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2,800 | A major focus of work in CEF was to develop and use methods and to explore proteins that enable modulating cellular and molecular function with light. In the field of optogenetics, control of membrane potential and intracellular signalling in neurons and other cells is achieved by expression of photosensor proteins, in most cases of microbial origin, e.g. ion channels or pumps, as well as light-activated enzymes. Optochemical approaches, in contrast, use chemically engineered molecules to achieve light-effects in biological tissue. | Cluster of Excellence Frankfurt Macromolecular Complexes | 0.832958 |
2,801 | The development of cutting-edge methodologies, including electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), time-resolved nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), advanced fluorescence microscopy, as well as optogenetics and optochemical biology has been instrumental in the research efforts of CEF. The Cluster also integrated new developments in electron microscopy and tomography as well as in super-resolution microscopy into the methods portfolio of Riedberg Campus. | Cluster of Excellence Frankfurt Macromolecular Complexes | 0.832958 |
2,802 | Native mass spectrometry has emerged as an important tool in structural biology. Advantages of mass spectrometry compared to other methods like X-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance are for instance its lower limits of detection, its speed and its capability to deal with heterogeneous samples. CEF contributed to the development of laser-induced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID), a method developed at Goethe University that is especially suited to the analysis of large membrane protein complexes. A challenge in native mass spectrometry is maintaining the features of the proteins of interest, such as oligomeric state, bound ligands, or the conformation of the protein complex, during the transfer from the solution to the gas phase. | Cluster of Excellence Frankfurt Macromolecular Complexes | 0.832958 |
2,803 | Rust has algebraic data types and comes with the built-in Result and Option types. | Semipredicate problem | 0.832951 |
2,804 | In sorting n objects, merge sort has an average and worst-case performance of O(n log n). If the running time of merge sort for a list of length n is T(n), then the recurrence relation T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n follows from the definition of the algorithm (apply the algorithm to two lists of half the size of the original list, and add the n steps taken to merge the resulting two lists). The closed form follows from the master theorem for divide-and-conquer recurrences. The number of comparisons made by merge sort in the worst case is given by the sorting numbers. | Merge sort | 0.832941 |
2,805 | Applications of manifold alignment include: Cross-language information retrieval / automatic translationBy representing documents as vector of word counts, manifold alignment can recover the mapping between documents of different languages. Cross-language document correspondence is relatively easy to obtain, especially from multi-lingual organizations like the European Union. Transfer learning of policy and state representations for reinforcement learning Alignment of protein NMR structures Accelerating model learning in robotics by sharing data generated by other robots | Manifold alignment | 0.832933 |
2,806 | Manifold alignment is a class of machine learning algorithms that produce projections between sets of data, given that the original data sets lie on a common manifold. The concept was first introduced as such by Ham, Lee, and Saul in 2003, adding a manifold constraint to the general problem of correlating sets of high-dimensional vectors. | Manifold alignment | 0.832933 |
2,807 | This is usually encoded as the heat kernel of the adjacency matrix of a k-nearest neighbor graph. Finally, introduce a coefficient 0 ≤ μ ≤ 1 {\displaystyle 0\leq \mu \leq 1} , which can be tuned to adjust the weight of the 'preserve manifold structure' goal, versus the 'minimize corresponding point distances' goal. With these definitions in place, the loss function for manifold alignment can be written: arg min ϕ X , ϕ Y μ ∑ i , j ‖ ϕ X ( X i ) − ϕ X ( X j ) ‖ 2 S X , i , j + μ ∑ i , j ‖ ϕ Y ( Y i ) − ϕ Y ( Y j ) ‖ 2 S Y , i , j + ( 1 − μ ) ∑ i , j ‖ ϕ X ( X i ) − ϕ Y ( Y j ) ‖ 2 W i , j {\displaystyle \arg \min _{\phi _{X},\phi _{Y}}\mu \sum _{i,j}\left\Vert \phi _{X}\left(X_{i}\right)-\phi _{X}\left(X_{j}\right)\right\Vert ^{2}S_{X,i,j}+\mu \sum _{i,j}\left\Vert \phi _{Y}\left(Y_{i}\right)-\phi _{Y}\left(Y_{j}\right)\right\Vert ^{2}S_{Y,i,j}+\left(1-\mu \right)\sum _{i,j}\Vert \phi _{X}\left(X_{i}\right)-\phi _{Y}\left(Y_{j}\right)\Vert ^{2}W_{i,j}} Solving this optimization problem is equivalent to solving a generalized eigenvalue problem using the graph laplacian of the joint matrix, G: G = {\displaystyle G=\left} | Manifold alignment | 0.832933 |
2,808 | In mathematics, an n-group, or n-dimensional higher group, is a special kind of n-category that generalises the concept of group to higher-dimensional algebra. Here, n {\displaystyle n} may be any natural number or infinity. The thesis of Alexander Grothendieck's student Hoàng Xuân Sính was an in-depth study of 2-groups under the moniker 'gr-category'. The general definition of n {\displaystyle n} -group is a matter of ongoing research. However, it is expected that every topological space will have a homotopy n {\displaystyle n} -group at every point, which will encapsulate the Postnikov tower of the space up to the homotopy group π n {\displaystyle \pi _{n}} , or the entire Postnikov tower for n = ∞ {\displaystyle n=\infty } . | Higher group | 0.832914 |
2,809 | Additionally, some prokaryotes can use arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor during anaerobic growth and some can utilize arsenite as an electron donor to generate energy. It has been speculated that the earliest life forms on Earth may have used arsenic biochemistry in place of phosphorus in the structure of their DNA. A common objection to this scenario is that arsenate esters are so much less stable to hydrolysis than corresponding phosphate esters that arsenic is poorly suited for this function.The authors of a 2010 geomicrobiology study, supported in part by NASA, have postulated that a bacterium, named GFAJ-1, collected in the sediments of Mono Lake in eastern California, can employ such 'arsenic DNA' when cultured without phosphorus. | Alternative biochemistry | 0.832901 |
2,810 | Arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, while poisonous for most life forms on Earth, is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Some marine algae incorporate arsenic into complex organic molecules such as arsenosugars and arsenobetaines. Fungi and bacteria can produce volatile methylated arsenic compounds. Arsenate reduction and arsenite oxidation have been observed in microbes (Chrysiogenes arsenatis). | Alternative biochemistry | 0.832901 |
2,811 | Direct evidence of this is an experimental procedure in molecular biology known as alanine scanning. A hypothetical "Proline World" would create a possible alternative life with the genetic code based on the proline chemical scaffold as the protein backbone. Similarly, a "Glycine World" and "Ornithine World" are also conceivable, but nature has chosen none of them. Evolution of life with Proline, Glycine, or Ornithine as the basic structure for protein-like polymers (foldamers) would lead to parallel biological worlds. They would have morphologically radically different body plans and genetics from the living organisms of the known biosphere. | Alternative biochemistry | 0.832901 |
2,812 | Hydrogen fluoride (HF), like water, is a polar molecule, and due to its polarity it can dissolve many ionic compounds. At atmospheric pressure, its melting point is 189.15 K (−84.00 °C), and its boiling point is 292.69 K (19.54 °C); the difference between the two is a little more than 100 K. HF also makes hydrogen bonds with its neighbor molecules, as do water and ammonia. It has been considered as a possible solvent for life by scientists such as Peter Sneath and Carl Sagan.HF is dangerous to the systems of molecules that Earth-life is made of, but certain other organic compounds, such as paraffin waxes, are stable with it. Like water and ammonia, liquid hydrogen fluoride supports an acid–base chemistry. Using a solvent system definition of acidity and basicity, nitric acid functions as a base when it is added to liquid HF.However, hydrogen fluoride is cosmically rare, unlike water, ammonia, and methane. | Alternative biochemistry | 0.832901 |
2,813 | Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. V. Axel Firsoff (1910–1981), British astronomer. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. | Alternative biochemistry | 0.832901 |
2,814 | In 1968, Levy and artificial intelligence (AI) pioneer John McCarthy were at a party hosted by Donald Michie. McCarthy invited Levy to play a game of chess which Levy won. McCarthy responded that 'you might be able to beat me, but within 10 years there will be a computer program that can beat you.' | Computer chess bet | 0.832896 |
2,815 | On 28 June 2011, David Levy and the International Computer Games Association (ICGA) concluded their investigation and determined that Vasik Rajlich in programming Rybka had plagiarised two other chess software programs: Crafty and Fruit. According to Levy and the ICGA, Vasik Rajlich failed to comply with the ICGA rule that each computer chess program must be the original work of the entering developer and that those "whose code is derived from or including game-playing code written by others must name all other authors, or the source of such code, in their submission details".In response to the suspension, Vasik Rajlich was interviewed by Rybka fan Nelson Hernandez, in which he responded to the ICGA's allegations in a statement and answered questions about the controversy and his opinions on it.In January 2012, ChessBase.com published an article by Dr. Søren Riis. Riis, a computer science professor at Queen Mary University of London, was critical of Levy's and the ICGA's decision, the investigation, the methods on which the investigation was based, and the panel members themselves. ICGA President David Levy and University of Sydney research fellow in mathematics Mark Watkins responded to Riis' publication with their own statements defending the ICGA panel and findings, respectively.In February 2012, ChessBase published a two-part interview with Levy in which he answered many questions about the ICGA's decision to ban Rybka. | Computer chess bet | 0.832896 |
2,816 | In mathematics education, Finite Mathematics is a syllabus in college and university mathematics that is independent of calculus. A course in precalculus may be a prerequisite for Finite Mathematics. Contents of the course include an eclectic selection of topics often applied in social science and business, such as finite probability spaces, matrix multiplication, Markov processes, finite graphs, or mathematical models. | Finite mathematics | 0.832885 |
2,817 | Physical Biology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by IOP Publishing covering a range of fields that bridge the biological and physical sciences, including biophysics, systems biology, population dynamics, etc. The editor-in-chief is Greg Huber (Chan-Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco). The journal is indexed in ISI Web of Science/Science Citation Index, PubMed, MEDLINE, Inspec, Scopus, BIOSIS Previews/Biological Abstracts, EMBASE, EMBiology, and Current Awareness in Biological Sciences. | Physical Biology | 0.832878 |
2,818 | In computer science, a binary decision diagram (BDD) or branching program is a data structure that is used to represent a Boolean function. On a more abstract level, BDDs can be considered as a compressed representation of sets or relations. Unlike other compressed representations, operations are performed directly on the compressed representation, i.e. without decompression. Similar data structures include negation normal form (NNF), Zhegalkin polynomials, and propositional directed acyclic graphs (PDAG). | Binary decision diagram | 0.832853 |
2,819 | The notion of a BDD is now generally used to refer to that particular data structure. In his video lecture Fun With Binary Decision Diagrams (BDDs), Donald Knuth calls BDDs "one of the only really fundamental data structures that came out in the last twenty-five years" and mentions that Bryant's 1986 paper was for some time one of the most-cited papers in computer science. Adnan Darwiche and his collaborators have shown that BDDs are one of several normal forms for Boolean functions, each induced by a different combination of requirements. Another important normal form identified by Darwiche is decomposable negation normal form or DNNF. | Binary decision diagram | 0.832853 |
2,820 | The results of crossover experiments are often straightforward to analyze, making them one of the most useful and most frequently applied methods of mechanistic study. In organic chemistry, crossover experiments are most often used to distinguish between intramolecular and intermolecular reactions.Inorganic and organometallic chemists rely heavily on crossover experiments, and in particular isotopic labeling experiments, for support or contradiction of proposed mechanisms. When the mechanism being investigated is more complicated than an intra- or intermolecular substitution or rearrangement, crossover experiment design can itself become a challenging question. A well-designed crossover experiment can lead to conclusions about a mechanism that would otherwise be impossible to make. Many mechanistic studies include both crossover experiments and measurements of rate and kinetic isotope effects. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,821 | In chemistry, a crossover experiment is a method used to study the mechanism of a chemical reaction. In a crossover experiment, two similar but distinguishable reactants simultaneously undergo a reaction as part of the same reaction mixture. The products formed will either correspond directly to one of the two reactants (non-crossover products) or will include components of both reactants (crossover products). The aim of a crossover experiment is to determine whether or not a reaction process involves a stage where the components of each reactant have an opportunity to exchange with each other. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,822 | Mechanisms in inorganic and organometallic chemistry are often complicated and difficult to determine experimentally. Catalytic mechanisms are particularly challenging to study in cases where no metal complex at all aside from the pre-catalyst can be isolated. In the 2013 themed issue of Dalton Transactions entitled “Mechanistic Organometallic Chemistry,” guest editor Robert H. Crabtree recounts a story in which at the midpoint of 20th century the founder of metal carbonyl hydride chemistry referred to organometallic mechanisms as “chemical philosophy.” The themed issue goes on to present seventeen examples of modern mechanistic studies of organometallic reactions. In many cases, crossover experiments, isotope scrambling experiments, kinetic isotope effects, and computational studies are used in conjunction to clarify even a few aspects of an organometallic mechanism. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,823 | The mechanisms of enzyme-catalyzed reactions can also be studied using crossover experiments. Examples of the application of this technique in biochemistry include the study of reactions catalyzed by nucleoside diphosphohexose-4,6-dehydratases, the aconitase-catalyzed elimination of water from citrate, and various reactions catalyzed by coenzyme B12-dependent enzymes, among others. Unlike isotope labeling studies in organic and organometallic chemistry, which typically use deuterium when an isotope of hydrogen is desired, biochemical crossover experiments frequently employ tritium. This is due to the fact that tritium is radioactive and can be tracked using the autoradiographs of gels in gel electrophoresis. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,824 | The fact that this reaction proceeds via in inter- rather than intramolecular mechanism lead to the conclusion that there are certain restrictions on the geometry of nucleophilic attack in SN2 reactions. The stereoelectrionic restrictions were rationalized in the set of Baldwin's Rules. This concept has been further explored in many subsequent endocyclic restriction tests. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,825 | Crossover experiments allow for experimental study of a reaction mechanism. Mechanistic studies are of interest to theoretical and experimental chemists for a variety of reasons including prediction of stereochemical outcomes, optimization of reaction conditions for rate and selectivity, and design of improved catalysts for better turnover number, robustness, etc. Since a mechanism cannot be directly observed or determined solely based on the reactants or products, mechanisms are challenging to study experimentally. Only a handful of experimental methods are capable of providing information about the mechanism of a reaction, including crossover experiments, studies of the kinetic isotope effect, and rate variations by substituent. The crossover experiment has the advantage of being conceptually straightforward and relatively easy to design, carry out, and interpret. In modern mechanistic studies, crossover experiments and KIE studies are commonly used in conjunction with computational methods. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,826 | One of the first pieces of experimental evidence for the existence of the solvent cage was the observation of the solvent cage effect on a crossover experiment. Since radical recombinations occur on very short timescales compared to non-radical reactions, the solvent cage effect is particularly relevant to radical chemistry. | Crossover experiment (chemistry) | 0.832842 |
2,827 | The uniquely defined dimension of every connected topological manifold can be calculated. A connected topological manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean n-space, in which the number n is the manifold's dimension. For connected differentiable manifolds, the dimension is also the dimension of the tangent vector space at any point. In geometric topology, the theory of manifolds is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the high-dimensional cases n > 4 are simplified by having extra space in which to "work"; and the cases n = 3 and 4 are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the Poincaré conjecture, in which four different proof methods are applied. | Higher-dimensional space | 0.832835 |
2,828 | An algebraic set being a finite union of algebraic varieties, its dimension is the maximum of the dimensions of its components. It is equal to the maximal length of the chains V 0 ⊊ V 1 ⊊ ⋯ ⊊ V d {\displaystyle V_{0}\subsetneq V_{1}\subsetneq \cdots \subsetneq V_{d}} of sub-varieties of the given algebraic set (the length of such a chain is the number of " ⊊ {\displaystyle \subsetneq } "). Each variety can be considered as an algebraic stack, and its dimension as variety agrees with its dimension as stack. There are however many stacks which do not correspond to varieties, and some of these have negative dimension. Specifically, if V is a variety of dimension m and G is an algebraic group of dimension n acting on V, then the quotient stack has dimension m − n. | Higher-dimensional space | 0.832835 |
2,829 | The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. The most intuitive way is probably the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety. Another intuitive way is to define the dimension as the number of hyperplanes that are needed in order to have an intersection with the variety that is reduced to a finite number of points (dimension zero). This definition is based on the fact that the intersection of a variety with a hyperplane reduces the dimension by one unless if the hyperplane contains the variety. | Higher-dimensional space | 0.832835 |
2,830 | The dimension of a manifold depends on the base field with respect to which Euclidean space is defined. While analysis usually assumes a manifold to be over the real numbers, it is sometimes useful in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties to work over the complex numbers instead. A complex number (x + iy) has a real part x and an imaginary part y, in which x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real dimension. Conversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension. | Higher-dimensional space | 0.832835 |
2,831 | Subjectivists, also known as Bayesians or followers of epistemic probability, give the notion of probability a subjective status by regarding it as a measure of the 'degree of belief' of the individual assessing the uncertainty of a particular situation. Epistemic or subjective probability is sometimes called credence, as opposed to the term chance for a propensity probability. Some examples of epistemic probability are to assign a probability to the proposition that a proposed law of physics is true or to determine how probable it is that a suspect committed a crime, based on the evidence presented. The use of Bayesian probability raises the philosophical debate as to whether it can contribute valid justifications of belief. | Interpretation of probability | 0.832821 |
2,832 | The mathematics of probability can be developed on an entirely axiomatic basis that is independent of any interpretation: see the articles on probability theory and probability axioms for a detailed treatment. | Interpretation of probability | 0.832821 |
2,833 | This law allows that stable long-run frequencies are a manifestation of invariant single-case probabilities. In addition to explaining the emergence of stable relative frequencies, the idea of propensity is motivated by the desire to make sense of single-case probability attributions in quantum mechanics, such as the probability of decay of a particular atom at a particular time. The main challenge facing propensity theories is to say exactly what propensity means. | Interpretation of probability | 0.832821 |
2,834 | Spatial verification is a technique in which similar locations can be identified in an automated way through a sequence of images. The general method involves identifying a correlation between certain points among sets images, using techniques similar to those used for image registration. The main problem is that outliers (that does not fit or does not match the selected model) affect adjustment called least squares (numerical analysis technique framed in mathematical optimization, which, given an set of ordered pairs: independent variable, dependent variable, and a family of functions, try to find the continuous function). | Spatial verification | 0.832815 |
2,835 | For example, the circle given by the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1} has degree 2. The non-singular plane algebraic curves of degree 2 are called conic sections, and their projective completion are all isomorphic to the projective completion of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=1} (that is the projective curve of equation x 2 + y 2 − z 2 = 0 {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=0} ). The plane curves of degree 3 are called cubic plane curves and, if they are non-singular, elliptic curves. Those of degree 4 are called quartic plane curves. | Plane curve | 0.832812 |
2,836 | An algebraic plane curve is a curve in an affine or projective plane given by one polynomial equation f ( x , y ) = 0 {\displaystyle f(x,y)=0} (or F ( x , y , z ) = 0 , {\displaystyle F(x,y,z)=0,} where F is a homogeneous polynomial, in the projective case.) Algebraic curves have been studied extensively since the 18th century. Every algebraic plane curve has a degree, the degree of the defining equation, which is equal, in case of an algebraically closed field, to the number of intersections of the curve with a line in general position. | Plane curve | 0.832812 |
2,837 | Numerous examples of plane curves are shown in Gallery of curves and listed at List of curves. The algebraic curves of degree 1 or 2 are shown here (an algebraic curve of degree less than 3 is always contained in a plane): | Plane curve | 0.832812 |
2,838 | In mathematics, a plane curve is a curve in a plane that may be either a Euclidean plane, an affine plane or a projective plane. The most frequently studied cases are smooth plane curves (including piecewise smooth plane curves), and algebraic plane curves. Plane curves also include the Jordan curves (curves that enclose a region of the plane but need not be smooth) and the graphs of continuous functions. | Plane curve | 0.832812 |
2,839 | When the cell has low turgor pressure, it is flaccid. In plants, this is shown as wilted anatomical structures. This is more specifically known as plasmolysis.The volume and geometry of the cell affects the value of turgor pressure and how it can affect the cell wall's plasticity. Studies have shown that smaller cells experience a stronger elastic change when compared to larger cells.Turgor pressure also plays a key role in plant cell growth when the cell wall undergoes irreversible expansion due to the force of turgor pressure as well as structural changes in the cell wall that alter its extensibility. | Turgor Pressure | 0.832799 |
2,840 | Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics, or economics employ a style which does not fall into any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the Maths Challenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state a mathematical problem or exercise that requires a student to write a freehand response. Marks are given more for the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answers from previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correct method was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned. Higher-level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where the candidate is given a statement and asked to verify its validity by direct proof or stating a counterexample. | Aptitude test | 0.832792 |
2,841 | In physics, tension or traction is described as the pulling force transmitted axially by the means of a string, a rope, chain, or similar object, or by each end of a rod, truss member, or similar three-dimensional object; tension might also be described as the action-reaction pair of forces acting at each end of said elements. Tension could be the opposite of compression. At the atomic level, when atoms or molecules are pulled apart from each other and gain potential energy with a restoring force still existing, the restoring force might create what is also called tension. Each end of a string or rod under such tension could pull on the object it is attached to, in order to restore the string/rod to its relaxed length. | Tensile force | 0.83276 |
2,842 | The Green–Tao theorem, proved by Ben Green and Terence Tao in 2004, states that the sequence of prime numbers contains arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions. In other words, there exist arithmetic progressions of primes, with k terms, where k can be any natural number. The proof is an extension of Szemerédi's theorem. In 2006, Terence Tao and Tamar Ziegler extended the result to cover polynomial progressions. More precisely, given any integer-valued polynomials P1,..., Pk in one unknown m all with constant term 0, there are infinitely many integers x, m such that x + P1(m), ..., x + Pk(m) are simultaneously prime. The special case when the polynomials are m, 2m, ..., km implies the previous result that there are length k arithmetic progressions of primes. | Arithmetic combinatorics | 0.832742 |
2,843 | In mathematics, arithmetic combinatorics is a field in the intersection of number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory and harmonic analysis. | Arithmetic combinatorics | 0.832742 |
2,844 | A precise understanding of the Fermi level—how it relates to electronic band structure in determining electronic properties; how it relates to the voltage and flow of charge in an electronic circuit—is essential to an understanding of solid-state physics. In band structure theory, used in solid state physics to analyze the energy levels in a solid, the Fermi level can be considered to be a hypothetical energy level of an electron, such that at thermodynamic equilibrium this energy level would have a 50% probability of being occupied at any given time. The position of the Fermi level in relation to the band energy levels is a crucial factor in determining electrical properties. The Fermi level does not necessarily correspond to an actual energy level (in an insulator the Fermi level lies in the band gap), nor does it require the existence of a band structure. Nonetheless, the Fermi level is a precisely defined thermodynamic quantity, and differences in Fermi level can be measured simply with a voltmeter. | Fermi levels | 0.832741 |
2,845 | This also results in the translocation of the amino terminus of the protein into the ER membrane lumen. This translocation, which has been demonstrated with opsin with in vitro experiments, breaks the usual pattern of "co-translational" translocation which has always held for mammalian proteins targeted to the ER. A great deal of the mechanics of transmembrane topology and folding remains to be elucidated. | Protein translocation | 0.832734 |
2,846 | For example, Cambridge Antibody Technology was a biotechnology company founded by Sir Greg Winter in 1989 that was bought for £702 million in 2006 by AstraZeneca. Another successful project that was started at CPE and maintained there until 2010 was the Structural Classification of Proteins database (or SCOP). Over the years SCOP has supported the development of computational tools and contributed to the understanding of protein repertoire, of how proteins relate to each other and how their structures and functions evolved. The MRC Centre for Protein Engineering closed its doors at the end of September 2010, following the retirement of its director, Sir Alan Fersht. Nearly all of the CPE staff, including those maintaining the Structural Classification of Proteins database, and its infrastructure were incorporated into the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB). | Centre for Protein Engineering | 0.832699 |
2,847 | The MRC Centre for Protein Engineering (or CPE) was a pioneering research unit in Cambridge, England, with a main focus on the structure, stability and activity of proteins and engineering of antibodies. Centre for Protein Engineering was established in 1990 as one of the MRC's first interdisciplinary research centres and one of the first research laboratories to bring together molecular biology, molecular genetics, biophysics and structural biology into one cohesive unit. It was formed around the research of two prominent scientists who invented protein engineering, Sir Alan Fersht and Sir Greg Winter. Sir Alan Fersht was Director of the MRC CPE from 1990 to 2010, with Greg Winter as Deputy Director. | Centre for Protein Engineering | 0.832699 |
2,848 | Virus quantification is counting or calculating the number of virus particles (virions) in a sample to determine the virus concentration. It is used in both research and development (R&D) in academic and commercial laboratories as well as in production situations where the quantity of virus at various steps is an important variable that must be monitored. For example, the production of virus-based vaccines, recombinant proteins using viral vectors, and viral antigens all require virus quantification to continually monitor and/or modify the process in order to optimize product quality and production yields and to respond to ever changing demands and applications. Other examples of specific instances where viruses need to be quantified include clone screening, multiplicity of infection (MOI) optimization, and adaptation of methods to cell culture. | Virus Quantification | 0.832696 |
2,849 | Quantitative PCR utilizes polymerase chain reaction chemistry to amplify viral DNA or RNA to produce high enough concentrations for detection and quantification by fluorescence. In general, quantification by qPCR relies on serial dilutions of standards of known concentration being analyzed in parallel with the unknown samples for calibration and reference. Quantitative detection can be achieved using a wide variety of fluorescence detection strategies, including sequence specific probes or non-specific fluorescent dyes such as SYBR Green. Sequence-specific probes, such as TaqMan Molecular Beacons, or Scorpion, bind only to the DNA of the appropriate sequence produced during the reaction. | Virus Quantification | 0.832696 |
2,850 | Walter Goad of the Theoretical Biology and Biophysics Group at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) and others established the Los Alamos Sequence Database in 1979, which culminated in 1982 with the creation of the public GenBank. Funding was provided by the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and the Department of Defense. LANL collaborated on GenBank with the firm Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, and by the end of 1983 more than 2,000 sequences were stored in it. | NCBI GenBank | 0.83269 |
2,851 | The GenBank sequence database is an open access, annotated collection of all publicly available nucleotide sequences and their protein translations. It is produced and maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI; a part of the National Institutes of Health in the United States) as part of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (INSDC). GenBank and its collaborators receive sequences produced in laboratories throughout the world from more than 500,000 formally described species. | NCBI GenBank | 0.83269 |
2,852 | In the mid 1980s, the Intelligenetics bioinformatics company at Stanford University managed the GenBank project in collaboration with LANL. As one of the earliest bioinformatics community projects on the Internet, the GenBank project started BIOSCI/Bionet news groups for promoting open access communications among bioscientists. During 1989 to 1992, the GenBank project transitioned to the newly created National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). | NCBI GenBank | 0.83269 |
2,853 | In mathematics, physics, and engineering, the first axis is usually defined or depicted as horizontal and oriented to the right, and the second axis is vertical and oriented upwards. (However, in some computer graphics contexts, the ordinate axis may be oriented downwards.) The origin is often labeled O, and the two coordinates are often denoted by the letters X and Y, or x and y. The axes may then be referred to as the X-axis and Y-axis. | Rectangular coordinates | 0.832681 |
2,854 | All laws of physics and math assume this right-handedness, which ensures consistency. For 3D diagrams, the names "abscissa" and "ordinate" are rarely used for x and y, respectively. When they are, the z-coordinate is sometimes called the applicate. The words abscissa, ordinate and applicate are sometimes used to refer to coordinate axes rather than the coordinate values. | Rectangular coordinates | 0.832681 |
2,855 | The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in (10, 5) or (3, 5, 7). The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters (x, y) in the plane, and (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space. This custom comes from a convention of algebra, which uses letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities. These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering, although other letters may be used. | Rectangular coordinates | 0.832681 |
2,856 | Natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are still extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially. Examples include most sugars, some alkaloids and terpenoids, certain nutrients such as vitamin B12, and, in general, those natural products with large or stereoisometrically complicated molecules present in reasonable concentrations in living organisms. Further compounds of prime importance in biochemistry are antigens, carbohydrates, enzymes, hormones, lipids and fatty acids, neurotransmitters, nucleic acids, proteins, peptides and amino acids, lectins, vitamins, and fats and oils. | Organic molecule | 0.832672 |
2,857 | This analogy extends to the proof methods and motivates the denomination of differential Galois theory. Similarly to the algebraic case, the theory allows deciding which equations may be solved by quadrature, and if possible solving them. However, for both theories, the necessary computations are extremely difficult, even with the most powerful computers. Nevertheless, the case of order two with rational coefficients has been completely solved by Kovacic's algorithm. | Solution of a differential equation | 0.83266 |
2,858 | A linear ordinary equation of order one with variable coefficients may be solved by quadrature, which means that the solutions may be expressed in terms of integrals. This is not the case for order at least two. This is the main result of Picard–Vessiot theory which was initiated by Émile Picard and Ernest Vessiot, and whose recent developments are called differential Galois theory. The impossibility of solving by quadrature can be compared with the Abel–Ruffini theorem, which states that an algebraic equation of degree at least five cannot, in general, be solved by radicals. | Solution of a differential equation | 0.83266 |
2,859 | The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G {\displaystyle G} can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when G has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations. | Commutative group | 0.832651 |
2,860 | The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in Lecture Notes in Mathematics for more recent findings. | Commutative group | 0.832651 |
2,861 | Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups. The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category Ab {\displaystyle {\textbf {Ab}}} , the prototype of an abelian category. Wanda Szmielew (1955) proved that the first-order theory of abelian groups, unlike its non-abelian counterpart, is decidable. Most algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable. | Commutative group | 0.832651 |
2,862 | A bioinformatics analysis of prokaryotic LCRs identified 5 types of amino acid enrichment, for certain functional categories of LCRs: Proteins with GO terms related to polysaccharide binding and processing were enriched for serine and threonine in their LCRs. Proteins with GO terms related to RNA binding and processing were enriched for arginine in their LCRs. Proteins with GO terms related to DNA binding and processing were especially enriched for lysine, but also for glycine, tyrosine, phenylalanine and glutamine in their LCRs. Proteins with GO terms related to metal binding and more specifically to cobalt or nickel-binding were enriched mostly for histidine but also for aspartate in their LCRs. Proteins with GO terms related to protein folding were enriched for glycine, methionine and phenylalanine in their LCRs.Based on the above observations and analyses, a Neural Network webserver named LCR-hound has been developed to predict LCRs and their function. | Low complexity regions in proteins | 0.83263 |
2,863 | Low complexity regions in proteins can be computationally detected from sequence using various methods and definitions, as reviewed in. Among the most popular methodologies to identify LCRs is by measuring their Shannon entropy. The lower the value of the calculated entropy, the more homogeneous the region is in terms of amino acid content. In addition, a Neural Network webserver, LCR-hound has been developed to predict the function of an LCR, based on its amino acid or di-amino acid content. == References == | Low complexity regions in proteins | 0.83263 |
2,864 | LCRs were originally thought as ‘junk’ regions or as neutral linkers between domains; however, experimental and computational evidence increasingly indicates that they may play important adaptive and conserved roles, relevant to biotechnology, heterologous protein expression, medicine, as well as to our understanding of protein evolution.LCRs of eukaryotic proteins have been involved in human diseases, especially neurodegenerative ones, where they tend to form amyloids in humans and other eukaryotes.They have been reported to have adhesive roles, function in excreted sticky proteins used for prey capture, or have roles as transducers of molecular movement, e.g. in the prokaryotic TonB/TolA systems.LCRs may form surfaces for interaction with phospholipid bilayers, or as positive charge clusters for DNA binding, or as negative or even histidine-acidic charge clusters for coordinating calcium, magnesium or zinc ions.They may also play important roles in protein translation, as tRNA ‘sponges’, slowing down translation in order to allow time for the correct folding of the nascent polypeptide chain. They may even function as frame-shift checkpoints, by shifting to an unusual amino acid content that makes the protein highly unstable or insoluble, which in turn triggers fast recycling, before any further cellular damage.Analyses on model and non-model eukaryotic proteomes have revealed that LCRs are frequently found in proteins involved in binding of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA), in transcription, receptor activity, development, reproduction and immunity whereas metabolic proteins are depleted of LCRs. A bioinformatics study of the Uniprot annotation of LCR containing proteins observed that 44% (9751/22259) of Bacterial and 44% (662/1521) of Archaeal LCRs are detected in proteins of unknown function, however, a significant number of proteins of known function (from many different species), especially those involved in translation and the ribosome, nucleic acid binding, metal-ion binding, and protein folding were also found to contain LCRs. | Low complexity regions in proteins | 0.832629 |
2,865 | The Electronic Communications in Probability is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal published by the Institute of Mathematical Statistics and the Bernoulli Society. The editor-in-chief is Siva Athreya (Indian Statistical Institute). It contains short articles covering probability theory, whereas its sister journal, the Electronic Journal of Probability, publishes full-length papers and shares the same editorial board, but with a different editor-in-chief. | Electronic Communications in Probability | 0.832601 |
2,866 | Quantum mechanics describes the nature of atomic and subatomic systems using Schrödinger's wave equation. The classical limit of quantum mechanics and many formulations of quantum scattering use wave packets formed from various solutions to this equation. Quantum wave packet profiles change while propagating; they show dispersion. Physicists have concluded that "wave packets would not do as representations of subatomic particles". : 829 | Probability wave | 0.832589 |
2,867 | This can affect the composition of the community and its fitness. Root exudates come in the form of chemicals released into the rhizosphere by cells in the roots and cell waste referred to as "rhizodeposition." This rhizodeposition comes in various forms of organic carbon and nitrogen that provide for the communities around plant roots and dramatically affect the chemistry surrounding the roots. | Rhizosphere | 0.832581 |
2,868 | Educational quality in China suffers because a typical classroom contains 50 to 70 students. With over 200 million students, China has the largest educational system in the world. However, only 20% percent of students complete the rigorous ten-year program of formal schooling.As in many other countries, the science curriculum includes sequenced courses in physics, chemistry, and biology. Science education is given high priority and is driven by textbooks composed by committees of scientists and teachers. Science education in China places great emphasis on memorization, and gives far less attention to problem solving, application of principles to novel situations, interpretations, and predictions. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,869 | Science is a universal subject that spans the branch of knowledge that examines the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. Science education is most commonly broken down into the following three fields: Biology, chemistry, and physics. Additionally there is a large body of scientific literature that advocates the inclusion of teaching the Nature of Science, which is slowly being adopted into the national curricula. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,870 | In Scotland the subjects split into chemistry, physics and biology at the age of 13–15 for National 4/5s in these subjects, and there is also a combined science standard grade qualification which students can sit, provided their school offers it. In September 2006 a new science program of study known as 21st Century Science was introduced as a GCSE option in UK schools, designed to "give all 14 to 16-year-old's a worthwhile and inspiring experience of science". In November 2013, Ofsted's survey of science in schools revealed that practical science teaching was not considered important enough. At the majority of English schools, students have the opportunity to study a separate science program as part of their GCSEs, which results in them taking 6 papers at the end of Year 11; this usually fills one of their option 'blocks' and requires more science lessons than those who choose not to partake in separate science or are not invited. Other students who choose not to follow the compulsory additional science course, which results in them taking 4 papers resulting in 2 GCSEs, opposed to the 3 GCSEs given by taking separate science. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,871 | In English and Welsh schools, science is a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum. All pupils from 5 to 16 years of age must study science. It is generally taught as a single subject science until sixth form, then splits into subject-specific A levels (physics, chemistry and biology). However, the government has since expressed its desire that those pupils who achieve well at the age of 14 should be offered the opportunity to study the three separate sciences from September 2008. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,872 | The fact that many students do not take physics in high school makes it more difficult for those students to take scientific courses in college. At the university/college level, using appropriate technology-related projects to spark non-physics majors' interest in learning physics has been shown to be successful. This is a potential opportunity to forge the connection between physics and social benefit. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,873 | Physics education is characterized by the study of science that deals with matter and energy, and their interactions.Physics First, a program endorsed by the American Association of Physics Teachers, is a curriculum in which 9th grade students take an introductory physics course. The purpose is to enrich students' understanding of physics, and allow for more detail to be taught in subsequent high school biology and chemistry classes. It also aims to increase the number of students who go on to take 12th grade physics or AP Physics, which are generally elective courses in American high schools.Physics education in high schools in the United States has suffered the last twenty years because many states now only require three sciences, which can be satisfied by earth/physical science, chemistry, and biology. | Biology education | 0.832575 |
2,874 | The Genome Project - Write (also known as GP-Write) is a large-scale collaborative research project (an extension of Genome Projects, aimed at reading genomes since 1984) that focuses on the development of technologies for the synthesis and testing of genomes of many different species of microbes, plants, and animals, including the human genome in a sub-project known as Human Genome Project-Write (HGP-Write). Formally announced on 2 June 2016, the project leverages two decades of work on synthetic biology and artificial gene synthesis. The newly created GP-Write project will be managed by the Center of Excellence for Engineering Biology, an American nonprofit organization. Researchers expect that the ability to artificially synthesize large portions of many genomes will result in many scientific and medical advances. | Genome Project-Write | 0.832574 |
2,875 | Digital logic is the application of the Boolean algebra of 0 and 1 to electronic hardware consisting of logic gates connected to form a circuit diagram. Each gate implements a Boolean operation, and is depicted schematically by a shape indicating the operation. The shapes associated with the gates for conjunction (AND-gates), disjunction (OR-gates), and complement (inverters) are as follows. The lines on the left of each gate represent input wires or ports. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,876 | The basic operations of Boolean algebra are conjunction, disjunction, and negation. These Boolean operations are expressed with the corresponding binary operators (AND and OR ) and the unary operator (NOT ), collectively referred to as Boolean operators.The basic Boolean operations on variables x and y are defined as follows: Alternatively the values of x∧y, x∨y, and ¬x can be expressed by tabulating their values with truth tables as follows: If the truth values 0 and 1 are interpreted as integers, these operations may be expressed with the ordinary operations of arithmetic (where x + y uses addition and xy uses multiplication), or by the minimum/maximum functions: x ∧ y = x y = min ( x , y ) x ∨ y = x + y − x y = x + y ( 1 − x ) = max ( x , y ) ¬ x = 1 − x {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x\wedge y&=xy=\min(x,y)\\x\vee y&=x+y-xy=x+y(1-x)=\max(x,y)\\\neg x&=1-x\end{aligned}}} One might consider that only negation and one of the two other operations are basic, because of the following identities that allow one to define conjunction in terms of negation and the disjunction, and vice versa (De Morgan's laws): x ∧ y = ¬ ( ¬ x ∨ ¬ y ) x ∨ y = ¬ ( ¬ x ∧ ¬ y ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x\wedge y&=\neg (\neg x\vee \neg y)\\x\vee y&=\neg (\neg x\wedge \neg y)\end{aligned}}} | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,877 | This axiomatic definition of a Boolean algebra as a set and certain operations satisfying certain laws or axioms by fiat is entirely analogous to the abstract definitions of group, ring, field etc. characteristic of modern or abstract algebra. Given any complete axiomatization of Boolean algebra, such as the axioms for a complemented distributive lattice, a sufficient condition for an algebraic structure of this kind to satisfy all the Boolean laws is that it satisfy just those axioms. The following is therefore an equivalent definition. A Boolean algebra is a complemented distributive lattice.The section on axiomatization lists other axiomatizations, any of which can be made the basis of an equivalent definition. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,878 | This leads to the more general abstract definition. A Boolean algebra is any set with binary operations ∧ and ∨ and a unary operation ¬ thereon satisfying the Boolean laws.For the purposes of this definition it is irrelevant how the operations came to satisfy the laws, whether by fiat or proof. All concrete Boolean algebras satisfy the laws (by proof rather than fiat), whence every concrete Boolean algebra is a Boolean algebra according to our definitions. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,879 | The Boolean algebras we have seen so far have all been concrete, consisting of bit vectors or equivalently of subsets of some set. Such a Boolean algebra consists of a set and operations on that set which can be shown to satisfy the laws of Boolean algebra. Instead of showing that the Boolean laws are satisfied, we can instead postulate a set X, two binary operations on X, and one unary operation, and require that those operations satisfy the laws of Boolean algebra. The elements of X need not be bit vectors or subsets but can be anything at all. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,880 | Although the development of mathematical logic did not follow Boole's program, the connection between his algebra and logic was later put on firm ground in the setting of algebraic logic, which also studies the algebraic systems of many other logics. The problem of determining whether the variables of a given Boolean (propositional) formula can be assigned in such a way as to make the formula evaluate to true is called the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT), and is of importance to theoretical computer science, being the first problem shown to be NP-complete. The closely related model of computation known as a Boolean circuit relates time complexity (of an algorithm) to circuit complexity. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,881 | Thus, Boolean logic is sometimes used to denote propositional calculus performed in this way. Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture logic formulas using quantifiers, like those from first order logic. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,882 | Shannon already had at his disposal the abstract mathematical apparatus, thus he cast his switching algebra as the two-element Boolean algebra. In modern circuit engineering settings, there is little need to consider other Boolean algebras, thus "switching algebra" and "Boolean algebra" are often used interchangeably.Efficient implementation of Boolean functions is a fundamental problem in the design of combinational logic circuits. Modern electronic design automation tools for VLSI circuits often rely on an efficient representation of Boolean functions known as (reduced ordered) binary decision diagrams (BDD) for logic synthesis and formal verification.Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in Boolean algebra. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,883 | For example, the empirical observation that one can manipulate expressions in the algebra of sets, by translating them into expressions in Boole's algebra, is explained in modern terms by saying that the algebra of sets is a Boolean algebra (note the indefinite article). In fact, M. H. Stone proved in 1936 that every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets. In the 1930s, while studying switching circuits, Claude Shannon observed that one could also apply the rules of Boole's algebra in this setting, and he introduced switching algebra as a way to analyze and design circuits by algebraic means in terms of logic gates. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,884 | A precursor of Boolean algebra was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's algebra of concepts. The usage of binary in relation to the I Ching was central to Leibniz's characteristica universalis. It eventually created the foundations of algebra of concepts.Leibniz's algebra of concepts is deductively equivalent to the Boolean algebra of sets.Boole's algebra predated the modern developments in abstract algebra and mathematical logic; it is however seen as connected to the origins of both fields. In an abstract setting, Boolean algebra was perfected in the late 19th century by Jevons, Schröder, Huntington and others, until it reached the modern conception of an (abstract) mathematical structure. | Switching algebra | 0.832571 |
2,885 | These graduate degree programs may include classroom and fieldwork, research at a laboratory, and a dissertation. Although a degree in a medicine or biology (biochemistry, microbiology, zoology, biophysics) is common, recent research projects also need graduates in statistics, bioinformatics, physics and chemistry. Abilities preferred for entry in this field include: technical, scientific, numerical, written, and oral skills. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,886 | Unlike undergraduate and professional schools, there is no set time period for graduate education. Students graduate once a thesis project of significant scope to justify the writing of their dissertation has been completed, a point that is determined by the student's principal investigator as well as his or her faculty advisory committee. The average time to graduation can vary between institutions, but most programs average around 5–6 years.Biomedical scientists typically study in undergraduate majors that are focused on biological sciences, such as genetics, immunology, biochemistry, microbiology, zoology, biophysics, etc. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,887 | Biomedical science graduate programs are maintained at academic institutions and medical schools around the world, and some biomedical graduate programs are administered jointly by an academic institution and a business, hospital, or independent research institute. While graduate students historically committed to a particular research specialty, such as molecular biology, biochemistry, genetics, or developmental biology, the recent trend (particularly in the United States) is to offer interdisciplinary programs that do not specialize and instead aim to incorporate a broad education in multiple biological disciplines. Initially, graduate students usually rotate through the laboratories of several faculty researchers, after which the student commits to joining a particular laboratory for the remainder of his or her education. The remaining time is spent conducting original research under the direction of the principal investigator to complete and publish a dissertation. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,888 | The biomedical sciences are made up of the following disciplines; biochemistry, haematology, immunology, microbiology, histology, cytology, and transfusion services. These professions are regulated within the United Kingdom by the Health and Care Professions Council. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,889 | Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015 includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. "Biomedical scientist" is the protected title used by professionals qualified to work unsupervised within the pathology department of a hospital. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,890 | According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the 2010-2011 occupational outlook report suggests that biomedical scientist employment is expected "to increase 40 percent over the 2008-18 decade, much faster than the average for all occupations. "According to the 2010 BLS report, the median salaries for biomedical scientists in the United States in particular employment areas are: These figures include the salaries of post-doctoral fellows, which are paid significantly less than employees in more permanent positions. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,891 | A biomedical scientist is a scientist trained in biology, particularly in the context of medical laboratory sciences or laboratory medicine. These scientists work to gain knowledge on the main principles of how the human body works and to find new ways to cure or treat disease by developing advanced diagnostic tools or new therapeutic strategies. The research of biomedical scientists is referred to as biomedical research. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,892 | Industry jobs refer to private sector jobs at for-profit corporations. In the case of biomedical scientists, employment is usually at large pharmaceutical companies or biotechnology companies. Positions in industry tend to pay higher salaries than those at academic institutions, but job security compared to tenured academic faculty is significantly less. Researchers in industry tend to have less intellectual freedom in their research than those in the academic sector, owing to the ultimate goal of producing marketable products that benefit the company. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,893 | Biomedical scientists may also work directly with human tissue specimens to perform experiments as well as participate in clinical research. Biomedical scientists employ a variety of techniques in order to carry out laboratory experiments. These include: Molecular and biochemical techniques Electrophoresis and blotting Immunostaining Chromatography Mass spectrometry PCR and sequencing Microarrays Imaging technologies Light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy MRI PET X-ray Genetic engineering/modification Transfection Viral transduction Transgenic model organisms Electrophysiology techniques Patch clamp EEG, EKG, ERG In silico techniques Bioinformatics Computational biology | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,894 | Immunology: studies the immune system Microbiology: studies characteristics of microorganisms such as bacteria and their role in human health Neuroscience: studies on function and structure the nervous system, including the brain Oncology (a.k.a. cancer biology): studies the causes and characteristics of cancer Parasitology: studies parasites Pathology: studies the underlying causes and bodily effects of disease through examination of organs, tissues, and cells Pharmacology: studies effects of drugs on biological systems Physiology: studies how various body systems function at macroscopic, microscopic and molecular levels Virology: studies viruses and viral diseases Medicinal chemistry: studies compound for medicinal usage ToxicologyHowever, recent trends in biomedical graduate education (particularly in the United States) are for biomedical scientists to remain interdisciplinary and to not specialize. This approach emphasizes focus on a particular body or disease process as a whole and drawing upon the techniques of multiple specialties. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,895 | Biomedical scientists can focus on several areas of specialty, including: Biochemistry: studies the chemical composition of cells, and in serum/plasma, and the chemistry behind biological processes Molecular biology: studies the molecular makeup and processes of living organisms Biophysics: studies mechanical and electrical energy in living cells and tissues Cell biology: studies cell-level organization and processes Cytopathology: Studies cell obtained by different means from human and sometimes animal bodies, using microscope and recent technologies to evaluate morphology, molecular pathology changes by molecular diagnostics. Also cytopathology involves cancer screening such cervical, breast, colon and prostate cancers. Computational biology and Bioinformatics: uses computer modeling and data analysis to understand biological systems Developmental biology: studies the growth and development of organisms and focuses on diseases of abnormal development Epidemiology: studies the incidence and transmission of diseases in a population and population characteristics (behaviors, environment, etc.) that associate with diseases Genetics: studies DNA and genes of humans and animals, as well as diseases caused by abnormal or mutated DNA. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,896 | Biomedical Scientists along with scientists in other inter-related medical disciplines seek out to understand human anatomy, genetics, immunology, physiology and behaviour at all levels. This is sometimes achieved through the use of model systems that are homologous to various aspects of human biology. The research that is carried out either in Universities or Pharmaceutical companies by Biomedical Scientists has led to the development of new treatments for a wide range of degenerative and genetic disorders. Stem cell biology, cloning, genetic screening/therapies and other areas of biomedical science have all been generated by the work of Biomedical Scientists from around the world. | Biomedical scientist | 0.832565 |
2,897 | This hypothesis was at the basis of quantum mechanics. Nowadays, this wavelength is called the de Broglie wavelength. For example, the electrons in a CRT display have a De Broglie wavelength of about 10−13 m. To prevent the wave function for such a particle being spread over all space, de Broglie proposed using wave packets to represent particles that are localized in space. The spatial spread of the wave packet, and the spread of the wavenumbers of sinusoids that make up the packet, correspond to the uncertainties in the particle's position and momentum, the product of which is bounded by Heisenberg uncertainty principle. | Long Wavelength Limit | 0.832555 |
2,898 | Localized wave packets, "bursts" of wave action where each wave packet travels as a unit, find application in many fields of physics. A wave packet has an envelope that describes the overall amplitude of the wave; within the envelope, the distance between adjacent peaks or troughs is sometimes called a local wavelength. An example is shown in the figure. In general, the envelope of the wave packet moves at a speed different from the constituent waves.Using Fourier analysis, wave packets can be analyzed into infinite sums (or integrals) of sinusoidal waves of different wavenumbers or wavelengths.Louis de Broglie postulated that all particles with a specific value of momentum p have a wavelength λ = h/p, where h is Planck's constant. | Long Wavelength Limit | 0.832555 |
2,899 | A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device that measures the geometry of physical objects by sensing discrete points on the surface of the object with a probe. Various types of probes are used in CMMs, the most common being mechanical and laser sensors, though optical and white light sensor do exist. Depending on the machine, the probe position may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled. CMMs typically specify a probe's position in terms of its displacement from a reference position in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (i.e., with XYZ axes). In addition to moving the probe along the X, Y, and Z axes, many machines also allow the probe angle to be controlled to allow measurement of surfaces that would otherwise be unreachable. | Coordinate Measuring Machine | 0.832495 |
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