Datasets:

Pavithree

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eli5

like 2

{ "a_id": [ "csyieuo", "csyigfh", "csymu8q", "csyr37b", "csyr563", "csz0wr0", "csz49ud", "csz5cp7" ], "score": [ 8, 1845, 89, 39, 6, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "As for as I know from raising chickens they can keep producing them throughout their life. Their first year they will produce up to 300 eggs and it slows as they get older. [This may help](_URL_0_)", "Birds, like humans, have a limited number of primary oocytes in their ovaries. But most of them don't live long enough to run out. [This Slate article](_URL_0_) that addresses your question says that some macaws, which are very long-lived, can run out of eggs, but the [study they cite](_URL_1_) is on humans, and I can't find the macaw fact anywhere else. Still, biologically it makes sense that if a bird lived long enough, it would be unable to continue producing eggs.", "As other posters have mentioned, they do have a limited number, but they tend to slow down by around 3 years, so it's not common for them to completely run out. They start laying around 6 months, give or take, and will lay almost an egg a day for the first year after that. Then they begin to taper off, and after they're about three they can be down to one to two eggs a week, at which point they're no longer economical to keep around for eggs.\n\nI have about 18 that are just under 3 years old, and which are giving me about 8-10 eggs a day total, plus 7 birds a year older than that who give me at most 2 eggs a week between them. The same batch of birds a year ago were still producing 12-15 eggs a day.\n\nThe older 7 are desperately overdue for the stew pot, but I'm working too much right now. Essentially they're eating at least 1/3 of the feed (that bunch are actually always at the feeder), but are only producing about 3% of the eggs.", "Chicken farmer here.\n\nYes, there are a limited number of eggs a chicken could potentially produce. The reality is that the chicken will die before it even comes close to producing all of its eggs, even in a natural setting. In factory farming, their lifespan is significantly shorter, due to consumers demand of cheap, quality eggs. (Younger birds produce desirable eggs more efficiently)\n\nChickens are considered lay hens at 19 weeks of age, and in a factory farm setting, lay for approximately 1 year before being replaced by new lay hens. In that one year span, a white Lohmann layer hen will produce roughly 320 eggs.", "They peak around year 3 of life and taper off. They will live up to 15 years if in a good environment, most farms cull after year 3-4 because of the drop off though. A chicken will consume over $1000 of food in its life, from a business stand point, the return on investment happens quickly year 4-5.", "Like everybody else says, it is possible for chickens to run out of oocytes. \n\nIn Japan, when a chicken stops laying due to old age, it is called a hine-dori. Because nutrients no longer go into egg reproduction, the meat has more flavor and is firmer, and is prized in some cuisines.", "Raise chickens here, at about a year and half into their laying cycle they basically become not worth feeding anymore. They don't lay every 23 or so hours anymore. You can make them into stew birds because they are awfully tough to eat otherwise. \n\nIt seems cruel buy the laying mash isn't cheap and I love having fresh eggs as a source of protein. ", "I've had a few chickens over the years. An egg laying crossbreed (Leghorn/Rhode Island Red). They lay an egg every day for 6 days out of the week and start laying eggs at around 5 months. They continue til about 2.5 years then production slows down, 1 every other day, one every 3rd day and so on until no more eggs are forthcoming.\nWith a friends help, we butchered one so I could try to make Coq au Vin. " ] }

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[ [ "http://www.backyardchickens.com/t/307992/how-many-eggs-does-a-hen-lay-in-a-lifetime" ], [ "http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2011/03/which_ends_first_the_chicken_or_its_eggs.html", "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15021448" ], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cmkamyh" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "When your get a fever, your body raises your internal thermostat. You shiver and get the chills in order to reach your new higher temperature setting. It's one way you can tell if you're getting a fever if you don't have a thermometer. Chills means a fever us coming on, sweating means the fever is breaking." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5b5yw3", "c5b7vji", "c5b8je9", "c5bb2d0" ], "score": [ 5, 9, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "It was very difficult and bloody to a degree which was frustrating and surprising to the Allies. While they did not expect the campaign to be the decisive one, they spent more blood and effort in Italy than they were \"comfortable with\". Italy (in some ways) was an easier place to stand and fight for the Germans than the broad area of France. \n\n", "It was awful. You can read *The Day of Battle* by Rick Atkinson for a good overview of the campaign.\n\nBasically, Italy is long and narrow and has mountains. The Germans created a series of fortified lines in those mountains, and the Allied armies assaulted them head on. It was a bloody, grinding slog.\n\nThey tried to do an end run around by landing at Anzio, but they only landed two divisions, and were soon boxed in by locally superior German forces. Most of the effort at that time was going to the build up for Overlord, and they couldn't land the quantity of troops that would have been needed for a breakout.", "My neighbor who passed a few years ago, was in one of the first divisions to land. He was captured after a few days fighting because they ran out of ammo and food and spent the remainder of the war in a Stalag. He said that there was no choice but to surrender and it haunted him that they were not necessarily abandoned, but forgotten in the heat of the battle. His greatest regrets were that his mother didn't know what had happened to him and would worry, and his friends had all died. He kept a small scrapbook of his incarceration that included a German prisoner list, a Red Cross letter, and a hometown newspaper clipping listing him as missing with a photo of his worried mother. He was alone when he died.", "On the off chance you live in Illinois, the estate of Robert McCormick has a great exhibit devoted to the [1st Division's actions during the Sicily campaign.](_URL_0_)\n\nBefore then I had never thought much about the liberation of Italy and I remember being thunderstruck by how complicated and intense the fighting was for a campaign that's not as well remembered as Normandy or Iwo Jima." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://www.firstdivisionmuseum.org/history/history/wwii.aspx" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "crtk9fu", "crtkazn", "crtkkz9", "crtogls", "crtp3uq", "crtsbxl", "crttjh7", "crtu3jk" ], "score": [ 12, 39, 8, 4, 3, 5, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Real estate laws are super complicated, because many states use real-estate resources to drive tax revenue. Sellers don't have anything like the time to figure out the laws, make web-sites and stage their house to get a good return. When you only sell your house once a decade, how could you possibly stay current on the best marketing trends.\n\nBuyers agents, who help you figure out where to look, will be the first to go. You're giving them a lot of money to drive you around town when you could go to the seller's agent and talk about reduced points if they get both sides of the deal.", "Buying a house isn't like buying a sandwich. There's a lot of paperwork involved, inspections, negotiations, escrow, yada yada yada.\n\nPeople pay real estate agents to take care of that stuff.", "Buying a house is much, much more complicated than booking a flight or reserving a rental property. Realtors are experts in that process, and are often much more than simply salesmen. In some jurisdictions, they are more like lawyers, with education and licensing requirements.\n\nIn California, where I live, the realtor is responsible for overseeing all phases of a home purchase, making sure all the contracts are signed, that the buyers and sellers know what the contracts say, etc. There are certain legally required disclosures that have to be made (Is the house on a flood plain? Is the house near a military base? Has someone died in the house?) They make sure that all the legal requirements for a sale are met. Were all the necessary permits pulled for upgrades to a house? Have all liens against the house been discharged? \n\nThey also coordinate the efforts of all the people involved in a home sale (inspectors, escrow agents, lenders, all for both buyers and sellers).\n\nPlus, a good realtor will work hard to be sure that you find a house you like. I've bought two houses, and both times the realtors I worked with earned every penny of their fee.", "When I came to this country I found a realtor to be extremely helpful. I didn't know anything about this area but she found dozens of properties that met my criteria, drove me all over the area for several weeks to see them, arranged viewings of properties that I found myself on the websites, pointed out issues that should make me reconsider such as cracks in the wall or uneven floors, gave opinions on fair pricing for a property, told me about the neighborhoods and their safety, and it didn't cost me anything because the seller is the one who pays the fee for both realtors.", "ELI5? You're completely correct.\n\n\n\nAnymore this has become an 'expectation' that has lasted from the previous generations. Give it time and realtors will either evolve, or slowly become obsolete. For a large chunk of the younger population, realtors only purpose is to be the one letting them into the house that they had already found online.\n\nThat said, a GOOD realtor is still valuable. A GOOD realtor will know the area, have a good idea what a house is actually worth, and can provide valuable and well thought advice. That said, GOOD realtors are extremely few and far between. ", "I help people buy homes by arranging their mortgages. I also used to be a realtor, so I guess I've got a weird perspective on things.\n\nIn my opinion agents are overpaid, but not unnecessary. A good agent can help guide you through the process of buying/selling, prevent you from overpaying (everybody thinks their house is worth more than it is. Everyone.), protect you from impulsive/poor decisions, and generally give you advice on a VERY substantial purchase. \n\nTo give an example; I just helped a person who wanted to avoid using a real estate agent. This is fine, and I think I might do the same, but only because I've seen a number of purchases/sales and know what the risks are. Unfortunately, this person was of the mindset that agents are just there to collect a paycheck. When I met him, he had already made an offer to purchase a house, and this offer didn't include the condition \"subject to financing\". Meaning that whether or not he could *afford* the home was not going to be a deciding factor in him purchasing it. And guess what? He couldn't afford that particular house (should've gotten pre-approved first, something an agent should tell you), and risked losing his $10k deposit. He ended up getting it back, but the seller was not legally obligated to so. Something I felt a little sick over for a while.\n\nOne thing I appreciate about agents now is that they (should) verify *everything*. I've seen too many people lie about so many god damned things that it makes me dizzy. Seen people lie about affordability, lie about mold/grow ops/repairs, lie about what's included in a sale. I had someone lie about the size of their lot, which is hard to get away with. \n\nAgents do a lot of good, but I don't think they need to be paid like doctors.", "So everyone is talking about the legal requirements of real estate transactions which has nothing to do with realtors. Sure realtors typically have enough knowledge to fill in for a lawyer but their fees are many orders of magnitude higher than what you'd pay a lawyer to look over your forms.\n\nGetting to the question of why do we still have realtors? Let's look at how the interactions are setup. If you're buying a house then the first thing every realtor is going to tell you is that it doesn't cost you anything to hire them. This is technically true because they collect from the seller's agent. If you buy a house without a buyer's agent then the seller's agent just keeps what they would have otherwise given to your buyer's agent. Because of this, there is essentially no reason not to get a buyer's agent if you're shopping for a house which means almost every buyer is represented by an agent.\n\nLet's look at the flip side, if you're selling your house, realtors typically ask for 6% of the home's sale price. Because buyer's agents know they'll get paid their cut automatically by houses for sale by agent they show those houses without even blinking to their buyers. For every house that is for sale by owner, those buyers' agents have to negotiate a commission from those sellers and get it in writing before it's worth their time to show the house. Since they don't know whether or not their buyer will buy the house, in many instances, it simply won't be worth their effort to negotiate a commission on the potential that their buyer will buy it. As a result a lot of people who try to go the for sale by owner route end up having to suck it up and hire a realtor.\n\nAccording to [this article](_URL_0_) 70% of people who initially try to sell FSBO end up hiring an agent.\n\nInterestingly enough [according to this question post](_URL_1_) FSBO in Canada gets the same price as realtor sold homes on average.\n\nOne thing you can do as a buyer, at least, is to negotiate for a rebate with your agent before entering an agreement. There's a site called redfin that will set you up with a broker and a prearranged rebate. This is probably not the best rebate you can get if you call around yourself but if you don't like to call around then it will certainly be better than nothing.", "Realtors still exist because buying a house is probably going to be the most expensive thing you're ever going to buy in your life. I'd say in most cases it's comforting to have someone who knows what they're doing help you through the process. \n\nThat being said, you should check out [_URL_0_](http://www._URL_0_), they handle everything a typical buyers agent would but only charge small flat fee. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://realestate.aol.com/blog/2010/08/10/sell-your-house-without-a-realtor/", "http://www.quora.com/What-percentage-of-properties-originally-listed-as-For-Sale-By-Owner-FSBO-are-ultimately-closed-through-a-commissioned-agent" ], [ "openlistings.co", "http://www.openlistings.co" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ck2sw9w", "ck2sy6r", "ck2t5e9", "ck2w4k6", "ck36ci5" ], "score": [ 9, 14, 36, 4, 2 ], "text": [ "Yepp. \n\nNow, we can't eat trees. But sugar plants work the same way. By taking CO2 and making their structural molecule sucrose (sugar).\nSugar which we then eat and turn back into \"thin air\" by exspiring CO2 in our breath. - Circle of life", "Yep. That's why people get concerned when we burn fossil fuels.\n\nWay back, like billions back, there was a time that the planet had a ton of CO2. All that CO2 got extracted out of the air by all the seaweed and plant material which was growing. Eventually, all that carbon got locked up in huge forrests, but as there were no wood and other high fiber processing bacterium yet, all this dead wood just accumulated up. Basically, all the CO2 in the air was now dead wood. Covered for billions of years with soil now, and naturally processed into todays oil, coal and natural gasses. As we burn this stuff, we're putting that old CO2 back into the atmosphere. In addition, we have the fiber processing bacterium now so all the dead wood doesn't sit as before, it also decays eventually back into CO2. ", "Yes, the functional enzyme, called RuBisCo, is one of the only proteins which can take free CO2 and \"fix\" into a chemical that biological specimens (such as trees) can use. Once fixed, this carbon either goes into structural elements (such as plant tissue/cellulose) or into glucose that gives the plant energy when the sun is not shining.\nIt is interesting to note that RuBisCo is the most common protein on the planet, owing partially to extremely low catalytic turnover rate.", "Yes, this is why Carbon-14 dating works. Once a tree dies, it ceases to take in new carbon from the air. This means that the existing Carbon-14 (which is radioactive) begins to decay which can be used to estimate the date at which that plant died.\n\n > Measuring the amount of C14 in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as piece of old wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died.\n\n[Wiki Entry] (_URL_0_)", "yep. and consider that carbon dioxide is 1 atom carbon 2 atoms oxygen and the carbon atom weighs less that each oxygen atom. and that the average concentration of carbon dioxide at tree level is about .1 percent so the tree is promarily made of less than 1/3000 of the air." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cd9nmqz", "cd9qaio" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Money is the right answer. For companies that use DSL over your phone line to sell service, the equipment already exists to set up phone service; it costs them hardly anything to hook you up to it.\n\nFor companies that use cable connections, modern cable modems that use the DOCSIS 3.0 standard often have phone modems built into them, so again, it doesn't really cost them much to get you hooked up.\n\nSince it doesn't cost them much to get you connected, then all they have to do is charge you more than it costs them to get you a phone number and get you dialed into the national phone grid, and they make an easy profit.", "The first thing they do is sell your number. I had one for \"free\" with my cable and started receiving sales calls within the first hour." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cngktax" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "There actually is quite a bit of science behind it. There is a whole engineering field based on negating the affects of sound (acoustic engineering) [which you can read more about here.](_URL_0_) Basically sound is a wave and how that wave bounces off of walls and other obstacles will affect decibel level. [Here's a link which goes through some of the basics of how a stadium would be designed to increase the noise produced by fans.]( _URL_1_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering", "http://www.insidescience.org/content/stadium-acoustics-pump-volume/1609" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dcoy9xe" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "As some internet smartass once put it \"Wanna DDoS a bar? Get a shitload of friends to all go in and keep asking for glasses of water.\"\n\nThe point of a distributed denial of service attack is to tie up one server with **so many** requests that ultimately aren't real that it has no time to service the actual users who want to visit the page. All web traffic starts with *some* form of request and conversation between the two computers. The attacking computers in a DoS scenario just drop the conversation and start over from the top every few seconds.\n\n\nUsually to pull off a DoS attack effectively, you need a botnet, a network of thousands of virus'd computers that accept commands you give them. If you tried to pull a DoS attack with just one or relatively few computers, it would be very easy to trace and blacklist you. But if thousands of computers all over the world all connect to your victim's server simulatenously, that server can't tell which incoming requests might belong to real users and which are bogus and going to end early." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "eg7lltg", "eg7lyzw", "eg7lz72", "eg7oh0g" ], "score": [ 2, 7, 3, 3 ], "text": [ "You've got it, mostly. Your employer withholds a certain amount for taxes, but they don't take in to account credits you might use when you actually figure out your taxes.", "You're correct. You get taxes withheld from your paycheck. But those taxes are just an estimate of what you will actually owe. When you started your job you filled out a W4 form which helped calculate how much taxes they would withhold, based on things like whether you have dependents, whether someone claims you as a dependent, whether you are the head of a household.\n\nAt the end of the year, the amount you got withheld usually doesn't match exactly what actual tax you owe. If your withholding was more than your tax owed, maybe because you had a lot of deductions or something, you get back the extra amount that you've already paid in though withholding. That's you tax return.\n\nIt's also possible you might owe extra money. Then you have to send payment in when you file your taxes.", "This is a very interesting topic that comes up every now and then.\n\nYou're almost correct. It's not a miscalculation, but an estimate of how much you made. \n\nThere are countries where the tax collection body of government calculates the amount you earned in one year and the tax you should pay for it. Then they send it to you. \n\nYou sign it if you agree or can dispute it. So easy! You don't have to do the hard part of calculating anything. \n\nBut whether such a system would work in your home country depends partly on the economics and partly on the social workings of your country. ", "\"tax return\" is a confusing term, because it doesn't actually mean that you'll always get something returned to you. It's better to just think of it as \"tax form\" - a form that you fill out and send in, where you write in how much money you made during the year, how much taxes you've already paid (if any) and it includes instructions so you can figure out how much in taxes you still need to pay, or how much you will get back in a refund if you've already paid too much during the year (see below). Then you send in the form, maybe with your payment, or maybe you'll get a refund. \n\nThe reason lots of people get tax refunds is because every time they get a paycheck, usually some % of it is taken out and instantly paid as taxes (this is called withholding). So at the end of the year when you do your tax return and figure out *exactly* what your taxes should be, there is usually a difference between what you’ve paid over the year via withholding vs what you really should have paid. If you paid too much you get a refund, if you haven’t paid enough then you need to pay to make up the difference. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8b23t4", "c8bejqg" ], "score": [ 4, 2 ], "text": [ "UV light from the sun stimulates the release of melanin from the cells in your skin, which is partially responsible for the tan color of your skin. When that UV light is no longer present, that pigment can wear off. Functionally, the darker color of skin will come to reflect more wavelengths of light, serving as a sort of natural sunscreen, but not nearly effective as manufacturer sunscreens.\n\nOverexposure can damage your skin past sunburn, which can lead to a darkening of skin. But I wouldn't say that this is a good thing, or a \"tan.\"\n\nTo answer your question: no, exposure as kids wouldn't necessarily have a lasting effect unless their skin became damaged. However, genetics have a huge influence on how pigment is maintained in your skin.", "There are a number of genes that produce variation in skin color, but basically, there is a background level of melanin production that is set by the pituitary gland. It doesn't matter how long you stay inside, certain people will always produce a given amount of melanin. Exposure to sun (and concomitant DNA damage) will stimulate further melanin production, but melanosomes don't last forever (they last longer in some people than others, but this is on the order of weeks), and eventually without further stimulation your skin pigmentation will degrade back to the basal level." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c3f7kix", "c3f7muc", "c3f7x0h", "c3f9efz" ], "score": [ 6, 16, 8, 2 ], "text": [ "It doesn't really seem to change behavior. Here's a Nat Geo article on this. Few years old, but not heard of any changes to this:\n_URL_0_", "Layman here. The short answer is no. There's no reason to think the moon actually has any effect on the human body or human activity beyond the simple fact that it illuminates the night more than a crescent or new moon.\n\n[Here's](_URL_2_) a short Scientific American article and [here's](_URL_1_) a sourced wikipedia article about some of the research that's been done on the subject. \n\nAlso, [here's](_URL_0_) part of a documentary about the moon's supposed effect on people where James Randi makes some good points and [here's](_URL_3_) Neil DeGrasse Tyson talking about some common misconceptions.", "No physiological effect. Perhaps a culturally constructed psychological effect.", "There is no established evidence of correlation between the lunar phase and physical effects on humans. That being said, personal experience in the psych and medical fields tells me otherwise and I've heard from law enforcement they seem to notice a striking coincidence. But, again, nothing empirical. " ] }

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[ [ "http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1218_021218_moon.html" ], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgCrmuZXoXU&t=3m32s", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect#Scientific_research_on_the_theory", "http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=lunacy-and-the-full-moon", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bVk-2XAd-kI" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d5fcsst", "d5fctol", "d5ffath" ], "score": [ 3, 2, 5 ], "text": [ "When you listen to a piece of music - often when you count the notes between the the *strong* ones, that's your time sig. \nFor example with 'all you need is love', by the Beatles, the chorus goes ONE two three four five six seven, ONE two three..., for the verse it's ONE two three four ONE two three four. \nSure a best of 2/4 is simile to 4/4 but they work different. ", "Here are the basics:\n\n2/4 will have a 1-2 feel to it with 1 being strongest and 2 being slightly weaker (volume wise). \n3/4 will have a 1-2-3 feel, with 1 being loudest and 2-3 being about the same. \n\n4/4 will feel like two 2/4 bars, but the 3 will be somewhat weaker than 1. This is by far the most common time signature. \n\n5/4 will feel like a 2/4 followed by a 3/4 (or vice versa), but this is getting into the realm of esoteric contemporary music. They can usually tell if this is the case if the tempo keeps switching between 2/4 and 3/4 in a regular fashion.\n\n6/8 will sound like 2/4 with 3/4 stuck inside each beat; 3/4 with 2/4 stuck inside each beat will usually be 6/4. And the 4/4 2/4 analogy works on 6/4 3/4, but who knows. \n\nOther than that, you are getting into the range of crazy composing and that'll be case by case (I think I've seen 11/8 before? It's ridiculous).\n\nEdit: 9/8 12/8 and 16/8 are also pretty common, and they are just analogies to 6/8.", "I'll try to use some examples: \n\n3/4 is mostly used in waltz. It has a very easily recognized \"hum-pa-pa\" rhytm. [The first seconds make it clear!](_URL_1_)\n\n2/4 is mostly used in marches. It's steady, marching tempo, and goes a bit up and down every beat. [From 15s you should recognize it](_URL_2_). \n\n6/8 may look like 3/4, but its rhytm is very different. It's a bit like a combo of 2/4 and 3/4: you can recognise the \"hum-pa-pa\" , but also the up and down feeling of a 2/4. [Queen](_URL_0_) is a good example. \n\nAlmost everything else is written in 4/4. Rarely you can find a 2/2, which is equally steady but a bit less up-down and more smooth. As if the marching peloton got wheels. Even more rare is the 5/8, which has a weird \"hum-pa-pa hum-pa hum-pa-pa hum-pa\" rhythm. On the same note 11/8 is just a 6/8 and 5/8 combined, which also sounds a bit weird. " ] }

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[ "https://www.reddit.com/r/Music/comments/4t5btr/the_song_schism_by_tool_changes_time_signature_47/" ]

[ [], [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O71fetlkCZo&list=PLF0DZ8mkvCUcBkGWPPzwohRXqBNVYnnyB", "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IoS1_CRS5fA", "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_B0CyOAO8y0" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dyww27h", "dywya1t", "dyxahdn", "dyxmu48" ], "score": [ 6, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "The squares are there to help stop cracks from spreading across the whole slab. If you're talking about the stamped grid marks. \n\nOr they are heat expansion joints if you're talking about the individual blocks that are sometimes poured with thin strips of wood in between.", "They serve a couple purposes — they help limit cracks by allowing for expansion and by creating a barrier to stop a crack that develops. They also help channel water off the surface when it rains or snow melts, water from washing cars or sprinklers gets on them.", " Concrete is hard and needs to expand while curing. Breaking it up into sections will reduce cracking from adjacent pressure. \n\nAsphalt is soft. It gets it's firmness from the compacted base (rock and fines) underneath. Hence why you sometimes see asphalt warped from heavy loads. \n\n", "If you look closely at a concrete road (or parking lot), they are made in squares as well. The squares are just much bigger, because the concrete tends to be thicker as well. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c2jyboe", "c2jycy0", "c2jyl2s", "c2jyboe", "c2jycy0", "c2jyl2s" ], "score": [ 2, 11, 5, 2, 11, 5 ], "text": [ "just watch one.", "TED talks were created to explain complex ideas as if you were 5 years old. Huh. What a concept.", "TED talks are like lectures given by experts and professionals from all walks of life, professions, experiences, values. They are usually outside the box and push the boundaries of cultural thinking. Anyone can do one, there is a speakers fee, so that limits any Joe Retard from trying to discuss the relativity of Scarlett Johanson's ass. ", "just watch one.", "TED talks were created to explain complex ideas as if you were 5 years old. Huh. What a concept.", "TED talks are like lectures given by experts and professionals from all walks of life, professions, experiences, values. They are usually outside the box and push the boundaries of cultural thinking. Anyone can do one, there is a speakers fee, so that limits any Joe Retard from trying to discuss the relativity of Scarlett Johanson's ass. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dm6t1fu", "dm6ts7e", "dm6wcv4", "dm7b6g9" ], "score": [ 88, 25, 48, 3 ], "text": [ "Because streams cannot be easily automatically processed by Youtube's ContentID system. Someone would have to report the stream to the copyright holder, then they would have to contact Youtube to shut down the stream.", "You can't possibly keep up with how fast people put them back up when they're taken down.\n\nNature of the beast.", "Besides the obvious triviality of re-uploading deleted content, they often alter the stream. Some will mirror the image right/left, others zoom in, stretch or draw a black border to change resolution. Even audio can be changed.\n\nYouTube's algorithm needs a comparison file to check against. Even the simplest alterations can cripple its functionality entirely.", "My guess would be it's so much easier to live stream. With videos say 100 episodes of South park they have to make an account upload them ect everytime they get taken down. A stream all they do is restart the stream no uploading way less work " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "f2356i8" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I've touched on this before in regards to how historians look at the various nationalities that were included in the Soviet Union ([here's a recent answer](_URL_0_)). But to summarize that part, during the Cold War historians largely had to rely on emigre information (in the form of memoirs or interviews), official sources (which were questionable at best), or their own understanding of how things were. The results were mixed of course, with the dominant viewpoint being that the Soviet Union was a \"breaker of nations\" (the viewpoint being espoused in Richard Pipes' works, the quote coming from Robert Conquest's biography of Stalin). With access to the archives this view changed, and the more mainstream idea is that the Soviet Union helped develop nationalities, through literary and cultural development (see Terry Martin and Francine Hirsch for two different treatments on that).\n\nRegarding a book that covers the topic really well, I'd readily suggest Ronald Grigor Suny's *Red Flag Unfurled: History, Historians, and the Russian Revolution*. It was published in 2017 to mark the centenary of the Russian Revolution, and looks at the historiography of the Soviet Union, from the beginning to the end. Suny is the recognised expert on nationalities in the Soviet Union, and I'd also suggest a couple other books of his to get an idea of how the historiography changed (see below), but this is a one-volume book that will cover what you're looking for, and cites nearly every title released in the past century (though regrettably not in bibliographic form, but just footnotes).\n\nSources:\n\n* Richard Pipes, *The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923* (1954; later editions as well)\n\n* Robert Conquest, *Stalin: Breaker of Nations* (1991)\n\n* Terry Martin, *The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939* (2001)\n\n* Francine Hirsch, *Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union* (2005)\n\n* Ronald Grigor Suny, *Red Flag Unfurled: History, Historians, and the Russian Revolution* (2017)" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/c8b73w/in_1991_the_soviet_union_collapsed_the_soviet/esmradp/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "e18sgzf", "e18ubz9" ], "score": [ 4, 6 ], "text": [ "The reusable heat pads usually contain a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate in water. Crystallization is triggered by flexing a small flat disc of notched ferrous metal loose in the pad. Pressing the disc releases very tiny adhered crystals of sodium acetate, which formed on the metal surface, into the solution which then act as nucleation sites for the crystallization of the sodium acetate into the hydrated salt sodium acetate trihydrate. The liquid is essentially super-cooled, to below the solidification temperature, at room temperature. The presence of seed crystals allows it to solidify and that puts the edge crystals at the melting point briefly. Chemistry has lots of unusual solutions like this.", "It takes energy to change something from a solid to a liquid - this heat is called the [Latent Heat of Fusion.](_URL_2_)\n\nThe material in the Thermo-pad is a [SuperSaturated](_URL_0_) solution of water and sodium diacetate - SDA. (Fun Fact: - This stuff is the same chemical used to flavour Salt-and-Vinegar potato chips!)\n\nWhen you boil the pads, you dissolve the SDA into the water as you add heat to it, melting the crystals. Since the inside surface of the vinyl packaging of the pad is very smooth, there is nowhere for crystals to start to re-form as the solution cools. Crystals typically need a [Nucleation Point](_URL_1_) to start growing.\n\nWhen you snap the little metal disk inside the solution, it creates a nucleation point, and the SDA rapidly crystallizes out of the solution, releasing the Latent Heat of Fusion that you added when you boiled it - making it warm!\n\nYou can then re-boil the package and repeat the process." ] }

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[ [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersaturation", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation#The_nucleation_of_crystals", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_heat" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c34qp8w", "c34qp8w" ], "score": [ 4, 4 ], "text": [ "[I found a neat little picture for ya :)))](_URL_0_)", "[I found a neat little picture for ya :)))](_URL_0_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.stonyfield.com/sites/default/files/differences-at-a-glance-chart.jpg" ], [ "http://www.stonyfield.com/sites/default/files/differences-at-a-glance-chart.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cnqca1f", "cnqcgvx" ], "score": [ 4, 4 ], "text": [ "It's because truckers spend a lot of time on the radio\n\nThe marketing ppl did a study and found out that truckers spend a lot of time on the radio so they put their ads targeting truckers on the radio\n\nThe problem is that truckers don't listen to the radio, the radio they spend so much time on is their CB radios. \n\nSince truckers don't listen to the radio that has the ads that target them, they don't get to hear about all the jobs that the marketing ppl are advertising. Because of this mix-up, the jobs don't get filled and the ads keep running. \n\nAnd that is why you hear so many ads for companies hiring truck drivers. ", "I am a truck driver. Most of the ads you hear on the radio for drivers are for Over The Road (OTR) drivers trying to fill an industry created driver shortage. Its crappy pay, crappy working conditions and generally a crappy life that very few people are willing to even try let alone stick with if they do.\n\nSeriously, you try living 24 hours a day 320 days a year in a space 1/3 the size of an average prison cell and you will understand why they have to advertise so much." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d82ybi2", "d82yi4p", "d837ra9" ], "score": [ 51, 16, 3 ], "text": [ "Ney was a traitor since he defected from the monarchy side.\n\nNapoleon was \"only\" exiled because he was the head of a state, it was unseemly for the royals of Europe to execute one that had equal rank", "After Napoleon's first exile, Michel Ney had pledged loyalty to the restored Bourbon monarchy. When Napoleon returned, Ney went off to fight him, in command of a Bourbon army. Napoleon talked Ney and his troops into switching sides. \n \nNey was tried for treason, since he had betrayed his oath.", "Besides what others were said, Ney was tried and executed by the new French government, but Napoleon's fate had to be agreed upon by the other great powers meeting at the Congress of Vienna. There were certainly some there who would have liked to see Napoleon's head on a pike, but they couldn't get everyone (especially Britain, who were particularly influential since they were the ones who actually had him in custody) to agree." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "csr80z3" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "because the ingredients available in turkey are different than the ones in the states.\n\nit is well known that in mexico the cocacola tastes the best because it is served in a glass bottle and uses real sugar not splenda" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fn3p4iv" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Great question!\n\nTheoretically... as long as one was a Roman citizen, one could end up Emperor. In *theory*. That was very rare, and only occurred during the rebellions and usurpations of the 3rd century crisis, and those usurpations were almost always very short lived.\n\nIn actuality, how did promotion in the first century Roman army work? The reality was that meritocratic elevation usually only got you so far. The average Roman citizen would enlist as a *tiro* and could be promoted as high as *Centurio* (Centurion) without having to be a member of the *Ordo Equester* or *Equites Ordines*, (the \"order of the cavalrymen\")which was the old landowning class of the Republic which was worth enough tax value to be deemed able to field horsemen. After about 88 BC, they were no longer explicitly liable to provide cavalry recruits, but this group basically formed the upper echelon of Roman society in the Principate as all of the Senatorial class was a part of it.\n\nUpon reaching the rank of *Primus Pilus,* or first Centurion, one was inducted into the *Equites Ordines*, and only then was eligible for promotion to higher, Senatorial-appointed ranks like *Tribunus Angusticlavus.* Above that were all senatorial class-only posts, such as *Tribunus Laticlavus* and the Legionary commander, *Legatus Legionis*, as well as the various governorships.\n\nThe average Roman soldier typically served for something between 16 and 22 years in the early Principate, with the option to re-enlist afterwards. Many soldiers who re-enlisted were given the privilege of becoming Centurions due to their experience, and those who didn't became *Evocati* (veteran soldiers who were paid more and exempt from most mundane chores). Within that initial span, it was possible to rise all the way from a recruit to *Primus Pilus.*\n\nThe most notable example of this was that of Spurius Ligustinus, who was a recruit from the Sabines in 200 BC, and was promoted to Centurion of the 10th maniple of the *Hastati* by the 3rd year for his bravery in combat. He then re-enlisted in 195 BC, and was promoted to Centurion of the 1st maniple of the *Hastati*. When he re-enlisted in 191 BC, he was promoted to Centurion of the 1st maniple of the *Principes*, and by 188 BC he had been promoted to the 1st maniple of the *Triarii*. According to Livy, he then was invited by Gracchus to petition the senate for a further promotion, who granted him the rank of *Primus Pilus*." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "egm5woa", "egma8xq", "egmaorv", "egmbw9s" ], "score": [ 217, 77, 69, 2059 ], "text": [ "Add-on question: were there different brands of liquor back then, i.e. that you'd be able to order the same liquor from multiple saloons? Or would each saloon source their liquor independently and just sell it as generic house whiskey or whatever?", "A similar /r/AskHistorians post from 4 years ago: [What else did people drink in \"wild west\" saloons?](_URL_0_)\n\nSome great answers by /u/itsallfolklore and /u/Wades-in-the-Water. With this tantalizing intro: \n > I was part of a team that excavated four saloons sites that operated in Virginia City, Nevada between 1863 and roughly 1885.\n\nAnd [excavation pic](_URL_1_).", "Hi, this question sounds like a job for our hero of the Old West, /u/itsallfolklore. While you're waiting, check out their previous answers on saloon drinks, prices, and more here\n\n* [What were the most popular drinks available at saloon in the \"Wild West\"?] (_URL_0_) \n\n* [What else did people drink in \"wild west\" saloons?] (_URL_3_) \n\n* [How much did drinks at a saloon cost in the Old West?] (_URL_4_) \n\n* [In Western movies when someone enters a saloon and orders a beer or whiskey they never ask for a price and there never is a pricelist. They just drop some coins. How much WAS a beer / whiskey during the late 19th century?] (_URL_1_) \n\n* [How did saloons in the 19th century American West operate?] (_URL_2_) ", "Even before the transcontinental railroad (1869), the West was connected with the international marketplace. Products from all over the world were available, although clearly, it took a bit longer for the supply lines to reach newly-founded and/or remote settlements. Primary sources attest to how quickly whiskey and beer arrived, however. J. Ross Browne in his \"Peep at Washoe\" described the newly-established Comstock Mining District (Virginia City, in particular), less than a year after the first strike in June 1859. While trekking across the Sierra in the early spring of 1860 - as soon as the snow storms allowed - he was accompanied by merchants who set up saloons in tents to sell imported products.\n\nIn addition, archaeological excavations of four Virginia City saloons (1993-2000) revealed [a wide array of products](_URL_4_) from the Eastern States and from Europe. These included [ale from Britain](_URL_2_) and [mineral water](_URL_3_) from German states. There was even [a carbon water filter](_URL_5_) imported from London (1863). We even found what appears to be the [oldest Tabasco Pepper Sauce bottle](_URL_6_) with [the company's imprint](_URL_0_), brought from Louisiana around 1870.\n\nThese items stray from your core answer, but they give you a picture of the mercantile tentacles that stretched throughout the world. The mining West produced wealth, and entrepreneurs quickly offered the finest products for sale - often at inflated rates because of the remoteness of many of these mining towns.\n\nAmong the remains found in the saloons, we found [a gin bottle](_URL_1_) imported from England, and we found a wide array of brown bottles without embossing, but which appeared to have held whiskey. Paper labels were rarely preserved, and I can't recall any whiskey labels in the entire collection of 310,000 artifacts that we found, cleaned, cataloged, and analyzed. \n\nParallel research revealed that a great deal of whiskey was brought in from eastern distilleries - so you could expect to find Kentucky bourbons at most saloons. I imagine there was a fair amount of Scotch coming in from the UK - and perhaps some Bushmills - but we did not find clear evidence of that in the archaeological record (references to Scotch do exist in reports of Scottish celebrations). Whiskey and other hard liquors were easily transported, so their importation from elsewhere was something that was consistently done. This contrasts with beer, which is produced (and consumed) in larger volumes, so local breweries tended to provide most of these (acknowledging the hundreds of cream-colored Glasgow ale bottles that we found at each of the sites).\n\nI am not an authority on the history of whiskey production (although I have done a fair amount of research into the subject through consumption!!!). I do not know how production differed in the nineteenth century, but I can tell you that even today, the older distilleries take a lot of pride in maintaining antique equipment and traditional approaches to production. I expect that we would not be startled by a lack of quality in an average saloon. There were some really disgusting bars (just like today), and if you get in a time machine, I recommend you avoid those places - their whiskey may be questionable. Raunchier places were more likely to cut whiskey with water to extend the product.\n\nWith regard to quality, Western towns frequently differentiated between higher and lower-grade saloons. Virginia City and neighboring Gold Hill, for example, had nearly one hundred \"one-bit\" saloons - places where a whiskey, a beer, or a cigar could be purchased for 12 1/2 cents. There were also a dozen or so \"two bit\" saloons where similar products could be had for a quarter, and there was an assumption that there would be a similar increase in the quality of the product: Comstock journalist William Wright - writing as Dan De Quille - told a story about a man who went into a two-but saloon and ordered a whiskey. After drinking it, he placed a dime (which would have been known as a short bit) on the counter. The bartender said, \"Excuse me, sir, but this is a two-bit saloon.\" The man answered, \"That was my understanding when I walked in, but after drinking your whiskey, I assumed this was a one-bit saloon.\" I suspect this account was folklore, but it carries a message that transcends the question about whether it was true or not - namely that there was an expectation that better saloons carried better whiskey.\n\nIn partial answer of the question posed by /u/nalc, saloons attempted to differentiate themselves from competitors by offering unique products, and these include - as indicated by advertisements - specialty cocktails (mixed drinks were becoming very popular by the mid nineteenth century) and an array of liquors - which is usually how they advertised their wares. There was always an effort to bring in something different. At the same time, the array of saloons were each drawing from the same supply line, so one would expect to find many of the same products at each saloon.\n\nedited to add a photo of the [gin bottle](_URL_1_) because we can't overlook gin!!!\n\nedited X2: thanks for the silver (but after all of this I wanted a drink!!!).\n\nedited X3: thanks for the gold (I owe you a drink!!!).\n\nedited X4 I have deleted a reference to watered-down whiskey becoming bad to drink since this is creating too much of a distraction." ] }

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[ [], [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/285y5g/what_else_did_people_drink_in_wild_west_saloons/", "http://i.imgur.com/y54bCnc.jpg" ], [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/721ike/what_were_the_most_popular_drinks_available_at", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/43ee8v/in_western_movies_when_someone_enters_a_saloon", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2bopu5/how_did_saloons_in_the_19thcentury_american_west", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/285y5g/what_else_did_people_drink_in_wild_west_saloons", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1os6nq/how_much_did_drinks_at_a_saloon_cost_in_the_old" ], [ "https://imgur.com/8P5ohaZ", "https://imgur.com/lXo7DCT", "https://imgur.com/VZkqPCZ", "https://imgur.com/PpeQS7L", "https://imgur.com/y54bCnc", "https://imgur.com/BeZrYII", "https://imgur.com/7J1IGW2" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dgzh9sb" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Let me preface: I play video-games alot, i have 300 games in my steam library and within the last year i ranked up to Diamond in star-craft 2. But i make sure not to let the games interfere with my personal life.\n\nThe main problem with gaming is the secluding nature of the hobby. Its really easy to blow off your relationships just to play one more level. Tv is a screen, but the whole family can sit around the living room and talk about whats going on and stuff. When you play video games, it is a very secluding and exclusionary hobby and it basically alienates the rest of the people in the house (unless you are playing same screen co-op games). This isnt too big of a deal when done in moderation, but it can be pretty damaging to children over the long run when done in excess. It basically shows that they are less important to you than the game and kills their self esteem. It can cause them to distance themselves from you because you have distanced yourself to begin with.\n\nThe distancing is not necessarily a bad thing and it is good to recharge, but often this is a time consuming thing. You spend hours apart from the family to entertain yourself when you could be fostering relationships and doing activities as a family. \n\nThis kind of hobby really suits the lifestyle of teens and young adults. When you spend 2-3 hours playing COD or whatever each night, as a teen, its no big deal. but when you have a family, you are taking time away from your family that could have been spent doing something together. Not that its bad, but when done in excess it can cause relationships to falter and your family will learn to live without you... If you begin to wonder why your kids/wife does not want to spend time with you after a couple years. Remember all the times you pushed them away for your games.\n\nThe same thing can happen with a variety of hobbies, golf, motoring, work travel, etc. But the ease of access of video games and the time consuming nature makes it a really easy way to remove yourself from your relationships." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cgr1zbe", "cgr3a8d" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "It's always there, you just notice it more in the dark because there isn't as much other visual information for your brain to be distracted by.", "It's caused by phosphenes firing out in the nerves in your eyes. _URL_0_" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.oubliette.org.uk/Three.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c47xewh" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Yes, according to The Endocrine Society (2011, January 13) - Room light before bedtime may impact sleep quality, blood pressure and diabetes risk:\n\n > Melatonin is a hormone produced at night by the pineal gland in the brain. In addition to its role in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, melatonin has been shown to lower blood pressure and body temperature and has also been explored as a treatment option for insomnia, hypertension and cancer.\n\n > In this study, researchers evaluated 116 healthy volunteers aged 18-30 years who were exposed to room light or dim light in the eight hours preceding bedtime for five consecutive days. An intravenous catheter was inserted into the forearms of study participants for continuous collection of blood plasma every 30-60 minutes for melatonin measurements. Results showed exposure to room light before bedtime shortened melatonin duration by about 90 minutes when compared to dim light exposure. Furthermore, exposure to room light during the usual hours of sleep suppressed melatonin by greater than 50 percent.\n\nResearchers working on the study include: Kyle Chamberlain of the University of Surrey in the United Kingdom; and Kurt Smith, Sat Bir Khalsa, Shantha Rajaratnam, Eliza Van Reen, Jamie Zeitzer, Charles Czeisler and Steven Lockley of Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston, Mass" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7gwlj8" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Yes, the same proton could exist since the quarks condensed into baryons. In fact quite a lot of them probably have-- the diffuse intergalactic hydrogen gas that makes up so much of the baryonic matter has pretty much been sitting there quiescently for ~14 billion years." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dq8h9xg", "dq8mbta" ], "score": [ 15, 4 ], "text": [ "One of the explanations for dark matter was Massive Compact Halo Objects, or MACHOs. These are things like stellar remnants and brown dwarfs that have mass but radiate very little light. If these existed, they would count as dark matter accumulations. However, it is now thought that, while they do exist, MACHOs are incapable of explaining all the observations of dark matter, because there's just not enough of them, and so the currently accepted view of what dark matter is is that it is composed of Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, or WIMPs. These particles only interact gravitationally. They don't clump into compact objects because there's no frictional forces that could cause non-gravitationally bound dark matter to lose energy and enter a bound state, except for gravitational waves, which are extremely weak. Two collections of dark matter intersecting in space will drift through each other, rather than collide and combine to form a single object.", "One form of dark matter are particles that don't interact via the electromagnetic force. My understanding is that such matter could never coalesce into any sort of compact object, because it could not lose enough energy to do so - there's no way for that type of dark matter to slow down to accrete into objects, since it doesn't interact with anything except via gravity.\n\nBasically, two bits of dark matter can't bump into each other, so they can't form planets." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccmrhzx", "ccmrnn8", "ccmvjed" ], "score": [ 17, 6, 3 ], "text": [ "Matter cannot be created or destroyed - but chemical and nuclear reactions happen all the time which *rearrange* matter into new elements and compounds. \n \nCarbon-14 in particular is an unstable radioactive isotope which is generated in the atmosphere by radiation from space - it exists in a known concentration in the atmosphere. Since the carbon in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants through photosynthesis and then eaten by animals, it is found in all organic matter. Once the organism dies, the carbon ceases to be replenished by photosynthesis/eating and begins to decay at a known rate - this is how carbon dating is used to estimate the age of living organisms.\n ", "The statement \"matter cannot be created or destroyed\" is at the best confusing and at the worst just not correct. Matter and energy can turn into each other under the right conditions. If you put enough energy into a system, you can create new matter and under the right circumstances you can turn matter into energy. This is part of what is going on when nuclear reactions occur and why we get heat from the sun.\n\nEven if we ignore the mass-energy conversions, atoms can still change and not violate a rule prohibiting the creation and destruction of matter. Atomic nuclei are made of smaller massive objects called protons and neutrons. Various nuclear processes can cause the nuclear particles to split or combine. When the number of protons changes, the charge of the nucleus changes and thus we have a new element. When just the neutrons change, the mass changes, and thus we have a new isotope. If you accept that nuclear decay is a thing which makes sense, then you have to accept that atoms can change the number of protons and neutrons and thus we call them something different.\n\nAs for how carbon 14 dating works. High-atmosphere nitrogen 14 gets struck my energetic waves from space and a proton gets turned into a neutron, which turns the nitrogen 14 into carbon 14. These are being generated all the time and at a very regular sort of rate and is being absorbed by plants for photosynthesis and then by things which eat those plants (like us). When something dies, it stops ingesting atmospheric carbon and since it isn't in the upper atmosphere or have that much nitrogen in it, its supply of carbon 14 does not increase. Since it is radioactive, carbon 14 atoms eventually decay, so by counting the amount remaining, we can estimate how long it has been since it ingested atmospheric carbon (directly or through a plant) and thus how old it is.", "Carbon dating only works back to about 50,000 years ago. Once you need something further than that, you can test for other isotopes. Uranium-234 dating works to about 500,000 years ago, with an accuracy of about 500 years. Uranium-235 dating has a useful span of about 7 billion years, accuracy to plus or minus about 3 million years. If you need to go REALLY far back, there are a few other radioisotopes you can test for whose useful time span exceed the life of the universe. Rubidium is one of them, and it can theoretically test back to 300 billion years ago, but that's a good while longer than the universe has been around (in its present form, at least).\n\nThe trouble with radioisotope dating is two-fold.\n\n1. The thing you're testing won't always have enough of the isotope to test, or even any at all. Radiocarbon dates attached to inorganic items, like stone tools, are always iffy because the tools themselves can't necessarily be tested; you need organic material, and that doesn't always survive the years. The ideal case would be blood crusted on an arrowhead or spear point, but it's almost never that easy. What is tested in many cases is an organic item that is found near the stone tool in question. At that point the debate becomes about the certainty with which it can be said that the organic item is associated with the tool, and it's rarely clear-cut. Hunter-gatherer peoples have been known to use the same campsites for hundreds, sometimes thousands of years, and just because you find a piece of charcoal next to an arrowhead doesn't mean that they are from even remotely the same point in time. Geological dating using things like sediment layers can often help with some of the ambiguity.\n\n2. With the older elements, the problem is that they just weren't there in the beginning. (simplification ahead) The only elements that were created directly by the big bang were really light ones, hydrogen, helium, lithium, and maybe one or two others. The rest (with the exception of the synthetic elements) were formed by fusion of these elements in the extreme heat and pressure of the center of a collapsing star. The problem is that stars didn't really start to form until about a billion years after the big bang, and the stars that were there didn't die and form heavier elements until at least three or four billion years after that. The result being that the heavy elements one would use to date something VERY old (billions of years) probably didn't *exist* until as recently as 8 billion years ago, so dating the universe using those elements is impossible.\n\n**EDIT:** I am forever tweaking words and phrases for clarity." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cmfk9yd", "cmfkmy5", "cmfkseu", "cmfmjwl", "cmfnthk", "cmfrlwb" ], "score": [ 14, 4, 2, 11, 4, 2 ], "text": [ "In the states, there is almost no association of VW with Nazi Germany. The only association i've ever seen to that effect is here on reddit", "Living in Western Europe, I've never heard of this sentiment.", "Most, if not all of those associates are likely dead.", "Hippies had to be fairly frugal on account of being professional bums. Early VWs were cheap and had fewer components that could go bad (no radiator/water pump). Also, consider that many hippies were the sons and daughters of U.S. WWII veterans, who would have bought primarily American steel. My WWII veteran grandpa who passed away a couple years back never once purchased an imported car...", "After WWII, people in the US were more worried about the Soviets than the Germans. The Nazi stigma associated with German products faded pretty quickly.\n\nAlso, hippies were exactly known for putting their political views into a deep historical perspective. Turn on, Tune in, Drop out, man.", "The hippy counter-culture wanted to be the opposite of the estsblishment. In the 1960s, this meant getting imported cars since the establishment liked their big American cars. VW was the only import that was drivable. British cars wre MGs and Austins, which were really preppie. Japanese cars were hard to find. French and Italian cars were just crap. This image of a hippy rebelling against mom and dad by driving a beatle really took off in movies and TV in the early 1970s.\n\nAdd in a clever marketing campaign by VW in the 1950s and 1960s, and the Hitlermobile image was eliminated. Magazines stood in for the Internet in those days, and they weren't going to push away a major advertiser by bringing up Hitler and VW." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dot2e9c", "dot2xri", "dot316p", "dot3rmi", "dot4cep", "dotns9q" ], "score": [ 2, 10, 5, 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "An airplane has control surfaces that can move it in directions. If there's any torque from your engine affecting flight, you just adjust some flaps and you're good to go.\n\nA helicopter, OTOH, doesn't have anything controlling its rotation. To compensate for torque, or even do maneuvering in that axis, you need a secondary rotor.", "Look into trim tabs and what they do. Prop planes will typically have a little tab that sticks out of an aileron and one side of the rudder. These are there to make fine adjustments to trimmed flight. These also offset the torque created by the motion of the prop. Also, when a single engine prop plate increases power, there is a corresponding rudder input (typically to the right) to offset the torque on the fuselage. The wings, fuselage, horizontal and vertical stabilizers also counter these forces. These are control surfaces that helicopters don't typically have. ", "Propwash and wings. The air spirals backward toward the tail of the plane. This provides stabilization as it passes over/under the wings. The pilot will the trim the aircraft out by adjusting the aileron's trim-tabs(not flaps like suggested). The Propwash actually helps provide lift too. A plane can actually fly slower than the minimum controlled speed or Vmc when the aircraft is close to the ground, while the plane is in \"ground effect\". The Propwash spirals the craft and hits the ground causing a simulated lift on the wings. Very useful to know if you need to make a steep climb-out or if you are executing a short - field takeoff.\nHelicopters do not have wings, therefore the torque must be mitigated with the tail rotor.", "All propeller driven aircraft display left turning tendencies due to three forces from the prop. One is torque, think Newton, for every action there's an equal opposite force. So the prop turn to the right, the plane tries to twist left. The propeller isn't contacting the air in the same way on the upswing as it is on the down swing. It has to do with how airfoils create lift in relation to the air's angle of attack, and each blade on the prop producing a different amount of lift depending on which side it's on. This causes the right side to produce more power than the left side, so the plane tries to turn left. The third cause is the wind the prop is producing itself. This wind twists around the aircraft and winds up hitting the vertical stabilizer and rudder. This again causes one side to produce more lift than the other. Except that this time it's not different blades on a propeller, it's different sides of the vertical stabilizer and rudder. This too causes the plane to want to turn left.\n\nAll of this is taken into account during the initial design phase of the aircraft. Pilots know this is happening too and know to adjust rudder trim, if the plane has it, or to step on the rudder a little during high power, low speed flight.\n\nSource: SEL pilot.", "All the people in here talking about \"flaps\" are going to give me aneurysm. Here's a very brief Into to Flight Dynamics:\n\nAilerons: A control surface mounted on the trailing edge of the outboard section of the aircraft wings. These control surfaces move up and down opposite to each other and allow roll along the longitudinal axis. This movement is called \"roll\" and is the primary method for changing the aircraft's direction\n\nElevators: A control surface mounted on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer on the tail of the airplane. This control surface moves up and down, usually together (some fighter aircraft have independent stabilizers for advanced maneuvers). The allows the the aircraft to rotate along the lateral axis, which moves the nose up or down. This movement is called \"pitch\" and is the primary method for changing the aircraft's altitude. \n\nRudder: A control surface mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer on the aircraft's tail. This surface moves left and right and causes the nose of the aircraft to swing about the vertical axis. This movement is called \"yaw\". Yaw is a somewhat complicated movement and basically has to do with prevented the aircraft for slipping or skidding, which is when the direction of movement does not match the direction the nose is pointing. \n\nFlaps: A secondary control surface that extends aft and down from the trailing edge of the wing surface. This changes the shape of the wing and drastically increases drag and lift, and causes the nose of the aircraft to rise. This allows the aircraft to land and take off at much, much slower speeds than would otherwise be possible. \n\nYaw is the movement we are worried about here. All propeller driving aircraft will tend to yaw on takeoff and climbout due to a torque effect from the propeller(s). This yaw is offset by applying a slight rudder trim to produce a counter force equal and opposite to the torque steer. Watch a video of an old C-130E or C-130H take off and sometimes you can see that the aircraft is trying to pull to one side. It is most evident in max power short airfield take offs. ", "Right rudder! Right rudder!\n\nIf you have every taking a flying lesson, you will constantly hear that. The prop caused torque from its spin, the from the asymmetrical airflow it causes, its asymmetrical lift when at an angle, and even gyroscopic procession.\n\nAn airplane has a lot of movable surfaces, its rudder and ailerons in particular, that counter that torque. Also, it has big wings perpendicular to the axis of the torque that helps to resist the torque.\n\nHelicopters don't have moving surfaces for the most part, and have to adjust by rotors alone. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "f4mle3b", "f4mmhdg", "f4mmkoi", "f4mmqv4" ], "score": [ 10, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "If a rooster (male chicken) does not inseminate the female, the eggs will not produce a chick because you need both sperm and an egg to procreate. So it's pretty important to keep roosters away from the henhouse.", "Sorry in advance for the bad analogy, but just as human females release an \"egg\" once per month, a female chicken releases an egg about once per day. If there is no male there to fertilize the egg, no life will emerge from the egg. \n\nFemale chickens lay eggs with yokes and no chickens every day. That's what you are eating from the store. It would be impossible to lay an egg with just a chicken in it and no yolk. The yolk is what sustains life.", "Production of eggs is part of the standard hen reproductive cycle. Whether a male chicken, a rooster, actually fertilizes the egg so it produces a viable chick is of course dependent on whether a rooster does its deed with the hen.", "An egg is produced and pushed out regularly _regardless_ of whether it's been fertilized. An unfertilized egg (no sex with a rooster) cannot produce a chick.\n\nAll eggs have yolks (unless its a truly irregular egg)." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cb2l0my", "cb2l6qw", "cb2m90w" ], "score": [ 2, 9, 7 ], "text": [ "Depends how he flies. We can move spaceships in space, but if you were just floating around yourself in a spacesuit, you couldn't really do anything.", "You can flap your arms and legs around but since there's nothing to push against, you can't propel yourself that way.\n\nIf you shoot projectiles out of you (pee, poop, spit, throw things) you can propel yourself a little bit! That's sort of like pushing against something that's smaller than you are.\n\nIt doesn't look like Superman is pushing against anything when he flies, so I would guess that he can fly in space.", "Smartereveryday (Youtuber) actually asked astronauts on the ISS a similar question and they responded with a video: \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHaving said that, although they are capable of changing direction, they are not capable of moving from the spot they are floating. They are also not capable of inducing a constant spin (without pushing off of something) as if someone spun you on a swivel chair. It all has to do with momentum.\n\nWhich means if you spun someone in space, they wouldn't ever be able to stop spinning unless they threw something at the right angle with a sufficient amount of momentum to stop the spinning. \n\nOr they would be stuck in the same spot unless they threw something in the opposite direction they wanted to move. Every action has an equal but opposite force. When you jump off the ground, you are pushing the ground with just as much force as you are experiencing. With no ground, there is nothing to push off of, and you would remain stationary. \n\n\nSuperman would need to have some means of ejecting propulsion if he were to fly in space - like a rocket. He would need to shoot something out his backside. \n\nHe would not be able to fly in space if his means of flying was like a propeller airplane, that is, creating a vacuum in front of him that continually sucks him forward. \n\n\n\n" ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJcno_XL4RU" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "caw75gn" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "A coup is made more likely in a country where the army is more loyal to the 'leadership' of the army than the government.\n\nThis could happen for a number of reasons, for example if there is a military 'class'. Or if the army is small enough that a single charismatic person could gain influence.\n\nIn the 'west' armies are bigger, there is more respect towards the government.\n\n------\n\nSide note: you are using 'second world' and 'third world' incorrectly. What you are probably thinking of is 'developing' and 'underdeveloped'.\n\n'first' 'second' and 'third' world is a cold war relic where NATO allies were the 'first' world. Soviet allies were the 'second' and the 'third world' was 'neutral' parties (for example africa and the middle east).\n\nNow these tend to overlap with 'developed' 'developing' 'underdeveloped' but be careful because they do mean different things." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cc3vlpt" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "The wood gets replaced by minerals dissolved in the water it is exposed to. \nThere are no lignins left. Lignins are what makes wood \"woody\".\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ctxl38y" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Add-on question: why don't we see any Germanic looking descendants in north Africa?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ch49bms", "ch49cfo" ], "score": [ 4, 2 ], "text": [ " > Is this not double dipping?\n\nMore like triple, quadruple, quintuple, etc dipping. \n\nYou were also taxed when you were paid by your employer. And your employer was taxed when they earned the money. And the person who paid them the money was taxed when they spent the money, etc.\n\nEvery dollar is taxed over and over again, which results in the government being paid based on economic activity. The stronger the economy, the more often money changes hands, and the more the government earns. They then use that money for payroll and various government projects.", "\"Double dipping\" isn't a problem or even a thing.\n\nFor example, you pay income tax and then when you buy something with that already-taxed money you have to pay sales tax. Money is never taxed once and forever tax-exempt in the future. \n\nSo, yeah, in this case it could be considered \"double dipping\". But that's just the way it is." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccsfeux", "ccsfhu9", "ccsfl2c", "ccsfxjx" ], "score": [ 2, 4, 2, 4 ], "text": [ "sometimes i'll get a call from lets say a 215 number. If its not in my contacts, I'll think \"hmm who do I know from Philadelphia?\". That's pretty much it.", "when you call your neighbors, they might not pick up the phone cause it's not local area code.\n\ni don't pick up any calls i don't recognize the area code. ", "If you ever have to call either phone from a land line, you'll quickly re-appreciate the difference between local and long distance calling.", "There are still people & businesses with land-lines that will avoid making long-distance phone calls.\n\nHaving moved to 503 from 505, people regularly get my area code wrong & I miss phone calls.\n\nThe last apartment building I was in had a call-box to let people into the building. It was only capable of calling phone numbers with 7 digits, not the 10 that it would take to call my number.\n\n[Mostly, it just boils down to this](_URL_0_)." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://xkcd.com/1129/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cb3b3te" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "The Dow is a kind of average of the price of stocks for 30 large companies. They aren't all industrial companies anymore, that's just an old name.\n\nThe S & P 500 is a different average of the 500 largest companies that sell stock publically (anyone with money can try and buy their stock).\n\nBoth of them work pretty much the same way: Add up the price of all of them and divide by some number. Technically the S & P counts up all the stock that exists for those companies rather than just the price but that is taken into account by the \"Some Number\" part.\n\nThe number that they divide by is a bit arbitrary. It's not 30 for the Dow and 500 for the S & P or anything simple like that. The number was made up by the companies and changes to make sure that the number today means the same thing as it did last year. (If a company splits their stock so there is twice as much but each share costs half as much you don't want the number to change) If they chose the dividing number to be 100 times as big then the result would be smaller but it wouldn't mean anything else. \n\nIt doesn't make a lot of sense to compare the two. The % change in each one is the important thing. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "chfack7", "chfb1x6", "chfdguk", "chfiydl", "chfri7z", "chg4zbx" ], "score": [ 14, 6, 2, 2, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "A simple algorithm works by using the binary representation of one of the numbers (which is easy because numbers are already stored in binary inside the computer). For example, if b is 00100011 in binary then:\n\na * b = a * 00100011 = a * 00100000 + a * 00000010 + a * 00000001\n\nNow, multiplying binary number a by a binary number of the form 1000.…0 works by adding zeros to the end of a:\n\na * b = a00000 + a0 + a\n\nAnd now you have a simple addition.\n", "The simplest way is exactly how you mentioned; successive addition. An internal register holds the number of additions to make (one of the operands) while another holds the value to successively add (the other operand). once the correct number of additions have taken place, you have your result. This, as you rightly say, is quite difficult for large (infinite) numbers.\n\nHowever, remember that computing works on base 2, and the size of an integer is finite. for example, a 32-bit machine will only be able to multiply numbers less than 2^32. so we know, in your suggested algorithm, it will take 2^32 successive additions to calculate the maximum multiplication possible.\n\nWe can simplify though. Because integers are base 2, any multiplication by 2 is actually a logical left shift. i.e. all binary digits move left 1, and the MSB becomes 0. using this, we can simplify the successive addition algorithm to \n\n result = operand1;\n for (i = 0; i < 32; i++) {\n if (operand2 & (1 < < i))\n result += (operand1 < < i);\n }\n\ni.e. for each set bit in operand 2, add operand 1 shifted left by the set bit's position. this gives us only 32 operations to carry out instead of 2^32.\n\nFurthermore, if complexity of design is no problem, all of these 32 operations can happen in parrallel in the ALU, so we result in a huge 32 integer addition. of course, this is not recommended as it is a waste of chip space.\n\nThere are also methods of approximation, whereby you calculate the nearest power of 2 of both operands, use whichever is closest to the power of 2, and logical shift the other operand according to this value. and then add/subtract the difference between the power of 2 and the original operand. e.g.\n \n 100001 * 111 = (100000 * 111) + (1 * 111) = (111 < < 5) + (111 < < 0) = 11100111\n OR \n 100001 * 111 = (100001 * 1000) - (100001 * 1) = (100001 < < 3) - (100001 < < 0) = 100001000 - 100001 = 11100111\n\nThere are more ways of implementing this, and is a very interesting topic. If you would like to read more, there is a book called Computer Systems Organization and Architecture by John D. Carpinelli that delves into the world of processor design. He introduces a lot of great ideas for custom core designs. I would greatly recommend that book, and a cheap Altera/Xilinx FPGA development board (I personally have an Altera DE1 for playing with).\n\nP.S. Apologies for the bad explanations/examples. But if you think this is confusing, stay away from division. haha.", "As others mentioned multiplication uses a digit serial method in most cases not dissimilar to how you would multiply with pen and paper.\n\nThere are implementation optimizations like wallace trees which make the addition trees more optimal.\n\nYou can also use things like Karatsuba to reduce the pressure on area by using half size multipliers to build a multiplier. E.g. 3 32-bit multpliers can build a 64-bit multiplier. A 32-bit multiplication takes 1/4th the area so 3 of them results in ~25% space savings. The also take less time to complete, etc and so on.", "The most basic method (other than repeated addition) is the shift-and-add method, which is essentially the same as the technique you learn in grade school where you multiply one number by each of the digits of the other number, shift them, and add up all the intermediate results. Except it's easier in binary, since every digit is either 0 or 1, and multiplying by 0 or 1 is really easy.\n\nAlgebraically, if a number like 573 is (5\\*100) + (7\\*10) + (3\\*1), then 573\\*x can be rearranged to (5\\*x\\*100) + (7\\*x\\*10) + (3\\*x\\*1), which is the mathematical reason why grade-school multiplication works. \n\nThere are a bunch of more advanced methods too. [The Wikipedia article on multiplication algorithms](_URL_0_) has a good outline, starting with simple techniques and going on to more exotic algorithms.\n\nedit: accidental italics", " > I haven't seen anything like an adder that works for multiplying,\n\nEh, there's an entirely different part of the CPU dedicated to integer muliplication, the [binary multiplier](_URL_0_), that you can read up on. It can use a variety of algorithms, mentioned in the article, and it's more sophisticated than simply sending it through the adder a bunch of times. That, indeed, would not get you very good results.", "This won't answer your question directly, but there is a good book called [Code by Charles Petzold](_URL_0_) that is a good read on understanding how early computers functioned and the physical circuits they used for adding. (multiplication is just repeated adding) " ] }

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[ "en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)" ]

[ [], [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication_algorithm" ], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_multiplier" ], [ "http://kysmykseka.net/kysmyk/Wizardry/Programming/Misc/Charles%20Petzold%20-%20Code%20-%20The%20Hidden%20Language%20of%20Computer%20Hardware%20and%20Software.pdf" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dbw9r0e", "dbwn1js" ], "score": [ 47, 2 ], "text": [ "Leap seconds occur much more frequently than once per 30 years. You can see a [graph](_URL_8_) of the difference between [UTC](_URL_5_) and [UT1](_URL_4_), which I'll get to in a bit. Every vertical spike is the introduction of a leap second and you can see they've happened many times over the years.\n\nTime standards in general are very important in applications where you need to know the exact time to seconds or milliseconds or microseconds or nanoseconds or even more precise. For example, satellites such as the GPS system require knowing where they are extremely accurately otherwise the whole system will fail (they move at 14000 km/hr and need clock ticks to within [20-30 nanosecond accuracy](_URL_1_)) to provide sensical results. If you want to launch a probe at Mars and the Earth is moving at 30 km/s and Mars is moving at 24 km/s and you want to hit a spot within [20x25 km](_URL_3_) on the surface, you'd better know exactly when to launch your rocket. \n\nThe last point brings me to why we have a need for these two time standards. Any given day on the Earth is not equal to one exact day (86400 seconds). In normal daily usage, having an exact day is necessary for just general timekeeping, otherwise we'd have trouble referencing when we observe something, execute a command, etc., to when it actually happened, though it's also more intricate than that and I get to part of it below. The reason a day is not actually one exact day is caused by a number of factors. Over time the rotation slows due to tidal friction. Internal geology redistributes the mass slightly and change the moment of inertia of the Earth, which affects the rotation rate. Even Earthquakes can shift the rotation rate of the Earth ever so slightly. \n\nOkay, so I've already introduced the fact that there seem to be two definitions of day but haven't really stated which is which. So let's start from how we could define a \"day\". The one you might be familiar with is the solar day, in which the Sun apears overhead at noon every day. But another definition is the [sidereal day](_URL_7_), in which [distant stars](_URL_6_) are in the same position in the sky every day. Why would we care about the stars being in the same position every day? Well, we can do some of our best positional referencing (of the Solar System, and therefore of the Earth, and therefore of certain things on or orbiting the Earth) via extremely distant radio sources in what's called the [International Celestial Reference Frame](_URL_2_). So if you care about positions of things, as hinted at in some of my examples, then you care about how things are tied to sidereal time. But if you want to not go crazy and have noon be when the Sun is highest in the sky (roughly) at one part of the year and then six months later have that time be midnight, you want to use solar time. \n\nSo what are the two timescales I mentioned before? UTC, which you are probably familiar with in every day life, is an atomic-clock-based timescale that is an approximation of UT1 and typically has 86400 seconds (seconds are derived from Cesium atoms, which itself have it's own related timescale called [TAI](_URL_0_)). UT1 is tied to the ICRF. Because the Earth's day is changing over time from the effects I mentioned earlier, we need to correct for the drift in the rotation rate, which is always tending to slow, and thus the introduction of leap seconds.\n\nHopefully you can then see that while we have this unbelievably complicated mess, there's some reasoning behind having it and it's that when you need really accurate and precise measurements, you often find yourself needing really accurate timescales but those timescales all relate many different phenomena together (quasars, atoms, daily life). In summary, I'll end with the fact that the leap second is analogous to the leap day in many respects. We insert leap days to keep the calendar from drifting, otherwise in the Northern Hemisphere you'd have winter when it should be summer and vice versa (and the opposite for the Southern Hemisphere). Again, we want to keep the mean day on the Earth frm drifting and so we insert leap seconds.", "Leap seconds are not a technical problem, they are an international regulatory problem. During the past 16 years the ITU-R Working Party 7A has introduced new drafts of the document TF.460 which is the regulation that specifies leap seconds in radio broadcast time signals. At their World Radio Conference (WRC) in 2015 the Conference Preparatory Meetings (CPM) which had been held over the previous 18 months presented a final report which gave 4 options (A1,A2,B,C1,C2,D) for change, [archived here](_URL_2_). There was no consensus, the WRC decided not to decide, they called on the IMO, ICAO CGPM, CIPM, BIPM, IERS, IUGG, URSI, ISO, WMO, and IAU to join in more studies, and to report back in 2023. That was in RESOLUTION COM5/1 (WRC-15) which can be found on page 357 of the [final acts](_URL_1_). Of all that alphabet soup of international organizations not one is involved in technical aspects of computing system specifications.\nThe underlying problem was [explained at the IAU in 1964](_URL_0_). At that time the powers that be in CCIR chose leap seconds as the solution, and then they represented that solution to national and international agencies who adopted leap seconds using words saying they were the \"perfect\" solution. That makes leap seconds part of the framework of national and international law as elements of the way that any contractual agreements specify time of day and calendar date. Any change to UTC requires international consensus that a new calendar should be adopted." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time", "http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Celestial_Reference_Frame", "https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/msl/multimedia/pia15685.html#.WGnxiO0UOOw", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Time#Versions", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a6/Sidereal_Time_en.PNG", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_time", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Leapsecond.ut1-utc.svg/600px-Leapsecond.ut1-utc.svg.png" ], [ "http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/note1964en.html", "http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/act/R-ACT-WRC.11-2015-PDF-E.pdf", "https://web.archive.org/web/20150908184107/http://www.acma.gov.au/Industry/Spectrum/Spectrum-planning/International-planning-ITU-and-other-international-planning-bodies/wrc-15-agenda-item-114" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cmmiuaz" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "[very carefully](_URL_0_)\n\nhope the video helps!" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sMR2GX1yRM" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cer47vx", "cer48ev" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "In non-mathematics, they're synonyms.\n\nIn math, a likelihood is weaker than a probability. ", "Let's say we have a coin. It's loaded, so that it comes up 75% heads and 25% tails, but we don't know this.\n\nIf we flip the coin twice, the *probability* of it coming up tails twice is only 1/16. Probability describes, given a known *weight* on the coin, the chances of a particular result.\n\nOn the other hand, if we flip the coin 100 times and get 75 heads, the *likelihood* that the coin is fair is essentially zero. Likelihood describes, given a known *result*, the chances that the coin has a particular *weight*.\n\nIn more formal terms, probability fixes the parameter and calculates the probability of a random result. Likelihood fixes a value for the random variable and asks about the likelihood of a parameter." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dmstnwc", "dmstqs1", "dmstwwb", "dmsu5px" ], "score": [ 3, 13, 8, 5 ], "text": [ "There is no definitive answer to this. We have only the most rudimentary data on what causes mental illness. ", "In severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and some forms of depression/bipolar disorder the mind actually breaks, losing touch with reality. This is called psychosis. The mind can't allow or prevent it from happening because the mind is actually involved in the process. \n\nThe brain is an extremely complex organ, perhaps the most complex thing we know of, but it forms from relatively simple components. Lots of single cells that slowly develop more and more complex structures and circuits. This process starts in the womb and continues into adulthood. \n\nSometimes the process goes wrong (or differently) along the way leading to various developmental conditions which include autistic spectrum disorders, attention deficit disorders and psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Usually there will be a combination of genetic factors from parents, as well as external factors such as harsh or traumatic childhood experiences, and potentially the use of certain drugs.\n\nADHD and autistic disorders are obvious early in childhood. Disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar tend to present in late teenage years or early adulthood. People with schizophrenia seem to slowly cut themselves off from life, becoming isolated and depressed over a period of months before the more classic symptoms such as hallucinations and abnormal beliefs develop. ", "It's not exclusive to humans. Look at animals kept in captivity, particularly the ones which are held in especially abusive conditions. You'll frequently find monkeys flinging their own shit around in zoos, caged birds plucking their own feathers out, dancing bears rocking back and forth, and so on.\n\nWhat causes it is generally extreme amounts of stress and deprivation. Humans, like animals, need to have a certain level of living standard. When that becomes an impossibility, the mind becomes ill. ", "It would be far more shocking if nothing could possibly go wrong!\n\nIf we had no mental weaknesses or frailties whatsoever we'd be the only thing in the natural world that never breaks down. Literally everything else around you can break down. The earth itself can fracture so violently that it destroys cities. Why should our minds be any stronger? How could they be?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5nkbma" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Here are some shitty examples for you: \nNumbers represent mass, * means the approx. center of mass, --- and __ are inflexible beams.\nTake note that we will neglect the weight of the beams for these examples.\n\nStraight bars:\n\n1--------*--5 \n\nThe CoM is closer to the heavy side, because it's an average.\n\n\n\n\n3----*----3 \n\nThis bar is evenly weighted.\n\n\n\n\nOther shapes (enclosed space is empty):\n\n _________\n |1 5|\n | | \n | * |\n |5______2|\n\n\nIn this example, the center of mass is close to the diagonal between the 5s, but the 2 pulls it toward the lower right corner. Though it is inside the object, the center of mass is located in empty space (remember the lines represent straight beams).\n\n\n ________7\n |\n | *\n |\n 7\n\n\nIn this example the center of mass is not on the object. When you average the mass of the two 7 weights in 2D space, you get a point directly between them, even if it's not on the object.\n\nCelestial objects: **( )** represents the Earth and **o** is the Moon. ~ is gravity. CoM is center of mass.\n\nThe Earth-Moon system:\n\n\n**(**CoM**)**~~~~~~~~~**o**\n\n\n\nBecause the Earth is so much more massive than the Moon, the center of mass for the Earth-Moon system is inside the Earth. Similarly, the mass of our Sun is so much greater than the mass of the planets, the CoM for our Solar System is inside the Sun.\nThe center of mass for the Moon alone, however, is inside the Moon. \n\nThere are some twin planets and some star systems that work like this, because they have similar weight:\n\n\n**o**~~~~~~~~~~ CoM ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~**o**\n\nBoth of these planets/stars would orbit that center of mass.\n\n*Edit: formatting*" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ffwll45", "ffx7vdq" ], "score": [ 3912, 501 ], "text": [ "If one looks back to older recipes such as those presented in *The English Huswife* by G. Markham through to *The Scots Kitchen,* by F. McNeill we see a breadth of ingredients and cuisines available in our history. Additionally, British baking history is brimming with historical recipes. Plum cakes spring to mind, but a great many of our most celebrated bakes are quite old indeed.\n\nSo, what happened? The short answer is rationing. The system introduced in WWII by Lord Woolton did away with a large amount of spices, sugar, and other non-essential \"luxuries.\" As biographied in *Eggs or Anarchy* by W. Sitwell, Lord Woolton had a delicate digestion that reacted poorly to rich or spiced foods. In addition to his own views, the wider strategic view that anything not strictly essential to sustenance was an unnecessary waste of shipping capacity meant that these spices disappeared quite suddenly.\n\nOf course, the British people had to adapt to this new system. The government attempted to aid this by providing example recipes within the Rationing system. The Ministry of Food released many leaflets over the years of the war, which you can read in a collected format in *Food Facts for the Kitchen Front.* This, sadly, is where it all goes downhill. The famous examples of \"Mock Duck\" and other less favoured British foods are present. The instructions often told cooks to overboil food, and seasoning was limited in the directions. Spices were almost non-existent.\n\nNow, I feel I have to note some successes here. Carrot Cake was born from these leaflets, as an attempt to make sweet cake with little or no sugar, using an easily grown native vegetable. Apple Crumble also made its debut in this era, as a simple dish that required less resources than a full Apple Cake. Since foraging and growing your own fruit was permissible, it was an option for many to collect apples for this dish, making it quite inexpensive.\n\nDespite these few successes, a diet of unspiced, overboiled, minimally seasoned food using a limited selection of ingredients had been forced, unilaterally, upon a populace. Even fine dining establishments and upper class households were beholden to it. Lord Woolton intended for the system to appear truly equal and fair to all. Even the King and Queen famously greeted Eleanor Roosevelt with slices of National Loaf for afternoon tea. *The West End Front* by M. Sweet is quite a good book for looking at attempts by high end hotels and restaurants to continue to offer exciting meals to their clientele.\n\nSince the Rationing was so all encompassing, and lasted from 1939 until 1955, it left a culinary mark on a generation. That persisted through the late 20th Century as ingredients, techniques and recipes gradually returned or were introduced.", "While lack of access to spices and flavorings due to shortages and rationing in the late 19th and 20th century as described by u/GrunkleCoffee served as a kind of \"killing blow,\" British cuisine had been known to be bland and terrible long before then. Up until the 18th century we see in British cookbooks a great love of heavily spiced and sugared food. However this school of cooking dropped off throughout the 18th century and had been replaced in the Victorian era with a love of bland, overcooked foods, incorporating as few fresh foods as possible. How did this happen?\n\n* Moral philosophies in the Victorian Era denigrated heavily spiced, flavorful foods as indulgent, irrational, and inflammatory to the senses, while holding up foods that were heavily processed and bland as healthier for the digestion and morally uplifting. Flavorless and mushy food became a moral virtue. You might already know about people like John Kellogg who explicitly linked the consumption of flavorful food to moral decay, specifically masturbation.\n\n* As the British Empire expanded and spices became cheaper and more widely available they lost their power as status symbols. Instead people glorified the French style of high-class cooking which focused on elaborately designed meals with an emphasis on highly refined items requiring intensive manual labor such as decorative jellies and pates. These foods were more attainable now because of industrial technology as well as the expanding ability of the middle class to hire kitchen staff. However they retained their high status because they were now produced with science! Meanwhile fresh ingredients like vegetables and dairy were often adulterated in industrial cities, leading to the following point -\n\n* Fresh food could be rotten or tainted with disease and additives. While in French cuisine fresh ingredients were key to making food taste good, in industrialized Britain they were getting harder and harder to obtain so they substituted them with processed preserved foods. Canned and frozen food had the stamp of approval of modern science and the sheen of new technology, and were embraced in new middle class homes without regard for lost flavor and texture.\n\n* Many of these newly urbanized, middle class families were not able to rely on the peasant foodways which had sustained most of the British population up until then. Housewives had the role as the protectors of the home and morality and took on the load of all the factors I just listed, and were tasked with creating contrived and complex meals to assert their dedication to their family and the kitchen. It was seen as a way for women to be creative as well as scientific in a way that had never really been extended to women before. The emphasis was heavily on appearance and morality, not flavor.\n\nThese converging and related factors all led up to the situation described by u/GrunkleCoffee. By the time these rations and shortages happened there was already a culture that idealized bland, refined food and heavily relied on a dedicated kitchen staff. Then war came, further limiting the range of ingredients available and subtracting from the labor force. These rationing systems made the bourgeois palate into rule of law. The traditional bland British food we see today only goes as far back as these ideologies and economic/social changes. \n\nAlso, to include a positive note, Victorian people absolutely loved ice cream and it became much more popular during that time. And ice cream is delicious :) \n\nReading:\n\n* *Consider the Fork* by Bee Wilson\n* *British Food: an Extraordinary Thousand Years of History* by Colin Spencer" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cvobfzg", "cvobwra", "cvoccwb", "cvoh2kw" ], "score": [ 12, 3, 9, 3 ], "text": [ "If you aren't wearing pants you are getting arrested. It's necessary, of course, so much so that including would be overkill. ", "Because people coming into the store without pants isn't a problem. People generally go out wearing pants. But not wearing shoes or shirts does occur.", "My sister once told me they don't include pants for people who are wearing dresses or skirts. Technically they are not wearing pants. I am not sure if this is true, but I've always thought this.", "It is lawful to be in public without a shirt (for men) or shoes.\n\nIt is not lawful to be without pants.\n\nThe signs don't need to address something that is already illegal. The signs just cover things which are legal in general but not allowed on the premises." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cpa4c37" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Epileptic seizure (which I asume you are talking about) happens when your brain \"short circuits\" and starts acting chaotically. This can be result of some head trauma, it can be congenital, it can even be caused by a brain tumor. \nWhen the seizure starts (the point where it starts is called focus) it quickly spreads throughout brain. Suddenly, muscles all around your body start getting conflicted orders, so your entire body starts spasming, you fall down and lose conciousness. The \"foam\" at the mouth are just saliva overflowing from the mouth, because you are unable to swallow. When the seizure ends, all your muscles relax at once, including sphincters. After that, you slowly start to regain conciousness, wondering what happened, because you have amnezia about the entire seizure." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0w65n3", "d0w66za", "d0w72b9", "d0wa97u", "d0waaz5", "d0wands", "d0wb453", "d0wb74w" ], "score": [ 63, 30, 14, 2, 2, 7, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "I always thought when a police car has a siren on like WEEEOOOOWEEEOOOOO and then they need to beep the horn because people are in the way, instead of making a horn noise, it just goes WOOPWOOP. That was how I understood it, anyway.\n\nSame thing for firetrucks: normal siren like WOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO, horn siren like ERHERHERH\n\nAmbulances: normally WEEEE-OOOO WEEEE-OOO, horn goes EEOP EEOP", "Police officer here: Sirens don't switch on thier own. They're controlled with different buttons and switches.\n\nWe'll alternate them to be heard better.", "EMT here. We have a few different settings, wail, yelp, and phaser, as well as horn which is useless. If I'm driving and there's no traffic I'll use wail, coming up to traffic I might change to yelp and pulse phaser to get people's attention. Same thing when approaching an intersection. If it's a constant sound people can block it out. But if you change it up people take notice. ", "Here is a [video.](_URL_0_) I'm sure the technology hasn't changed much in the last decade.", "Is there a rule you follow about when to use sirens and when not to? I live close to a fire/ambulance station and I can hear them with their sirens and honking at 5:30am in the morning when no one is around. Is it user preference?", "Cop here, it's already been said, but we control the sirens. My squad car has a selector knob, so I just twist back and forth changing the siren. One reason I do it is because if multiple police cars are going to the same call, if they're all using the same siren, the chances of an accident are much higher. We are like everyone else, if there's an emergency vehicle nearby, we have to make sure we're aware of their location in order to avoid an accident. Changing sirens takes care of that. If we're on the same siren, we won't know we're near each other and could possibly crash. The other reason is because it makes me feel like a DJ remixing sirens. ", "decades ago we were told the differences in sirens was due to an accident when two vehicles were running their sirens that happened to be in sync so they couldn't hear the other one coming. I have no idea if it was true...this was early '70s and could be apocryphal.", "_URL_0_ . This is the siren control in my ambulance, pretty basic but it does the weewoos the woooooOOOOOOOOooooo's and the really fast woopwoopwoop, and my personal favorite, the air horn" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ger4C-9Im24" ], [], [], [], [ "http://i.imgur.com/xGOPefs.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cokqljz", "cokqmdb" ], "score": [ 3, 3 ], "text": [ "Bullets are mostly lead with a metal jacket in a lot of cases, of either copper or steel ", "Use magnets and the bullet is going to go the path of least resistance and that's straight. That means the bullet could be pulled through organs or arteries or anything else that is there, causing more damage.\n\nEDIT: /u/NorthMed made the good point that bullets are mostly lead (not magnetic) but lead is also being phases out as a component of bullets." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crkrspr" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Reparations were postponed indefinitely by the Lausanne Conference in 1932, and resumed to the tone of 16 billion after WWII; they were completed in 2010. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9d8zxe" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "First off, dark matter is in our universe, and isn't separated in any special way - it's actually mixed in quite happily with normal matter most of the time. Saying the universe is 80% DM, 20% normal matter is just like a cake which has 250g flour, 250g sugar and 3 eggs - they're all in there, but they're mixed together and not stuck in one part of it.\n\n > \"These WIMPs collide in space, annihilating and decaying into ordinary particles, including electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons.\"\n\nThat's actually a pretty misleading thing to say when discussing WIMPs (although not wrong) - the main point of WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) is that they spend most of their time *not* doing any of those things (i.e. not interacting), hence why there can be so many of them around without being easily detectable, and not bumping into/bouncing off normal matter." ] }

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[ "http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23372-twist-in-dark-matter-tale-hints-at-shadow-milky-way.html" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "cyrco18", "cyrct7n" ], "score": [ 25, 3 ], "text": [ "Old lawyer here. If the case is tried to a jury, the jury decides the amount, not the judge. The judge provides instructions that explain the applicable rules and standards, but the rest is up to the jury. The instructions are necessarily subjective because pain and suffering are subjective experiences. In my state, Connecticut, the basic rule is simply that the amount be just, fair and reasonable. Lawyers for both sides can suggest figures. [Here's a link to a sample instruction that a judge would actually use in a civil negligence trial.](_URL_0_).\n", "It is pretty subjective, but someones they can take into consideration that cost it would take to offset the distress.\n\nFor example, if you were robbed and claimed emotional distress from not feeling safe in your home, the cost of a security system might be considered a reasonable estimate." ] }

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[ [ "https://www.jud.ct.gov/JI/civil/part3/3.4-1.htm" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cx135fz", "cx18hlw" ], "score": [ 10, 2 ], "text": [ "Magellan was lucky enough to have an interpreter with him when he landed in the Philippines. Back in 1511, Magellan had taken part in the siege of Malacca, a very influential port in the Asian Pacific. During the siege, Magellan acquired slaves like most conquerors do. One of these, was a man named Enrique of Malacca who would sail with Magellan on his voyage to the Philippines. When the crew landed on the Philippines they couldn't understand a single word that the natives said. However, the rulers and elites of the region all spoke Malaccan which of course, Enrique was fluent in. Being so very influential, Malaccan had become the common language of diplomacy and trade in the region. Which was very fortunate for Magellan and his crew.", "Magellan's slave, Enrique of Malacca, spoke the Malay language and apparently one or more of the Phillipinos could understand that language.\n\nAfter Magellan was killed, his will stated that Enrique was to be freed. The remaining officers continued to treat him as a slave. Enrique later betrayed the crew when about 30 of them were massacred at a feast held by the Raja of Cebu.\n\nSee - 'Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe' by Laurence Bergreen.\n\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ca8ylrs" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Heat comes from the disorganized motion of the molecules. To take a simplified example, lets pretend you had solid cube at absolute zero. This means that *relative to itself*, the molecules are not moving. Even if you move the entire cube at some velocity, the molecules are still not moving relative to itself." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c49n87x", "c49ncom", "c49nt0l", "c49nt95", "c49qs0i" ], "score": [ 6, 4, 2, 3, 8 ], "text": [ "It's obviously going to be very difficult to say, since there's not a huge amount to compare them to, but I think it's fair to say that most sculptures of actual people needed to bear at least a passing resemblance to the individual - especially if you were honouring someone who was still alive.\n\nOn the other hand - look what happened with Henry VIII and Anne of Cleves - portraits have always carried a fair amount of artistic license, whether to make someone look more attractive or less.", "Please keep in mind that I am by no means an expert. What follows is what I've learned as an artist studying art history over the years (in a casual/non-school setting)\n\nThey were fairly accurate. But they did take liberties. It's a fairly complex history actually, as there wasn't just one school of thought regarding Greek and Roman art, and both had their own transformations as time went on.\n\nThis particular example isn't really an accuracy thing, but in what is probably the most famous statue of Augustus (Augustus of Prima Porta) for example, he appears barefoot. Traditionally, gods and heroes were depicted barefoot, so this is kind of a hint at Augustus's divinity. Likewise, many statues that followed with future emperors followed a more \"idealized\" image. This was often achieved, for example, by elongating the body and making the head proportionally smaller. \n\nIn that way, the art of imperial Rome sort of reverted back to some of the Greek styles, which could be said to be a bit more idealized and stylized. By idealized, I mean that they would often apply \"idealized proportions\" to the subjects, regardless if the subject actually fit those proportions. Before that (and still continuing afterwards) however, the Romans practiced realism almost to an extreme. Even when portraits were more idealized, they didn't really gloss over imperfections, and sculpted the subject \"warts and all\". That's not to say that vanities didn't come into play, but generally you wouldn't see a bald person being depicted as having a giant mop of hair.\n\nAgain though, there's no one single definition for \"Greek art\" or \"Roman art\". ", "Not an expert, but I learned that while the heads on sculptures could be rather individualized, the bodies of the sculptures were sometimes reused (cutting costs, etc.), which is why you seen \"clean-looking\" headless sculptures. I could've misunderstood though because I learned this from a Spanish art history professor, and Spanish is not my first language. If it's true though, I guess it means that these sculptures were not always accurate, per se.", "Here's a story of a more realistic bust of Julius Caesar, found at the bottom of a riverbed. \n\n_URL_0_", "It really depends on the period. The Greeks valued naturalism and attempted to crate more and more realistic proportions in their sculpture (although the subject matter was often mythological, so the accuracy of the depictions doesn't really come into play). Once they had gotten a handle on naturalistic proportions, they began to become interested in depicting emotion and movement realistically, resulting in a lot of figures depicted mid-action or with great emotion. They also started becoming interested in depicting subjects that were not necessarily beautiful, like old women and tragic figures. \n\nOnce you move to the Romans, there is also a lot of variation. There was a period in the Roman republic where the wrinkles and other signs of old age in portraits of senators were exaggerated to imply that they were extremely wise (because age begets wisdom, so the older and wrinklier, the smarter). \n\nAugustus, the first emperor, was a master of propaganda and had his portrait sculpture disseminated throughout the empire as a way to keep his image in his subjects' minds. To increase confidence in him as a ruler, his portraits tended to be idealized to make him always appear youthful, fit, and heroic. Portraits of his wife Livia were eternally youthful as well. \n\nLater portrait busts of emperors were probably somewhat idealized, but their characteristic traits (Pompey had a bit of a bulbous nose and Nero had a neck-beard) were always included so that you could tell who they were. As a lesson learned from Augustus, keeping your image present throughout the empire was a great way to keep subjects loyal, which is why emperors were interested in their portraits being recognizable, rather than idealized. Emperor's portraits, along with their military and political accomplishments, also appeared on money disseminated throughout the empire. Wealthy nobility other than emperors were a different story because they didn't have the same need for recognition, so there is more evidence for idealization in their portraits.\n\nEDIT: added paragraph breaks" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://www.cbc.ca/news/arts/artdesign/story/2008/05/14/bust-caesar.html?ref=rss" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dvf55j7", "dvfe2ch" ], "score": [ 2, 9 ], "text": [ "So, the definitive thing to look at is the Index of Classical Poleis, which I don't have. I checked my available handbooks and dictionaries and couldn't find one, and I couldn't find one at the Ancient Mediterranean Mapping project.\n\nI wonder, though, if that isn't a description, and not a noun, like you might refer to Los Angeles as the City of Stars? Is there context to support a use like that?", "The book you read is called \"soldier of the Mist\" by Gene Wolfe. Its central conceit involves a Latin speaking soldier travelling through the Greek world but not really understanding what he sees or hears. (As you mentioned, he has no short term memory)\n\nOften, he will interpret the things he hears in an over-literal fashion. Therefore, in the story, he renders Athens (named for the goddess of wisdom) as \"Thought\".\n\n\"Rope\" is based on a similar misunderstanding. He is actually referring to Sparta itself. (Which obviously was an actual city, about which much can be found on this sub if you're interested.)\n\nThe author explains this in the book's author's note. He claims the protagonist is mishearing the word for \"cord,\" \"Sparton\"\n\nEdit: for those reading the book, [this](_URL_0_) is a helpful list of \"translations\"." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.wolfewiki.com/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=WolfeWiki.SoldierNames" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "euvdxnw" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "[This paper](_URL_0_) might be what you’re looking for. Essentially it’s a mix of various volatile organic compounds." ] }

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[ [ "https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/volatile-elements-of-coconut-toddy-cocos-nucifera-by-gas-chromatographymass-spectrometry-2157-7064.1000213.php?aid=24323" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c4arfoe" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I wanted to make some analogy to a father giving a mother money for the grocery store (creating money) and then taking money from the mother when they needed to save (pulling money out), but I anticipated a lot of dribble about how it was offensive that the father was financially caring for the household and how that money already existed to that particular family, etc etc.\n\nThe Federal Reserve controls the money that America has. It doesn't control the economy - the economy is built up of import, export, etc. The Federal Reserve pulls money out of the economy when we have too much overflow to prevent artificial inflation. They create the inflation themselves by putting more dollars into the economy when that's the better choice. They oversee the *fiscal policy* of the nation. They're the guys who tell a bank how much money they have to offer in loans each year, because they decide how much money exists physically for the American population.\n\nThey delegate this to 12 district banks. Each district has leaders that pay attention to the money in their own and then the actual FRB pays attention to national activity. It's meant to prevent things like a Great Depression (fun fact: it existed before the Great Depression! and hopefully operates better now) before it actually happens - preemptive damage control." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cc0bhbi", "cc0d66t" ], "score": [ 5, 2 ], "text": [ "Obviously we don't have all the information, and you or him might have a legitimate abnormality.\n\nHowever, people tend to be pretty bad at judging how much they eat and how much other people eat. If you ignore what you think is healthy or unhealthy and just look at total calories, I bet he doesn't eat more than you.\n\nFor example maybe he eats three large meals a day, but never snacks. A lot of people who diet eat two or three small meals a day, are hungry all the time, and end up snacking all night.\n\nThe other option is that he is much more active than you.", "Contrary to what many diets say, weight loss is as simple (for the most part) as calories in - calories out. Keep track of everything he eats for a few days. I bet he doesn't actually eat that much more than you. If he eats these huge breakfasts, maybe he doesn't eat anything else that day aside from a small dinner. Or maybe he does tons of running or other exercises. There's no magic \"high metabolism\" that allows him to eat shit tons of junk food without exercising and stay skinny. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cjq0qce", "cjq0tl7" ], "score": [ 41, 12 ], "text": [ "At first, the absence of direct military intervention from the great european powers. The first Balkan War was concluded rapidly as the Ottoman army was busy fighting the Italians for Libya. The Second Balkan War, that started merely a month after the end of the first, opposed the former winners against Bulgaria. Again, the forces where not equal and the influence of the great Powers stayed relatively diplomatic instead of military. Astonished by the victories of the slavic forces, Austria-Hungary only intervened after the end of the second Balkan War. More so after the assassination of Franz - Ferdinand. The declaration of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia then played the web of alliances between the east european and european nations, bringing them all in a war with much more players and military potential. \n\n\nTLDR: in the Balkan Wars, Europe looked from afar, playing their diplomatic strings. The situation escalated until much more players were involved, thus spreading the First World War on 4 years. \n\n\nFor more information on the history of the Balkan peninsula, Bogdan, Henry.From Warsaw to Sofia: A History of Eastern Europe, 1989.\n\n", "In the case of the first war, the Ottoman Empire was suffering from a great deal of internal strife as well as military reforms that were ongoing when the league decided to attack. Just four years earlier the Young Turk revolution happened.\n\nAdditionally according to Richard C Hall in his book [\"The Balkan Wars\"](_URL_0_), it was logistically very difficult to transport everything needed to defend a vast area, as it was stated that the entire area along where the attack happened would be defended.\n\nIn \"A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk\", by Edward J. Erickson, he states that:\n\n > In the fall of 1912, the Ottoman political and military leadership was caught completely by surprise and was unprepared for the aggression of the Balkan states. The\narmy’s seasoned recruits had just demobilized (more than 70,000 soldiers) and,\nmoreover, many talented officers were fighting against the Italians or were on their\nway to join the war. \n\n > A reinforced divisional group under the command of Chief of\nthe General Staff Ahmed Izzet Pasha (composed of 29 crack battalions from First,\nSecond, and Third Armies) had just suppressed a rebellion in Yemen and were too\nfar away to return to the war zone on time. The infant army corps and triangular\ndivisions, which were still battling to finish the reorganization, did not have the\nmeans to overcome the efflux of trained and seasoned soldiers and the influx of untrained raw recruits. \n\n > Furthermore, there was a serious political crisis in which different partisan officer cliques were doing everything possible to establish political control and exterminate their rivals. \n\n > Coupled with this, Ottoman political and military leadership obstinately determined to preserve every inch of the empire’s territory, and\nthey had great faith in the military capacity of territorial defense units.\n\nI'm not too sure about the second war, but it appears something similar happened there, a grossly outnumbered army of one nation (Bulgaria) simply couldn't defend against a numerically superior military from a wide front." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.e-reading.ws/bookreader.php/136095/Balkan_Wars_1912-1913._Prelude_to_the_First_World_War.pdf" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "fk1liqr" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Not to discourage further responses, but I answered a similar question some time ago [here](_URL_0_)." ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/7kzofm/american_grenades_in_wwii/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cdebzfc", "cdebzie" ], "score": [ 8, 2 ], "text": [ "California has a substantial history of setting its own consumer safety and environmental rules above what the USA federal government requires. Since California is such a huge market and it is expensive to make different products for different places, companies will often just put the California labels on everything since it isn't illegal to have them on products sold in most other places.", "California's laws often dictate that certain warning must be included on products to be sold in California. Due to the massive market that California is, many companies just choose to label everything with the California label." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cx6p57q" ], "score": [ 15 ], "text": [ "If we are talking about the familiar black hole solutions (Schwarzschild, Kerr, Newman, etc.), then it's important to understand that these are *vacuum* solutions to the field equations. That is, there is no matter, no energy, nothing, except the gravitational field itself. GR is a fully non-linear theory, which means that even in the absence of source terms (e.g., matter), there can be a non-trivial gravitational field. The gravitational field is said to couple or interact with itself. This is in contrast to the Newtonian theory of gravity which says that if there is no matter, then there is no gravity. What this means in GR is that, in some sense, the spacetime warping itself causes more warping, even if there is no matter around to do it.\n\n(Also note that I am using the term \"matter\", not \"mass\". The concept of mass is GR is subtle and there are several useful and good definition of mass. The energy-mass equivalence also means that we can still speak of the mass of a black hole, even if it is a vacuum solution. So I am using the term \"matter\", despite its own problems in defining it, to emphasize whether we are talking about whether there is any \"stuff\" in or out of the black hole.)\n\nFor the mathematically inclined, we can look to the field equation to get more insight:\n\n > G*_μv_* = 8πT*_μv_*\n\nThe left side is the Einstein tensor, which is a certain combination of the metric and the curvature tensor (itself computed from the metric). So the Einstein tensor describes in some sense how spacetime is curved. The right side is the stress-energy tensor, which describes the local energy density; it acts as the source for gravity. The tensor T*_μv_* includes all energy due to matter and electromagnetic fields. It does not include any \"gravitational energy\", whatever that means. A vacuum solution is one for which T*_μv_* = 0 everywhere. But the equation T*_μv_* = 0, from which it follows that both the Einstein tensor and Ricci curvature tensor vanish, does not imply the metric is trivial (i.e., flat Minkowski). The field equations are really ten non-linear partial differential equations between the components of the metric. So even though the source term T*_μv_* does not include gravitational energy (thus possibly implying that gravitational energy does not act as a source of gravity), the non-linearity of the equations means that the field can interact with itself (thus acting as if gravitational energy really were a source of gravity).\n\nIn a linear theory like classical electrodynamics, this does not happen. Light waves do not self-interact and they do not interact with each other. If there is a solution consisting of light wave A and a solution consisting of light wave B, then the sum of the two waves is also a solution. There is no extra term or wave that pops up from some possible interaction between the two original waves. They just go about their merry business and don't bother each other. The nonlinearity of GR means that gravitational waves can interact with each other and themselves. So we don't have a simple notion of adding two gravity waves to get a third. There will be extra terms and waves that pop up from their interaction." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ckzgonx" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "It varied among classes. Most high-ranking nobles and royals were married through arranged marriage. In one rather shocking example, Richard II agreed to marry the 7 year old daughter of the French king as part of a peace treaty. However, among peasants there was much more freedom to do as you pleased. The church had a very strong influence on what behavior was deemed appropriate for unmarried people so premarital sex certainly happened, but wasn't commonly talked about. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dgi53sx" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "You can get that effect if one channel of the audio has ended up connected where the ground connection should be. The sound produced by the headphones will then be the difference between the two channels, since one of the channels is effectively being used as the \"zero\" reference point. Vocals will usually be quite \"central\", with little difference between the left and right channels, so they disappear. You just hear anything that's louder on one side than the other." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dob6mmn" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Bloody Mary was a sobriquet given to Mary I (1516-1558), the first queen regnant of England from 1553 to 1558. The daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon, Mary inherited her mother's (and her father's, early in his life) staunch Catholicism.\n\nHer predecessor was her younger brother, Edward VI (strongly protestant), who died at the age of 15. Fearing that she would reverse his reforms and their father's, plans were made to exclude her from the line of succession, which incidentally also excluded her sister, the future Elizabeth I. Under those terms, the crown next passed to the 17-year old Jane Gray, who was deposed after less than two weeks and executed and is now not counted in the list of British monarchs.\n\nSoon after her accession, Mary (who had married the King of Spain Philip II, also staunchly Catholic) had several leading Protestant churchmen imprisoned. In 1553, all of the religious legislation promoted under her brother's reign, mainly by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, were repealed, reaffirming, among others, clerical celibacy. \n\nIn 1554, the Heresy Acts, which had been repealed under Henry VIII and Edward VI, were revived. Under those, numerous Protestants were executed, under what is now known as the Marian Persecutions, with several bishops being burned at the stake; 283 people were executed as a whole, which even some of Philip II's ecclesiastical staff condemned.\n\nAs a whole, she played absolutely no role in the Lutheran reformation itself, being all of one year old when the 95 Thesis were posted. She was viewed as a bloodthirsty tyrant soon after her reign, with England swiftly turning protestant under her sister Elizabeth and their successors. Her sobriquet was known to pop up as early as the 17th century. Historical revisionism has improved her reputation some (her death toll being small when compared to her father's), but she is still a hotly debated subject among historians today.\n\nHope this helped!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e2j4521" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Do you mean dry like wine (dry in fruit means lack of sweetness. Or do you mean dry like not juicy, low moisture? " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cq8k0hf", "cq9s4ch" ], "score": [ 2, 3 ], "text": [ "No, destroying a speaker would require a feedback loop system with an amplifier with enough power to damage a speaker. This xkcd references a phase shift which would just cancel or lower the amplitude of the signal. This is how noise canceling headphones work. A microphone listens to the outside noise and generates a signal 180 degrees out of phase which cancels the background sound.", "Theoretically, yes. \n\nSpeakers generate sound from simply moving backwards and forwards to generate propagating regions of high or low air pressure. In order to blow the speaker, the machine in the comic generates a signal such that it causes an area of low pressure to reach the car's speaker at the precise moment the car speaker is moving forward to produce a region of high pressure, effectively sucking the speaker cone out further than it is designed to move. \n\nIt works on the concept of resonance- by driving something at the frequency it naturally oscillates at (here, the car speaker's \"natural\" frequency is whatever frequency sound it's trying to produce), the amplitude of oscillation will increase. As an analogy, it's actually [pretty easy to bounce a car off the ground](_URL_0_) as long as you time your pushes with the natural bounce frequency of the car." ] }

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[ "https://xkcd.com/368/" ]

[ [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ObVJ041Heg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "df1g2n9" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "What are you thinking of when you say \"normal glue\"? " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9fy0h3" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The Mayan people of Guatemala and the Moskito people around the Caribbean coastline in Nicaragua are among a number of indigenous minorities that remain largely discriminated against. During the Contra war for example, the Moskito people suffered from discrimination by the Sandinista regime in which they attempted to force a certain national identity such as the Spanish language. A good reading on the subject matter can be found in Ethnic Conflict in World Politics by Ted Gurr. On the case of the Mayan people, \"Silence on the Mountain\" remains a great piece on the downright genocidal imposes of the military dictatorships ruling over Guatemala. \n\n\nIn terms of the last question, the issue with the Mayans in Guatemala reflected the issues of the ruling elite, they simply weren't white. The Guatemalan elite that formed through the coffee industry envisioned a White European society and if anything, the Mayan people contradicted their vision hence, a sort of contempt/prejudice formed against them. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e1ciqcn" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "It’s so they can tell their shareholders/stockholders that they are adding value and keeping their product “relevant” " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c2cm13y", "c2cmjj9", "c2coadp", "c2cm13y", "c2cmjj9", "c2coadp" ], "score": [ 107, 17, 4, 107, 17, 4 ], "text": [ "That's somewhat poorly worded by the NASA site, though it's very common to put things in these terms. They mean 10,000 years ago *as observed by us*, meaning 25,000 years ago.\n I almost always refer to things that I observe in the present tense though technically they did of course happen a long time ago. Nearly all observational astronomers pick up this habit, thanks for pointing it out, we should be reminded to be careful about this when reporting discoveries to those who might not be aware of it!", "The necklace nebula is actually (now) 25,000 years old. However light takes 15,000 years to reach us from there, so we view it as if it was only 10,000 years old", "As others have said the pictures are of a 10,000 year old necklace nebula. It is like showing somebody a picture of yourself when you were 5, you wouldn't say \"here's a picture of me I'm 24 years old\".", "That's somewhat poorly worded by the NASA site, though it's very common to put things in these terms. They mean 10,000 years ago *as observed by us*, meaning 25,000 years ago.\n I almost always refer to things that I observe in the present tense though technically they did of course happen a long time ago. Nearly all observational astronomers pick up this habit, thanks for pointing it out, we should be reminded to be careful about this when reporting discoveries to those who might not be aware of it!", "The necklace nebula is actually (now) 25,000 years old. However light takes 15,000 years to reach us from there, so we view it as if it was only 10,000 years old", "As others have said the pictures are of a 10,000 year old necklace nebula. It is like showing somebody a picture of yourself when you were 5, you wouldn't say \"here's a picture of me I'm 24 years old\"." ] }

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[ "http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/necklace-nebula.html" ]

[ [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ct8jmns", "ct8jnuw", "ct8kuxo", "ct8otvq", "ct8yfc7", "ct92j5a", "ct93bvl", "ctggu5t" ], "score": [ 35, 8, 11, 7, 2, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "It's a sign of computer graphics maturing. We've gotten all of the low-hanging fruit already. The advancements that are left all require dramatically more computing power than what we are currently doing. This is pretty much expected in any field. At first you'll grow and get better in leaps and bounds but eventually that period of fast growth slows down.", "Between the Playstation 1 and 2 there are five years. The same is true for the Playstation 2 and 3 (too lazy to look up the actual dates).\nThese are \"Generations\" of Consoles. \n\nWhen you take a look at PC games from 1995 and 2000 you can see a clear difference, even on the PC. \nAnd this is still true. If you take a look at games from 2010, most of the time you can cleary tell that these games are quite old.", "One thing you have to bear in mind is that once you get above a certain number of triangles to define a 3D object, you can have increases of many orders of magnitude and not see much of a difference. \n\nSee [this](_URL_0_) for an example. Each generation there has 10x the detail of the generation before, but as things advance it becomes far less obvious.", "These days, a lot of the advances come down to things we take for granted. Realistic tattoos, Hair physics, etc. \n\nMy previous Boss' son-in-law became a millionaire by selling algorithms for creating realistic sweat that is (or was) used in one of the recent NBA games. ", "Everyone has touched on very good points here, but the development cycle also plays a big part of it. Any artist/ tech artist could develope games that produce cinema quality graphics, but on any development cycle, that level of detail means a sacrifice in another department such as gameplay, mechanics, play testing, even programmers having to find new and unique ways to get the game engine to performed faster. On any given cycle, you can expect preproduction, production, and post production. Ideally, devs want to spend the majority of their time in pre production to flush out everything and nail the art style. This also costs less if their programmers are contracted rather than on retainer. Devs will favor mechanics over graphics because the core value of a game is if it's fun. Fun sells. ", "It used to be that graphic improvements hit you over the head- high poly count leap from ps1 to ps2 etc. But now we can have enough polys that adding more polys makes no discernable difference. Then it became all about texturing and lighting. Things like bump maps and normal maps etc gave that next level boost of making things look real by fudging the lighting to fool the viewers eye. After that, HD, and frame rates. then making better real lights rather than fudging them. Meanwhile, physics was improving the whole time too. Nowadays a lot of those improvements are still going on, but its more a matter of refining than revolutionising. Lighting is good, but we can push to make it a little better etc. Improvements are more subtle these days.\n\nNowadays I think scale seems to be the big obvious push, hence so many huge open world games that look great - assassins creeds, arkhams, just cause 3 etc. A few years ago, bioshock was a graphic powerhouse, but it was a relatively small self contained environment. Meanwhile gta4 was large in scale and looked crappy in comparison. Not that it looked bad, just that bioshock looked better. So nowadays, the big graphical push will be in giving GTA style games the same fidelity as bioshock style games.\n\nHow do we do this? Well the ps4 generation can just do more heavy lifting than the ps3. Thats a given. But the people making this stuff need better workflows and tools to create those graphics on a realistic timescale. So the other major graphical leap were having right now isnt necessarily making what you see on screen better, but rather being able to make the current quality of graphics faster. ", "Look at GTA 5, how can you make it better looking than that?", "It hasn't, you're wearing rose tinted glasses. We can compare two very large open world games, Red Dead Redemption and The Witcher 3, released 5 years apart.\n\nRed Dead Redemption: _URL_0_\n\nWitcher 3: _URL_1_\n\nThey are both 3D games, have realistic walking animations, and realistic physics on bodies. The Witcher 3 has higher quality models for everything (except the damn horse but he's a jerk any way), realistic sized towns and cities, foliage everywhere, round rocks, better sound, more sound. The biggest difference is the foliage, even when you wander into the forested area of the game there's nothing on the ground, just a few wisps of grass." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://www.extremetech.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/polygon-count-diminishing-returns-consoles.jpeg" ], [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8JIiwhPxo4", "https://youtu.be/PgbuZFkNAlc" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dyn6k4a", "dyn6yqe", "dyn8cak" ], "score": [ 10, 3, 11 ], "text": [ "Even elementary particles have magnetic dipole moments.", "Do you mean ferromagnetic? Or, just having a magnetic dipole? Ferromagnetism is a somewhat rare property where many many atoms align their magnetic dipoles, due to a very special type of emergent force that arises from quantum mechanics, such that you have a macroscopic magnetic field.", "There are actually many forms of magnetism, so we can start picking and choosing as to which magnetism we want to consider to give the \"smalelst size\". \n\n* The first one is that due to a moving charge, this causes a magnetic field and is utilized in electromagnets. This can be explained via [Maxwell's equations](_URL_1_)\n\n* Another form is your standard [ferromagnet](_URL_5_), this is magnetism due to all the spins of the material lining up in the same direction. As such we can argue that you need at least 2 atoms for ferromagnetism to exist. \n\n* Another form of magnetism is anti-ferromagnetism. This is when the spin directions alternate, making the magnet appear to be non magnetic to the outside observer, but being made of many opposing domains inside. This is what HDD's use. Once again this will require 2 atoms. \n\n* A third form is [ferrimagnetism](_URL_3_), this is very similar to anti-ferromagnetism, but the spins are unbalanced. This of two arrows of the same length pointing opposite directions. This is anti-ferro. Ferri is when one of those arrows is longer than the other, allowing a net magentism in that direction. Once again this requires 2 atoms \n\n* Two more important forms is dia- and para-magnetism. These are induced magnets which causes materials to become magnetic when exposed to magnetic fields. Dia-magnetism will always oppose the incoming field, while para-magnetism will align with the field. Examples of diamagnetism are objects like [pyrolytic carbon](_URL_0_) which will repell enough to levitate the material (note this is nothing to do with superconductivity).\n\nTo finally answer your question we need to consider which magnetism we want. As we can see the tradiational magnets all require multiple atoms to make a domain. According to this [science article](_URL_2_) they have successfully created a stable magnet domain composed of only 5 atoms, note the reference to the true paper is at the top of that article. \n\nMoving charges are truly the smallest however I think this is a bit of a cop out as it is not really a magnetic material per se. \n\nThis leaves para and diamagnetism. These can both occur in single atoms and charged particles which are not moving. This gives them a magnetic moments, which are usually measured with reference to the [Bohr magneton](_URL_4_).\n\nTLDR: There are many forms of magnetism so we need to define which one we want to talk about. This means you need either 2 atoms, 1 atom, or individual charged particles depending on the definition we use. \n\nEDIT: formatting" ] }

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[ [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolytic_carbon", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations", "https://www.nanowerk.com/news2/newsid=28282.php", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrimagnetism", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_magneton", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cs3b05a" ], "score": [ 55 ], "text": [ "Nope. Cases of rabies are almost always attributable to the bite of a rabid animal. Old cases from a twenty year period between 1927 and 1946 showed that 99.8% of rabies cases came from bites from a rabid animal. Rabies is caused by a rhabdovirus that is transmitted only through saliva. Rare non-bite exposures include aerosol inhalation, licking, and scratches. **Rabies only infects mammals**. (Source: Fields Virology, Ch. 31)\n\nRabies has evolved to spread between mammals through saliva (bites). That is its transmission route. A parasite like malaria (a protist) has evolved to infect its host (monkeys), a vector (mosquitoes), and another species of host (humans). Malaria is what is called a vector-borne pathogen -it predominantly spreads with a vector. Thankfully rabies is not vector-borne -that would be a real nightmare. \n\nDefault PSA: if you get bit by a wild animal you must go through a rabies protocol. If you wait until symptoms manifest; it you wait until you have a headache or otherwise not feel well, there is a less than 1% survival rate. And it is a bad death. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "deyt1qx", "dezewtj" ], "score": [ 34, 2 ], "text": [ "/u/commiespaceinvader has a [good answer here](_URL_0_) to this question. The long and the short of it is that the postwar denazification procedures did not really consider wives as major accessories to their husbands' misdeeds. While this meant that wives of the Nazi elite certainly would lose property and other valuables, they were not in danger of prison terms or execution. Margarete Himmler went through several denazification classifications, ranging from minor offender to fellow-traveler (the least implicated Nazis) to the more serious implicated beneficiary in 1953. Such reclassifications not only speaks to the chaos of denazification, which differed by zone, but also the difficulties in charging the wives of Nazi war criminals with benefiting from position. \n\nEven in the case of property, civil laws sometimes trumped the need for justice and some wives managed to keep their husbands' property. Emmy Göring and her daughter and Edda waged a long series of legal battles to regain some of Hermann art treasures back confiscated by the Federal and Bavarian governments, and they met with some mixed successes. Lina Heydrich was able to successfully use the wider amnesty policies of the FRG to gain access to her husband's pension, which was quite large since he held the rank of a German general killed in action. \n\nThe wives and children of the Nazi elite often managed to exploit their husbands' notoriety for their own benefit. Both Gundrun Himmler and Edda Göring became prominent in the postwar far-right as champions of their fathers' vision for Germany and Europe. Lina Heydrich used her husband's pension to help her open up an inn that became one of the main social gathering spots for SS veterans and other unsavory types. Ilse Heß managed to publish her letters to her imprisoned husband under the right-wing Druffel press. Likewise, Emmy Göring was able to publish her autobiography, a fawning apologia of both her husband and the Third Reich. Many of these immediate family members laid the foundations for postwar Holocaust denialism and other canards of Europe's postwar far right. \n\nWhether or not Eva Braun would have followed the trajectory of her fellow wives is unknowable. While it is very unlikely she would have been charged with a formal crime, it would have been a certainty that she would have had to face a denazification court. Her father and mother went through a Munich denazification tribunal in 1947 as Category II offenders even though they were relatively minor figures. The more serious charge was likely because they were Hitler's in-laws and it was possible that they were beneficiaries of the dictator's largess. It is not outside the realm of possibility that denazification and other civil procedures against Eva Braun would have been more careful and thorough than similar undertakings directed at other wives. The notoriety of Hitler himself would have made it an public relations embarrassment in light of German division and the Cold War. The GDR often made great political hay out of unrepentant Nazis, including widows, making a new life in the FRG. The sight of Hitler's widow managing to draw some kind of pension or selling her memoirs to the highest bidder would have been far more embarrassing to Bonn than the Heydrich inn or even Gundrun's political activities. ", "If I could ask a follow-up question: Hitler killed himself as the Soviets were taking Berlin, and the record of Red Army soldiers of sexual violence and rape in Germany is well-recorded, was there a fear that had/when Berlin fell, Eva would have suffered such violence before being arrested by Allied forces?" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/4l8ho5/if_she_had_been_captured_what_would_have_been_eva/" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "de4ygbs", "de4yhss" ], "score": [ 4, 2 ], "text": [ "In the present configuration, it can't.\n\nThere may be an opportunity for a handful of the still-strong stores to emerge again following the impending bankruptcy and, hopefully, selection of new leadership. But whatever that will look like, it will be very different from what Sears was in its heyday or what it is presently.", "Nothing really, expect a major brand overhaul. There really is nothing about Sears that's better than other stores/services. It's similar to why Macy's and Kmart are closing so many stores, even Sports Authority shut down." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cg6tq2q" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "For some of these things that \"skip a generation\" you may be looking at different patterns of inheritance. If a phenotype is decided by the combination of alleles the individual possesses, there can be some different situations.\n\nLet's say capital A is one allele, and lowercase a is the other possibility. So an individual may be AA, Aa, or aa and express a certain phenotype depending on the type of inheritance.\n\nFor autosomal recessive traits, a negative condition may be expressed any time an individual is born with the genotype \"aa.\" [Here's a pedigree that shows a potential pattern that \"skips\" a generation.](_URL_1_)\n\nWhat you're seeing there is that the generation that is \"skipped\" often has individuals who are heterozygous (Aa) for the condition, so they are *carriers*, but don't have the negative symptoms. Then, when those individuals mate with *another* heterozygous individual, there is a 1/4 chance that there will be an offspring that shows the condition (genotype aa).\n\nAnother pattern that is possible is through sex-linked traits, like male-pattern baldness. [Here's the pedigree for a sex-linked pattern of inheritance.](_URL_0_) What's happening here that causes the \"skip\" is due to the fact that females have *two* X-chromosomes in humans. If the condition is sex-linked, that means it is passed on a sex chromosome (X or Y). It's often passed on the X because it is *much* larger than the Y, which encodes relatively little information. Females often don't express the disease associated with the X because the *other* X chromosome they have makes up for the altered protein expression and functions normally. Males, on the other hand, do not have a \"back-up\" so they express the condition. \n\nOn the left hand side of the diagram, you can see that a female is born that is the daughter of a male with the condition. He passed on his diseased X chromosome, but she inherited a normal X chromosome from her mother, and thus doesn't display symptoms until she mates with another individual and produces a male. Since the male contributed a \"Y\" chromosome, she passed on an \"X\" but, unfortunately, passed on the X from the diseased one of the pair. Having no back-up, the child shows the disease and the pedigree \"skips\" a generation!\n\nDoes this make sense? " ] }

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[ [ "http://i.imgur.com/m5sDpJH.gif", "http://i.imgur.com/hJMo777.gif" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c6nu4r0" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "[Check out Brian Dunning's article on the issue](_URL_0_) if you haven't already. I'd also love to hear more about this. " ] }

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[ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bloop_real.ogg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slowdown.ogg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Train_(unidentified_sound).ogg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Julia_sound.ogg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Whistle_16%C3%97.ogg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Upsweep_20%C3%97.ogg" ]

[ [ "http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4177" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dmbpjg5", "dmbplm2" ], "score": [ 4, 9 ], "text": [ "the spaces between everything are essentially getting larger. More or less without any fancy waffling about.", "Over time, any two (significantly) distant points in the universe are increasingly far apart. There's more 'space' between them.\n\nThis occurs at very large scales. For instance, our local galaxy cluster is gravitationally bound, and not expanding apart. To the contrary, we will eventually collide with another galaxy, Andromeda. But distant galaxies to which we are not gravitationally bound are all becoming more distant over time. An observer would see the same from any other location in the universe, everything distant from them moving away. \n\n > What is beyond the universe?\n\nExpansion is not meant to imply that the universe is something like a bubble, gradually filling up a greater volume. Rather, it is thought to be, although unproven to be, infinite in volume. Over time, it is becoming less dense. There's more space between objects. \n\nIt is not known to be 'expanding into' anything, and we have no knowledge, nor at this time reason to believe, in an external volume which the universe is contained in or touching. As far as we have solid evidence for, the universe contains everything that exists. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dme2yzx" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Because that would put the power in the hands of the public, not the three companies that generate the number(s) which define the limits of your happiness." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d7jmipo", "d7jt675" ], "score": [ 7, 6 ], "text": [ "I applied to PhD programs twice, the first to study the history of the United States and the second to study art history. In between I completed an interdisciplinary MA, specifically NYU's John W. Draper program. It is my understanding that this program specifically recruits from unsuccessful applicants to NYU's PhD programs (I think the University of Chicago has a similar program - other universities might as well). While I am happy I did this program because I ended up getting into my first-choice PhD program after the two years, I am not happy I did it because it was enormously expensive and I am now carrying a large amount of student loan debt because of it. Right now I'm a newly-minted PhD with no academic job who is doing some freelancing and otherwise being supported by my SO while I'm on the job market again. So, this perspective will inform what I have to say next:\n\n1. As far as increasing your chance to get accepted, the biggest thing that no one at my undergraduate institution told me (or that I was unwilling or unable to hear), is that your statement of purpose needs to be specific. While it's a relatively short document, you need to show an understanding of the outlines of the field you propose to study, as well as propose an actual historical question you want to solve or investigate. You can't just say (even if you say it in really sophisticated language) \"gee golly, I sure do love the Civil War and would love to study that.\" If you're having trouble identifying a concrete historical question you are interested in, then you need to think long and hard about why you are applying to graduate school, or at least to PhD programs. If you are currently in undergrad and your school offers departmental honors or the option to write a thesis **do that**. A history of successful independent research will go a long way towards making you an attractive candidate.\n\n2. What about Plan B (or Plan A for people who think they want a PhD but aren't sure what to study)? First of all, if you come from a well-to-do family or otherwise have $70k-100k to spend on an MA, I really do think that the Draper Program and similar are fantastic. It's just not a good idea to go into debt before embarking on the low pay and uncertain outcomes of a humanities PhD, but if you can afford it, great! I know some people who got MA's from NYU for free or cheap, but that involved either having parents who worked there (tuition remission) or working there themselves (also tuition remission, and also can only attend part time while also working a 40 hour a week job). If you can't afford a private school and can't/don't want to get a job at one, and you didn't get into a program, another option is an MA from a state university, especially if you can do it while working and/or living with your parents, to minimize debt. The history department at your local state flagship university will likely have a terminal MA program that you can attend for in-state tuition, and often part-time. Obviously, this might still depend on your financial and job situation. I'm from a small state where something like 3/4 of the total state population lives within an hour of the flagship university, so maybe if you're from Nebraska this won't work as well. \n\n3. Another Plan B is to get a job in a related field, like at a museum or historical society. This will get you hands-on experience with historical materials and research, and probably allow you to make the acquaintance of historians and other professionals in the field. A bonus of this approach is that you might find you like working and have no interest in going to grad school, in which case you have saved yourself a lot of time and financial hardship.\n\n4. Once you get in: I found there was a fairly serious leap in difficulty from undergrad (at an excellent but perhaps not top-tier state university) to NYU. I had more reading that was more difficult, and I was also working 20 hours a week and commuting from central Brooklyn to Manhattan. I drank a lot of coffee and lost a lot of sleep. I found a similarly serious leap from NYU to my PhD program, where the reading was even more vigorous and the classes were much smaller, giving me less room to hide if I hadn't done the reading. I also added TAing and graduate service activities, but subtracted paid work. My PhD university was on the quarter system, so I also had to cram more learning into a smaller amount of time. But I also found that the PhD program, as much work as it was, was incredibly freeing. **All** you have to do in such a program is work on your chosen field of study. You literally aren't allowed to do anything else. This is a great great feeling if you love the work, and I think it's why a lot of us stick with academia even though the rewards can be so few and far in between.\n\nI found that coursework, especially when I was also TAing, was the hardest I have ever worked. Note that your TA load will vary widely depending on the school you go to. I went to an exclusive private university for my PhD, so my TA load was pretty light (they hardly needed TAs at all - many classes were assigned one just because the grad student needed a TA job as part of his or her training), and I wasn't required to do it at all as a first-year. If you go to some larger, more cash-strapped schools, you might TA from the first semester onward as often as every single semester. This can and should figure into your calculus about which grad program to attend, as should funding, job placement outcomes, and the like. After coursework is oral exams. My programs oral exams were relatively light and informal, but I understand that for many they can be brutal. Hopefully some of the historians here who did old-school history orals can share how that is. After orals is dissertation proposal writing and then dissertation writing. Writing a dissertation is hard work, but I also found that I wasn't terribly busy in terms of total hours worked while writing mine. I'm an efficient worker, and I found that my brain was just not capable of writing for eight hours a day. Research, maybe, but when I was actually writing I would aim to get two hours of good solid writing done in a day. The rest of the time I would spend researching, searching for a job, or taking care of domestic tasks and generally being a supportive partner.\n\nOK, I hope this helps. I am happy to answer questions that anyone has.", "What are good strategies to get accepted?\n\nAnecdotally (but with a bit more than hearsay,) the program I was in depended mostly on faculty recommendation letters than much else. As most of academia is reputationally-based, letters from well-known folks *within the field the applicant was planning on pursuing* were quite valuable. Slightly less valuable was a letter from a well-known scholar for a student planning on studying something outside the recommender's field. Certainly grades and test scores matter, but more as a foot-in-the-door than anything else. In my program, real funding decisions were mostly based on recommendations. This of course presupposes that the applicant is proposing a field of study supported by the program to which they're applying. That is, if you apply to study some field of history that the department to which you're applying doesn't support/have faculty that teach/care about/whatever, you've wasted your time. \n\nHow much work do you have to expect?\n\nThe first year is tough. I went BA-- > PhD with the MA granted as a formality after my second year. I still remember my first day of grad school, being completely lost as my cohort, most of which held an MA, discussed a book. I'd read the book, but had zero clue where it fit in the literature and sat there for three hours, bewildered. I did a lot of outside reading. The most valuable catch-up books I read were Iggers' *Historiography in the Twentieth Century* and Eric Foner (ed) *The New American History.* (Now called *American History Now,* and edited by Lisa McGirr and Foner) Those books saved my bacon. \n\nAdvice for starting out: read the above (if Amercanist, otherwise ask your future advisor for a book similar to Foner/McGirr above that applies to your area) and during your first couple of semesters, read every damned word. As you get better at understanding what books are doing and how they fit in to the greater picture, some skimming and intro/conclusion reading becomes OK. In your third year, skimming is pretty much the norm.\n\nIdeally, you shape your course work as a research launch pad. If you can tailor your courses and seminar work to your later dissertation interest, you'll be able to complete your dissie much more quickly, and will (IMO) increase your chances of completing the degree. \n\nSpeak with instructors as you take your courses, asking if you can tailor writings a little to include whatever you're planning on covering in your dissertation. See if it's permissible to use writing seminar courses to work on your diss. proposal/prospectus. Try not to take much course work outside of your major field. Some will likely be required/unavoidable, but keep it to a minimum.\n\nIn terms of managing stress, I treated grad school like a full-time job. I was lucky in that my spouse was working and I had TA money coming in, so there weren't big financial concerns. This will of course vary. I had my little office where I spent non-class or library time. I was there every day like a job. \n\nMy program was quite rigorous, but also very informal. Professors and students (even most undergrads) used first names. We had frequent get-togethers at local watering holes. Having a couple of beers and arguing historiography with well-known professors is a lot of fun. \n\nAnd lastly, think long and hard about the realities of grad school in the humanities. Jobs are few and far between. At best. I adjuncted for three years before finally landing a tenure-track job. Landing that job required moving my family away from everything we knew. For us, it's worked out pretty well. For others I know, not so much. Adjuncts make less than poverty wages, and Asst. Profs generally not a whole lot more. I didn't get into this for the money, but there are very serious realities to consider. Do you want to be 35 and making $30K a year? Can you live on that? Do you want a roommate for the rest of your life? What of a family? Will you have a spouse/partner that works? Children to feed? I'd bet that most everyone who has completed a PhD knows at least one person from their cohort that left academia over these issues. Likely more than one. Think it through completely before you commit yourself to a decade(-ish) of study and work for very little reward. \n\nI don't mean to be Debbie Downer -- grad school was awesome, really -- but don't go in with illusions, either. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dxoyw5l", "dxoyyfo", "dxp42rt" ], "score": [ 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Caffeine comes out of the grounds. If you reduce the grounds, you reduce caffeine. If you steep too long, the flavor sours.\n\nFor good-tasting, strong coffee, you increase the amount of grounds you use.\n\nFor good-tasting, weaker coffee, you decrease the amount of grounds you use.", "It'll almost certainly increase. But not to the same amount as 4tbsp per day.\n\nHow much it increases by depends on the amount of caffeine that remains in the grounds, and the solubility of caffeine in water compared to the grounds (the partition co-efficient).\n\nLess steeping time (which is easier to do with tea, not-so-easy with coffee) is probably the greatest reducer of caffeine. Using the same grounds again (or using the same 2tbsp for both cups) is another great way to cut down - but you're gonna hate that second cup.\n\nUsing less water to brew, and then diluting it with hot water, is another option.", "True story - best, strongest coffee I ever had was at the actor James Caan's house. I asked him the secret and he said his wife reduced the amount of water used to make the coffee. Less water = more grounds = stronger coffee.\n\nOh James Caan is incredibly nice. But his wife's coffee? That is what I really remember from that day. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dbo7p51", "dbo9ls1", "dbobtyo", "dbolzpo" ], "score": [ 10, 4, 3, 4 ], "text": [ "Well I would assume that like anything they would work like a business. Its just what they do is considered illegal and or is based on harming others. Its all about the profits. \ndepending on the nature of the gang what they do on a daily basis can be very different. but the basic motions are the same. just think of it as alternative business. if you want to sell drugs you have to make drugs ensure distributions proper storage and customers. so goes for people guns booze and anything that can turn a profit. The gangs may be really glamorized on TV but it is really just like keeping a job.\n\nas for what your job is when you are young this also can differ due to the difference of crime. But the basic principles are the same.Build up gang loyalty and getting to know the neighborhood and how the business works. for example some gangs would employ young children of broken homes i.e. moms who work 2 jobs who can't be home where their house is always cold and they need bread on the table. those are the target recruits because they have very little parental supervision needs money desperately and is looking for belonging or attachment to a group. The young ones would either be look outs (community gangs) or they would be \"corner boys\" the sales front for drugs. They are easy to keep in check and would not get hard time if they are caught due to being minors and such. they are also plenty disposable since they are kids and are very unlikely to fight back in any sort of meaningful way.\n\nas for initiation is more of a ceremony. this is more likely to have it roots in tribal behavior. this can range from getting a tattoo or clothing to murder or some other gruesome act. The former is to sell the sense of belonging like they are your family and the ladder is to build the feeling of you are in for life and there is no turning back.\n\nthe roles are similar to any jobs. you have the boss who tell people what to do. you have the middle managements or lieutenants that carry out the order. you have enforcers who keep security. you have the accountant well that explains itself right? the foot soldiers are the red shirts in this case. they do the everyday grunt work of the crew. there are the suppliers. they can be either in-house or they could be other gangs. And there is the specialists. i.e. the really really bad mofos.(contract killers, cleaners, dirty cops you know) they are usually like good plumbers. they might be expensive but everyone keeps them on retainer just in case. and you can't forget the lawyers. \nbasically its like any office job except your job is to do illegal shit.", "Under 15: Recruited at a young age to be a lookout; they will get $20 or so to stand on a corner for a while and watch for police/rival gangs.\n\n15-18: Once they are a teenager they can be promoted and start helping out the corner kids with selling drugs and can make $100 or more per day.\n\n18:After they turn 18 if they are already in the gang and have a clean record then they will be used to purchase firearms for the 'soldiers' in the gang.\n\n18 and up: Depends on what their skills were so hard to guess \n\n", "I grew up in a housing facility dominated by a gang called \"Mad Cowz. \" MC was a gang formed from African immigrants new to Canada, they quickly formed ties to Indian Posse, which is a major gang up in the prairies here made up mainly of Native Americans living in impoverished reserves. I moved around the age of 14ish, but a lot of my friends ended up incarcerated or killed. \n\nDifferent gangs do different things. MC was made up of a lot of youth and rather violent, I remember watching them fight each other a lot just for fun. I ran drugs around the complex because I was young, there weren't any rival gangs around really so it was pretty safe. \n\nThe initiation for MC and for most gangs is a group beating. I left before experiencing this, but leading up to it I was told to just protect my head. \n\nDifferent roles people play? That's a pretty complex question. MC was mostly about violence, generally, if someone could beat you up, you listen to what they say. MC had no real masterminds, there was no \"boss,\" there was just a group of people who grew up together and figured out that dealing drugs and women payed a lot better then minimum wage. And on the roles of women.... Honestly it was disgusting. Thier nothing but property, to be sold and used. The fucked up part was that they enjoyed it. They partied and drank and got payed like everyone else, and they had protection and people who \"cared\" about them, so they liked it. ", "I just finished my Master's thesis on this very topic. TL;DR it all depends on the gang, though trends do exist in more complex gangs like those listed in your question. \nBasically, think of each gang as a society within our own society. Some seek power and authority through fear-tactics, others through monetary, while some (such as the Gangster Disciples (G.D.s)) work toward an agenda of authority and legitimacy through providing welfare, services, jobs, etc. for those trapped in bad neighborhoods for a variety of reasons (what G.D.s call \"The Struggle\"). \nOn a daily basis, they work like any organization operating top-down. They have jobs, orders to carry out, lives to lead. The best comparison is that of a basic military in which pride, loyalty, honor, etc. come from membership and what you can do in service to the greater cause. \nAs an inexperienced youth, you can expect to carry out tasks the older/more experienced members don't wish to do. These are often more dangerous, and studies show a higher mortality rate in younger gang members than those who stay in past young-adulthood. \nAlmost every major gang has an initiation or rite of passage, but these vary based on the group's history, location, primary ethnicity, and so many other factors.\nLet me know if you have anymore specific questions, I love this stuff and would be happy to provide any answers/resources I can." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5k520l" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "In general - no. However the problem is that none of the equipment manufacturers are willing to guarantee that. For example - if equipment is installed incorrectly (such as missing a ground connection) there could be some interference. If you had the option between guaranteeing that it wouldn't cause a problem and simply saying \"Don't use a phone\" .. which would you do?\n\nThe big exception is EEGs. They are ridiculously high impedance measurements and ridiculously low signals being measured .. and to make it worse the signal being measured has a very high bandwidth. In combination that makes them **extremely** susceptible to interference. When I last had an EEG, they had replaced all the light dimmers in the room to improve the measurement - they really are that susceptible. \n\nAll equipment is designed to prevent any interference from causing mis-diagnosis or mis-measurements as much as possible ... but there is a very practical 'let's avoid it if possible' action at work too.\n\nThere have been occasional 'close call' incidents which *may* have been caused by EMI (eg: _URL_0_ ) but it is difficult to tell for sure. In particular there was a 2007 study by the Mayo clinic which attempted to replicate these kinds of incidents - but found nothing. However - all equipment in that case was installed correctly. \n\nThe *real* question is what happens in a real clinical situation where things aren't always 100% correct ... with equipment that may not be correctly installed. You can argue that those situations are invalid because it isn't the cellphone's fault ... but this is all about increasing safety and operator errors are a fact of life... so we need to create environments where operator & installation errors are less likely to cause harm.\n\nBut ... yeah ... mostly it is just being over cautious.\n\nMac" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/psn/printer.cfm?id=61" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c456u4o" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Either way, the THC gets to the same place (the bloodstream/liver), which is where it is metabolized (through the enzyme CYP2C). Ingesting THC will cause about 6-20% of it to be absorbed, while inhalation causes 10-35% of it to be absorbed. So, since you will have less of it in your body in the first place, THC that is ingested will go away more quickly than THC that is inhaled.\n\nSource: _URL_0_\n\nAlso, I assume you're talking about *detectable* metabolites? That's a whole other story. It's largely dependent on whose body they're in, if you want a discrete timeframe for when they are detectable. The best way to determine it is through trial, and keeping track of your diet.\n\nIt is also very dependent on the frequency of use. Someone who smokes pot daily will spend a much, much longer time ridding their body of metabolites than someone who has only smoked once. As I said, it's *very* dependent on the individual circumstance. Trying to give you a definite timeframe would be irresponsible; I don't know anything about your (or your friend's) body." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrocannabinol" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cjjagvd", "cjjdrrm" ], "score": [ 8, 3 ], "text": [ "I hate to come off as annoying, and maybe our local Francophile /u/DonaldFDraper would be more willing to play 20 questions, but I find it much easier to answer a series of questions if I know where the questions are leading and can tackle it in one big post so I can build everything off of each other and know how to approach certain topics rather than making a bunch of 250-500 word posts in complete vacuums without context. \n\nYour curiosity clearly isn't centered around why France wasn't included in the Congress but some questions built off of that as you say yourself. Or maybe it is. That's the issue, I don't know what you really want here but just the first part to a long series of interrogation questions that hopefully by the end would give me some idea of what you really want. By doing it this way I don't know what's important and what's not to getting the point across and may focus on entirely the wrong things for expressing a certain point you may be building up around asking about.\n\nSo really, what are the things you are wanting to know and we can tackle them a bit more cohesively knowing where your questioning is going rather than answering a series of vague questions? Even if you don't want to just post a list of questions at least giving a general idea of where your reasoning is trying to go with this mysterious line of questioning would be helpful.", "I am not a historian, I am only a young guy who is interested in history, but I'll try to answer this:\n\nThe Congress of Vienna took place to restore the political conditions of 1792. So France was the bad guy (from the view of all the others) during the war, but it wasn't lead by a king of the [House of Bourbon](_URL_0_), instead Napoleon was the leader and emperor.\n\nThe Congress of Vienna gave France back to it's 'rightful' owner, the House of Bourbon. It was different from negotiations after the Second World War where Nazi-Germany and its allies clearly where the villains from the view of the winners, while after Napoleon's defeat they gave France back to the true king." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cp1kc32" ], "score": [ 35 ], "text": [ "There's almost nothing to run into. Deep space is incredibly, spectacularly empty. You can go right through the asteroid belt without being at any serious risk of a collision.\n\nEarth orbit is a bit more crowded, enough so that we track thousands of pieces of space junk in orbit so that if they happen to be on a collision course with the ISS or other important-and-maneuverable satellites, we can move them out of the way. But even that is comparatively rare." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7d8gwc", "c7d8jcs", "c7d8qxk", "c7d8rrf", "c7d98r3", "c7d99yy", "c7dd1yh" ], "score": [ 78, 5, 3, 50, 12, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "The terms \"just\" or \"unjust\" are still widely in use. The terms \"legal\" or \"illegal\" wars have really just come out of the establishment of international legal institutions (League of Nations and the United Nations) in the 20th century. The distinction of \"just\" war usually refers to the qualities that make a war \"legal\" in regards to the UN Charter. Prior to this document, there was no way to consider a war \"illegal\" so the terms just or unjust were used.", "Part of the change also comes from our collective emergence from the feudal system. There was a term called \"Casus belli,\" which meant \"Cause of War.\" You could expect support from others, be it your own vassals, your liege or other players, if you had valid cause to go to war. This could be a claim on a title, a religious cause, or as revenge for some prior misdeed. \n\nAs we as a whole began to get away from the feudal system and more toward nationalism, wars become less about territory and more about causes and ideology. As such, we drift away from the idea of a legal war, and look more at whether or not a war is morally just, where the war is justified because the other side violates human rights, or infringes upon the well being of another group.", "For the Romans and Augustinus and Tommaso d'Aquino, a just war had to have the approval of a higher authority, God, or the gods. For the Romans, this could be assured by following a certain formal \"spiritual\" routine; (Cicero, De officiis 1.11.33 following, in one of the early chapters in Titus Livius is another description, if desired, I search for it) for the Doctors of the Church the war had to meet certain requirements, like not to be lead only for gain, being declared by the proper authority and having peace as goal (Tommaso d'Aqino, Summa Theologica, Second part of the second part, Question 40).\n\nTo make a war illegal, the war only has to break some kind of law, be it national law, for example not having the \"proper\" constitutional legalisation to be declared; or international law, to be against the Kellogg–Briand Pact or later the Charter of the United Nations.\n\ntl, dr: Just and unjust are personal opinions or spiritual concepts, since enlightened lawgiving can't deal with that, nowadays we only have legal or illegal wars. Or, like Daddy_Biggins says, one could simply say \"just\" and mean \"legal\".", "I wouldn't say that these terms have ever been replaced. For example, the founders were greatly concerned with the \"legality\" of war. The best case study for this is the Quasi-War with France during the Adams administration.\n\nThe war really kicked off in earnest due to American refusal to pay Revolutionary debts to France on the grounds that the debts had been owed to the monarchy, not the new French Republic. A cute legal nicety, that really shows how many lawyers we had in government at the time (and still do).\n\nBecause of this, the French began seizing American shipping. It took two years for Congress to authorize action to be taken against the French. At this point, the war was \"legal;\" Adams had ordered no action to be taken against the French. Now that action had been authorized, Adams had to work within the strictures placed by Congress in order for the war to be legal. For example, seizing ships sailing to and French ports was \"legal.\" Seizing ships sailing \"from\" French ports was not. In the case of *Little v. Barreme*, an American captain acting under orders from Adams seized a Danish ship sailing **from** a French port. This action was deemed illegal, and the American captain was liable for damages.\n\nLook at the Constitution as well. In Section 8 we have several clauses including \"To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations,\" and \"To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water.\" These are all concerned with the legality of hostilities, and speak nothing to its \"just\" or \"unjust\" nature.", "The idea of a just war has been around for ages (in fact, just war theory is the explanation of a just war by medieval theologians). Although prior to the 20th century, it can pretty much be observed that justifications of war was based off the \"right to conquer\" (basically the idea might is the right to rule). \n\nThe modern peace/anti-war movement grew largely in 20th century United States. During this time period, the United States had a fairly strong peace movement growing in the Midwest. Celebrities such as Charles Lindbergh (keep in mind, Lindbergh was a part of the anti-war America First group), and post-World War I era, made peace a large issue. This movement would eventually lead Frank Kellogg (along with French foreign minister, Aristide Briand) to draft the Pact of Paris (August 1928). \n\nThe Pact of Paris was a pact between its signatories, in which they \"condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it, as an instrument of national policy\". The pact was signed by most of the major powers (original signors being the U.S., France and Germany... ironically) and while it didn't make wars illegal, it did state that enforcement of the pact would be through a collective force of its signatories. While the Pact can be seen ultimately as a failure to maintain peace, it did get Kellogg a Nobel Peace Prize, and would serve as the stepping stone for future UN documents which deal with \"wars of aggression\".\n\nThe signing of the Convention for the Definition of Aggression was also another major step towards hammering out the concept of \"illegal wars\". Signed in London on July 1933, the Convention was the first legitimate attempt to actually define what a \"war of aggression\" might be. Many of the signors of this Convention were already signors of the Pact of Paris. The convention had played major role during the events of World War II, first, when the League of Nations expelled the Soviet Union from the organization, following its invasion of Finland. The second time would be during the Nuremberg Trials, when Robert Jackson (the American justice) used it to make the case that the actions of the Nazis were unambiguously aggressive. \n\nMost historians would probably mark the Nuremberg Trials as the place where the concept of \"illegal wars\" was finally hashed out. It was in the convention which established the way that the Nuremberg Trial would be conducted that the words \"illegal war\" can be first seen and defined (Article IV). It was also in the same convention, in which the Nuremberg Principles first came about, which defined what war crimes, crimes against peace and humanity are. After the trials, these principles would be enshrined in a number institutions, such as the General Assembly of the UN in 1946 (UNGA Resolution 95), adopted within the Geneva Conventions in 1948, and codified by the International Law Commission in 1950.", "Wasn't it Aquinas who set up the Just war theory? Or am I getting my philosophers mixed up? ", "By traditional just war theory, all illegal wars are unjust as one of the conditions for just war is declaration by a competent authority." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e1ulpwv" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "[The Dynamics of Ancient Empires](_URL_0_) is a fantastic choice. Ian Morris' section on the Athenian \"Empire\" is a classic, and there are also interesting treatments by other contributors like Scheidel. " ] }

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[ [ "https://www.amazon.com/Dynamics-Ancient-Empires-Assyria-Byzantium/dp/0199758344/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;qid=1530819662&amp;sr=8-1&amp;keywords=the+dynamics+of+ancient+empires" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cz3asxr", "cz3b6dj" ], "score": [ 5, 3 ], "text": [ "Metal itself isn't going anywhere, looking at the big picture. Gigantic skyscrapers or megastructures that arguably hold the most metal will erode and disappear in mere centuries, eventually returning to the soil.\n\nMinerals and terrain regenerate slowly, but they do, given enough time. They might be increasingly difficult to mine after the most accessible sites get depleted, but technology is always one step ahead making it easier to mine previously impossible deposits. ", "Metals come from ores. The richest ores are mined first. Less rich ores are mined next and there are more of them. There are always more lower grade ores than richer. We have more waste and it takes more energy but there is always more." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ed3cf6x", "ed3et10", "ed3mazi" ], "score": [ 4, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "No, that's not the assumption it's based on. Rather, it's based on *regression to the mean,* the statistical fact that something which has outperformed is likely to stop outperforming.", "Rebalancing is more about risk mitigation than maximizing gains. Let’s say your portfolio goes up 10% but one stock doubled, and the rest actually went up 5-6%. If you had about even holdings in each stock, then the one that went up more would be an unevenly large part of the portfolio. So you might want to see some of those shares to get the holding back in proportion to others and either add to the other holdings or invest in another stock.", "Re-balancing is simply sticking to a strategy. If that strategy was created with legitimate research and isn't based on a random headline or a hunch I wouldn't call it gambling." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c455kf0", "c455kl6", "c456xvh", "c45701i", "c457plo", "c458jd7", "c459vgf", "c45f6t2" ], "score": [ 42, 12, 27, 15, 6, 6, 5, 2 ], "text": [ "A nearly-immortal being stole a time and space ship, went off on adventures, and takes humans along for the ride. Sometimes he saves the universe.", "Explain the concept or why people like it?\n\nConcept: He's basically the last of an alien race called the Time Lords and he travels through time in a ship called the TARDIS (time and relative dimensions in space). The cloaking device is broken so it's pretty much stuck on phone booth.\n\nWhy people like it: campy science fiction fun.", "“Look: there’s a blue box, it’s bigger on the inside, it can go anywhere in space and time, sometimes even where it’s supposed to. There’s a bloke in the box, he’s called ‘The Doctor’ and when he gets where he’s going there’s going to be a problem and he’ll try to solve it and he’ll probably succeed because he’s awesome. Now shut up and go watch ‘Blink.’” \n-- Neil Gaiman discussing “Doctor Who” at WonderCon 2011 ", "I guess I should start watching Dr. Who then.", "Wibbly wobbley timey wimey and attractive females.", "Why do I love this show more than any I've ever seen before? Because it combines the wonder and magic of adventure/sci-fi/fantasy with characters who have great emotions and what-not. The show changes location/set/ALL main cast/tone/writers etc. all time. It's an entire universe and a huge franchise with a large history you can get lost it.\n\nSome may criticize it for not being 'hard' or 'pure' sci-fi but I never thought it was. It's every genre. It's been boy adventure book style (early 80s), gothic horror (late 70s), etc. There are suspense episodes, silly episodes, drama episodes.\n\nAnd if you can ignore the special effects and keep your mind open then it'll all work out. Since the basic premise of the show (spacetime travelling alien) opens it up to literally *every* story possible.\n\nThe continuity is a nightmare.\n\nAlso there is no official canon so you can pick and choose. And claw other fans' eyes out to defend yourself. ;)", "_URL_0_\n\nBite-size doctor who!", "[Craig Ferguson gives a decent basic overview to the tune of the theme song](_URL_0_).\n\nAs has been mentioned here already, the Doctor is an alien called a Time Lord. Time Lords are not a species but rather an order within a species, or perhaps a subspecies. The species are Gallifreyans from the planet Gallifrey. Time Lords have the ability to regenerate when they're gravely injured. In doing so they not only change their appearance but their entire personalities. They retain their memories and presumably their moral code.\n\nHis real name is unknown to the audience. Time Lords choose their own monikers and he decided to be the Doctor.\n\nThe Doctor's spaceship, the TARDIS, is an odd thing. There were different models of TARDIS (the Doctor's is a Type 40 and was already a museum piece when he got it) but his is the only one left. The TARDIS is a living machine with a soul, grown rather than built. Like the Doctor, it regenerates when damaged. Any TARDIS should be able to disguise itself upon landing by way of a chameleon circuit. The chameleon circuit on the Doctor's TARDIS got jammed and it became stuck with the outward appearance of a police phone box. The Doctor stole his TARDIS from a museum on his home planet.\n\nThe 2005 revival of the series followed on from an off-screen event called the Time War (or more fully, the Last Great Time War). This was a war between the Time Lords and the Daleks (more on them later) that eventually led to the Doctor destroying both races and his home planet. Because he is non-violent he did this did this not by blowing them up, but with a Time Lock. As with a lot of sci-fi the details surrounding this are pretty flimsy but essentially it means he removed them both from having ever existed. The TARDIS is tapped into the temporal vortex and as such prevents this paradox from also erasing the Doctor. It does that sort of thing for him a lot. It also gets into your head telepathically to translate alien languages (slighter nicer than a Babelfish in my opinion). It even does the written word for you but that takes a while to kick in.\n\nThe Doctor has various recurring enemies, the most famous of whom are the Daleks. As I've mentioned, they fought in the Time War. They are a genetically engineered clone race who are born and die inside of their individual metal tanks. They were created by Davros as a weapon in a generations-long civil war on his home planet of Skaro. They quickly usurped Davros and decided that all life that was not Dalek was inferior and should be destroyed. The Time Lords sent the Doctor back to attempt to prevent them from ever being created in the first place but he wasn't able to do so. The Daleks considered this an act of war and that's what eventually led to the Time Lock.\n\nThe current Doctor is the eleventh and is my personal favourite. Because the Time War plot device wipes out basically everybody the Doctor knew, the 2005 revival manages to be a continuation and a reboot at the same time. The character has a history but not all that much of it is relevant to what he's doing now and if it is then it gets enough exposition.\n\nThe first season in particular is often *very* clearly a show for kids but still has its moments and Christopher Eccleston is fantastic. As it goes on, it matures but doesn't lose any of its charm. Sometimes episodes divide opinion but few are universally panned. David Tennant replaced Eccleston after just one season and he was in the role for four seasons plus about eight specials. Matt Smith has starred in two seasons so far and is currently filming a third.\n\nWhen Matt Smith came in, the show got a new head writer as well when Russell T Davies stepped down to be replaced by Stephen Moffat. None of the characters from previous seasons returned* so this was another mini-reboot within the continuing storyline. The eleventh Doctor's first episode, The Eleventh Hour, would be on of many fine places to begin watching. The tone shifted a lot as well. Under RTD, each season had a monster-of-the-week structure with vague indicators of something that would become relevant in a multi-episode finale. Under Moffat, the writing is more long-term. There are still monster-of-the-week episodes once in a while but for the most part everything links into the bigger picture. That is more in keeping with the style of the classic series.\n\n*At least not initially.\n\nEdited for grammar." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=51JtuEa_OPc" ], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9P4SxtphJ4" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "fdzh0ka" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "It's friction, like rubbing your socks on the carpet or a balloon on your hair- two substances, where one is more conductive and one is more of an insulator. The insulator donates to the conductor, IIRC. \n\nNasa has a great writeup on it here: \n_URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/home/F_What_Causes_Lightning_Flash.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dq00gyu", "dq012e4", "dq02j6f" ], "score": [ 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Well, the material itself is somewhat stiffer, while still retaining a certain flexibility. The holes are there to offer room for the material to flex, avoiding the uncomfortable hardness you'd experience if the tires were solid- it fulfills the same purpose as the pressurized air inside a regular tire, as well as lowering weight. \nThe classical, inflatable tires fulfill the requirements to enjoy a smooth ride, while remaining simple to produce, but early on, bike tires were, in fact, solid rubber. ", "Rubber ones are cheaper, require less material, weigh less and are more flexible.\nAlso as a someone pointed out it does a lot of good to have the air in the tyre absorb the energy from a hit than the frame or anything solid really.\n\nThe only danger is if you encounter sharp objects that can pierce through the rubber bit. Or if you over-inflated the tyre it could blow up given a considerable hit.", "As to the question why we use air filled tires: the rolling resistance is lower. Which means it’s more comfortable to actually get the tire to roll. \n\nAnother reason is that air filled tires are considerably lighter, albeit the new plastic tires got rid of most of the weight with the holes drilled into them.\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cni7685", "cnif1wu" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Sure, species evolve over time and allele frequencies change and new alleles can arise through mutations. Imagine humans existing 20,000 years from now. Even without a speciation branching we could be very different. The situations needed for speciation (reproductive isolation) may not occur so there wouldn't be new species formed.\n\nThere are alleles that are known to have not been prevalent in our past but are selected for in some populations. Most mammals are lactose intolerant as adults. Some human populations are almost completely lactose tolerant. This trait didn't exist or wasn't common 60k years ago.", "Of course we're a slightly different species than *every ancestral generation* before us.\n\nBut it's not interbreeding with Neanderthals that caused this. Interbreeding with them wouldn't make us any more different from \"early man\"--since the **Neanderthals themselves were descended from the same early man as we were**." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4ursti" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "In the example given in that photo there is a ground for the electricity to flow through - the neutral connection in the socket (or the earth if that extension lead has one). \n\nCurrent will always take the shortest route, therefore if the socket part of the extension lead dipped into the water then the electricity would flow between the live and neutral of the first socket. However this flow of current is much more than it would be if there was some resistance from a device, therefore the RCD or the fuse in the distribution board would almost immediately trip/blow and switch off the circuit.\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "clsl565" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Since one of the variables that drag depends on is density of air, and since the higher you go, the less dense air is, the answer is yes.\n\nIn simpler terms, density is the amount of molecules, and since there are less molecules of air the higher you go, you're hitting less molecules, therefore losing less energy to drag. \n\nLess air molecules = Less air resistance." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8xckq4" ], "score": [ 18 ], "text": [ "The Anglo-German arms race seems like a great example. The British and the Second German Empire had a traditionally strong relationship. However, with the ascension of Kaiser Wilhelm II, an arms race pushed Great Britain to side with the French on the eve of WW1, as opposed to remaining neutral as they had in 1870. \n\nThe cause for this has often been attributed mainly to a naval arms race between the two nations. Wilhelm and Admiral Tirpitz decided that Germany needed a navy which would rival the power of the British Royal Navy. For the English's part, they realized that the object of the German's plan was to threaten the dominance of the Royal Navy. As such the British retaliated by building newer, better, ships; the arms race then did what arms races generally do, it escalated. This was accompanied by political negotiations in which Britain basically promised the Germans neutrality in a coming conflict if the Germans froze their construction. But Wilhelm was far more interested in becoming the Admiral of the Atlantic, and so the arms race continued. " ] }

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