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six states in the southeastern U.S. Laurel wilt poses an imminent threat to commercial avocado production in south Florida, and a future threat to avocado in California, Mexico, Central and South America. Scientists at the USDA-ARS Subtropical Horticulture Research Station, in collaboration with the University of Florida, are conducting multidisciplinary research on the pest complex, including (1) evaluation of fungicides for laurel wilt, (2) |
screening for disease resistant avocado varieties, (3) determination of pathways for disease transmission, (4) identification of beetle attractants, repellents, and insecticides, and (5) assessment of host preferences. Information from these studies will be used by avocado growers and by state and federal action agencies engaged in monitoring programs for redbay ambrosia beetle. Laurel wilt kills members of the Lauraceae plant family, including avocado. The |
disease has invaded much of the southeastern USA, and threatens avocado commerce and homeowner production in Florida, valuable germplasm in Miami (USDA-ARS), and major production and germplasm in California and MesoAmerica. Laurel wilt is caused by a recently described fungus, Raffaelea lauricola, which is vectored by an invasive ambrosia beetle, Xyleborus glabratus. Current research topics include: disease management with fungicides; identifying host resistance; vector |
mitigation with insecticides and repellents; host ranges of, and interactions with, the pathogen and vector; and transmission of R. lauricola via avocado seed, scion material, root grafts and pruning tools. Although highly resistant avocado cultivars have not been identified, screening work continues on additional cultivars and new germplasm. Effective fungicides (e.g. triazoles) have been identified, but cost-effective disease management will depend on improved measures |
for xylem loading and retention of these chemicals. Insecticides have been identified that reduce boring activity of X. glabratus and its attraction to avocado and other hosts, but much remains to be learned about their impact on disease management. Although the disease’s host range is generally restricted to American members of the Lauraceae, nonhosts that attract the beetle are known. Raffaelela lauricola rapidly colonizes |
avocado after infection, but to low levels; tylose and gel induction in the host, rather than xylem obstruction by fungal biomass, are associated with impeded water transport and symptom development. Seed and fruit from laurel wilt-affected avocado trees do not appear to be infected by R. lauricola. |
From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia The fact-value distinction is a concept used to distinguish between arguments that can be claimed through reason alone and those in which rationality is limited to describing a collective opinion. In another formulation, it is the distinction between what is (can be discovered by science, philosophy or reason) and what ought to be |
(a judgment which can be agreed upon by consensus). The terms positive and normative represent another manner of expressing this, as do the terms descriptive and prescriptive, respectively. Positive statements make the implicit claim to facts (e.g. water molecules are made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom), whereas normative statements make a claim to values or to |
The Nature Elephant The Karen people have always lived naturally in the forest, and, for many generations have relied on elephants to help them. Because elephants are ideal for carrying heavy loads they are essential for transportation through rural areas, and, more recently, for carrying tourists. The Karen people simply |
would not survive without them. The Karen people have always used elephants to help carry them through dense parts of the jungle which would be difficult on foot, such as down steep hills to fetch water from the creek, or carrying heavy bags of rice from the fields to the |
barn. What is little effort for an elephant would be a huge amount of labour for humans. Because they are so important to the Karen people, elephants are their friends, and are treated with respect. To manage an elephant and gain its trust requires knowledge, love and understanding. This is |
why the Karen people look after their elephants so well, and only certain members of the Karen family are trained enough to do this. Some of them call elephant-care a kind of black magic, and this black magic is passed down through families. Part of the skill of caring for |
elephants is to ensure the elephant is listened to. Karen legend has it that if a female elephant is ignored, it is likely that her eggs will become infected, and therefore she will not be able to continue the elephant family. This serious consequence acts as a grave warning to |
those handling elephants. A sense of duty, honor and patience are as important to the elephant as they are to the Karen people as a whole. The legend of Chang Karen This is a story about how elephants became so important in the life of the Karen hill tribe. The |
legend goes that once upon a time, there were two brothers living in the forest. One day, their mother needed to leave home for a business, so instructed the two boys to look after the house, be good, and by no means split open the bamboo tree, as it contained |
many flies. Being the mischievous boys they were, as soon as their mother was out of sight, they crept up to the forbidden bamboo and cracked it open, curious to see what would happen. Immediately, the room was filled with flies, two of which flew up into each of the |
boys' noses. Panicking, the boys didn't know what to do. Soon, they felt their bodies changing. Their legs began to itch, and grow longer and wider. Their heads began to swell, until they felt the size and shape of footballs. Their noses grew longer and their bodies became heavier and |
more clumsy. When their mother returned home, she was shocked to see what had happened to her sons. She offered them cooked rice, but they turned it down with a slow shake of their large heads, their noses swinging from side to side. They were still growing, and were too |
ashamed of their bad behaviour to eat. The mother offered them water, but they did not want to drink it. Soon, when the sons had grown too big for the house, and could now only walk on four legs, they left the house to find grass. This was all they |
felt like eating. Very soon the word spread, and people came from all over the valley to see the mutated boys. Their tongues had become too big for them to speak, so the sons had stopped talking. As if to compensate, their ears grew large so they cold hear very, |
very well. They had become elephant-boys. One day, some workers came to see if the elephant-boys could help them carry heavy loads. They gave them wood and lead them to their workshops, and the elephant-boys were calm and obedient. The workers realised that what was a huge job for them, |
was little effort for these giant elephant boys. And life continued this way for many generations. This is the remarkable story of how elephants and humans came to work together in harmony, explaining how they can exist together in the forest. Elephants and the Karen Hill Tribe people Deep in |
the rich forests of northern Thailand, in the bowl of a green valley, lies the Karen hill tribe community. Making the most of their natural surroundings, this tribe has managed to forge an incredibly simple life in the forest using no modern machinery or medicine. They need only the trees, |
plants, animals, and are especially reliant on the mighty elephant. The Karen people have a strong bond with elephants: their self-sufficient lifestyles are surprisingly similar, and intertwining. Wild elephants play a very important role in the Karen way of life, as well as the relationships of valley inhabitants, and the |
Why Man U? AskMen / Getty Images "Gathering together at Old Trafford must have given these people something of the sense of community that they had previously known in their villages." Visiting Manchester the other day, I was driving down |
a nondescript road past dreary shops and offices when I saw the top of a sports stadium poking into the gray sky. It was Old Trafford. Team buses carrying soccer players from more glamorous cities such as Barcelona have been |
known to echo with cries of disgust as they pull in here. The home of Manchester United is rainy and underwhelming. The estimated 333 million humans who consider themselves United fans don’t all know that Manchester is a city in |
England, but many of those who do would probably be surprised to find just how mid-ranking a city it is. Yet when United’s American ruling family, the Glazers, sold club shares in August, United was valued at $2.3 billion. That |
made it the world’s most valuable sports franchise, ahead of Real Madrid and baseball’s New York Yankees, according to Forbes. In short, United is bigger than Manchester. So why on earth did this global behemoth arise precisely here? And how, |
in the last 134 years, has United shaped soccer, in England and now the world? When a soccer club was created just by the newish railway line in 1878, the Manchester location actually helped. The city was then growing like |
no other on earth. In 1800 it had been a tranquil little place of 84,000 inhabitants, so insignificant that as late as 1832 it didn’t have a member of parliament. The Industrial Revolution changed everything. Workers poured in from English |
villages, from Ireland, from feeble economies everywhere (my own great-grandparents arrived on the boat from Lithuania). By 1900, Manchester was Europe’s sixth-biggest city, with 1.25 million inhabitants. The club by the railway line was initially called Newton Heath, because the |
players worked at the Newton Heath carriage works of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company. They played in work clogs against other work teams. Jim White’s Manchester United: The Biography nicely describes the L&YR workers as “sucked in from all |
over the country to service the growing need for locomotives and carriages.” Life in Manchester then was neither fun nor healthy, White writes. In some neighborhoods, average male life expectancy was just 17. This was still the same brutal city |
where a few decades before, Karl Marx’s pal Friedrich Engels had run his father’s factory. The conditions of the industrial city were so awful it inspired communism. (My own great-grandparents lost two of their children to scarlet fever in Manchester |
before moving on to much healthier southern Africa.) Inevitably, most of these desperate early Mancunians were rootless migrants. Unmoored in their new home, many embraced the local soccer clubs. Gathering together at Old Trafford must have given these people something |
of the sense of community that they had previously known in their villages. That’s how the world’s first great industrial city engendered the world’s greatest soccer brand. Next Page >> |
The CIA, the NSA, the FBI and all other three-letter, intelligence-gathering, secret-keeping agencies mimic and are modeled after secret societies. They gather and filter information by compartmentalizing the organization in a pyramid-like hierarchical structure keeping everyone but the elite on a need-to-know basis. The CIA was born from the WWII |
intelligence arm, the OSS (Office of Strategic Services), and was funded into permanence by the Rockefeller and Carnegie Foundations, which donated $34 million 1945-48 alone. Nearly every person instrumental in the creation of the CIA was already a member of the CFR, including the Rockefellers and Dulles brothers. In 1945 |
when the CIA was still the OSS, they began Operation Paperclip which brought over 700 Nazi scientists directly into the forming CIA, NSA, and other high-level government organizations. Since it was illegal to even allow these Nazis into the US, let alone into top-secret government agencies, the CIA convinced the |
Vatican to issue American passports for these 700+ Nazi scientists under the pretense that it was to keep them out of the hands of the Russians. “After WWII ended in 1945, victorious Russian and American intelligence teams began a treasure hunt throughout occupied Germany for military and scientific booty. They |
were looking for things like new rocket and aircraft designs, medicines, and electronics. But they were also hunting down the most precious ‘spoils’ of all: the scientists whose work had nearly won the war for Germany. The engineers and intelligence officers of the Nazi War Machine. Following the discovery of |
flying discs (foo-fighters), particle/laser beam weaponry in German military bases, the War Department decided that NASA and the CIA must control this technology, and the Nazi engineers that had worked on this technology. There was only one problem: it was illegal. U.S. law explicitly prohibited Nazi officials from immigrating to |
America--and as many as three-quarters of the scientists in question had been committed Nazis.” -Operation Paperclip Casefile: New World Order and Nazi Germany Hundreds of Nazi mind-control specialists and doctors who performed horrific experiments on prisoners instantly had their atrocious German histories erased and were promoted into high-level American jobs. |
Kurt Blome, for instance, was a high-ranking Nazi scientist who experimented with plague vaccines on concentration camp prisoners. He was hired by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps to work on chemical warfare projects. Major General Walter Schreiber was a head doctor during Nazi concentration camp prisoner experiments in which they |
starved, and otherwise tortured the inmates. He was hired by the Air Force School of Medicine in Texas. Werner Von Braun was technical director of the Nazi Peenemunde Rocket Research Center, where the Germans developed the V2 rocket. He was hired by the U.S. Army to develop guided missiles and |
then made the first director of NASA! “Military Intelligence ‘cleansed’ the files of Nazi references. By 1955, more than 760 German scientists had been granted citizenship in the U.S. and given prominent positions in the American scientific community. Many had been longtime members of the Nazi party and the Gestapo, |
had conducted experiments on humans at concentration camps, had used slave labor, and had committed other war crimes. In a 1985 expose in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Linda Hunt wrote that she had examined more than 130 reports on Project Paperclip subjects - and every one ‘had been |
changed to eliminate the security threat classification.’ A good example of how these dossiers were changed is the case of Werner von Braun. A September 18, 1947, report on the German rocket scientist stated, ‘Subject is regarded as a potential security threat by the Military Governor.’ The following February, a |
new security evaluation of Von Braun said, ‘No derogatory information is available on the subject … It is the opinion of the Military Governor that he may not constitute a security threat to the United States.’” -Operation Paperclip Casefile: New World Order and Nazi Germany Shortly after Operation Paperclip came |
Operation Mockingbird, during which the CIA trained reporters and created media outlets to disseminate their propaganda. One of Project Mockingbird’s lead roles was played by Philip Graham who would become publisher of The Washington Post. Declassified documents admit that over 25 organizations and 400 journalists became CIA assets which now |
include major names like ABC, NBC, CBS, AP, Reuters, Time, Newsweek and more. In 1953 the Iranian coup classified as Operation AJAX was the CIA’s first successful overthrow of a foreign government. In 1951 Iran Parliament and Prime Minister Dr. Mohammed Mosaddeq voted for nationalizing their oil industry which upset |
western oil barons like the Rockefellers. On April 4th, 1953, CIA director Allen Dulles transferred $1 million to Iranian General Fazlollah Zahedi to be used “in any way that would bring about the fall of Mosaddeq.” Coup leaders first planted anti-Mosaddeq propaganda throughout the Iranian press, held demonstrations, and bribed |
officials. Then they began committing terror attacks to blame on Mosaddeq hoping to bring public sentiment away from their hero. They machine-gunned civilians, bombed mosques, and then passed out pamphlets saying, “Up with Mosaddeq, up with Communism, down with Allah.” Zahedi’s coup took place between August 15th and 19th after |
which the CIA sent $5 million more for helping their new government consolidate power. Soon America controlled half of Iran’s oil production and American weapons merchants moved in making almost $20 billion off Iran in the next 20 years. “In 1953 the Central Intelligence Agency working in tandem with MI6 |
overthrew the democratically-elected leader of Iran Dr. Mohammed Mosaddeq. Mosaddeq had been educated in the west, was pro-America, and had driven communist forces out of the north of his country shortly after being elected in 1951. Mosaddeq then nationalized the oil fields and denied British Petroleum a monopoly. The CIA’s |
own history department at cia.gov details how U.S. and British intelligence agents carried out terror attacks and then subsequently blamed them on Mosaddeq … The provocations included propaganda, demonstrations, bribery, agents of influence, and false flag operations. They bombed the home of a prominent religious leader and blamed it on |
Moseddeq. They attacked mosques, machine-gunned crowds, and then handed out thousands of handbills claiming that Moseddeq had done it … Dr. Mohammed Moseddeq, who was incarcerated for the duration of his life, fared better than any of his ministers who were executed just days after the successful coup for crimes |
that MI6 and the CIA had committed.” -Alex Jones, “Terrorstorm” DVD In 1954 the CIA performed its second coup d’etat overthrow of a foreign democracy; this time it was Guatemala, whose popular leader Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, had recently nationalized 1.5 million acres of land for the peasants. Before this, only |
2.2% of Guatemala’s land-owners owned 70% of the land, which included that of United Fruit Co. whose board of directors were friends with the Dulles brothers and wanted to keep Guatemala a banana republic. So once again the CIA sent in propagandists and mercenaries, trained militia groups, bombed the capital, |
and installed their puppet dictator Castillo Armas, who the gave United Fruit Co. and the other 2.2% land-owners everything back. Military dictators ruled Guatemala for the next 30 years killing over 100,000 citizens. Guatemalan coroners were reported saying they could not keep up with the bodies. The CIA called it |
Operation Success. “The CIA has overthrown functioning democracies in over twenty countries.” -John Stockwell, former CIA official They always follow the same strategy. First, globalist interests are threatened by a popular or democratically elected foreign leader; leaders who help their populations nationalize foreign-owned industries, protect workers, redistribute wealth/land and other |
such actions loved by the lower and middle-class majority, hated by the super-rich minority. Next, the CIA identifies and co-operates with opposition militia groups within the country, promising them political power in trade for American business freedom. Then they are hired, trained and funded to overthrow the current administration through |
propaganda, rigged elections, blackmail, infiltration/disruption of opposition parties, intimidation, torture, economic sabotage, death squads and assassinations. Eventually the CIA-backed militia group stages a coup and installs their corporate sympathizer-dictator and the former leaders are propagated as having been radicals or communists and the rest of the world is taught to |
torture, blackmail, interrogation, propaganda and sabotage to foreign military officials. Starting in 1954 the CIA ran operations attempting to overthrow the communist North Vietnamese government, while supporting the Ngo Dinh Diem regime in South Vietnam. From 1957-1973 the CIA conducted what has been termed “The Secret War” in Laos during |
which they carried out almost one coup per year in an effort to overthrow their democracy. After several unsuccessful attempts, the US began a bombing campaign, dropping more explosives and planting more landmines on Laos during this Secret War than during all of World War II. Untold thousands died and |
a quarter of the Laotian people became refugees often living in caves. Right up to the present, Laotians are killed/maimed almost daily from unexploded landmines. In 1959 the US helped install “Papa Doc” Duvalier, the Haitian dictator whose factions killed over 100,000. In 1961 CIA Operation Mongoose attempted and failed |
to overthrow Fidel Castro. Also in 1961 the CIA assassinated the Dominican Republic’s leader Rafael Trujillo, assassinated Zaire’s democratically-elected Patrice Lumumba, and staged a coup against Ecuador’s President Jose Velasco, after which US President JFK fired CIA director Allen Dulles. In 1963 the CIA was back in the Dominican Republic |
and Ecuador performing military coups overthrowing Juan Bosch and President Arosemana. In 1964 another CIA-funded/armed coup overthrew Brazil’s democratically-elected Joao Goulart replacing him with Dictator General Castelo Branco, CIA-trained secret police, and marauding death squads. In 1965 the CIA performed coups in Indonesia and Zaire and installed oppressive military dictators; |
General Suharto in Indonesia would then go on to slaughter nearly a million of his countrymen. In 1967 a CIA-backed coup overthrew the government of Greece. In 1968 they helped capture Che Guevara in Bolivia. In 1970 they overthrew Cambodia’s popular Prince Sahounek, an action that greatly strengthened the once |
minor opposition Khmer Rouge party who went on to murder millions. In 1971 they backed a coup in Bolivia and installed Dictator Hugo Banzer who went on torture and murder over 2000 of his political opponents. In 1973 they assassinated Chile’s democratically-elected Salvador Allende and replaced him with General Augusto |
Pinochet who murdered thousands of his civilians. On and on it goes; The Association for Responsible Dissent put out a report estimating that by 1987, 6 million people worldwide had died resulting from CIA covert ops. Since then there have been many untold millions more. “Throughout the world, on any |
given day, a man, woman or child is likely to be displaced, tortured, killed or disappeared, at the hands of governments or armed political groups. More often than not, the United States shares the blame.” -Amnesty International annual report on U.S. Military aid and human rights, 1996 1979-1989 CIA Operation |
Cyclone, with joint funding from Britain’s MI6, heavily armed and trained over 100,000 Afghani Mujahideen (“holy warriors”) during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. With the help of the Pakistani ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence), billions of dollars were given to create this Islamic army. Selig Harrison from the Woodrow Wilson International Centre |
for Scholars stated, “The CIA made a historic mistake in encouraging Islamic groups from all over the world to come to Afghanistan. The US provided $3 billion [now many more billion] for building up these Islamic groups, and it accepted Pakistan’s demand that they should decide how this money should |
government in Pakistan now that is arming the Taliban to the teeth … Let me note; that [US] aid has always gone to Taliban areas … And when people from the outside try to put aid into areas not controlled by the Taliban, they are thwarted by our own State |
Department … Pakistan [has] initiated a major resupply effort, which eventually saw the defeat, and caused the defeat, of almost all of the anti-Taliban forces in Afghanistan.” -Congressional Rep. Dana Rohrbacher, the House International Relations Committee on Global Terrorism and South Asia, 2000 British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook stated before |
and Al-Qaeda, they continued funding them right up to the 9/11 attacks blamed on them. For example, four months prior to 9/11, in May, 2001, Colin Powell gave another $43 million in aid to the Taliban. “Not even the corporate US media could whitewash these facts and so explained it |
away by alleging that US officials had sought cooperation from Pakistan because it was the original backer of the Taliban, the hard-line Islamic leadership of Afghanistan accused by Washington of harboring Bin Laden. Then the so called ‘missing link’ came when it was revealed that the head of the ISI |
was the principal financier of the 9/11 hijackers ... Pakistan and the ISI is the go between of the global terror explosion. Pakistan's military-intelligence apparatus, which literally created and sponsored the Taliban and Al Qaeda, is directly upheld and funded by the CIA. These facts are not even in dispute, |
neither in the media nor in government. Therefore when we are told by the neocon heads of the new world order that they are doing everything in their power to dismantle the global terror network what we are hearing is the exact opposite of the truth. They assembled it, they |
article, outspoken opponent of President Bush and recently assassinated Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, told George Bush Sr., “you are creating a Frankenstein,” concerning the growing Islamist movement. She also came out in 2007 to say that Osama Bin Laden was already long dead having been murdered by Omar Sheikh. |
Deciphering the function and regulation of AUTS2 University of California, San Francisco Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with complex genetic and environmental causes. Many gene mutations have been associated with autism; however, they explain only a small part of the genetic cause for this disorder. 98% of our genome does |
not encode for protein and is thus termed noncoding. In this noncoding space are gene regulatory sequences that tell genes when, where and at what amount to turn on or off. Mutations in these gene regulatory elements could thus be an important cause of autism. Despite the potential importance of |
these noncoding gene regulatory regions in autism susceptibility, very few studies have been performed trying to implicate them in this disorder. This pilot study focuses on a strong autism candidate gene, the autism susceptibility candidate 2 (AUTS2) gene. Mutations in its regulatory elements have been associated with autism and its |
function is not well known. Using both zebrafish and mice as the model organisms, the project aims to identify noncoding gene regulatory sequences of AUTS2. The fellow will then look to see if any individuals with autism have mutations in the regulatory regions identified. They will also reduce the expression |
of this gene in zebrafish and look for abnormalities to further clarify its function. This study promises to further our understanding of how differences in the noncoding region of the genome can lead to autism. It also aims to advance our understanding of a gene of unknown function that has |
By Mike Bennighof, Ph.D. During the 1700s, European armies grew enormously in size. The Seven Years’ War of 1756 – 1763 heightened the trend, and by the end of the Napoleonic Wars field armies had become enormous. Forces of 100,000 or even more, unheard of a century before, were not at all unusual by 1815. The French army introduced the concept of a corps |
d’armee, a body of infantry, cavalry and artillery plus essential services. The corps could fight alone or in cooperation with other corps, and included all necessary combat and administrative elements. By the end of the Napoleonic wears, all participants had organized their troops into corps, usually made up of varying numbers of divisions and During the years after 1815, some nations kept their corps |
structure in place during peacetime, using them to administer recruiting, training and other non-combat functions. This would speed mobilization and keep the staffs employed. The size and composition of corps also became regularized, with each usually having the same number and types of subordinate By the middle of the 19th century, an army corps had become defined as the number of troops that could |
be deployed from a single road in less than two hours: roughly 20,000 men. That rule of thumb had been badly exceeded as extra troops were added: cavalry, engineers, artillerymen, light infantry, medical services, supply columns and more. The Prussian corps organization used in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War had been introduced as part of War Minister Albrecht von Roon’s reforms starting in 1860. In |
1859, the Prussian Army mobilized its four army corps for war on the side of Austria against France. The mobilization found many troops untrained, officers of poor quality and supply services either insufficient or non-existent. It also showed just how unwieldy the army’s corps organization would prove in action. The German Confederation, which included both Austria and Prussia along with 36 other german states, |
had adopted a corps of four divisions. Each division consisted in turn of two or three brigades, each brigade with two regiments of two battalions each plus one of light infantry. All told, a German division would go to war with 10 or 15 battalions, a corps with between 40 and 60. Roon rationalized this organization; in battle, he believed, a general was most |
efficient with fewer maneuver elements to command. A new-model Prussian infantry corps would have two divisions. Each division in turn had two brigades, and each of them had two regiments. The regiments would be larger, with three battalions rather than the former two, as a regimental colonel was expected to control all three by line of sight. A brigade commander only had to control |
the two regiments under his command. At the division level, things got more complex. The division controlled two brigades, plus an artillery detachment of four six-gun batteries. These would usually be parceled out to the brigades in action. During peacetime the division was responsible for either a pioneer battalion or a light infantry battalion; during wartime these would be held in the corps reserve. |
The corps controlled the two infantry divisions, plus attachments of artillery and cavalry. This varied from four to seven batteries (six guns each) and two to five cavalry regiments. Austria also reformed its corps organization in 1860, based on the lessons of the 1859 war. An Austrian corps had included two or three divisions, each in turn of two or three five-battalion brigades. Each |
brigade included the four field battalions of a single regiment plus a light infantry battalion: usually jägers but in a few cases grenzers (Croatian border troops) or volunteer student battalions. Austrian generals performed poorly in the 1859 war, and the reform commission appointed after the war recommended using fewer of them. In particular, it pointed out that the small brigades made regimental colonels superfluous. |
A peacetime regiment had contained four field battalions and a grenadier battalion; now they would have three field battalions, a fourth reserve battalion and in wartime a fifth training battalion. Two of these three-battalion regiments would be grouped in a brigade along with a light infantry battalion and an eight-gun artillery battery. It was a powerful and flexible organization, led by a major general |
(Austria did not have a “brigadier general” rank and this was the imperial army’s equivalent). The larger brigades required fewer light infantry battalions, allowing the role to be filled exclusively by jägers. The organization became less flexible at the larger echelons. An Austrian corps included four infantry brigades, a cavalry regiment and a brigade-sized artillery reserve as well as engineer, supply and medical units. |
The new arrangement required fewer general officers, which had been the goal. But handling six maneuver elements proved beyond the capability of most Austrian corps staffs in 1866, and the intermediate stage of division headquarters gave Austria’s Prussian opponents a decided advantage in flexibility and reaction speed. Though the Prussian staff was undoubtedly better organized and more efficient than their Austrian counterparts, their organization |
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