in 1984. Cuernavaca, or Quaunahuac, as it is called in the novel, and the surrounding area, figure prominently in this great historical novel, where extensive details on Mexican history, culture, topography, and especially, politics and religion figure prominently. The recurrent artifacts are the twin volcanos, Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl, and the barranca, symbols of division, death, and rebirth in the city of eternal spring. Dr. Sergio Méndez Arceo became bishop of Cuernavaca in 1952. Mendez was known as a leading voice of *Liberation Theology* and he was a human rights activist. In 1956, Erich Fromm founded the Sociedad Mexicana de Psicoanálisis and from his house in Cuernavaca promoted new ideas in the field of psychiatry, incorporating Zen Buddhism and "communal psychoanalytic studies" (estudios psicoanalíticos comunitarios). This attracted many artists, composers, architects, and counterculture types here. In the 1960s, the city was one of the centers of the psychedelic movement. Timothy Leary tried psilocybin mushrooms there in the summer of 1960 and came back regularly to repeat the experience. There was a riot in Cuernavaca in February 1957 after a police officer shot and killed Jorge Garrigós. In 1966, Austrian priest Ivan Illich founded the *Centro Intercultural de Documentación* (CIDOC) to teach Spanish language and culture to North American missionaries. This center was closed by order of the Vatican in 1969, but several of the teachers continued elsewhere in the city, making Cuernavaca a leading center of Spanish-language teaching for foreigners. More recently the city has seen a very active society dedicated to the preservation of its environment and cultural heritage. The *Frente Civico* which is now influential throughout the country, along with some 150 other organizations has promoted a boycott against Costco for having destroyed the Casino de la Selva to build a couple of warehouses. One of its members, Professor Jaime Lagunez, lobbied a general agreement in the national congress for the purpose of protecting its sixty archeological sites, its vegetation, historic center, and neighboring forests, among other important cultural aspects of the city. The *Frente Civico* received the 2004 National Mendez Arceo Human Rights Award for having protected the world cultural heritage found in the city. ### 21st century The 19 September 2017 earthquake with a magnitude of 7.1 killed four people and damaged or destroyed 180 homes, 11 churches, and 10 other Cuernavaca buildings, including the Cortés Palace, the cathedral, and the landmark *Torre Latinoamericana*, according to Fernando Manrique Rivas, general director of *Protección Civil de Cuernavaca*. Cuernavaca instituted a curfew and possible arrest for 36 hours for violators during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico. Open-air restaurants and bars were closed. Mayor Antonio Villalobos Adan commented on 1 May that the city needs a new cemetery with capacity for 15,000 people, since the city's seven cemeteries are all saturated. It is already estimated that 40% of the population in the Antonio Barona neighborhood has been contaminated by COVID-19. On 2 June, Cuernavaca reported 393 confirmed cases and 83 deaths from the virus; the reopening of the state was pushed back until at least 13 June. Cuernavaca reported 1,322 cases, 1,015 recuperations, and 223 deaths on 31 August. 2,566 cases were reported on 27 December 2020. Four bottles of the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine were stolen from “Carlos Calero Elorduy Hospital” run by SEDENA on 14 January. This hospital plus the G. Parres general hospital, both dedicated to the care of serious COVID-19 cases, reached 100% capacity on 15 January 2021. Points of interest ------------------ ### Palace of Cortés The Palacio de Cortés is east of the Morelos Garden and is considered to be the most representative building of Cuernavaca. Built by Hernán Cortés, it was finished in 1535. It is one of the oldest European-style, civil constructions in the Americas, but is executed in Renaissance style. The series of arches of the central terrace, the battlements, and the thick walls are the most representative aspects of the original construction. It is said that this residence looks much like the mansion built in Santo Domingo by Diego Colón, the son of Christopher Columbus. Just outside the front of the building is an old pyramid base over which Cortés had the structure built, on a hill that dominated the old city. Petroglyphs recovered from the site and from throughout the city are on display. From right to left the petroglyphs are named Lagarto de San Antón, Aguila de Chapultepec, Piedra Chimalli, or Piedra de los Encantos. After having been the residence of Cortés and his descendants for several centuries, the building became a warehouse, a jail, a military barracks, and then the State Government Palace (until 1969). From 1971 to 1973, the building was restored extensively and today houses the *Museo Regional Cuauhnáhuac*, dedicated to the history of Morelos State. It often is referred to as "the Palacio of Cortes." It has ten exhibit halls with maps, illustrations, photographs, works of art, and everyday items from various epochs representing the first human settlements in the state to the present day. It has murals created by Diego Rivera that reflect both Morelos and Mexican history. Adjacent to the Palacio a permanent local handicraft market in which one may purchase silver jewelry, T-shirts, beaded bracelets, pottery, hammocks, blankets, and much more. ### Morelos and Juárez Gardens The Juárez and Morelos Gardens are in the center of the city, both of which are plazas lined with trees. Between the two is the State Government Palace, a three-story building with a tezontle façade built between 1955 and 1969. The Morelos Garden dates from 1908 and is easily recognizable by the large stone statue of José María Morelos, which is known colloquially as "Morelotes". The Juárez Garden is located to the north of the State Government Palace and is the oldest public square in Cuernavaca. The Garden contains a kiosk sometimes said to be designed by Gustave Eiffel and brought from Britain toward the end of the 19th century. Unlike most main squares in Mexico, neither of these open up the way to the main cathedral. The main cathedral in Cuernavaca is located a few blocks west of the square. These two gardens or plazas are known colloquially as the "zócalo". Spectacles are often to be seen here and can include people dancing the "danzón" or other popular dances and "estudiantinas" dressed in colonial-era Spanish garb, playing instruments and dancing, and any number of free concerts. Often clowns perform on the zocalo as well, with balloons and tricks for the children and tell double-entendre jokes for the adults. Locals use the plazas to sell products such as honey, yogurt, traditional candies, and crafts. Street food such as corn on the cob, snow cones, candies, fruit smoothies, and more generally are available. ### Cathedral Cuernavaca Cathedral is the main church of what was the monastery of the Third Order of the Franciscans, called La Asunción, that dates back to the 16th century. It sits on the southeast corner of a large atrium, which also contains a number of other chapels that were built at different times and with different architectural styles. This complex is located at the intersection of Hidalgo and Morelos streets, a few blocks west of the town center. The cathedral was built by Cortés to double as a fortress, with cannons mounted above the buttresses. Over time, this church underwent a number of transformations, updating its interior. This was undone in the mid-20th century, when restoration work removed all the Neoclassical altars and images. These now are stored in the cathedral's pinacotheca and not available to the public. Restoration work uncovered al fresco murals on the lateral walls, relating to the martyrdom of Philip of Jesus, the first Mexican canonized as a saint. The only other decoration inside this church now is a modern-style crucifix and an image of the Assumption of Mary. This restoration work was carried out by Bishop Sergio Méndez Arceo. After the Reform Laws in the 1860s, most of the monastery property passed into state, then private hands, leaving only what is now the cathedral and several smaller chapels on a very large atrium. The Revolution Garden was the orchard of the Cathedral, and the cloister with its observatory, is now the Robert Brady Museum. The church became the Cathedral of Cuernavaca in 1891. Next to the cathedral is the "open chapel" (*capilla abierta*) of San José, which is an original structure built in the 16th century. It also was rescued and restored by Bishop Méndez Arceo and is one of the oldest constructions on the site. The building consists of a vault with three arches that face the atrium. These arches are supported by a pair of flying buttresses. Inside the arches is an altarpiece dating from the 17th century. The main entrance is on Hidalgo Street, where one passes between two large chapels called the Chapel of Santa Cruz and the Chapel of the Tercera Orden. The Tercera Orden is considered to be the more valuable artistically of the two, with its highly sculpted early Baroque main and side portals painted in various colors. Inside, there is a later Churrigueresque main altar. A third chapel, called the Chapel of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores is farther into the atrium and near the Open Chapel of San José. The bell tower was added in 1713. The cathedral was damaged during the September 2017 earthquake, but it has since been restored. #### Other churches of interest * Parish of *Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe (El Sagrario)* was built as a family chapel by Manuel de la Borda in the 18th century. The façade is Baroque, but it has greatly deteriorated in recent years due to acid rain. The cupola is particularly noteworthy. * Parish of *Los Tres Reyes Magos* in Tetela was built in the 16th century by Franciscan monks. It is Baroque style, and there is a fresco inside painted by Marcos Aldaña. The stone fence around the perimeter of the church was designed by British sculptor John Spencer in the 1980s. * *El Calvario* refers to two buildings just north of the Historic Center of Cuernavaca. The smaller is a *chapitel* (open-air chapel) built in 1538 at what was then the entrance to the city. It gets its name from the cross on top. There is a fountain in front called *Fuente de los Leones* or *Fuente de las Ranas*. In 1772 the chapitel was dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe, and there is a large fair every 12 December. The larger building is the church of *San Jose*, built in 1939. * The Church of *Tepetates*, built in the 16th century at the time of the conquest of Cuauhnáhuac, was named after the type of soil found in the area. It is located off Guerrero Street in the old district of Tecoac, which was one of the five neighborhoods that made up the center of the City of Cuernavaca. For years it was the symbol of the city due to its picturesque façade flanked by two cypresses. This temple is designed in neoclassic style, dedicated to Jesus of Nazareth. The church a small atrium, an open chapel, and a nave in addition to two bells that date from 1791. Fr. William Wasson founded the orphanage *Nuestros Pequeños Hermanos* here in 1954. It is believed the church was built upon a *teocalli* (Prehispanic temple). * *Santuario de Tlaltenango*. *Temple of San José* is said to be the first church built in the American continent (1523) on the grounds of Hernán Cortés's hacienda. Next to this is the larger *Sanctuary of Our Lady of Tlaltenango* built in honor of the "Virgin of Miracles" in 1730. The largest belltower in Morelos was built in 1886. There is a large street fair every 8 September. A few blocks away is the *Chapel of San Jerónimo*, built during the second half of the 16th century, for the common people since masses in the Church of San José were officiated only for the wealthy. * Parish of *St. John the Apostle*, built in the 18th century (Chapultepec). There is an image of *el Señor de las Batallas*, a representation of Christ as a soldier in honor of soldiers from the State of Morelos. * Parish of *San Luis Obispo* (Amatitlan), built in the 17th century. The church is run by Franciscans. * Parish of *San Miguel Arcangel*, built in the 18th century. (Acapantzingo) * Church of *San Nicolás Tolentino*, built in the 16th century. (Ahuatepec). On the right side of the church there is a mausoleum with the remains of the revolutionary general Antonio Barona, companion of Emiliano Zapata, who was killed by rival general Genovevo de la O. * Church of *San Lorenzo Mártir*, built in the 16th century. (Chamilpa) * Church of *El Divino Salvador* a Baroque church built by Franciscans in the 16th century (Ocotepec). During the 1914 *Siege of Cuernavaca*, the people of the town donated the bells so they could be melted down and used as cannonballs. Just east of Ocotepec is the Benedictine monastery of *Nuestra Señora de los Angeles* designed by Gabriel Chávez de la Mora. The chapel is round and is used for Catholic retreats. There are a number of non-Catholic churches in Cuernavaca also, notably the Episcopal Cathedral of *San Miguel Arcángel* located at the corner of Calles Guerrero and Santos, Centro Historico. * Landmarks and monuments of Cuernavaca * Teopanzolco, Aztec, date from the Middle to Late Postclassic Period (1300-1521)Teopanzolco, Aztec, date from the Middle to Late Postclassic Period (1300-1521) * Cuernavaca Cathedral and Convent, built in 1529-late 17th century, by the Franciscans. A UNESCO WHS.Cuernavaca Cathedral and Convent, built in 1529-late 17th century, by the Franciscans. A UNESCO WHS. * Chapel of Santa María, chapel of the Cuernavaca CathedralChapel of Santa María, chapel of the Cuernavaca Cathedral * Palace of Cortés, built between 1523-1747 by Hernán Cortés and Gregorio Cayetano Durán.Palace of Cortés, built between 1523-1747 by Hernán Cortés and Gregorio Cayetano Durán. * Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe, built in 1784.Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe, built in 1784. * Parish El Divino Salvador de Ocotepec, built in 1530-1592 by the Franciscans friars.Parish El Divino Salvador de Ocotepec, built in 1530-1592 by the Franciscans friars. * Chapel of San José Tlaltenango, built in 1523.Chapel of San José Tlaltenango, built in 1523. * Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros de Tlaltenango, built in 1720-1730.Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros de Tlaltenango, built in 1720-1730. * Asunción de María y San José Parish, built in the 16th century.Asunción de María y San José Parish, built in the 16th century. * Museo Fotográfico de Cuernavaca (El Castillito), house built in early 20th century.Museo Fotográfico de Cuernavaca (El Castillito), house built in early 20th century. * Museo de Arte Indígena Contemporáneo, building built in 17th century.Museo de Arte Indígena Contemporáneo, building built in 17th century. ### Teopanzolco Teopanzolco is an archeological site located just east of the historic downtown of Cuernavaca. Until recently its construction was dated to the year 1427, but new evidence revealed by 19 September 2017 earthquake suggests the original structure was built between 1150 and 1200 CE. Teopanzolco was an important ceremonial center during the 15th and 16th centuries when the native Tlahuicas were dominated by the Aztecs. The site shows significant Aztec influence. It has a large pyramidal base, called the *Gran Basamento*, topped by two shrines, much like the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan. In fact, the new finds indicate that Teopanzolco predates the Templo Mayor and served as a model for the latter. Only the stone columns of these shrines remain today. The teocalli, (sacred plaza) contains fourteen monuments including a circular altar dedicated to the wind deity Ehécatl. There are also two concentric structures separated by a moat or ditch. Both might have been dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, the feathered-serpent deity, or to Tlāloc, god or rain. The ruins were discovered during the *Siege of Cuernavaca* in 1914 as the *Zapatistas* used the heights to place their cannons. #### Centro Cultural Teopanzolco The Cultural Center next to the pyramids has recently been remodeled and now includes several first-class concert halls. There is outside seating facing the pyramids where one can see a video mapping of the pyramid site (Spanish only). centro-cultural-teopanzolco/ English (Retrieved Dec 16, 2016) ### Borda Garden The Borda Garden is located near the cathedral on Morelos Street. Originally, this was a house bought by José de la Borda, the mining magnate of Taxco in the mid-18th century. Later, his son, Manuel de Borda y Verdugo, transformed the grounds of the house into gardens filled with flower and fruit trees to satisfy his passion for botany. These gardens also contain a number of fountains and an artificial lake that were completed in 1783. Today the complex contains an art gallery, offices, a restaurant, and an open-air theater. In 1865, this was the summer home of Emperor Maximilian I and his wife Carlota Amalia. Some sources say the emperor met his mistress, "La India Bonita," there, (although other sources say they met at his home called "El Olindo" in Acapantzingo.) In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Borda Garden sponsored soirees, such as those sponsored by Porfirio Díaz and Emiliano Zapata. Today the area is a public park where the gardens have been maintained and it is possible to take a short boat ride on the lake. The house has been converted into a museum. Six of its halls are dedicated to temporary exhibits while the other seven are devoted to recreating the characteristics of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Church of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe is located next to the Borda Garden, and was constructed by Manuel de la Borda in 1784. It has a Baroque façade and what is considered to be the best cupola in the city. It was the royal chapel of Emperor Maximilian. The cupola was badly damaged in the earthquake of 2017. ### Robert Brady Museum The Robert Brady Museum is on Nezahualcoyotl Street and occupies the building known as the *Casa de la Torre*, originally part of the monastery of La Asunción. In 1960, it was purchased by the U.S. artist, Robert Brady, who transformed it into his home and a private art and collectible museum. It contains a collection of art and crafts from around the world as well as the original *Self-Portrait with Monkey* painted by Frida Kahlo. Other works are by artists such as Miguel Cobarruvias, Pelegrí Clavé, María Izquierdo, and Rufino Tamayo. Non-Mexican paintings include those from North America and Europe. Other objects in the collection include antique furniture, African and Indian crafts, and archeological pieces. The collection occupies fourteen rooms of the old house, which has been kept mostly the way it was when Brady died in 1986 and bequeathed the house and its contents to the city. ### Tlaltenango Tlaltenango used to be a separate town, but now is a neighborhood of Cuernavaca city. The main attraction there is the church compound containing the Church of San José and the Church of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros de Tlaltenango. San José is one of the oldest churches in Mexico, built between 1521 and 1523. Two centuries later an image of the Virgin appeared to members of this village, prompting the building of the second church. This is the Sanctuary of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros, which was built in 1730, with its bell towers built at the end of the 19th century. ### Hacienda Atlacomulco The Hacienda de San Antonio Atlacomulco is located south of the Cuernavaca and was established by Hernán Cortés as one of the first sugar plantations in Mexico. Descendants of the Conquistador held the property until the 19th century, when it became the property of Lucas Alamán, who modernized the facility. The hacienda lost its surrounding properties during the Mexican Revolution and all that remains is the main house. After a long period of restoration and modification, the hacienda today houses an exclusive hotel, which can accommodate conventions and banquets. ### Museum of Traditional and Herbal Medicine and the Ethnicbotanical garden South of the city center is Acapantzingo, which had been a separate town, but now is part of the city. A large farm owned by Emperor Maximilian I existed there in the 1860s. It was named Olindo, referring to a character in the poem by Torquato Tasso. The emperor used this property as one of his residences in Cuernavaca, and according to rumor, to enjoy the company of a certain beautiful Indian woman. On this farm and in what was the Pavilion, is now the Museum of Traditional and Herbal Medicine (Museo de Medicina Tradicional). The museum sponsors workshops and classes on the use of plants to make soap, cremes, dyes, decorative objects and more. Outside is the ethnicbotanical garden with exhibits including 800 species of plants organized by uses, such as the making of textiles, animal feed, condiments, ritual, and others. ### Children's "Kite" Museum Located on Avenida Vicente Guerrero 205, Colonia Lomas de Selva is the Papalote Children's Museum an interactive children's museum with up to thirty exhibitions and artistic experiences for children, such as a bed of nails, Vincent van Gogh room, Lego, garden, sandbox, bubble factory, and others. Some exhibits are even for children under 3. ### Chapultepec Ecological Park The Chapultepec Ecological Park is located about four km southeast of the Cuernavaca city center. It contains fresh-water springs, which form the beginning of a river, and is surrounded by large trees called Chapultepec. It is a public park administered by the State Commission of Water and Environment. In addition to playgrounds, the park has constructed habitats for monkeys, birds, butterflies, crocodiles, reptiles, aquatic plants, and orchids. It also has a petting zoo, environmental museum, planetarium, house of terror, theater, and tour train. Beginning December 2018, Diana Ríos, a Mexican designer and artist working with the company *Veneno Ríos* is in charge of creating a new façade called “Metamorphosis” inspired in evolution and species changes as well as the love of nature in Morelos. Featured species are the *cangrejito barranqueño* (a crab), the *carpita morelense* (carp), and the *amate amarillo* (yellow fig tree). ### Chapitel del Calvario The Chapitel del Calvario is a church located at the corner of Morelos and Matamoros Streets, which was constructed in 1532. The word "chapitel" means "spire" as the church is named after two spires that define its appearance. It also has a fourteen-meter-high dome. It was constructed in the 16th century and was the last building encountered within Cuernavaca, as one left the city on the road to Mexico City. In 1772, this church was dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe. ### El Castillito The *Museo de Fotografía Antigua*, also known as *El Castillito* (the little castle), is located one block from the *Chapitel del Calvario*. It is a very small, brick building that dates from the early 20th century when it was built as a home for the caretaker of the park that is next to the bridge built by Porfirio Diaz. It was later abandoned until Governor Vicente Estrada Cajigal remodeled it as his residence. Since 1986 it has been a small museum dedicated to antique photographs of the city of Cuernavaca. ### Salto de San Antón / St. Anthony Waterfall The Salto de San Anton is a large ravine with a thin but tall waterfall located in the neighborhood of *San Anton Analco* on the west side of Cuernavaca. The waterfall is 36 metres (118 feet) high, with its water coming from a small tributary of the Zempoala River. The vertical walls of the ravine are of basalt and broad-leafed vegetation grows in nooks and crannies of the stone. A series of stairs and platforms have been built to enable access to the waterfall area from the park above. The area is a popular place to purchase potted plants. ### Museo Morelense de Arte Contemporáneo Juan Soriano The Juan Soriano Museum of Contemporary Art is located east of downtown near the Adolfo López Mateos Market in Colonia *Amatitlan*. The museum opened amidst controversy on 8 June 2018, and includes a collection of 1,200 paintings, sculptures, drawings, and photographs, including a permanent collection of works by the artist Juan Soriano. The museum was designed by the architect Javier Sanchez and it cost 300 million pesos (US$15 million) to build. ### Ravine of Amanalco Park / Barranca de Amanalco The ravines of Cuernavaca play a major role in regulating the climate of the city. One of the most important is the Ravine of Amanalco, which served as a natural defensive line for the city of Cuauhuanauc during the Spanish conquest of 1520, until Hernán Cortés managed to cross it where the modern "Puente del Diablo" is located. The Ravine of Amanalco Park opened in the 1990s and features a 352-meter long walkway beginning at the Porfirio Díaz bridge and ending at the arches of a colonial-era aqueduct of Carlos Cuagila Street. It is a peaceful walk under dense foliage, and the only sounds you will hear are the birds and the running water. One can view of the under area of the bridge, which was built at the end of the 19th century in order to connect the center of the city and the railway station via trolly. ### La Tallera David Alfaro Siqueiros / David Alfaro Siqueiros House & Studio The David Alfaro Siqueiros House and Studio in Cuernavaca, was donated to “the people of Mexico” by David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896-1974). In the late fifties, Siqueiros was creating the mural *Del Porfirismo a la Revolución* (1957–66). On 9 August 1960, this project was abandoned because he was charged with the crime of “social dissolution” and the muralist was imprisoned. When he left prison in 1964, Siqueiros finished the mural and built a house and workshop in the city of Cuernavaca. There, he lived and executed the mural *La Marcha de la Humanidad* (1971–73), currently located at the Polyforum Siqueiros. The house/workshop is located in *Parque Siqueiros* at the intersection of Calles Marte and Venus, Colonia Jardines de Cuernavaca. It is recommended that one enter from Calle Marte in order to fully appreciate the recently restored murals outside. Free. Siqueiros Park & Studio (English) Retrieved Dec 16, 2018 ### Other museums *La Casona Spencer* (Spencer House) is a cultural center designed to promote the arts. Opened in 2006, the building, located across from the cathedral, dates from colonial time. It was donated to the city upon the death of British artist John Spencer. Morelos Museum of Popular Arts is located downtown on Hidalgo Street between the cathedral and the Cuauhnahuac Museum. The museum opened in 2016 and features traditional art of Morelos and other parts of Mexico, including ceramics, wax sculpture, and pottery. The exhibits are changed often, and there is a gift shop. City Museum / *Museo de la Ciudad de Cuernavaca (MuCIC)* is located in a two-story colonial building on Avenida Morelos next to the Borda Garden. There are six halls for permanent exhibitions and six halls for temporary exhibitions. Since its beginnings in the 16th century, the building has been closely associated with the religious, social, and cultural life of the city. There is a retrospective exhibit of the life of Emiliano Zapata Salazar on the second floor. Museum of Contemporary Indigenous Art harbors works of 12 ethnic groups of Mexico: *Rarámuri, Yoreme, Yaqui, Purhépecha, Huichol, Mazahua, Otomí* (or *Hñahñu*), *Nahua, Mixtec, Tzotzil, Tzeltal*, and *Zapotec*, besides spaces dedicated to the cultural communities of Mata Ortiz and the peoples of Morelos. We can view textiles, pottery, wood carvings, and ceramics. The collection belongs to the foundation *Pro-Niño Marginado N.G.O.* The Autonomous University of Morelos (UAEM) is the custodian of its protection, preservation, research, and exhibition. The building it occupies today was constructed in the 16th century. It is the oldest civilian building on Morelos Avenue, in downtown Cuernavaca. *Museo Güelu* is a small modern art museum that is run by *Fundacion Fernando Cue Gomez, A.C.*. It is located on Ixtalapa Street across from the pyramids in Vista Hermosa. Science Museum / *Museo de Ciencias* is located in San Miguel Acapantzingo Park, Colonia Cantarranas, where the state penitentiary stood from 1934-2000. This is a hands-on museum designed for informal teaching related to scientific issues. There are two permanent exhibition halls: one dedicated to water and the other dedicated to climate change. The museum offers workshops for children on Mechatronics and Robotics, as well as a 120-seat auditorium and temporary exhibit halls. There is a separate building dedicated to *Planet Earth* in the park, and there is a *Cuexcomate* (traditional silo) on the site. Museum of Sacred Art / *Museo de Arte Sacro de Cuernavaca* is located within the cathedral, spread over two floors of what was once the cloister. There are numerous religious objects on view. ### Parks and diversion Solidarity Park / *Parque Alameda Luis Donaldo Colosio Murrieta* is located on Paseo Cuauhnáhuac east of the freeway. It was named in honor of a presidential candidate who was assassinated in 1994. Entering the park, there is a large fountain built to resemble the ball court in Coatetelco archaeological site. Directly ahead is a public library "Biblioteca 17 de Abril," which has a large mural depicting the history of the State of Morelos. There is also a statue of José María Morelos in front of the building. Visitors can enjoy volleyball, basketball, and mini-soccer fields, as well as a bicycle path, rollerblading rink, and an artificial lake. *San Miguel Acapantzingo Park* is located on Calle Altlacumolco in Colonia Cantarranas south of the market. The site was previously the state penitentiary (1934-2000), and you can see a small section of one of the cells there. The Science Museum, *Casa Tierra* (Earth House), a dancing fountain, a jogging path, a playground, and a *Cuexcomate* (traditional silo) are in the park. There is also a Byzantine mural called *Despertar en Primavera* (Waking up in Spring). *Tlatenango Ecological Park* is located on Avenida Zapata at the traffic circle in the north of the city. This park has a projection room for children's movies, exhibit halls for artists, tennis courts, and an open-air gym. Chapultepec Ecological Park is located off Plan de Ayala in Colonia Chapultepec near the IMSS hospital. The park covers 11 hectares of land and runs lineally for more than 1.5 km. Near the entrance, there is a spring which runs into a crystal-clear stream surrounded by trees, some of which are more than 250 years old. Species include *ahuehuetes* (cypress), *amates* (fig trees), guava, and others. There is a butterfly sanctuary, an orchid exhibit, and several species of birds, mammals, and reptiles on display. There is a house of horror, a planetarium, a tourist train, a petting zoo, a solar house, a large exhibit hall, and an artificial lake with paddle boats. There are also cultural spaces for dance, music, and theater. A fair selling local, natural products is held on Sundays. Melchor Ocampo Garden of Art was inaugurated by Porfirio Díaz, on 11 December 1897, and was built as part of the festivities for the arrival of the railroad to Cuernavaca. Governor Vicente Estrada Cajigal in 1934, built a rudimentary zoo and a swimming pool and the name was changed to "Parque Emiliano Zapata". The zoo and park are mentioned in the novel *Under the Volcano* by Malcolm Lowry. The park was remodeled in 2013 and its name reverted to *Melchor Ocampo*, a space where natural or vegan products are bought and sold, and crafts are exhibited and sold. Every last Sunday of the month, dogs and cats are sterilized for free while others are offered in adoption. The park is located in the *Barrio de Gualupita*, near the Pullman de Morelos/Selva bus station. Revolution Park is downtown. There is a basketball gym, a volleyball gym, a 25-meter swimming pool, and an area for playing chess. *Unidad Deportiva Centenario* (Centennial Sports Center) near the UAEM has a soccer stadium, baseball field, and gyms for a variety of different sports. *El Miraval* is a sports complex (including soccer field) in the neighborhood of the same name (Valley Overlook). *Parque lineal Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca* is a bicycle path that follows the former rail line between Av. Rio Mayo and Av. San Diego. The bicycle path is also popular with rollerbladers, dog walkers, and joggers. Cyclists can continue all the way to the Picacho-Ajusco highway. *La Cascada* (the waterfall) water park features a small waterfall, Olympic swimming pool, picnic area, parking, and basketball and volleyball courts. It is located on Vicente Guerrero Street in Colonia Las Granjas. *Barranca de Chalchihuapan* (Chalchihuapan Ravine) is in the town of *Santa María Ahuacatitlán*, north of Cuernavaca. There are rustic ponds and a river for raising trout. Visitors can choose the fish they like which is then caught and prepared on site. Visitors can also enjoy the mixed forest, a natural spring, and during the rainy season, there is a waterfall. Visitors can take guided tours, and go camping and birdwatching. Children and adults can visit *El Túnel* (the tunnel), an important source of drinking water for Cuernavaca. *El Túnel* was discovered by Eugenio Jesús Cañas in 1898, and in 1932 pipes were laid. The tunnel is located on Fco. I. Madero, Colonia Miraval. Call 777-364-5883 for tours and information. Cuernavaca has two private golf courses: *Club de Golf Tabachines* located near the expressway and *Club de Golf de Cuernavaca* located a few blocks south of downtown. ### Monuments *Morelotes* is a large statue of Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon designed by sculptor Juan Olaguíbel in the 1940s. It is located in the Zocalo. There is a smaller statue of Morelos in front of the library at Solidarity Park. Cuauhtemoc (1496-1525) was the last emperor (*tlatoani*) of Tenotichtlan. He was infamously tortured by Hernán Cortés, who wanted him to reveal where he kept his gold. The statue is located at the intersection of Teopanzolco and Nueva Belgica, Fracc Rincon Del Valle, and was dedicated while Rogelio Sanchez Gatica was *Presidente Municipal* (2012). (Statue was previously near the train station.) *Paloma de la Paz* (Dove of Peace) is located at the traffic circle at the intersection of *Av. Heróico Colegio Militar* and Av. Domingo Diez. Designed by Víctor Manuel Contreras, it is the first thing visitors from Mexico City see as they get off the tollway. Monument to *General Carlos Pacheco Villalobos* who fought alongside Benito Juarez against Maximiliano. He was the first governor of the state (1877-1879). The statue is located in front of the Palace of Cortes. Monument to Manuel Ávila Camacho is located at the traffic circle of the street that bears his name and *Calzada de los Compositores* in Lomas de Atzingo. The bronze statue of the president was built in October 1957 by Everardo Hernández Rodríguez. Monument to Vicente Guerrero is located on Av. Vicente Guerrero in Colonia Lomas de la Selva. Guerrero was a military leader during the Mexican War of Independence and Mexico's second president. A statue of Emiliano Zapata is located at the traffic circle at Av. Zapata and Av. Heróico Colegio Militar. A statue of the *Niño Artillero*, Narciso Mendoza, is located at the traffic circle at the intersection of Av. Morelos Sur and Juarez Blvd. in Las Palmas. As a twelve-year-old, Mendoza bravely fired a cannon at the royalist troops during the 1812 Siege of Cuautla. *Libertad de Expression* (Freedom of the Press) is located on Teopanzolco in Vista Hermosa. Of the 264 names of journalists who have been killed since the 19th century, 115 have been killed in the 20th century (up to Dec. 2018). A statue of Alexander von Humboldt is located in front of the Spencer House on Hidalgo Street downtown. Humboldt nicknamed Cuernavaca *The City of Eternal Spring* during his 1805 visit. A statue of Benito Juarez is located on Juarez Blvd. at Motolinia St., south of the Palacio de Cortes. It was erected by the local Mason lodges. At the same site, there is a smaller work to honor the *Winter Solstice of 21 December 2012*, also erected by the Masons. There is a bust of Maria Felix in *Plaza Maria Bonita* in front of *Parque Melchor Ocampo* in Gualupita. *Acueducto de Gualupita* Calle Carlos Cuaglia, Gualupita, at the *Barranca de Amanalco*. Porfirio Díaz bridge was built in the 1890s to connect downtown and the train station via a horse-drawn trolly. The other entrance to the *Barranca de Amanalco* is located here. The Photography Museum was originally built for the gardener who took care of the area surrounding the bridge. *Stampeding Horses*, *Five Bathing Nymphs*, and *Diana the Huntress* is at *Plaza Gustavo Baz* are in Colonia Vista Hermosa. in Vista Hermosa. A sign notes that *Scouts de Mexico* meets at *Plaza Gustavo Baz* on Saturdays. *Capilla Culhuacán de los Dolores* and *Capilla de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores* are in Ocotopec. *Capilla de los Santos Reyes* is a 16th-century chapel in *Tetela del Monte* in the north of the city. The bell tower dates from the 17th century, and the chapel is constructed in a primitive Baroque style. Artist John Spencer rebuilt the walls in the 1980s. *Capilla de los Tepetates* (*Jesus de Nazareth*) is on Arteaga St. downtown, off Guerero Street. *Capilla de San Diego* (or San Diegito) is a small 16th century chapel on Galeana St. in Acapantzingo. His feast is in mid-November. *Capilla de San Francisco* was built in the 16th century before the Cathedral so the monks would have a place of worship during the construction of the latter. It is on Galeana Street downtown. *Capilla de San Miguel Acapantzingo* was built in the 16th century on Matamoros Street in Acapantzingo, across from the Casa de Maximiliano/Botanical Garden. The chapel suffered some damage during the 2017 earthquake, but it has been restored. His feast is 29 September. *Parroquia de la Resurección del Señor y Santa María de Guadalupe* is outside Melchor Ocampo Park. *Parroquia de San Antonio de Padua* is a colonial church on Jesús H. Preciado St., San Antón on the west side of the city, near the *Cascada de San Antonio.* There are several places to purchase potted plants in the neighborhood. *Templo de Guadalupe* on Av. Morelos, Centro is an 18th-century church built by Jose de la Borda next to the Jardin Borda. *Templo de San Pablo* is on Humboldt Street downtown. 18th century. *Capilla de San Juan Evangelista* is on Calle Sn. Juan, Col. Chapultepec. 18th century. The train station dates from the late 19th century and is located east of Plan de Ayala. Today it hosts a dance studio. *Cine Morelos'* on Av. Morelos, Centro, was constructed in the 19th century. Today the theater shows art films. *Puente del Diablo* bridge crosses the Barranca de Amanalco at the point where the devil himself, Hernán Cortés, entered the city of Cuauhnahuac in 1521. *Calle Rufino Tamayo* was previously called *Cinco de Mayo*, and before that, it was called *Camino al Pueblo de San Miguel Acapantzingo*. The bridge across the ravine is called *La Emperatriz* Muralist Diego Rivera lived at a house located at the corner of Rufino Tamayo and Morelos St. in Colonia Acapantzingo from 1951 to 1957. Artist Rufino Tamayo (1899-1991) lived in a house on the *Privada* located near Calle Humboldt. There is a statue dedicated to women at the corner of C. Humboldt and Salazar, across from *La Vecindad* (the Neighborhood) Children's Cultural Center. The statue was erected on 8 March 1982. A statue of *Blind Justice* is in front of the *Palacio de Justicia* behind the Cortes Palace. A plaque on a building on Hidalgo St. in the Historic Center, across from the Cortes Palace, notes that artist *Jorge Cazares Campos* was born there. The plaque is dated 20 November 2005. He was born on 20 November 1937, and several of his works are on display throughout the city. Festivals and dance ------------------- The Feria de la Flor was established in 1965 as a festival that is held from 2 to 12 May. In the Borda Garden, flower growers from all over Mexico come to exhibit their wares, competing for an annual prize. The event also has traditional fair rides, cockfights, and horse competitions as well as music and sociocultural events. Neighborhood celebrations are held in Cuernavaca, mostly for patron saints, they include 15 May, the feast of San Isidro Labrador; 13 June, the feast of San Antonio in the neighborhood of San Antón, with Aztec dances; 6 August, the feast of the Savior or the Transfiguration in Ocotepec, featuring the Moors and Christians dance, mole, and pulque; 10 August the feast of San Lorenzo in Chamilpa; 15 August, the festival of the Assumption of Mary in Santa María Ahuacatilán; and 8 September, Festival of Nuestra Señora de los Milagros in Tlaltenango. Since 1965, the city Cuernavaca has had a carnival as well. The Huehuechis, a dance group, was started in Cuernavaca in 1870 by a group of young people. They dressed up in old boots and clothes, covering their faces with cloth, dancing sponteaneously in the streets with whistles and shouts. The name comes from a Nahuatl word for old, worn-out clothing. The event spread to other municipalities. It became popular enough among participants and spectators alike to be organized formally in 1871, when it became a traditional way to celebrate the days just before Lent, or the Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday of Carnival. The tradition spread to Tepoztlan, where it became even more famous after the people there modified the clothing worn, adding masks with beards and large mustaches. The dance there was renamed "Chinelos". This new version became a fixture at the carnaval of Yautepec and other towns in Morelos as well. ### International presence in Cuernavaca Cuernavaca has been a getaway, especially for the well-to-do, since Aztec times. This has continued to the 21st century, with many of these residents including artists, intellectuals, and film stars. María Félix, a Mexican diva, had an opulent, cobalt-blue and papaya-colored villa on Avenida Palmira, along with five other houses. It is known as the *Casa de las Tortugas* (House of the Turtles) and has Louis XV beds, is adorned with silk brocades, Venetian mosaics, Talavera urns, marble fireplaces, sixteenth-century Spanish armor, Italian gilded chairs, and portraits of her created by Antoine Tzapoff. U.S. Ambassador and businessman Dwight Morrow had a weekend house called *Casa Mañana* on the street that bears his name downtown. Morrow commissioned the artist Diego Rivera to paint the murals of the Palacio de Cortes. Today the restaurant *La India Bonita* is housed there. The restaurant is named for Concepción Sedano, the legendary mistress of Emperor Maximilia I. There is a painting of Maximilian and Concepcion by *Taracena* in the City Museum. You can also see Rivera murals at the restaurant *Casa Rivera*, which was once the home of the Mexican actor Mario Moreno Cantinflas. The restaurant is on Juarez, across from the Palacio de Cortes. The legalization of gambling for a short time in the 1930s attracted Hollywood stars and mobsters from the United States. Cuernavaca was the setting of Malcolm Lowry's *Under the Volcano* written in 1947. It is a tale of despair and self-destruction due to alcoholism. In the 1950s and 1960s, the city attracted many directors, producers, and actors from Hollywood, many of whom had been blacklisted through the influence of McCarthyism. Cuernavaca became the host of the CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentación) in 1961, a Catholic institution that indoctrinated priests from developed countries before they were deployed elsewhere in Latin America. CIDOC's lasting reputation was assured by its founding director Ivan Illich, though it closed, "a victim of its own success", ten years later under right-wing political pressure. In the 1960s, the city became one of the centers of the psychedelic movement, attracting many artists, composers, and hippies. Another infamous resident was Sam "Momo" Giancana, a mafia boss associated with the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre in Chicago, made Cuernavaca his home from 1967 until his arrest and deportation in 1974. Gene Gauntier, actress and scenarist of silent film, spent the rest of her life in Cuernavaca. She lived in her sister's home, Marguerite Wenner-Gren, wife of Swedish millionaire Axel Wenner-Gren who owned a hacienda in *Rancho Cortés* (today Hotel Racquet). Gauntier died in 1966. Racquet Club (English) retrieved Dec 16, 2018 The trend continues today, with a large number of retirees, diplomats, business executives, royalty, and government officials living in Cuernavaca from all over the world. Many of these foreign residents have formed active expatriate groups, such as the *Cuernavaca Newcomers Club* to offer get-togethers and advice for its members and newcomers to the city. Services for foreign residents include a large network of English-speaking doctors, foreign mass media via satellite, and ATMs networked to U.S. banks. The deposed Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi lived for a short time in Cuernavaca in 1979. His move was arranged by David Rockefeller of Chase Manhattan Bank. The Iran hostage crisis was set off when he moved to New York City for medical treatment. Princess Maria Beatrice of Savoy, the youngest daughter of King Umberto II of Italy, lived in Colonia Acapantzingo, Cuernavaca with her husband and Luis Reyna and their three children from 1971 until his murder on 17 February 1999. Cuernavaca has attracted Hollywood production with parts of the 1969 film *Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid* being shot in Tlayacapan north of the city, and parts of the classic 1979 comedy *The In-Laws*, starring Alan Arkin and Peter Falk, being filmed there. In 1984, John Huston shot *Under the Volcano* from Malcolm Lowry's novel, with Albert Finney and Jacqueline Bisset in Colonia Acapantzingo, Cuernavaca and in Yautepec de Zaragoza. The municipality ---------------- Cuernavaca is composed of 12 towns: *Acapantzingo, Ahuatepec, Amatitlan, Buenavista del Monte, Chamilpa, Chapultepec, Chipitlan, Ocotepec, San Anton Analco, Santa Maria Ahuacatitlan, Tetela del Monte,* and *Tlaltenango*. As municipal seat of Morelos, the city of Cuernavaca has governing jurisdiction over 142 other communities. The municipality is located in the northeast portion of the State of Morelos and borders the municipalities of Huitzilac, Temixco, Miacatlán, Tepoztlán, Zapata and Jiutepec. The municipalities of *Cuernavaca, Emiliano Zapata, Huitzilac, Jiutepec, Temixco, Tepoztlan,* and *Xochitepec* make up the Cuernavaca Metropolitan Area. In the 2005 census, the municipality had only 3,041 are counted as speaking an indigenous language. In 2015 the municipality's population was 366,321. The city of Cuernavaca is located in the southern portion of the area of the municipality. Urban development covers about 38%, which is the city of Cuernavaca and a few suburbs. ### Geography The municipality is located between the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the north and the Sierra Madre del Sur in the south, in a sub-mountain range named the Sierra del Chichinautzin. The municipality contains an area of 151.2 square kilometres (58.4 square miles); 5,668 hectares (14,010 acres) is dedicated to agriculture, 8,227 ha (20,330 acres) for fishing, 5,400 ha (13,000 acres) is developed, and 1,390 ha (3,400 acres) is forest. The average altitude is 2,200 metres (7,200 feet) above sea level, varying between 1,255 and 2,355 metres (4,117 and 7,726 feet). The highest elevations are in the east and north. #### Rivers and streams During the rainy season, rivers are formed in the ravines of *Minaltepec, Ajomulco, Los Caldos* (with the San Anton Falls), *Los Pocitos, 'El Pollo* and *El Chiflón*; together they form the Cuernavaca River. The riverbeds of *Tepoztitlán* and *Mexicana* form the *Río Tembembe*. Other streams are in the gulch of *las Canoas* (which crosses *Tetela del Monte* and joins the *Atzingo*), the *Tecolote* (which forms the San Anton waterfall), the *Amanalco* (which drains in the *Río Apatlaco*), the *Otates*, the *Santa Úrsula* (which drains into the *Río Tetlama*), and the *Muerto* (which begins in Ahuatepec and crosses Flores Magón). The springs in Cuernavaca are: Los *Atzingo, el túnel de Santa María, Sanguijuela, Huitzilac, Axomulco*, and *Chapultepec*. The municipality is located in the Amacuzac River Basin. ### Notable municipal presidents) Since 1929 the city has had 50 mayors, including: * (1955-1956): Felipe Rivera Crespo * (1997-2000): Sergio Estrada Cajigal Ramírez. Estrada Cajigal was elected governor of Morelos in 2000. His was the first time an opposition candidate (PAN) won. * (2003-2006): Adrián Rivera Pérez (PAN). Federal senator 2006-2012. * (2006-2009): Jesús Giles Sánchez (PAN). Federal deputy 2009-2012. \* (2011-2012): Rogelio Sánchez Gatica (PRI). He was charged with stealing $154 million pesos. * (2015-2018): Cuauhtémoc Blanco (PSD). Resigned to run for governor of Morelos in 2018 and elected in July 2018 (Morena). * (2019–2021): Francisco Antonio Villalobos Adán (Morena). Geography --------- ### Climate Cuernavaca has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification *Aw*) with temperatures that are moderated by its altitude. The warmest month is May with an average temperature of 23.5 °C (74.3 °F) and the coolest month is January with an average of 18.7 °C (65.7 °F). The municipality has two distinct climates. In the north, is a temperate climate that is somewhat moist with rain predominantly in the summer. That area is covered in forests of pine and holm oak. In the south, the climate is warmer with the same moisture pattern. The southern area is primarily grassland with some rainforest. Average annual temperature is 20.9 °C (70 °F) with the warmest months being April and May and the coldest December. Temperatures only occasionally exceed 34 °C (93 °F) or fall below 10 °C (50 °F). | Climate data for Cuernavaca (1951–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 31.5(88.7) | 37.0(98.6) | 36.0(96.8) | 39.5(103.1) | 37.5(99.5) | 36.0(96.8) | 34.0(93.2) | 33.5(92.3) | 31.5(88.7) | 36.0(96.8) | 31.0(87.8) | 34.0(93.2) | 39.5(103.1) | | Average high °C (°F) | 25.2(77.4) | 26.5(79.7) | 28.8(83.8) | 30.1(86.2) | 29.7(85.5) | 27.1(80.8) | 26.2(79.2) | 26.1(79.0) | 25.1(77.2) | 25.9(78.6) | 25.8(78.4) | 25.2(77.4) | 26.8(80.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.7(65.7) | 19.9(67.8) | 21.9(71.4) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.5(74.3) | 22.0(71.6) | 21.1(70.0) | 21.0(69.8) | 20.4(68.7) | 20.4(68.7) | 19.7(67.5) | 18.9(66.0) | 20.9(69.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 12.2(54.0) | 13.3(55.9) | 15.0(59.0) | 16.6(61.9) | 17.3(63.1) | 16.8(62.2) | 16.0(60.8) | 15.9(60.6) | 15.7(60.3) | 14.9(58.8) | 13.7(56.7) | 12.7(54.9) | 15.0(59.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | 3.0(37.4) | 5.0(41.0) | 6.5(43.7) | 10.0(50.0) | 11.0(51.8) | 10.0(50.0) | 11.0(51.8) | 10.0(50.0) | 10.0(50.0) | 9.0(48.2) | 3.0(37.4) | 5.0(41.0) | 3.0(37.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 13.6(0.54) | 7.2(0.28) | 5.6(0.22) | 15.5(0.61) | 57.7(2.27) | 250.9(9.88) | 266.7(10.50) | 268.1(10.56) | 256.3(10.09) | 100.2(3.94) | 16.7(0.66) | 5.2(0.20) | 1,263.7(49.75) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.3 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 3.3 | 8.6 | 18.8 | 20.7 | 21.0 | 20.0 | 9.7 | 2.4 | 1.1 | 109.5 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 51 | 47 | 39 | 40 | 48 | 62 | 68 | 67 | 73 | 68 | 60 | 56 | 57 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 277 | 271 | 293 | 276 | 263 | 209 | 239 | 219 | 189 | 237 | 268 | 270 | 3,011 | | Source 1: Servicio Meteorologico Nacional (humidity 1981–2000) | | Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun, 1961–1990) | Economy ------- Most of the economic activity in the municipality is retail trade, concentrated in and around the city of Cuernavaca. Agriculture and fish farming employ the fewest people, although the municipality contains a good quantity of resources for these enterprises. The far north of the municipality generally is not suited to agriculture, due to the terrain and types of volcanic soil found there. Most agriculture is concentrated in the southeast. The lower elevations, at around 1,800 metres (5,900 feet), is best-suited for fishing and fish-farming. The middle range, between 1,800 and 2,100 metres (5,900 and 6,900 feet), has uses mixed between agriculture and forest products, and the elevations higher than 2,100 metres (6,900 feet) are primarily forest. Fish farming areas are under pressure from urban development, especially in the Ahuatepec region east of the city, where irregular and sometimes illegal, housing developments are appearing among the farms. On the outskirts of Cuernavaca, there are a handful of plant nurseries, specializing in the planting, growing and distribution, including international shipments, of plants, flowers and seeds. Many famous gardens around the world are supplied with flowers from the Cuernavaca region. Industry is minimal and mostly limited to micro-industries such as printing, framing, ceramics, garment-making, and the production of cleaning supplies. This employs about 28% of the population. Most of the population (67%) is employed in the retail and service industries, both dependent on tourism. Crafts from this area primarily consist of ceramics and wax products. The wax used is from bees and generally it is shaped into capricious figures. Flowerpots and clay objects from San Antón, handcrafted paper from wood chips with multicolored paintings, and wood lacquered masks are other products of the municipality. Education --------- There are many private elementary (grades 1-6), middle (grades 7-9), and high schools (grades 10-12) in Cuernavaca. Below are the elementary and middle schools that did the best on the government standard exam *Enlace.* in 2009. (NOTE: The list is for the State of Morelos. The Enlace tests Spanish language and math ability, but it does not test English.) **Elementary schools** 1. Ingles de Cuernavaca (private) 2. Huitzilac (private) 3. ABC (private) 4. Montessori (private) There are several schools that follow the teachings of Maria Montessori in the city, but the article does not say which one is included here. 5. Colegio Mundo Feliz (private) 6. Colegio Tehatsi (private) 7. Colegio Hamilton of Cuernavaca (private) 8. Olinca (private) 9. Niños Heroes (public) 10. Dorados (private) **Middle schools** 1. Colegio Tehatsi (private) 2. Centro Educativo Cocoyoc (private) 3. Dorados (private) 4. Colegio Boston (private) 5. Nezahuacoyotl (telesecundaria) 6. Helen Keller (private) 7. Colegio Williams of Cuernavaca (private) 8. Miraflores de Cuernavaca (private) 9. Martires Agraristas (telesecundaria) 10. Olinca de Cuernavaca (private) **High schools** There are no standardized tests for high school students. The following schools offer bilingual (Spanish-English) programs at the high-school level: * Colegio Marymount, Colonia Rancho Tetela American-style high school that offers a complete programs in English and French. * Colegio Williams de Cuernavaca, Colonia Flores Magon EFL program that offers advanced Cambridge University certification and French certification. * Preparatoria de Colegio Boston, Colonia Chapultepec * Universidad Tecmilenio (Lomas de Cuernavaca, Temixco) * Tecnologico de Monterrey (Temixco) American-style high school that offers two bilingual (English-Spanish) programs, depending on level. * Loyola Grupo Educativo de Cuernavaca **Universities serving Cuernavaca** * The National Autonomous University of Mexico (Spanish: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México), UNAM maintains a campus in Cuernavaca. * The Autonomous University of the State of Morelos (Spanish: Universidad Autonoma del Estado de Morelos (UAEM). The university has an exchange program. * Universidad Mexicana de Educación a Distancia (UMED) * Friar Luca Paccioli University (Spanish: Universidad Fray Luca Paccioli (UFLP) * Universidad del Valle de Cuernavaca (UVNIVAC) * Universidad Interamericana, Campus Cuernavaca * Universidad Privada del Estado de Morelos (UPEM) * Universidad Americana de Morelos * Cuauhnáhuac, Campus Lomas de Cuernavaca (UNIC) * Universidad Loyola de Cuernavaca * Centro Universidad Aztlán Campuses in Cuernavaca, Cuautla, Jiutepec **Spanish for foreigners** Cuernavaca has a long tradition of schools that teach Spanish to foreigners. Generally, they offer intensive classes (3–5 hours or more daily), starting with a duration of one week. Many schools offer tours and cultural activities, and they can usually help students with housing. * Cemanuac Spanish School, Calle San Juan No. 3, Colonia Las Palmas Sur, http://www.cemanahuacspanishschool.com/ * Escuela de Español para Extranjeros, Colonia Prado * Kukulcan Educational Spanish Community * Centro de Lengua Arte E Historia Para Extranjeros, * Universidad Internacional Cuernavaca * Ideal Spanish Language School * Spanish Language Institute * Linguatec Cuernavaca * Anders Languages International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Cuernavaca is twinned with: * United States Minneapolis, Minnesota * United States New York, New York * United States Denver, Colorado * Japan Ōtaki, Chiba, Japan Popular culture --------------- Jazz double bassist Charles Mingus died in the city on 5 January 1979. **Novels set in Cuernavaca** * *Under the Volcano* by Malcolm Lowry. * *Please Write For Details* by John D. MacDonald * *Profunda Retaguardia: Novela de Cuernavaca* by Spanish poet José Herrera Petere. * *Cuernavaca* by Richard W Perhacs ISBN 1493785265 & ISBN 978-1493785261. * *Zami: A New Spelling of My Name* by Audre Lorde is partly set in Cuernavaca. **Songs in English that reference Cuernavaca** * "Golden" by Harry Styles. * "Veracruz" by Warren Zevon. * "Cuernavaca Choo Choo" by Bob Crewe and Frank Slay (Swan 1959). **Songs in Spanish that reference Cuernavaca:** * "La Feria de la Flor" by Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlan * "Los Chanates" by Régulo Caro (2014) * "Que Rechula Es Katy" by Juan Gabriel (1997) * "Al Que Fue Mi Apa" by La Estructura (2014) * "El Desconocido" by Larry Hernandez & Gerardo Ortiz (2015) * "El Adios De Botas Blancas" by Los Hijos De Barron (2016) * "Pulque, Mescal y Tequila" by Thiéfaine (2008) * "Sábado Distrito Federal" by Chava Flores (2005) and by Los Estramboticos (2010) * "El Vendador Ambulante" by Traviezoz De La Zierra (2016) **Movies set in Cuernavaca** * *Under the Volcano*, based on the Malcolm Lowrey novel, directed by John Huston (1984) * *Cuernavaca* directed Alejandro Andrade Pease (2017) * The Bolivia scenes from *Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid* were filmed in and around Cuernavaca **TV shows set in Cuernavaca** * *La Fea Mas Bella*, in 3 episodes the pair travel to Cuernavaca. * *Buffy the Vampire Slayer*, in Season 3, Episode 12, the special abilities of vampire slayer Buffy Summers get chemically suppressed. As her powers decline, Buffy says her "...game's left the country.... It's in Cuernavaca!" Transportation -------------- The city is 90 minutes by car from Mexico City. Cuernavaca airport is the commercial airport in the area. It has had, intermittently, airline service from such airlines as the now bankrupt Mexicana and from Aeromexico and VivaAerobus, among others. See also -------- * Cuernavaca Center for Intercultural Dialogue on Development * Governors of Morelos * List of people from Morelos, Mexico

Cuernavaca

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuernavaca

**Calcium oxide** (formula: CaO), commonly known as **quicklime** or **burnt lime**, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic, alkaline, crystalline solid at room temperature. The broadly used term *lime* connotes calcium-containing inorganic compounds, in which carbonates, oxides, and hydroxides of calcium, silicon, magnesium, aluminium, and iron predominate. By contrast, *quicklime* specifically applies to the single compound calcium oxide. Calcium oxide that survives processing without reacting in building products, such as cement, is called **free lime**. Quicklime is relatively inexpensive. Both it and the chemical derivative calcium hydroxide (of which quicklime is the base anhydride) are important commodity chemicals. Preparation ----------- Calcium oxide is usually made by the thermal decomposition of materials, such as limestone or seashells, that contain calcium carbonate (CaCO3; mineral calcite) in a lime kiln. This is accomplished by heating the material to above 825 °C (1,517 °F), a process called calcination or *lime-burning*, to liberate a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2), leaving quicklime behind. This is also one of the few chemical reactions known in prehistoric times. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) The quicklime is not stable and, when cooled, will spontaneously react with CO2 from the air until, after enough time, it will be completely converted back to calcium carbonate unless slaked with water to set as lime plaster or lime mortar. Annual worldwide production of quicklime is around 283 million tonnes. China is by far the world's largest producer, with a total of around 170 million tonnes per year. The United States is the next largest, with around 20 million tonnes per year. Approximately 1.8 t of limestone is required per 1.0 t of quicklime. Quicklime has a high affinity for water and is a more efficient desiccant than silica gel. The reaction of quicklime with water is associated with an increase in volume by a factor of at least 2.5. Uses ---- * The major use of quicklime is in the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process. Its usage varies from about 30 to 50 kilograms (65–110 lb) per ton of steel. The quicklime neutralizes the acidic oxides, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, to produce a basic molten slag. * Ground quicklime is used in the production of aerated concrete such as blocks with densities of ca. 0.6–1.0 g/cm3 (9.8–16.4 g/cu in). * Quicklime and hydrated lime can considerably increase the load carrying capacity of clay-containing soils. They do this by reacting with finely divided silica and alumina to produce calcium silicates and aluminates, which possess cementing properties. * Small quantities of quicklime are used in other processes; e.g., the production of glass, calcium aluminate cement, and organic chemicals. * Heat: Quicklime releases thermal energy by the formation of the hydrate, calcium hydroxide, by the following equation: CaO (s) + H2O (l) ⇌ Ca(OH)2 (aq) (ΔHr = −63.7 kJ/mol of CaO) As it hydrates, an exothermic reaction results and the solid puffs up. The hydrate can be reconverted to quicklime by removing the water by heating it to redness to reverse the hydration reaction. One litre of water combines with approximately 3.1 kilograms (6.8 lb) of quicklime to give calcium hydroxide plus 3.54 MJ of energy. This process can be used to provide a convenient portable source of heat, as for on-the-spot food warming in a self-heating can, cooking, and heating water without open flames. Several companies sell cooking kits using this heating method. * It is known as a food additive to the FAO as an acidity regulator, a flour treatment agent and as a leavener. It has E number **E529**. * Light: When quicklime is heated to 2,400 °C (4,350 °F), it emits an intense glow. This form of illumination is known as a limelight, and was used broadly in theatrical productions before the invention of electric lighting. * Cement: Calcium oxide is a key ingredient for the process of making cement. * As a cheap and widely available alkali. About 50% of the total quicklime production is converted to calcium hydroxide before use. Both quick- and hydrated lime are used in the treatment of drinking water. * Petroleum industry: Water detection pastes contain a mix of calcium oxide and phenolphthalein. Should this paste come into contact with water in a fuel storage tank, the CaO reacts with the water to form calcium hydroxide. Calcium hydroxide has a high enough pH to turn the phenolphthalein a vivid purplish-pink color, thus indicating the presence of water. * Paper: Calcium oxide is used to regenerate sodium hydroxide from sodium carbonate in the chemical recovery at Kraft pulp mills. * Plaster: There is archeological evidence that Pre-Pottery Neolithic B humans used limestone-based plaster for flooring and other uses. Such Lime-ash floor remained in use until the late nineteenth century. * Chemical or power production: Solid sprays or slurries of calcium oxide can be used to remove sulfur dioxide from exhaust streams in a process called flue-gas desulfurization. * Mining: *Compressed lime cartridges* exploit the exothermic properties of quicklime to break rock. A shot hole is drilled into the rock in the usual way and a sealed cartridge of quicklime is placed within and tamped. A quantity of water is then injected into the cartridge and the resulting release of steam, together with the greater volume of the residual hydrated solid, breaks the rock apart. The method does not work if the rock is particularly hard. * Disposal of corpses: Historically, it was mistakenly believed that quicklime was efficacious in accelerating the decomposition of corpses. The application of quicklime can, in fact, promote preservation. Quicklime can aid in eradicating the stench of decomposition, which may have led people to the erroneous conclusion. * It has been determined that the durability of ancient Roman concrete is attributed in part to the use of quicklime as an ingredient. Combined with hot mixing, the quicklime creates macrosized lime clasts with a characteristically brittle nano-particle architecture. As cracks form in the concrete they preferentially pass through the structurally weaker lime clasts, fracturing them. When water enters these cracks it creates a calcium-saturated solution which can recrystallize as calcium carbonate, quickly filling the crack. ### Weapon In 80 BC, the Roman general Sertorius deployed choking clouds of caustic lime powder to defeat the Characitani of Hispania, who had taken refuge in inaccessible caves. A similar dust was used in China to quell an armed peasant revolt in 178 AD, when *lime chariots* equipped with bellows blew limestone powder into the crowds. Quicklime is also thought to have been a component of Greek fire. Upon contact with water, quicklime would increase its temperature above 150 °C (302 °F) and ignite the fuel. David Hume, in his *History of England*, recounts that early in the reign of Henry III, the English Navy destroyed an invading French fleet by blinding the enemy fleet with quicklime. Quicklime may have been used in medieval naval warfare – up to the use of "lime-mortars" to throw it at the enemy ships. ### Substitutes Limestone is a substitute for lime in many applications, which include agriculture, fluxing, and sulfur removal. Limestone, which contains less reactive material, is slower to react and may have other disadvantages compared with lime, depending on the application; however, limestone is considerably less expensive than lime. Calcined gypsum is an alternative material in industrial plasters and mortars. Cement, cement kiln dust, fly ash, and lime kiln dust are potential substitutes for some construction uses of lime. Magnesium hydroxide is a substitute for lime in pH control, and magnesium oxide is a substitute for dolomitic lime as a flux in steelmaking. Safety ------ Because of vigorous reaction of quicklime with water, quicklime causes severe irritation when inhaled or placed in contact with moist skin or eyes. Inhalation may cause coughing, sneezing, and labored breathing. It may then evolve into burns with perforation of the nasal septum, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. Although quicklime is not considered a fire hazard, its reaction with water can release enough heat to ignite combustible materials. Mineral ------- Calcium oxide is also a separate mineral species (with the unit formula CaO), named 'Lime'. It has an isometric crystal system, and can form a solid solution series with monteponite. The crystal is brittle, pyrometamorphic, and is unstable in moist air, quickly turning into portlandite (Ca(OH)2).

Calcium oxide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxide

A **republic** (from Latin *res publica* 'public affair') is a state in which political power rests with the public and their representatives, in contrast with a monarchy. Representation in a republic may or may not be freely elected by the general citizenry. In many historical republics, representation has been based on personal status and the role of elections has been limited. This remains true today; among the 159 states that use the word "republic" in their official names as of 2017[update], and other states formally constituted as republics, are states that narrowly constrain both the right of representation and the process of election. The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority. Most often a republic is a single sovereign state, but there are also subnational state entities that are referred to as republics, or that have governments that are described as republican in nature. Etymology --------- The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word *politeia*. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated *politeia* as *res publica* and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as "republic" (or similar terms in various European languages). The term *politeia* can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of Plato's major works on political science was titled *Politeia* and in English it is thus known as *The Republic*. However, apart from the title, in modern translations of *The Republic*, alternative translations of *politeia* are also used. However, in Book III of his *Politics*, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term *politeia* can be used to refer more specifically to one type of *politeia*: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (*to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn*), government (*politeia*)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term "republic" can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as *libertas populi*, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states, writers (most importantly, Leonardo Bruni) adopted the Latin phrase *res publica*. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term *res publica* has a set of interrelated meanings in the original Latin. The term can quite literally be translated as "public matter". It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, even during the period of the Roman Empire. In subsequent centuries, the English word "commonwealth" came to be used as a translation of *res publica*, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term *res publica*. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use. Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as *rzeczpospolita*, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term "republic" commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right. History ------- While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome, as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the Middle East. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many free cities developed again, such as Venice. ### Classical republics The modern type of "republic" itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the classical era that are today still called republics. This includes ancient Athens and the Roman Republic. While the structure and governance of these states was different from that of any modern republic, there is debate about the extent to which classical, medieval, and modern republics form a historical continuum. J. G. A. Pocock has argued that a distinct republican tradition stretches from the classical world to the present. Other scholars disagree. Paul Rahe, for instance, argues that the classical republics had a form of government with few links to those in any modern country. The political philosophy of the classical republics has influenced republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes. Aristotle's *Politics* discusses various forms of government. One form Aristotle named *politeia*, which consisted of a mixture of the other forms. He argued that this was one of the ideal forms of government. Polybius expanded on many of these ideas, again focusing on the idea of mixed government. The most important Roman work in this tradition is Cicero's *De re publica*. Over time, the classical republics became empires or were conquered by empires. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the Macedonian Empire of Alexander. The Roman Republic expanded dramatically conquering the other states of the Mediterranean that could be considered republics, such as Carthage. The Roman Republic itself then became the Roman Empire. ### Other ancient republics The term "republic" is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city-states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence. However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics. In the ancient Near East, a number of cities of the Eastern Mediterranean achieved collective rule. Republic city-states flourished in Phoenicia along the Levantine coast starting from the 11th century BC. In ancient Phoenicia, the concept of Shophet was very similar to a Roman consul. Under Persian rule (539–332 BC), Phoenician city-states such as Tyre abolished the king system and adopted "a system of the suffetes (judges), who remained in power for short mandates of 6 years". Arwad has been cited as one of the earliest known examples of a republic, in which the people, rather than a monarch, are described as sovereign.[*unreliable source?*] The Israelite confederation of the era of the Judges before the United Monarchy has also been considered a type of republic. The system of government of the Igbo people in what is now Nigeria has been described as "direct and participatory democracy." ### Indian subcontinent Early republican institutions come from the independent *gaṇasaṅgha*s—*gaṇa* means "tribe" and *saṅgha* means "assembly"—which may have existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD in India. The evidence for this is scattered, however, and no pure historical source exists for that period. Diodorus, a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India (now Pakistan and northwest India) mentions, without offering any detail, that independent and democratic states existed in India. Modern scholars note the word *democracy* at the time of the 3rd century BC and later suffered from degradation and could mean any autonomous state, no matter how oligarchic in nature. Key characteristics of the *gaṇa* seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name raja, and a deliberative assembly. The assembly met regularly. It discussed all major state decisions. At least in some states, attendance was open to all free men. This body also had full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who rarely receive any mention, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. Elected by the *gaṇa*, the monarch apparently always belonged to a family of the noble class of *Kshatriya Varna*. The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly; in some states, he did so with a council of other nobles. The Licchavis had a primary governing body of 7,077 rajas, the heads of the most important families. On the other hand, the Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis, during the period around Gautama Buddha, had the assembly open to all men, rich and poor. Early "republics" or *gaṇasaṅgha*, such as Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika (or Vṛjika) League, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century AD. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy. Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. This is reflected in the *Arthashastra*, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the *saṅgha*s, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens, indicating that the "*gaṇasaṅgha*" are more of an aristocratic rule, or oligarchic republic, than "democracy". ### Icelandic Commonwealth The Icelandic Commonwealth was established in 930 AD by refugees from Norway who had fled the unification of that country under King Harald Fairhair. The Commonwealth consisted of a number of clans run by chieftains, and the Althing was a combination of parliament and supreme court where disputes appealed from lower courts were settled, laws were decided, and decisions of national importance were taken. One such example was the Christianisation of Iceland in 1000, where the Althing decreed that all Icelanders must be baptized into Christianity, and forbade celebration of pagan rituals. Contrary to most states, the Icelandic Commonwealth had no official leader. In the early 13th century, the Age of the Sturlungs, the Commonwealth began to suffer from long conflicts between warring clans. This, combined with pressure from the Norwegian king Haakon IV for the Icelanders to rejoin the Norwegian "family", led the Icelandic chieftains to accept Haakon IV as king by the signing of the *Gamli sáttmáli* ("Old Covenant") in 1262. This effectively brought the Commonwealth to an end. The Althing, however, is still Iceland's parliament, almost 800 years later. ### Mercantile republics In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Mediterranean maritime republics and the Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics. Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, gaining control of the rural hinterland. The two most powerful were the Republic of Venice and its rival the Republic of Genoa. Each were large trading ports, and further expanded by using naval power to control large parts of the Mediterranean. It was in Italy that an ideology advocating for republics first developed. Writers such as Bartholomew of Lucca, Brunetto Latini, Marsilius of Padua, and Leonardo Bruni saw the medieval city-states as heirs to the legacy of Greece and Rome. Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city charters. In the more loosely governed Holy Roman Empire, 51 of the largest towns became free imperial cities. While still under the dominion of the Holy Roman Emperor most power was held locally and many adopted republican forms of government. The same rights to imperial immediacy were secured by the major trading cities of Switzerland. The towns and villages of alpine Switzerland had, courtesy of geography, also been largely excluded from central control. Unlike Italy and Germany, much of the rural area was thus not controlled by feudal barons, but by independent farmers who also used communal forms of government. When the Habsburgs tried to reassert control over the region both rural farmers and town merchants joined the rebellion. The Swiss were victorious, and the Swiss Confederacy was proclaimed, and Switzerland has retained a republican form of government to the present. Two Russian cities with a powerful merchant class—Novgorod and Pskov—also adopted republican forms of government in 12th and 13th centuries, respectively, which ended when the republics were conquered by Muscovy/Russia at the end of 15th – beginning of 16th century. The dominant form of government for these early republics was control by a limited council of elite patricians. In those areas that held elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council. This left the great majority of the population without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the Holy Roman Empire. Similar revolts occurred in Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence. #### Mercantile republics outside Europe Following the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and establishment of the Turkish Anatolian Beyliks, the Ahiler merchant fraternities established a state centered on Ankara that is sometimes compared to the Italian mercantile republics. ### Calvinist republics While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the Protestant Reformation would be used as justification for establishing new republics. Most important was Calvinist theology, which developed in the Swiss Confederacy, one of the largest and most powerful of the medieval republics. John Calvin did not call for the abolition of monarchy, but he advanced the doctrine that the faithful had the duty to overthrow irreligious monarchs. Advocacy for republics appeared in the writings of the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in England and the Netherlands. Like the city-states of Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. During the Dutch Revolt (beginning in 1566), the Dutch Republic emerged from rejection of Spanish Habsburg rule. However, the country did not adopt the republican form of government immediately: in the formal declaration of independence (Act of Abjuration, 1581), the throne of king Philip was only declared vacant, and the Dutch magistrates asked the Duke of Anjou, queen Elizabeth of England and prince William of Orange, one after another, to replace Philip. It took until 1588 before the Estates (the *Staten*, the representative assembly at the time) decided to vest the sovereignty of the country in themselves. In 1641 the English Civil War began. Spearheaded by the Puritans and funded by the merchants of London, the revolt was a success, and King Charles I was executed. In England James Harrington, Algernon Sidney, and John Milton became some of the first writers to argue for rejecting monarchy and embracing a republican form of government. The English Commonwealth was short-lived, and the monarchy was soon restored. The Dutch Republic continued in name until 1795, but by the mid-18th century the stadtholder had become a *de facto* monarch. Calvinists were also some of the earliest settlers of the British and Dutch colonies of North America. ### Liberal republics Liberal republics in early modern EuropeAn allegory of the French Republic in ParisSeptinsular Republic flag from the early 1800sA revolutionary Republican hand-written bill from the Stockholm riots during the Revolutions of 1848, reading: "Dethrone Oscar he is not fit to be a king: Long live the Republic! The Reform! down with the Royal house, long live Aftonbladet! death to the king / Republic Republic the People. Brunkeberg this evening". The writer's identity is unknown. Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchical power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism. Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended in either anarchy or tyranny. Thus philosophers like Voltaire opposed absolutism while at the same time being strongly pro-monarchy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu praised republics, and looked on the city-states of Greece as a model. However, both also felt that a state like France, with 20 million people, would be impossible to govern as a republic. Rousseau admired the republican experiment in Corsica (1755–1769) and described his ideal political structure of small, self-governing communes. Montesquieu felt that a city-state should ideally be a republic, but maintained that a limited monarchy was better suited to a state with a larger territory. The American Revolution began as a rejection only of the authority of the British Parliament over the colonies, not of the monarchy. The failure of the British monarch to protect the colonies from what they considered the infringement of their rights to representative government, the monarch's branding of those requesting redress as traitors, and his support for sending combat troops to demonstrate authority resulted in widespread perception of the British monarchy as tyrannical. With the United States Declaration of Independence the leaders of the revolt firmly rejected the monarchy and embraced republicanism. The leaders of the revolution were well versed in the writings of the French liberal thinkers, and also in history of the classical republics. John Adams had notably written a book on republics throughout history. In addition, the widely distributed and popularly read-aloud tract *Common Sense*, by Thomas Paine, succinctly and eloquently laid out the case for republican ideals and independence to the larger public. The Constitution of the United States, went into effect in 1789, created a relatively strong federal republic to replace the relatively weak confederation under the first attempt at a national government with the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union ratified in 1781. The first ten amendments to the Constitution, called the United States Bill of Rights, guaranteed certain natural rights fundamental to republican ideals that justified the Revolution. The French Revolution was also not republican at its outset. Only after the Flight to Varennes removed most of the remaining sympathy for the king was a republic declared and Louis XVI sent to the guillotine. The stunning success of France in the French Revolutionary Wars saw republics spread by force of arms across much of Europe as a series of client republics were set up across the continent. The rise of Napoleon saw the end of the French First Republic and her Sister Republics, each replaced by "popular monarchies". Throughout the Napoleonic period, the victors extinguished many of the oldest republics on the continent, including the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, and the Dutch Republic. They were eventually transformed into monarchies or absorbed into neighboring monarchies. Outside Europe another group of republics was created as the Napoleonic Wars allowed the states of Latin America to gain their independence. Liberal ideology had only a limited impact on these new republics. The main impetus was the local European descended Creole population in conflict with the Peninsulares—governors sent from overseas. The majority of the population in most of Latin America was of either African or Amerindian descent, and the Creole elite had little interest in giving these groups power and broad-based popular sovereignty. Simón Bolívar, both the main instigator of the revolts and one of its most important theorists, was sympathetic to liberal ideals but felt that Latin America lacked the social cohesion for such a system to function and advocated autocracy as necessary. In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until 1889. In many other Latin American states various forms of autocratic republic existed until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century. | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | European states in 1815   Monarchies (55)   Republics (9) | European states in 1914   Monarchies (22)   Republics (4) | European states in 1930   Monarchies (20)   Republics (15) | European states in 1950   Monarchies (13)   Republics (21) | European states in 2015   Monarchies (12)   Republics (35) | The French Second Republic was created in 1848, but abolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. The French Third Republic was established in 1870, when a civil revolutionary committee refused to accept Napoleon III's surrender during the Franco-Prussian War. Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic in 1873–74, but the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzerland and San Marino remained the only republics in Europe. This changed when, after the 1908 Lisbon Regicide, the 5 October 1910 revolution established the Portuguese Republic. In East Asia, China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment during the 19th century, and a number of protest movements developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles of the People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. Under his leadership the Republic of China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912. Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of World War I, when several of the largest European empires collapsed: the Russian Empire (1917), German Empire (1918), Austro-Hungarian Empire (1918), and Ottoman Empire (1922) were all replaced by republics. New states gained independence during this turmoil, and many of these, such as Ireland, Poland, Finland and Czechoslovakia, chose republican forms of government. Following Greece's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22), the monarchy was briefly replaced by the Second Hellenic Republic (1924–35). In 1931, the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–39) resulted in the Spanish Civil War that would be the prelude of World War II. Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of the 19th century, with Protestant missionaries playing a central role. The liberal and republican writers of the west also exerted influence. These combined with native Confucian inspired political philosophy that had long argued that the populace had the right to reject unjust governments that had lost the Mandate of Heaven. Two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia, the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic. ### Decolonization In the years following World War II, most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment of republics in its former colonies. The United Kingdom attempted to follow the model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating independent Commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarch. While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states of the Caribbean retained this system, it was rejected by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia, which revised their constitutions and became republics instead. Britain followed a different model in the Middle East; it installed local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, Yemen and Libya. In subsequent decades revolutions and coups overthrew a number of monarchs and installed republics. Several monarchies remain, and the Middle East is the only part of the world where several large states are ruled by monarchs with almost complete political control. ### Socialist republics In the wake of the First World War, the Russian monarchy fell during the Russian Revolution. The Russian Provisional Government was established in its place on the lines of a liberal republic, but this was overthrown by the Bolsheviks who went on to establish the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. This was the first republic established under Marxist–Leninist ideology. Communism was wholly opposed to monarchy, and became an important element of many republican movements during the 20th century. The Russian Revolution spread into Mongolia, and overthrew its theocratic monarchy in 1924. In the aftermath of the Second World War the communists gradually gained control of Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Albania, ensuring that the states were reestablished as socialist republics rather than monarchies. Communism also intermingled with other ideologies. It was embraced by many national liberation movements during decolonization. In Vietnam, communist republicans pushed aside the Nguyễn dynasty, and monarchies in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia were overthrown by communist movements in the 1970s. Arab socialism contributed to a series of revolts and coups that saw the monarchies of Egypt, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen ousted. In Africa, Marxism–Leninism and African socialism led to the end of monarchy and the proclamation of republics in states such as Burundi and Ethiopia. ### Islamic republics Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to absolute monarchy, notably in the work of Al-Farabi. Sharia law took precedence over the will of the ruler, and electing rulers by means of the Shura was an important doctrine. While the early caliphate maintained the principles of an elected ruler, later states became hereditary or military dictatorships though many maintained some pretense of a consultative shura. None of these states are typically referred to as republics. The current usage of republic in Muslim countries is borrowed from the western meaning, adopted into the language in the late 19th century. The 20th century saw republicanism become an important idea in much of the Middle East, as monarchies were removed in many states of the region. Iraq became a secular state. Some nations, such as Indonesia and Azerbaijan, began as secular. In Iran, the 1979 revolution overthrew the monarchy and created an Islamic republic based on the ideas of Islamic democracy. Head of state ------------- ### Structure | | | --- | | | | Systems of government | | | | | --- | | Republican forms of government: | |   Presidential republics with an executive presidency separate from the legislature   Semi-presidential system with both an executive presidency and a separate head of government that leads the rest of the executive, who is appointed by the president and accountable to the legislature   Parliamentary republics with a ceremonial and non-executive president, where a separate head of government leads the executive and is dependent on the confidence of the legislature   Republics in which a combined head of state and government is elected by, or nominated by, the legislature and may or may not be subject to parliamentary confidence |   One-party states --- | | | --- | | Monarchical forms of government: | |   Constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial and non-executive monarch, where a separate head of government leads the executive   Semi-constitutional monarchies with a ceremonial monarch, but where royalty still hold significant executive or legislative power   Absolute monarchies where the monarch leads the executive | --- | | | --- | |   Countries where constitutional provisions for government have been suspended   Countries which do not fit any of the above systems (e.g. provisional government or unclear political situations) | | With no monarch, most modern republics use the title president for the head of state. Originally used to refer to the presiding officer of a committee or governing body in Great Britain the usage was also applied to political leaders, including the leaders of some of the Thirteen Colonies (originally Virginia in 1608); in full, the "President of the Council". The first republic to adopt the title was the United States of America. Keeping its usage as the head of a committee the President of the Continental Congress was the leader of the original congress. When the new constitution was written the title of President of the United States was conferred on the head of the new executive branch. If the head of state of a republic is also the head of government, this is called a presidential system. There are a number of forms of presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president with substantial authority and a central political role. In other states the legislature is dominant and the presidential role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, such as in Germany, Italy, India, and Trinidad and Tobago. These states are parliamentary republics and operate similarly to constitutional monarchies with parliamentary systems where the power of the monarch is also greatly circumscribed. In parliamentary systems the head of government, most often titled prime minister, exercises the most real political power. Semi-presidential systems have a president as an active head of state with important powers, but they also have a prime minister as a head of government with important powers. The rules for appointing the president and the leader of the government, in some republics permit the appointment of a president and a prime minister who have opposing political convictions: in France, when the members of the ruling cabinet and the president come from opposing political factions, this situation is called cohabitation. In some countries, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, San Marino, and Switzerland, the head of state is not a single person but a committee (council) of several persons holding that office. The Roman Republic had two consuls, elected for a one-year term by the *comitia centuriata*, consisting of all adult, freeborn males who could prove citizenship. ### Elections In liberal democracies, presidents are elected, either directly by the people or indirectly by a parliament or council. Typically in presidential and semi-presidential systems the president is directly elected by the people, or is indirectly elected as done in the United States. In that country the president is officially elected by an electoral college, chosen by the States, all of which do so by direct election of the electors. The indirect election of the president through the electoral college conforms to the concept of republic as one with a system of indirect election. In the opinion of some, direct election confers legitimacy upon the president and gives the office much of its political power. However, this concept of legitimacy differs from that expressed in the United States Constitution which established the legitimacy of the United States president as resulting from the signing of the Constitution by nine states. The idea that direct election is required for legitimacy also contradicts the spirit of the Great Compromise, whose actual result was manifest in the clause that provides voters in smaller states with more representation in presidential selection than those in large states; for example citizens of Wyoming in 2016 had 3.6 times as much electoral vote representation as citizens of California. In states with a parliamentary system the president is usually elected by the parliament. This indirect election subordinates the president to the parliament, and also gives the president limited legitimacy and turns most presidential powers into reserve powers that can only be exercised under rare circumstance. There are exceptions where elected presidents have only ceremonial powers, such as in Ireland. ### Ambiguities The distinction between a republic and a monarchy is not always clear. The constitutional monarchies of the former British Empire and Western Europe today have almost all real political power vested in the elected representatives, with the monarchs only holding either theoretical powers, no powers or rarely used reserve powers. Real legitimacy for political decisions comes from the elected representatives and is derived from the will of the people. While hereditary monarchies remain in place, political power is derived from the people as in a republic. These states are thus sometimes referred to as crowned republics. Terms such as "liberal republic" are also used to describe all of the modern liberal democracies. There are also self-proclaimed republics that act similarly to absolute monarchies with absolute power vested in the leader and passed down from father to son. North Korea and Syria are two notable examples where a son has inherited political control. Neither of these states are officially monarchies. There is no constitutional requirement that power be passed down within one family, but it has occurred in practice. There are also elective monarchies where ultimate power is vested in a monarch, but the monarch is chosen by some manner of election. A current example of such a state is Malaysia where the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected every five years by the Conference of Rulers composed of the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states, and the Vatican City-State, where the pope is selected by cardinal-electors, currently all cardinals under the age of 80. While rare today, elective monarchs were common in the past. The Holy Roman Empire is an important example, where each new emperor was chosen by a group of electors. Islamic states also rarely employed primogeniture, instead relying on various forms of election to choose a monarch's successor. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a wide suffrage of some 500,000 nobles. The system, known as the Golden Liberty, had developed as a method for powerful landowners to control the crown. The proponents of this system looked to classical examples, and the writings of the Italian Renaissance, and called their elective monarchy a *rzeczpospolita*, based on *res publica.* Sub-national republics ---------------------- In general being a republic also implies sovereignty as for the state to be ruled by the people it cannot be controlled by a foreign power. There are important exceptions to this, for example, republics in the Soviet Union were member states which had to meet three criteria to be named republics: 1. be on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to take advantage of their theoretical right to secede; 2. be economically strong enough to be self-sufficient upon secession; and 3. be named after at least one million people of the ethnic group which should make up the majority population of said republic. It is sometimes argued that the former Soviet Union was also a supra-national republic, based on the claim that the member states were different nation states. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a federal entity composed of six republics (Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). Each republic had its parliament, government, institute of citizenship, constitution, etc., but certain functions were delegated to the federation (army, monetary matters). Each republic also had a right of self-determination according to the conclusions of the second session of the AVNOJ and according to the federal constitution. In Switzerland, all cantons can be considered to have a republican form of government, with constitutions, legislatures, executives and courts; many of them being originally sovereign states. As a consequence, several Romance-speaking cantons are still officially referred to as republics, reflecting their history and will of independence within the Swiss Confederation. Notable examples are the Republic and Canton of Geneva and the Republic and Canton of Ticino. States of the United States are required, like the federal government, to be republican in form, with final authority resting with the people. This was required because the states were intended to create and enforce most domestic laws, with the exception of areas delegated to the federal government and prohibited to the states. The founders of the country intended most domestic laws to be handled by the states. Requiring the states to be a republic in form was seen as protecting the citizens' rights and preventing a state from becoming a dictatorship or monarchy, and reflected unwillingness on the part of the original 13 states (all independent republics) to unite with other states that were not republics. Additionally, this requirement ensured that only other republics could join the union. In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union that was a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic. Other meanings -------------- ### Archaic meaning Before the 17th Century, the term 'republic' could be used to refer to states of any form of government as long as it was not a tyrannical regime. French philosopher Jean Bodin's definition of the republic was “the rightly ordered government of a number of families, and of those things which are their common concern, by a sovereign power.” Oligarchies and monarchies could also be included as they were also organised toward 'public' shared interests. In medieval texts, 'republic' was used to refer to the body of shared interest with the king at its head. For instance, the Holy Roman Empire was also known as the *Sancta Respublica Romana*, the Holy Roman Republic. The Byzantine Empire also continued calling itself *the Roman Republic* as the Byzantines did not regard monarchy as a contradiction to republicanism. Instead, republics were defined as any state based on popular sovereignty and whose institutions were based on shared values. ### Democracy vs. republic debate While the term democracy has been used interchangeably with the term republic by some, others have made sharp distinctions between the two for millennia. "Montesquieu, founder of the modern constitutional state, repeated in his The Spirit of the Laws of 1748 the insight that Aristotle had expressed two millennia earlier, ‘Voting by lot is in the nature of democracy; voting by choice is in the nature of aristocracy.’" Additional critics of elections include Rousseau, Robespierre, and Marat, who said of the new French Republic, "What use is it to us, that we have broken the aristocracy of the nobles, if that is replaced by the aristocracy of the rich?" ### Political philosophy The term *republic* originated from the writers of the Renaissance as a descriptive term for states that were not monarchies. These writers, such as Machiavelli, also wrote important prescriptive works describing how such governments should function. These ideas of how a government and society should be structured is the basis for an ideology known as classical republicanism or civic humanism. This ideology is based on the Roman Republic and the city states of Ancient Greece and focuses on ideals such as civic virtue, rule of law and mixed government. This understanding of a republic as a form of government distinct from a liberal democracy is one of the main theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis. This grew out of the work of J. G. A. Pocock who in 1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a consistent set of republican ideals. These writers included Machiavelli, Milton, Montesquieu and the founders of the United States of America. Pocock argued that this was an ideology with a history and principles distinct from liberalism. These ideas were embraced by a number of different writers, including Quentin Skinner, Philip Pettit and Cass Sunstein. These subsequent writers have further explored the history of the idea, and also outlined how a modern republic should function. ### United States A distinct set of definitions of the term "republic" evolved in the United States, where the term is often equated with "representative democracy." This narrower understanding of the term was originally developed by James Madison and notably employed in Federalist Paper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted early in the history of the United States, including in Noah Webster's dictionary of 1828. It was a novel meaning to the term; representative democracy was not an idea mentioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classical republics. There is also evidence that contemporaries of Madison considered the meaning of "republic" to reflect the broader definition found elsewhere, as is the case with a quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notes of James McHenry where the question is put forth, "a Republic or a Monarchy?". The term republic does not appear in the Declaration of Independence, but it does appear in Article IV of the Constitution, which "guarantee[s] to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government." What exactly the writers of the constitution felt this should mean is uncertain. The Supreme Court, in *Luther v. Borden* (1849), declared that the definition of *republic* was a "political question" in which it would not intervene. In two later cases, it did establish a basic definition. In *United States v. Cruikshank* (1875), the court ruled that the "equal rights of citizens" were inherent to the idea of a republic. However, the term republic is not synonymous with the republican form. The republican form is defined as one in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people, either directly, or through representatives chosen by the people, to whom those powers are specially delegated. Beyond these basic definitions, the word republic has a number of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observes that republic is most often used in the United States as a synonym for "state" or "government," but with more positive connotations than either of those terms. Republicanism is often referred to as the founding ideology of the United States. Traditionally scholars believed this American republicanism was a derivation of the classical liberal ideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe. A political philosophy of republicanism that formed during the Renaissance period and initiated by Machiavelli was thought to have had little impact on the founders of the United States. In the 1960s and 1970s, a revisionist school led by the likes of Bernard Bailyn began to argue that republicanism was just as or even more important than liberalism in the creation of the United States. This issue is still much disputed and scholars like Isaac Kramnick completely reject this view. See also -------- * Commonwealth * Democracy * Democratic republic * Free state * Primus inter pares * List of republics * Index: Republics * Republicanism * Republics of Russia * Guarantee Clause of the U.S. Constitution Further reading --------------- * Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., *Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage*, v. 1, *Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 2002 * Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., *Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage*, v. 2, *The Values of Republicanism in Early Modern Europe*, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2002 * Willi Paul Adams, "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric before 1776", *Political Science Quarterly* 85(1970), pp. 397–421. * Joyce Appleby, "Republicanism in Old and New Contexts", in *William & Mary Quarterly*, 3rd series, 43 (January, 1986), pp. 3–34. * Joyce Appleby, ed., "Republicanism" issue of *American Quarterly* 37 (Fall, 1985). * Sarah Barber, *Regicide and Republicanism: Politics and Ethics in the English Republic, 1646–1649*, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998. * Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner & Maurizio Viroli, eds., *Machiavelli and Republicanism*, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1990. * Everdell, William R. (2000), *The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans* (2nd ed.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press * Eric Gojosso, *Le concept de république en France (XVIe – XVIIIe siècle)*, Aix/Marseille, 1998, pp. 205–45. * James Hankins, "Exclusivist Republicanism and the Non-Monarchical Republic", *Political Theory* 38.4 (August 2010), 452–82. * Frédéric Monera, *L'idée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel* – Paris: L.G.D.J., 2004 Fnac, LGDJ.fr * Philip Pettit, *Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government*, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. x and 304. * J. G. A. Pocock, *The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975 * J. G. A. Pocock, "Between Gog and Magog: The Republican Thesis and the Ideologia Americana", *Journal of the History of Ideas* 48 (1987), p. 341 * J. G. A. Pocock, "*The Machiavellian Moment* Revisited: A Study in History and Ideology" *Journal of Modern History* 53 (1981) * Paul A. Rahe, *Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution*, 3 v., Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press 1992, 1994. * Jagdish P. Sharma, *Republics in ancient India, c. 1500 B.C.–500 B.C.*, 1968 * David Wootton, ed., *Republicanism, Liberty, and Commercial Society, 1649–1776* (The Making of Modern Freedom series), Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.

Republic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic