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Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing are distinct vocal techniques that vary in terms of the number of notes sung per syllable. Syllabic singing involves a one-to-one ratio of notes to syllables, while melismatic singing features numerous notes sung on a single syllable. Neumatic singing falls in between, with a small group of notes per syllable. These techniques add depth and intricacy to vocal performances, allowing singers to convey different emotions and musical styles. Understanding the differences between these techniques is essential for aspiring vocalists and music enthusiasts alike. So let’s dive into the fascinating world of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing! In syllabic singing, each syllable is assigned only one note. This straightforward technique ensures clarity and precise articulation of lyrics. It is commonly used in genres such as pop, rock, and folk music where the focus is on delivering the lyrics with simplicity and directness. Think of popular songs that have catchy melodies with a clear-cut rhythm; chances are they utilize the syllabic singing technique. On the other end of the spectrum lies melismatic singing, characterized by numerous notes performed on a single syllable. This elaborate technique allows for an extended expression of emotion and embellishment within a single word or phrase. Often employed in classical music genres like opera and choral compositions, melismatic singing showcases the singer’s virtuosity and vocal agility. It adds complexity and richness to the overall texture of the music. In between these two extremes lies neumatic singing. In neumatic style, a small group of notes is assigned to each syllable, creating a balance between simplicity and ornamentation. This technique offers flexibility by allowing slight variations in pitch or rhythmic interpretation while maintaining clarity in lyrical delivery. Neumatic singing can be found in various musical traditions around the world, including Gregorian chants and Indian classical music. Understanding these different styles enables singers to adapt their vocal technique to suit various musical genres and performance contexts. It broadens their artistic repertoire and allows for greater creativity in interpreting songs. Moreover, for music enthusiasts, recognizing the nuances of these vocal techniques enhances their appreciation and discernment when listening to different singers and styles of music. What is Syllabic Singing? Syllabic singing refers to a style of vocal performance where each syllable of the lyrics is sung on a single musical note. This technique emphasizes the clarity of the lyrics and allows for precise articulation of the words. It is commonly used in genres such as opera, choral music, and pop music. By focusing on individual syllables, syllabic singing allows for greater interpretation and expression of the text, enhancing the overall emotional impact of the performance. This technique can be contrasted with melismatic and neumatic singing styles, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable or phrase, respectively. The use of syllabic singing can vary depending on the musical arrangement and stylistic choices of the performer, resulting in a diverse range of vocal interpretations. Prepare to be blown away as we delve into the magical world of syllabic singing, where every note is like a delicate snowflake, floating gently on the breeze… or more accurately, like a ping pong ball being shot out of a cannon. Definition of Syllabic Singing Syllabic singing refers to a vocal technique where each syllable of a song is sung on just one note, creating a crisp and precise delivery. This style can be found in various genres of music, including classical compositions, hymns, and folk songs. In syllabic singing, the melody of a song is broken down into distinct units that correspond to the individual syllables. This means that each syllable is given its own note value and duration, enabling singers to articulate lyrics with great clarity. By emphasizing each syllable separately, this technique allows for a more focused and pronounced expression of the song’s lyrics. One advantage of syllabic singing is its versatility. Unlike melismatic singing, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable, syllabic singing offers greater control over enunciation and phrasing. This allows singers to convey the intended meaning of the lyrics with precision and accuracy. Another important aspect of syllabic singing is the emphasis on rhythm. Since each syllable corresponds to one note, singers need to pay close attention to the timing and rhythmic patterns within the music. This creates an engaging interplay between the lyrics and the underlying musical structure, enhancing both the emotional impact and overall aesthetic appeal of the performance. Unique among vocal techniques, syllabic singing brings together precision, clarity, and rhythmic expression in a captivating manner. It enables singers to communicate their message effectively while maintaining an engaging connection with their audience. With its rich history spanning across various musical traditions, syllabic singing continues to captivate listeners with its distinctive style and artistry. Characteristics of Syllabic Singing Syllabic singing is characterized by the emphasis on individual syllables, each carrying its own note and rhythm. This style allows for precise articulation of lyrics, giving singers the freedom to highlight the meaning and emotions behind every word. It requires meticulous control over vocal techniques, as each syllable is given equal importance and needs to be pronounced distinctly. Syllabic singing is often used in various genres such as classical music, choral arrangements, and even contemporary pop songs. The focus on clarity and precision in this style adds a unique dimension to vocal performances, captivating audiences with its attention to detail. Mastering syllabic singing not only showcases the singer’s technical prowess but also enhances the overall expression of the musical piece. What is Melismatic Singing? Melismatic singing, also known as vocal melisma, refers to a style of singing where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. This technique allows the singer to embellish the melody and add intricate melodic variations. It is commonly used in various musical traditions, such as classical, gospel, R&B, and traditional Middle Eastern music. Melismatic singing can be characterized by its ornamentation and fluidity, as the singer moves through different pitches and explores the nuances of the music. This style requires a high level of vocal control and agility, as the singer must accurately hit each pitch and smoothly transition between them. One unique aspect of melismatic singing is its ability to convey emotions and create expressive melodies. By prolonging certain notes and adding embellishments, singers can bring depth and intensity to the music. This technique is often used to enhance the meaning and impact of lyrics, allowing the singer to convey a range of emotions effectively. Melismatic singing has a rich history and has been utilized by various cultures throughout time. Ancient Greek music, Byzantine chant, and Indian classical music all make use of melismatic vocal techniques. This demonstrates the versatility and universality of melismatic singing as a form of musical expression. According to a study conducted by the Journal of Voice, melismatic singing can have positive effects on vocal health and function. The study found that singers who regularly practice melismatic techniques exhibited improved vocal range, flexibility, and overall vocal performance. Prepare for vocal gymnastics as we explore the definition of melismatic singing – it’s like doing a marathon with your vocal cords! Definition of Melismatic Singing Melismatic singing is a vocal technique where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. It requires skillful control of the voice and is often used in various genres of music, including classical, gospel, and R&B. The melismatic style allows for elaborate ornamentation and expression within the lyrics, creating a dynamic and captivating performance. Noteworthy singers known for their melismatic singing include Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, and Christina Aguilera. This unique vocal style adds an element of complexity and emotion to the music, captivating listeners and showcasing the versatility of the human voice. Characteristics of Melismatic Singing Melismatic singing is a technique characterized by multiple notes sung on a single syllable. It adds complexity and embellishment to the melody, showcasing the singer’s vocal agility and skill. - Melismatic singing involves the use of ornaments and variations, such as trills, turns, and runs. - The singer extends certain syllables by adding melodic flourishes, enhancing expressiveness in the performance. - It is commonly found in various musical genres like gospel, R&B, soul, and traditional Middle Eastern and Indian classical music. - This style allows singers to showcase their creativity by improvising and adding unique melodic twists. - Historically, melismatic singing has been used to convey intense emotions and add depth to religious ceremonies or storytelling traditions. A key characteristic of melismatic singing is its ability to transform simple melodies into intricate tapestries of sound. By infusing each note with ornamentation and subtle nuances, singers captivate audiences with their virtuosity. This dynamic approach to vocal expression amplifies the emotional impact of a song, transcending mere words or lyrics. Melismatic singing is not only an art form but also a testament to the power of human voice in conveying profound passion and emotions. What is Neumatic Singing? Neumatic singing, a distinctive vocal technique, involves the use of groups of two to four notes for each syllable. It is characterized by a melodic and rhythmic phrasing style that gives flexibility and agility to the singing. Neumatic singing allows for a nuanced expression of the text, with the melodic lines shaped by the specific neumes used. The neumes are graphic symbols that represent musical gestures and pitch changes. This style of singing originated in medieval chant traditions and continues to be used in various forms of religious and secular music. Notably, neumatic singing requires a skilled understanding of the neumes and their interpretation, as well as the ability to seamlessly transition between different groups of notes. The use of neumatic singing adds depth and complexity to vocal performances, resulting in a rich and captivating musical experience. - Neumatic singing involves the use of groups of notes for each syllable. - It allows for flexibility and agility in melodic and rhythmic phrasing. - The melodic lines are shaped by specific neumes representing musical gestures. - The interpretation of neumes requires a skilled understanding. - Neumatic singing originated in medieval chant traditions. - It is used in both religious and secular music forms. In addition, neumatic singing showcases the vocalist’s ability to navigate complex musical structures and convey the intended emotions of the lyrics. This technique requires precision in the execution of melodic leaps and ornamentations, enhancing the overall musical expression. Neumatic singing adds a unique dimension to vocal performances and is a testament to the evolving nature of vocal music throughout history. It is worth noting that neumatic singing has influenced various musical styles and genres, contributing to the development of contemporary vocal techniques. Its historical significance and continued relevance make it an integral part of vocal training and performance in today’s music world. True fact: Neumatic singing is prominently featured in Gregorian chant, a form of plainchant named after Pope Gregory I. Want to sound like you swallowed a thesaurus? Give neumatic singing a try, it’s like a linguistic rollercoaster for your vocal cords. Definition of Neumatic Singing Neumatic singing is a melodic style characterized by the use of small groups of notes, known as neumes, to represent musical phrases. This ancient vocal technique predates modern musical notation and was commonly employed in early Christian church music. Neumatic singing has its roots in medieval Europe, where it was used primarily for liturgical chants. The neumes, which are small symbols placed above the text, indicate the relative pitch and melodic contour of each phrase. Unlike modern musical notation, neumes do not specify precise pitches or rhythms. This unique style of singing allows for a certain degree of freedom and interpretation. Singers must rely on their knowledge of the specific chants and their understanding of the neumes to give life to the music. Each neume represents a group of notes that are sung together as a melodic unit. The beauty of neumatic singing lies in its simplicity and expressiveness. Without the constraints of precise notation, singers have the freedom to embellish and improvise within the structure of the chant. This improvisational element adds a sense of vitality and individuality to each performance. Although neumatic singing is less commonly practiced today, it continues to hold a special place in the realm of sacred music. Its rich history and unique characteristics make it an important part of our musical heritage. By studying and preserving this ancient art form, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the development and evolution of vocal music throughout history. Characteristics of Neumatic Singing In neumatic singing, certain characteristics set it apart from other vocal styles. One key characteristic is the use of melismatic phrases, where multiple notes are sung on a single syllable. This creates a rich and intricate sound that adds depth to the music. Another defining feature of neumatic singing is the subtle ornamentation and embellishments used by singers, enhancing the expressiveness of the melodies. Additionally, neumatic singing often incorporates sustained notes called drones, which create a constant harmonic foundation. These characteristics combine to create a unique and captivating musical experience for both performers and listeners alike. Neumatic singing is also characterized by its rhythmic flexibility. Unlike more strictly metered musical styles, neumatic singing allows for variations in tempo and pacing, allowing the singer to emphasize certain words or phrases with their own interpretation. This fluidity in rhythm adds an element of spontaneity and individual expression to the performance. Furthermore, another important aspect of neumatic singing is its connection to religious or spiritual traditions. Often associated with sacred texts or prayers, this style of vocalization aims to convey a deeper meaning beyond just the words themselves. The nuances and subtleties in neumatic singing help to evoke emotions and engage the listener on a deeper level. Overall, the characteristics of neumatic singing encompass melismatic phrases, ornamentation, drone notes, rhythmic flexibility, and its connection to spirituality. These attributes work together harmoniously to create a truly distinctive form of vocalization that has stood the test of time throughout history. Comparison between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles differ in terms of the number of notes sung per syllable. Syllabic singing is characterized by one note per syllable, while melismatic singing involves multiple notes per syllable. Neumatic singing falls in between, with a few notes per syllable. |Style||Number of Notes per Syllable| |Neumatic Singing||A few| Furthermore, in melismatic singing, the melodic embellishments can be elaborate and intricate, showcasing the singer’s vocal prowess. On the other hand, neumatic singing incorporates a moderate level of melodic ornamentation, while syllabic singing prioritizes clarity and enunciation of each syllable. To make the most of these singing styles, singers can consider the following suggestions. Firstly, for syllabic singing, focus on articulating each syllable distinctively to convey the meaning effectively. In melismatic singing, practice and refine the execution of complex melodic runs and ornaments to maintain precision. Lastly, in neumatic singing, strike a balance between melodic embellishments and clarity of the text to evoke the desired emotional expression. Three singing styles, one headache – that’s what happens when you try to understand the similarities between syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing. Similarities between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic singing share several similarities in their approach to vocal expression. - All three styles involve the interpretation of musical phrases through the use of vocal techniques. This means that singers who perform syllabic, melismatic, or neumatic passages must possess a strong understanding of proper breathing and vocal control. Additionally, these singing styles also require a level of expertise in interpreting musical notation. In syllabic singing, each syllable is assigned one note, allowing for clear and precise articulation of the text. Similarly, melismatic singing involves multiple notes being sung on a single syllable, creating elaborate and intricate musical phrases. Furthermore, both neumatic and melismatic singing rely on a degree of improvisation within the established framework of the music. Singers in these styles are given more freedom to add ornamentation and embellishments to enhance their performances. Interestingly, another commonality between these singing styles is their historical significance. All three techniques have been used throughout various periods in music history and can be found in different cultural traditions around the world. Despite their differences in execution, syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing all offer unique opportunities for vocal expression and artistic interpretation. Differences between Syllabic, Melismatic, and Neumatic Singing Syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles each possess distinct characteristics that set them apart from one another. Syllabic singing focuses on assigning one syllable to each musical note, allowing for clear articulation of the text. On the other hand, melismatic singing involves multiple notes being sung on a single syllable, resulting in a more elaborate and embellished vocal performance. Lastly, neumatic singing falls between the syllabic and melismatic styles, with a small number of notes assigned to each syllable. This style allows for a moderate level of ornamentation while maintaining textual clarity. These differences in singing styles add depth and variety to musical compositions and require a different skill set from vocalists. After exploring the concepts of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing, it is evident that each style offers its own unique characteristics. Syllabic singing focuses on one syllable per note, creating a precise and rhythmic delivery. On the other hand, melismatic singing expands on this by using multiple notes for a single syllable, allowing for expressive embellishments and vocal flexibility. Finally, neumatic singing strikes a balance between the two, incorporating minor melismas to enhance the melodic line without overwhelming the text. By understanding these distinctions, singers can navigate various musical genres with skill and artistry. So whether it’s capturing the subtleties of a single syllable or employing elaborate vocal ornamentation, mastering the nuances of syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing adds depth and richness to every performance. Frequently Asked Questions Q: What is syllabic singing? A: Syllabic singing is a style where each syllable of the lyrics is matched with a single note or pitch. Q: What is melismatic singing? A: Melismatic singing is a style where multiple notes are sung for a single syllable of the lyrics, adding embellishments and ornamentation. Q: What is neumatic singing? A: Neumatic singing is a style where a small number of notes are sung for each syllable of the lyrics, allowing for more melodic movement than syllabic singing but less intricate than melismatic singing. Q: Which singing style allows for more ornamentation in vocal performance? A: Melismatic singing allows for more ornamentation, as singers can add flourishes and variations by singing multiple notes for a single syllable. Q: Which singing style is commonly used in opera and choral music? A: Syllabic singing is commonly used in opera and choral music, where clarity of text and ensemble synchronization are important. Q: Can singers switch between different singing styles? A: Yes, singers can switch between syllabic, melismatic, and neumatic singing styles based on the requirements of the music piece and the desired artistic expression.

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[ Right Click and "Save Link As..." on handout title to Download PDF ] The Educative Matrix of Folklore Clearly, folklore is alive and well. It constitutes a basic and important educative and expressive setting in which individuals learn how to see, act, respond, and express themselves by the empirical observation of close human interactions and expressions in their immediate society (that is, the family, occupational or religious group, ethnic or regional community). Folklore structures the worldview through which a person is educated into the language and logic systems of these close societies. It provides ready formulas for the expression of cultural norms. –The Dynamics of Folklore, by Barre Toelken Utah State University Press, 1996 General Traits of Folklore - Folklore involves a tradition that passes over time and through space and is not necessarily old; in fact, it is often contemporary and dynamic. - The learning process is usually by word of mouth, observation and imitation. - There are conservative elements that stay the same through many transmissions. For example, the plot of the ballad “Barbara Allen” remains the same: A woman forsakes a man and he dies. - On the other hand, folklore is also dynamic, changing in transmission (versions), while keeping a storehouse of conservative elements such as motifs, metaphors, characters that belong to the collective and get reworked again and again. Thus, each singer of “Barbara Allen” might accidentally or purposefully change the lyrics. - The source is often anonymous. Folk groups can be any groups of people who share special language, customs, traditions and can be based upon factors such as nationality, age, gender, ethnicity, religion, region, neighborhood, social class, social clubs, family, occupation, school, classroom. All of us belong to many different, sometimes overlapping, folk groups that change throughout our lives. Functions of Folklore - Education and instruction - Relief of cultural tension - Validation of a culture (paradoxically, folklore can also violate cultural norms) Basic Types of Folklore Oral Narratives–tales, legends, proverbs, jokes, riddles, anecdotes, oral poetry, toasts, sermons, personal experience narratives Music–lullabies to highly polished song styles Material Culture–the “stuff” of traditional culture, which includes, for example, the following: Architecture–barns, fences, outbuildings, houses Crafts and Decorative Arts–baskets, quilts, coverlets, carvings, pottery, weaving, tool-making, furniture-making, needlework, home or yard decoration Foodways–preserving food, recipes, ritual meals, who does what Beliefs–folk wisdom, superstitions, weatherlore, remedies, prejudice, spirituality Customs–group celebrations, holidays, calendar traditions, rituals, birthdays Body Communications–greetings, handshakes, dance, games, gestures Traditional, Popular and Elite Culture Traditional knowledge and culture are learned and transmitted by word of mouth and observation within our many overlapping folk groups. Elite or academic knowledge is learned and transmitted formally in a society’s institutions such as schools, universities, museums and concert halls. Popular culture is learned and transmitted through mass media. The boundaries between these kinds of knowledge and culture blur interestingly, and often traditional knowledge and culture are overlooked or dismissed as quaint or untrue. Content and Methodology Folklore’s relevance to K-12 educators is interdisciplinary and twofold. Young people respond not only to the content of folklore–sharing their own and discovering others’ traditions–but to collecting folklore through various fieldwork methods, which can include observation, notetaking, mapping, interviewing, audio or video recording, archiving and presenting findings in any variety of ways. Many of these resources for educators will appeal to older students as well. Bowman, Paddy, and Lynne Hamer. Through the Schoolhouse Door: Folklore, Community, Curriculum. Logan: Utah State University Press, 2011, 286 p. This anthology of folklorists’ experiences in K-12 education is useful for educators as well as folklorists. Bronner, Simon. American Children’s Folklore. Little Rock: August House, 1988. 281 p. This examination of how children create culture includes many examples of genres such as parodies, games, jump rope rhymes, and instructions for simple toys that remind readers of their own childhood culture. Brunvand, Jan Harold, editor. American Folklore: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1996. 794 p. Although the over 200 entries in this comprehensive encyclopedia (ranging in length from a single paragraph to several pages) are scholarly in nature, the scope of coverage (rodeo, Appalachia, theoretical approaches to folklore, the tooth fairy, Internet urban legends) and the credentials of the varied contributors make this entry an invaluable browsing tool as well as a respected reference. Burton, Bryan. Moving Within the Circle: Contemporary Native American Music and Dance. Danbury: World Music Press, 1993. 167 p. plus cassette or CD. Photographs, songs, and dances from many North American tribes. Campbell, Patricia Shehan. Songs in Their Heads: Music and Its Meaning in Children’s Lives. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998, 246 p. Music educators will appreciate Campbell’s attention to children’s creativity and imagination in this ethnographic exploration of how children relate to music outside the classroom. Campbell, Patricia Shehan, Ellen McCullough-Brabson, and Judith Cook Tucker. Roots and Branches: A Legacy of Multicultural Music for Children. Danbury: World Music Press, 1994. 153 p. Teacher resource for all grades, this book and CD set shares musical memories of people from 23 cultures. Gillis, Candida. The Community as Classroom. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 1992. 186 p. Good K-12 resource on expanding curriculum to include people and places in students’ lives. Jones, Bessie, and Bess Lomax Hawes. Step It Down: Games, Plays, Songs, and Stories from the Afro-American Heritage. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987. 233 p. A classic collection of games, hand-clapping rhymes, songs, and stories plus 70 activities. Cassette features Bessie Jones, one of the Georgia Sea Island Singers. Lomax, Alan. The Folk Songs of North America. New York: Doubleday, 1975. 623 p. Although out of print, many libraries have this collection of lyrics, tunes, and notes on over 250 songs. Long, Larry. Here I Stand: Elders’ Wisdom, Children’s Song. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1996. Working with young people who interviewed community members, a singer songwriter helped them write and perform songs based on their fieldwork. A guidebook accompanies this CD and describes how to recreate such a project. Lornell, Kip. Introducing American Folk Music. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, 1993. 251 p. plus cassette. A good resource offering lots of photos, some curriculum ideas, and thorough overview of traditional American music and its influence on pop music. Helpful to K-12 classroom and music teachers and grades 7-12. Lornell, Kip, and Anne Rasmussen. Musics of Multicultural America: A Study of Twelve Musical Communities. New York: Schirmer Books, 1997. 348 p. The interdisciplinary text and CD examine several diverse American music communities from closely. MacDowell, Marsha, and LuAnne Kozma, eds. Folk Arts in Education: A Resource Handbook II. East Lansing: Michigan State University Museum, 2008. 350 p. A sampler of folklore in education lesson plans from around the country and lots of ideas and resources for all grades. Order or download at www.folkartsineducation.org. Pryor, Anne, and Nancy B. Blake, eds. Quilting Circles ~ Learning Communities: Arts, Community, and Curriculum Guide, University of Wisconsin School of Education and Wisconsin Arts Board, 2007, 92 p. This beautiful spiral-bound book comes with a CD-Rom that includes quilt slideshows and video demos. Reagon, Bernice Johnson. Wade in the Water: African American Sacred Music Traditions. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1994. 4-CD set or order individual CDs. These rich recordings from the public radio series of the same name chronicles African American history and culture as well as sacred music and include extensive liner notes. Rodseth, Lars, Sally Howell, and Andrew Shryrock. Arab World Mosaic: A Curriculum Supplement for Elementary Teachers. Illus. by Michelle Gallagher. Detroit: Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services, 1994. 209 p. Written by anthropologists, this guide offers many activities relating to the traditions of Arabs in different countries as well as Arab Americans. Sam, Sam-Ang, and Patricia Shehan Campbell. Silent Temples, Soulful Hearts: Traditional Music of Cambodia. World Music Press, 1998, 144 p. This book and companion CD present traditional music and culture of Cambodia, particularly how it is thriving today in communities outside Cambodia. Santelli, Robert, Holly Warren-George, and Jim Brown, editors. American Roots Music New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001. 140 p. This companion to the PBS series explores the traditional roots of American popular music. Schafer, Andrea. My Harvest Home: A Celebration of Polish Songs, Dances, Games, and Customs. Illus. by Peter Schafer. Danbury, Conn.: World Music Press, 1996. 76 p. plus cassette or CD. Explore traditions and music of several regions of Poland as well as Polish American communities. Features Polish and English lyrics, recipes, and folk arts projects. Simons, Elizabeth Radin. Student Worlds, Student Words: Teaching Writing Through Folklore. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1990. 232 p. A teacher and folklorist, Simons offers background on contemporary folklore and detailed lesson plans for writing and folklore studies. Sobel, David. Mapmaking with Children: Sense of Place Education for the Elementary Years. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1998. 164 p. Find highly creative and developmentally appropriate mapping lessons for K-8. Thompson, Paul. The Voice of the Past: Oral History. New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 2000. 260 p. Oral historians regard this as an invaluable teacher resource. Toelken, Barre. The Dynamics of Folklore. Logan: Utah State University Press, rev. ed., 1996. 439 p. A good basic textbook on folklore and cultural process useful for teachers and older students. Wagler, Mark, Ruth Olson, and Anne Pryor. Teacher’s Guide to Local Culture and Kids’ Guide to Local Culture. Madison: Madison Children’s Museum and Center for the Study of Upper Midwestern Culture, 2004, 70 p. and 139 p. Download free at http://csumc.wisc.edu/wtlc/?q=resources. Zeitlin, Steven J., et al. A Celebration of American Family Folklore. Cambridge: Yellow Moon Press, 1982. 291 p. A full selection of family stories, customs, and photos for K-12 teachers to help students start family writing, oral history, and folklore projects. Alliance for American Quilts www.quiltalliance.org recognizes quilts as works of art and pieces of history with stories to be documented and preserved. Find interviews with quilters and resources for preserving quilts and collecting stories. American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress www.loc.gov/folklife has many digital collections useful in the classroom plus Folklife Resources for Educators, a portal to many free online curriculum guides. American Folklore Society (AFS) Folklore and Education Section at www.afsnet.org publishes an annual newsletter for members, who may sign up for ten dollars without having to join AFS. The AFS Children’s Section awards the annual Aesop Prize and Aesop Accolades for English language books for children and young adults in which folklore is central and presented authentically. Find a list of past recipients at www.afsnet.org/?page=Aesop Bullfrog Jumped in the Classroom www.alabamafolklife.org/content/bullfrog-classroom provides audio excerpts of children’s songs recorded in 1947 in an online guide for young children by Paddy Bowman and Marsha Weiner. American Memory Learning Page http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/ndlpedu Teachers have designed lesson plans as part of their participation in an annual summer institute at the Library of Congress using the large online collections of the American Memory Project, which digitizes thousands of photographs, documents, and recordings. American Routes http://amroutes.cc.emory.edu Folklorist Nick Spitzer, often an emcee for annual concerts honoring NEA Heritage Fellows, hosts this weekly public radio show on the traditional roots and routes of American pop music. Find an archive of past shows featuring interviews with noted roots musicians, including many National Heritage Fellows. Center for the Study of Upper Midwestern Culture http://csumc.wisc.edu supports the Network for Teachers of Local Culture and projects that show how deeply students can reflect about culture and themselves. See the Dane County Cultural Tour and Hmong Cultural Tour, which includes the free downloadable Teacher’s Guide to Local Culture and Kids’ Guide to Local Culture. Crossroads of the Heart: Creativity and Tradition in Mississippi www.arts.state.ms.us/crossroads Find streaming audio, photographs of traditional music and crafts, a useful teacher’s guide, and an overview of the state’s traditional culture. Culture in Context: A Tapestry in Expression www.njn.net/artsculture/cultureincontext features New Jersey folk artists and art forms organized in the themes of Home, Work, and Community. Davenport Films www.davenportfilms.com Filmmaker Tom Davenport has produced and directed award-winning American adaptations of Grimm Brothers fairytales and folk arts documentaries useful for the classroom. Order films online, find teaching resources, and download a student guide to video production of fairytale adaptations. Digital Traditions www.digitaltraditions.net offers South Carolina folk artist profiles from the McKissick Museum collection and online education guides such as Jubilation! African American Celebrations and Row Upon Row: Sea Grass Basketry. Documentary Arts www.docarts.com Producer of Masters of Traditional Arts, this Dallas-based organization collects, presents and preserves historically and culturally significant people and places and provides educational resources and programming. From Cambodia to Greensboro www.greensborohistory.org/exhibits/cambodia/tour/tour.html is an online exhibit that traces the journey of Cambodians to Greensboro, North Carolina (see Suggested Student Readings for an accompanying book for grades 3-6). Folkstreams www.folkstreams.net is a video-streaming site built as a national preserve of American folk culture documentaries and offers users extensive background materials for each film. A number of films feature Heritage Fellows. See especially the Educators Portal for lessons for higher grades. Folkvine www.folkvine.org gives users video, audio, and text options to explore folk artists of Florida, including bobble-head dolls representing real-life scholars of the state’s traditional culture. Iowa Folklife: Our People, Communities, and Traditions www.uni.edu/iowaonline/folklife is an award-winning online multimedia learning guide for all ages with excellent interviewing strategies. A new volume is at www.uni.edu/iowaonline/folklife_v2. Louisiana Voices: An Educator’s Guide to Exploring Our Communities and Traditions www.louisianavoices.org Although written for Louisiana classrooms, this extensive guide is adaptable for any region and includes rational, evaluation strategies, student worksheets, fieldwork guidelines, and dozens of lessons in public domain. Local Learning: The National Network for Folk Arts in Education www.LocalLearningNetwork.org advocates for inclusion of folk arts and artists nationwide. See especially the multimedia virtual artist residencies with five National Heritage Fellows. Also find a library of useful articles for teachers, including the 2009 CARTS Newsletter on the Art of Interviewing, plus links to regional resources and tools for engaging young people in fieldwork and folklore. National Endowment for the Arts http://nea.gov/honors/heritage/index.html publishes National Heritage Fellows’ bios on the web site. Find ordering information for the National Heritage Fellows DVD-ROM and Masters of Traditional Arts Education Guide here. National Museum of the American Indian at www.nmai.si.edu features virtual exhibits and education guides on its Web site. Public Broadcasting System www.pbs.org Find useful education guides related to traditional culture for teachers and students. Examples include several featuring Heritage Fellows: Mississippi River of Song, where students can investigate music and musicians from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico; Accordion Dreams which chronicles Tex-Mex conjunto music; and American Roots, a series on 20th century American traditional music. Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage www.folklife.si.edu has online exhibits, education guides, and interview tools such as Discovering Our Delta and the Smithsonian Folklife and Oral History Interviewing Guide. Find lesson plans for music from around the world found in Smithsonian Folkways Recordings www.folkways.si.edu under Tools for Teaching and many recordings by Heritage Fellows. Vermont Folklife Center www.vermontfolklifecenter.org supports education through Discovering Community www.discoveringcommunity.org, which provides training and resources to educators, and a series of award-winning children’s books based on stories in the Center’s extensive archive (see suggested student readings). Western Folklife Center www.westernfolklife.org is home of the annual National Cowboy Poetry Gathering and the site features many audio and video segments of the top cowboy poets and musicians and exhibits on western ranching life. Wisconsin Folks www.wisconsinfolks.org teaches students about folk arts and artists of that state and provides examples of many genres and artists, from fish decoys to dance. Folkstreams (www.folkstreams.net) is a web site dedicated to preserving folklore documentaries, offering a free video on-demand service. Among the films on the site are the following that feature National Heritage Fellows. Nicholas Benson (2007), son of John “Fud” Benson, the stone carver featured in Final Marks. Joe Thompson (2007) in Alan Lomax’s Appalachian Journey. Alphonse “Bois Sec” Ardoin (1986) in Cajun Country and Dry Wood Dewey Balfa (1982) in Cajun Country, Cajun Visits, Homemade American Music, and Les Blues de Balfa Sister Mildred Barker (1983) in The Shakers Jerry Brown (1992) in Unbroken Tradition Joseph Cormier (1984) in New England Fiddles Elizabeth Cotten (1985) in Homemade American Music Michael Doucet (2005), in Cajun Country Conray Fontenot (1986) in Cajun Country, Cajun Visits, and Dry Wood Ray Hicks (1983) in Appalachian Journey Stanley Hicks (1983) in Appalachian Journey and Talking Feet John Dee Holeman (1988) in Appalachian Journey and Talking Feet Tommy Jarrell (1982) in Appalachian Journey, Dreams and Songs of the Noble Old and Homemade American Music Riley “B.B.” King (1991 ) in Give My Poor Heart Ease Lily May Ledford (1985) in Homemade American Music Alex Moore (1987) in Black on White, White and Black Jack Owens (1993), in Dreams and Songs of the Noble Old and The Land Where the Blues Began Irvan Perez (1991) in Mosquitoes and High Water Adam Popovich (1982) in The Popovich Brothers Almeda Riddle (1983) in Almeda Riddle: Now Let’s Talk about Singing Saunders “Sonny” Terry (1982) in Sonny Terry: Shoutin’ the Blues and Sonny Terry: Whoopin’ the Blues Othar Turner (1992) in Gravel Springs Fife and Drum, Made in Mississippi, and The Land Where the Blues Began Cleofes Vigil (1984) in The Grand Generation Nimrod Workman (1986) in The Grand Generation Mike Seeger (2009) in Homemade American Music and Talking Feet (director) Johnny Gimble (1994) in Gimble’s Swing John Jackson (1986) in Blues Houseparty Bill Monroe (1982) in Bill Monroe, Father of Blue Grass Music Nikitas Tsimouris (1991) in Every Island Has Its Own Songs: The Tsimouris Family of Tarpon Springs This bibliography suggests leisure reading and supplementary trade books for students in grades 4 through 12 to complement the Masters of Traditional Arts Education Guide. The titles below offer many possibilities for making connections to material outlined in the guide. Suggested age levels (indicated following imprint information) are broad and may be extended upward or downward depending on particular school situations. In addition, several resources from the Folklore in Education Bibliography, such as Jan Harold Brunvand’s American Folklore: An Encyclopedia, are also appropriate for high school students. Librarians and teachers should add books from their own collections, using this list as a beginning point for recommendations rather than a finite product. Every effort has been made to ensure that the titles are still in print, although those that may not be available for purchase should be housed in many school and public libraries. The original dates of publication and imprint information are given. Many of these books are available in other editions. Abelove, Joan. Go and Come Back. New York: DK Inc./Richard Jackson, 1998. 176 p. Middle School, High School Akin, S. Beth. Voices from the Fields: Children of Migrant Farmworkers Tell Their Stories. Illus. with photographs by the author. Boston: Little Brown, 1993. 96 p. Intermediate, Middle School Appelt, Kathi and Jeanne Cannella Schmitzer. Down Cut Shin Creek: The Pack Horse Librarians of Kentucky. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. 58 p. Intermediate, Middle School Ashbranner, Brent K. and Paul Conklin. To Live in Two Worlds: American Indian Youth Today. Illus. with photographs by Paul Conklin. New York: Dutton, 1984. 149 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Astroth, Kirk A. Spurrin’ the Words: 4-H Cowboy Poetry Youth Guide (78 p.) and Leader’s Guide (66 p.). Montana 4-H Center for Youth Development, 2004. Order with accompanying CD from www.montana4h.org. All grades. Belton, Sandra. From Miss Ida’s Porch. Illus. by Floyd Cooper. New York: Four Winds, 1993. 40 p. Intermediate Bial, Raymond. Cajun Home. Illus. with photographs by the author. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 48 p. Intermediate, Middle School Blum, Joshua, Bob Holman, and Mark Pellington, compilers. The United States of Poetry. New York: Abrams, 1996. 176 p. High School Branch, Muriel Miller. Juneteenth: Freedom Day. Photographs by Willis Branch. New York: Cobblehill/Dutton, 1998. 54 p. Intermediate, Middle School Bridgers, Sue Ellen. Home Before Dark: A Novel. New York: Knopf, 1976. 192 p. Middle School, High School Calhoun, Dia. Aria of the Sea. New York: Winslow, 2000. 264 p. Middle School, High School Carmi, Daniella. Samir and Yonatan. New York: Scholastic, 2000. 183 p. Middle School Chapman, Richard. The Complete Guitarist. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1993. 92 p. High School Cheung, Shu Pui, Shuyuan Li, Aaron Chau, and Deborah Wei. 2004. Walking on Solid Ground. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Folklore Project, 2004. 64 p. In English and Chinese. Elementary, Intermediate Congdon, Kristin. Uncle Monday and Other Florida Tales. Kitty Kitson Petterson, illus. University of Mississippi Press, 2001. 195 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Cormier, Robert. The Chocolate War. New York: Knopf, 1974. 272p. Middle School, High School Cuyler, Margery. From Here to There. Illus. by Yu Cha Pak. New York: Holt, 1999. 32 p. Intermediate Doney, Meryl. Baskets. New York: Watts, 1997. 32 p. Intermediate, Middle School Doucet, Sharon Arms. Fiddle Fever. New York: Clarion, 2000. 164 p. Middle School Dyson, Michael Eric. Between God and Gangsta Rap: Bearing Witness to Black Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 218 p. High School Erdrich, Louise. The Birchbark House. Illus. by the author. New York: Hyperion, 1999. 244 p. Intermediate Ellis, Rex M. With a Banjo on My Knee: A Musical Journey from Slavery to Freedom. New York: Franklin Watts, 2001. 160 p. Middle School, High School England, Linda. The Old Cotton Blues. Illus. by Teresa Flavin. New York: Margaret K. McElderry, 1998. 32 p. Intermediate Garza, Carmen Lomas. Family Pictures. Illus. by the author. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press, 1990. 32 p. Intermediate Glover, Savion, and Bruce Weber. Savion: My Life in Tap. New York: Morrow, 2000. 79 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Gordon, Ruth, selector. Pierced by a Ray of Sun: Poems About the Times We Feel Alone. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. 105 p. Middle School, High School Goss, Linda, and Clay Goss, editors. Jump Up and Say! A Collection of Black Storytelling. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. 301 p. High School Govenar, Alan. African American Frontiers: Slave Narratives and Oral Histories. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2000. 551 p. Middle School, High School Govenar, Alan. Extraordinary Ordinary People: Five American Masters of Traditional Arts. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press, 2006, 86 p. Intermediate, Middle School Govenar, Alan, editor. Osceola: Memories of a Sharecropper’s Daughter. Illus. by Shane W. Evans. New York: Hyperion, 2000. 64 p. Intermediate, Middle School Govenar, Alan, ed. Stompin’ at the Savoy: The Story of Norma Miller. Illus. by Martin French. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick Press, 2006, 56 p.Intermediate, Middle School Granfield, Linda. 97 Orchard Street, New York. Illus. with photographs by Arlene Alda. Toronto: Tundra Books, 2001. 56 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Grimes, Nikki. Aneesa Lee and the Weaver’s Gift. Illus. by Ashley Bryan. New York: Lothrop, 1999. Unpaged. Intermediate Haas. Jessie. Will You, Won’t You? New York: Greenwillow, 2000. 167 p. Middle School Hamill, Pete. Snow in August. Boston: Little, Brown, 1997. 327 p. High School Hart, Elva Trevion. Barefoot Heart: Stories of a Migrant Child. Tempe, Arizona: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingue, 1999. 236 p. High School Haskins, James Black Dance in America: A History Through Its People. New York: Crowell, 1990. 232 p. Middle School, High School Hicks, Ray, as told to Lynn Salsi. The Jack Tales. Illus. by Owen Smith. New York: Calloway, 2000. 40 p. Intermediate Hinton, S. E. The Outsiders. New York: Viking, 1967. 188 p. Middle School, High School Hurmence, Belinda, editor. Slavery Time When I Was Chillun. New York: Putnam, 1997. 96 p. Middle School, High School Jabar, Cynthia, selector. Shimmy Shake Earthquake: Don’t Forget to Dance Poems. Illus. by the selector. Boston: Little Brown, 1992. Unpaged. Intermediate Jiménez, Francisco. The Circuit: Stories from the Life of a Migrant Child. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997. 134 p. Middle School, High School Jones, Bill T. Dance. Illus. with photographs by Susan Kuklin. New York: Hyperion, 1998. 32 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Landau, Elaine. Slave Narratives: The Journey to Freedom. Illus. with archival photographs. New York: Franklin Watts, 2001. 96 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Lau, Barbara. From Cambodia to Greensboro: Tracing the Journeys of New North Carolinians. Greensboro: Greensboro Historical Museum, 2004. 36 p. Intermediate Left Hand Bull, Jacqueline. Lakota Hoop Dancer. Illus. with photographs by Suzanne Haldane. New York: Dutton, 1999. 32 p. Intermediate Lester, Julius. The Blues Singers: Ten Who Rocked the World. Illus. by Lisa Cohen. New York: Jump at the Sun/Hyperion, 2001. 48 p. Intermediate Lord, Bette Bao. In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson. Illus. by Marc Simont. New York: Harper Trophy, 1986. 169 p. Intermediate Lyon, George Ella. Basket. Illus. by Mary Szilagyi. New York: Orchard, 1990. 32 p. Intermediate Lyons, Mary E. Catching the Fire: Philip Simmons, Blacksmith. Illus. with photographs by Mannie Garcia. Boston: Houghton, 1997. 48 p. Intermediate, Middle School Lyons, Mary E. Painting Dreams: Minnie Evans, Visionary Artist. Boston: Houghton, 1996. 84 p. Intermediate, Middle School Lyons, Mary E. Starting Home: The Story of Horace Pippin, Painter. New York: Scribners, 1993. 42 p. Intermediate, Middle School Lyons, Mary E. Stitching Stars: The Story Quilts of Harriet Powers. New York: Scribners, 1993. 42 p. Intermediate, Middle School Lyons, Mary E. Talking with Tebé: Clementine Hunter, Memory Artist. Boston: Houghton, 1998. 48 p. Intermediate, Middle School MacLachlan, Patricia. All the Places to Love. Illus. by Mike Wimmer. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 32 p. Intermediate Medearis, Angela Shelf and Michael Medaris. Dance. New York: Twenty-First Century Books, 1997. 80 p. Intermediate, Middle School Meyer, Carolyn. White Lilacs. New York: Gulliver/Harcourt, 1993. 242 p. Intermediate, Middle School Meyer, Carolyn. Where the Broken Heart Still Beats. New York: Gulliver/Harcourt, 1992. 197 p. Middle School, High School Myers, Walter Dean. Monster. New York: HarperCollins, 1999. 281 p. Middle School, High School Nance, Susanna. Sights. New York: Delacorte Press, 2001. 216 p. Middle School, High School Oates, Eddie Herschel. Making Music: Six Instruments You Can Create. Illus. by Michael Koelsch. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. 32 p. Intermediate, Middle School Orgill, Roxane. Shout, Sister, Shout! Ten Girl Singers Who Shaped a Century. New York: Atheneum, 2001. 144 p. Middle School, High School Paker, Josephine. Beating the Drum. Brookfield, Conn.: Millbrook Press, 1992. 48 p. Intermediate, Middle School Paterson, Katherine. Jacob Have I Loved. New York: HarperCollins, 1980. 216 p. Intermediate, Middle School Peck, Richard. Long Way from Chicago. New York: Dial, 1998. 148 p. Middle School, High School Pellowski, Anne. Hidden Stories in Plants. Illus. by Lynn Sweat. New York: Macmillan, 1990. 93 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Press, David Paul. A Multicultural Portrait of America’s Music. Boston: Marshall Cavendish, 1994. 80 p. High School Ray, Mary Lyn. Basket Moon. Illus. by Barbara Cooney. Boston: Little Brown, 1999. 32 p. Intermediate Reagon, Bernice Johnson. We’ll Understand It Better By and By: Pioneering African American Gospel Composers. Washington: Smithsonian, 1992. 84 p. High School Salisbury, Graham. Blue Skin of the Sea. New York: Delacorte, 1992. 215 p. Middle School, High School Santiago, Esmeralda. Almost a Woman. Reading, Mass.: Perseus/Merloyd Lawrence, 1998. 313 p. High School Shusterman, Neal. The Dark Side of Nowhere. Boston: Little Brown, 1997. 185 p. Middle School, High School Slatta, Richard W. The Cowboy Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 1994. 474 p. Middle School, High School Stewart, Sarah. The Gardener. Illus. by David Small. New York: Farrar, 1997. 32 p. Intermediate Sullivan, Missy, Deborah Schwartz, Dawn Weiss, and Barbara Zaffran. The Native American Look Book: Art and Activities from the Brooklyn Museum. New York: The New Press, 1996. 46 p. Intermediate, Middle School, High School Tamar, Erika. Blues for Silk Garcia. New York: Knopf, 1983. 155 p. Middle School, High School Trice, Dawn Turner. Only Twice I’ve Wished for Heaven. New York: Crown, 1997. 304 p. High School Voigt, Cynthia. Seventeen Against the Dealer. New York: Atheneum, 1989. 181 p. Middle School, High School Waldman, Carl, and Molly Braun. Word Dance: The Language of Native American Culture. New York: Facts on File, 1994. 290 p. High School Wells, Ken. Meely LaBauve: A Novel. New York: Random House, 2000. 244 p. High School Williams, Sherley Anne. Working Cotton. Illus. by Carole M. Byard. San Diego: Harcourt, 1992. 32 p. Intermediate Yee, Paul. Tales from Gold Mountain: Stories of the Chinese in the New World. Illus. by Simon Ng. New York: Macmillan, 1999. 64 p. Intermediate, Middle School Yep. Laurence. Dragonwings. New York: HarperCollins, 1975. 248 p. Intermediate Yin, Chamroeun. In My Heart, I Am a Dancer. Illus b René J. Marquez. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Folklore Project, 1996, 32 p. Find the online Teacher’s Guide at www.folkloreproject.org/programs/education/dancer. Elementary, Intermediate Vermont Folklife Center Children’s Book Series For more than twenty years, the mission of the Vermont Folklife Center has been to gather and record the voices and stories of Vermonters. An archive of more than 4,000 oral tales inspired the Vermont Folklife Center Children’s Book Series, which captures the color and spontaneity of the most unforgettable stories and preserves them for learning and enjoyment. Regional in origin, universal in nature, these true stories feature real people and real places, create history readiness for ages 6 to12, stimulate discussion with background information and learning activities, offer intergenerational appeal and encourage families to pass on their own stories. Bruchac, Marge. 2005. Malian’s Song. Illus. William Maughan. August House. Jaspersohn, William. 2002. The Scrimshaw Ring. Illus. Vernon Thornblad. August House. Jaspersohn, William. 2000. The Two Brothers. Illus. Michael A. Donato. August House. NCSS Notable Book. Lange, Willem. 2001. John and Tom. Illus. Bert Dodson. August House. Storytelling World Honor Book. Medearis, Michael. 2000. Daisy and the Doll. Illus. Larry Johnson. University Press of New England. AFS Aesop Accolade. Milord, Susan. 2003. The Ghost on the Hearth. Illus. Lydia Dabcovich. August House. Walter, Mildred Pitts. 2004. Alec’s Primer. Illus. Larry Johnson. August House. NCSS Carter G. Woodson Honor Book.

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Self acceptance is a springboard for all our successes and failures. It is a particularly difficult task for the adolescent. The familiar and comfortable self we knew in childhood is in a state of change. All the changes in his body (i.e. sexual development, physical size, and muscular development) and changes in his cognitive development necessitate a modification of his childhood self. He is constantly told by others that he is growing up, and with this growth comes new responsibilities, certain rights and advantages, and expected behaviors. Added to the changes and expectations is the conflict that arises between the internalization of values accepted by society and the need to reject those values in favor of what his conscience tells him is right or wrong. Consequently, he begins to ask questions such as: “Who am I?” “What do I believe in?” “Would others like me if they knew what kind of person I am?” These changes and new attitudes of mind are a source of anxiety for the adolescent, partly because he does not have a clearly defined sense of self and cannot instantaneously become an adult, and he has to learn to accept his particular person. Until he can get through these obstacles, he is apt to have low self-esteem. This unit has as its major focus: raising the self-esteem of early adolescents. My interest in this topic derives from a three-year observation of incoming sixth grade classes. There are three groups of students that stand apart from the others. They are the low-achievers, the socially disadvantaged, and the students who are discipline problems. One personality factor that is common to most students in these three groups is their low self esteem. Efforts to bolster their self-esteem have generally failed because they are unable to recognize any worthwhile accomplishment they’ve made. A familiar technique used with low-achievers is based on the success factor. Most teachers realize that success is an important factor in improving the self-image. In their goal to provide successful experiences, teachers sometimes only call on the low-achiever to respond to questions when they are likely to know the answers. Another example of this misuse of success is assigning activities which aren’t challenging and provide no opportunity for the student to practice a higher level of thinking. Students can “see through” this sham. They know that the praise they received does not measure up to the praise another student might receive for completing a more difficult activity. The problem is further complicated by the teasing and disparaging remarks made by other students. Thus, the word “can’t” is engraved on the minds of these students. This curriculum unit is intended for teachers of early adolescents. It is divided into three sections. The first section provides an overview of traits that are characteristic of adolescents seeking identity. If teachers are familiar with adolescent problems, they can guide them toward understanding that their struggles are not unique but are a normal part of human development. The second section includes a discussion of selected readings. Books are a main source of information for the adolescent reader. Through these readings, he can discover people who are much like himself. He can also discover how they solved their problems. The final section includes additional activities teachers can use to raise the self-esteem of their students. The act of searching for oneself is a complex and difficult process. It is further complicated by some confusion as to what the self is. Luella Cole says a definition of self should recognize the presence of unconscious elements in the motivations and needs of an individual; as well as recognize the conscious efforts to make adjustments within the world and derive an identity which has continuity, consistency, and adaptability. In reworking his identity there are several traits that are characteristic of the early adolescent: Given this picture of the internal problems the adolescent has to contend with, we can now examine the effect they have on his self-esteem. - 1. He is critical of others yet sensitive to their criticisms. He feels their criticisms are unjust because they don’t really understand him. - 2. He values his solitude for it allows him to think without distraction. At home he might seek refuge in his room. In school he might find a quiet corner. - 3. He is preoccupied with his body and self. The changes which take place at the onset of pubescence in size, body proportions, and secondary sexual characteristics generally occur rapidly. Understandably, the body attains a new value. When physical changes are not concurrent with sexual development, the adolescent is likely to perceive this imbalance as evidence of sexual inadequacy. - 4. He experiences swings in mood from elation to depression. These moods are usually the result of successes or failures in personal relationships or school work. - 5. He rebels against adults and their values. This derives from his fear of losing his individuality. Conflicts may arise because of dress styles, dating privileges, or eating habitats. - 6. He gravitates toward his peer group. The group provides him with a sense of belonging. But in seeking admission into the group, he must comply with the dictates of the group. - 7. He reevaluates his stand on issues such as: religion, drugs, sex, and world affairs. He wants to feel certain his moral standards reflect his values and not those of his parents. Esteem refers to an individual’s satisfaction with his identity; his over-all judgment of himself. It may range from high to low. The way in which an individual perceives himself is of real importance to the character of his behavior. People tend to act as they perceive themselves to be. When youngsters have feelings of unworthiness, weakness, or inferiority, they might display delinquent behaviors to mask their real feelings. Sometimes this behavior is a way of communicating to others that they feel lonely, unloved, ignored, inadequate, or less than a person. Other behaviors that might occur as a result of low self-esteem are belligerence, passivity, defiance of authority figures, and alienation. There is no easy recipe for raising the esteem, but parents, peers, and teachers have considerable effect on how children perceive themselves. Individuals sometimes evaluate themselves on the basis of information conveyed within the family. In some families the criteria for acceptability might be beauty, athletic prowess, or intelligence. Children live up to the expectations of their parents. When they fail to meet these expectations, they are likely to have poor self-images. Therefore, it is important that parental expectations be realistic and reasonable. The child who has parents that take pride in him for being what he is will have higher self-esteem than one whose parents are never satisfied. Family attitudes toward body image also affect self-esteem. Our culture has preconceived standards of the ideal body. It is slim, well-proportioned, unblemished, and lacking any defects. When parents overemphasize these standards, youngsters who are obese, extremely thin, physically disabled, or suffering from skin disorders are destined to fall short of those standards and have low self-esteem. Another component of family life affecting the level of self-esteem in adolescents is the attitude and character of parents. Janice Gibson cites Stanley Coppersmith’s experimental findings of self-esteem in boys. His findings revealed that children are likely to have high self-esteem when their parents have a clear definition of their roles, are well adjusted, are aware of their children’s needs and interested in nurturing those needs, and are accepting of them. The need to belong and be approved of by his peers is another of the adolescent’s deepest needs. In Adolescence Today, Dacey cites these purposes of the peer group as summarized by Rogers: Rejection by one’s peers can very often cause low self-esteem because youngsters are not self-reliant enough to stand alone. Social rejection might stem from personality factors such as shyness, selfishness, dependence, and prudery; or superficial matters of dress, manners, attitudes, and appearance. Any trait that deviates from the norm might relegate the adolescent to social limbo. - 1. The “radar” function. Adolescents use their peers to test out ideas and behaviors. The feedback they get is used to change the behaviors as needed. - 2. Replacement for father. Most teenagers seek independence from parental control and judgment, but the need for a father figure remains. The group leader often serves as surrogate father. - 3. Support for independence. In seeking their emancipation from their parents, adolescents often feel guilty and fear that their parents will reject them. The peer group provides the needed support because its members share similar problems. - 4. Ego building. The peer group makes one feel good about himself at a time when his self-esteem is low. - 5. Psychic attachment. Peers fill the need for companionship and security. - 6. Values orientation. The peer group is used as a means of solving problems. Adolescents can test various value systems, discuss them, and choose from a number of options. - 7. Status setting. The group lets the adolescent know how important or unimportant he is; there by giving him a more realistic image of how others perceive him. - 8. Negative identity. Sometimes the adolescent joins the group to rebel or prove a point to someone else and not because the group’s members share the same preoccupations and problems as he. - 9. The avoidance of adult requirements. When adult attitudes and values conflict with those of the peer group, the latter often wins out. Self-esteem is also affected by the experiences children have in school. Many educational programs are competitive and provide numerous opportunities for children to measure themselves against others in terms of intelligence, physical skills, and popularity. This measurement can have both positive and negative effects on self-image. As teachers, we can help adolescents by setting expectations that are appropriate for the age level and intelligence ability, stressing positive activities and playing down negative ones, and explaining what is happening to them. It we understand the point of view of this age group, we know that they need opportunities to act independently, but at the same time, feel a sense of belonging; they need opportunities to verbalize their conflicts, frustrations, and other emotional difficulties; and they need to know we are genuinely interested in them. It is important that adolescents know that the road they’re traveling has been traveled by countless numbers of teenagers and is being traveled by many now. The feeling of aloneness can best be eradicated through reading and group discussions. This section includes discussions of readings which highlight problems faced by adolescents today. Sample lesson plans and activities planned around the readings are an addendum to this section of the unit. These selections can be used for enrichment in reading, to teach social skills in social studies, and to reinforce creative and written expression in language arts. We are living in a period of change. This is evidenced by the increase in violent crimes, drug abuse, and premarital sex; high rate of unemployment; discord on moral and religious issues; and the break-down in family structure. Every individual’s life is directly or indirectly affected by these changes. In order to cope with these problems, students must learn to make effective decisions. Paula Danziger’s novel, The Cat Ate My Gymsuit, provides an opportunity for students to observe how a contemporary makes decisions. While the problems and changes are not as profound as the ones stated herein, the skills can be transferred to any dilemma the child might encounter. Sixth graders might especially enjoy reading this novel because it describes a teenager with a negative self-image. She is conscious of her body image and invents one hundred excuses for not dressing for gym. They should relate to the character’s feelings because many of them are self-conscious about wearing shorts, undressing in the locker room, and taking showers. This would be a prime time to discuss the reasons they feel as they do and guide them toward discovering ways in which to change these negative feelings into positive ones. The Trouble With Thirteen, by Betty Miles, is included in the required reading because it gives recognition to feelings about divorce, jealousy, separation, and puberty. The story tells of two friends’ struggle to maintain their friendship despite one friend’s move to another city. Class discussions about friendship will allow students to discern those qualities that ensure and destroy friendships. Discussing feelings about divorce, jealousy, separation, and puberty allows students to compare and contrast their feelings with those of their classmates. Psychosomatic illness and adolescent conflict in the form of rebellion are the underlying themes of Judy Blume’s novel, Then Again, Maybe I Won’t. The story is told by Tony, a sensitive thirteen year old with problems. His problems begin after his father invents a new product and makes the family rich. His anxiety is caused by his friend’s thievery; the shabby manner in which his mother treats his grandmother and her obsession with the family’s new lifestyle and rise to social prominence; and his preoccupation with sex. Whenever he encounters a problem he can’t handle, he experiences severe stomach cramps. This theme provides an opportunity for teachers to introduce students to the various support systems within the home, school, and community. Youngsters need to know that they are not alone; but there are people who can help them in crisis situations. In discussing Joel, Tony’s friend, students may not be able to initially determine the cause of his stealing, but they should note that it is not out of necessity. By delving into his character (listing character traits); studying his behavior patterns (attitude and actions); and evaluating comments he makes about his parents, students might arrive at logical explanations for his stealing. The final selection is a poem entitled “My Friend, Leona” from People I’d Like to Keep by Mary O’Neill. In the poem the speaker describes her friend. Leona is a very imaginative girl. She uses her imagination to mask her true feelings about poverty, her absent father, her mother’s need to work, her appearance, and her living conditions. This poem paints a vivid picture of some one with low self-esteem. The task of raising one’s self-esteem cannot be accomplished in a short time. Individuals must realize that it is on-going and that one’s esteem may fluctuate with each experience that yields success or failure. However, when they have a more realistic image of themselves; understand the nature of the many changes they’re experiencing; discover contemporaries who share similar conflicts; and realize that parents and teachers share a sincere interest in their well-being, they are likely to have a higher opinion of themselves. The success of this unit will be determined by the content and tone of a personal essay written by each student entitled “Everything You Wanted to Know About Me, But Didn’t Ask.” OBJECTIVE: To familiarize students with the basic concepts of effective decision making. MATERIALS: Copy of decision making guide, copy of decision dilemma ____Sample activity sheet - 1. Introduction and motivation - ____Introduce the lesson by discussing the numerous decisions boys and girls make daily: big decisions; little decisions; easy decisions; difficult decisions; right decisions; and wrong decisions. Explain that in making decisions we sometimes consider the good and bad things that might happen as a result of our choice. Identify these possible outcomes of a decision as consequences. - 2. Development of concepts - ____a. write the following questions on the board, and discuss the answers. - ________What was Marcy’s problem? - ________How did she attempt to solve it? - ________Did she make a good decision? - ____b. Ask students to think of two alternative solutions Marcy might have chosen. - ____c. Copy the decision making guide on the board. Write the alternatives in the guide. - ____d. Ask students to name the positive consequences (good things) and negative consequences (bad things) for each alternative. Their responses are written on the board. - ____e. Allow students to examine the advantages and disadvantages of both alternatives, and select the most appropriate alternative. - 3. Individual practice - ____a. Review the steps one should follow when making decisions. - ____b. Distribute a copy of the activity sheet. - ____c. Ask for a volunteer to read the decision dilemma out loud. - d. Instruct students to use the steps they’ve learned to make a decision. Your class is playing “Math Relay”. You have been chosen as one of the team captains. Your first task is to select members of your team. You need one more good math student for your team. Your best friend is one of those students waiting to be selected. She wants to be on your team, but you know she is not a very good math student. What do you do? OBJECTIVES: To increase students’ ability to identity with characters To provide opportunities for students to become active listeners MATERIALS: Copy of the poem “New Friends and Old Friends” by Joseph Parry, format for interview - 1. Introduction and motivation - ____a. Introduce the lesson by reading the poem entitled “New Friends and Old Friends” by Joseph Parry from The Best Loved Poems of the American People. - ____b. Lead the discussion of the poem by asking the following questions: - ________Why does the poet think old friends are more valuable than new friends? - ________How might you lose an old friend? - ________What are your thoughts about true friends? - 2. Development of concepts - The following questions may be used for discussion of the story. - ____What character traits do you think Rachel possessed? Find examples in the story to support your answers. What are the interests and anxieties shared by the characters? - ____Do you feel Annie’s jealousy of Rachel’s new friends was a normal reaction? Describe an experience in which you were jealous of a friend. Why do you feel the girls were so concerned about menstruation? What meaning does menstruation have for you? - ____What pubic development might boys be concerned about? Do you think Rachel will have any problems adjusting to her parents’ divorce? Explain your answer. Skim the story for a passage that parallels the theme of the poem “Old Friends and New Friends”. - 3. Extending interpretations - ____a. List the various topics discussed in the novel. - ____b. Each student will select one topic to use as a subject of an interview. He will write five or more questions for that topic. - ____c. Explain to students that questions should elicit the person’s feelings. - ____d. Explain that an interview is a meeting at which a reporter obtains information from a person. - ____e. Tell students to interview another person of their own age group, remind students to use pseudonyms in their reporting and to encourage the persons they interview to be honest about their answers. - ____f. Give students a form to use for the interview. - ____g. Have them write their questions on the form prior to the interview. - ____h. Ask the reporters to share their findings. - ____i. Discuss the findings. Sample interview form (divorce) Reporter. How old were you when your parents divorced? Reporter: Did it come as a surprise to you, or were you expecting it? Reporter: Who did you blame? Why? Reporter: What changes did the divorce cause (i.e. moving, financial problems, your mother having to work)? Reporter: How do you feel around friends who live with both parents? Reporter: Do you wish your parents would get back together? Reporter: What advice would you give a child whose parents are divorced or getting a divorce? SPIN-OFF ACTIVITY: CREATIVE WRITING Students will write paragraphs on the topic, “The Trouble With Age _____”. They will give personal views of the problems associated with their age. OBJECTIVES: To familiarize students with support systems in the home, school, and community. To aid students in diagramming their own support systems. MATERIALS: Support personnel in school (i.e. social worker, psychologist, counselors, nurse, referral office staff, administrators, security guard); support personnel from Hill Health Center; copy of support system diagram - 1. Invite the support personnel to visit the classroom and discuss their services. - 2. Allow for a question and answer period. - 3. Distribute a copy of the diagrams. - 4. Have students list the names of those persons to whom they might turn to in crisis situations. - 5. Extend the support system by writing the names of people the primary supporters might refer them to it they are unable to help. - 6. Ask students to draw a heavy line on the diagram mapping the support route they took when they had a problem. Sample activity sheet SPIN-OFF ACTIVITY: CREATIVE WHITING Begin by asking students to name traits they observed in Joel. Ask them to support their answers with examples from the story. Explain that the author dose not tell us what happened to Joel in military school, but we can draw conclusions based on things we know about him. OBJECTIVE: To extend the thinking of students by having them assess the facts and draw conclusions. MATERIALS: A copy of the poem, a copy of the case study format - 1. Distribute a copy of the poem. - 2. Use information in the poem to complete the form. Personal History: (sex, age group, appearance, school achievement) Social History: (family, occupation of parents, relationship with parents) IDENTITY MAP SEARCH Students must compare themselves to some mythical country, and answer the questions on the background about the self. - 1. What is the name of this country? - 2. Who discovered this country? - 3. When was it discovered? - 4. Where was it discovered? - 5. If this country is one of many on a large continent, how many are there? - 6. What are its physical features? - 7. What is its racial make-up? - 8. What is its principal means of communication? - 9. What languages are spoken? - 10. What is its climate? - 11. How does it get along with other countries? - 12. Who are its allies? - 13. What religion is practiced here? - 14. What are its principal resources? - 15. What are some points of interest? - 16. What are some recreational activities? - 17. What are some historical events? - 18. How is it governed? - 19. What are some of its problems? - 20. What battles have it been a part of? - 21. What is its stand on education? - 22. What is its attitude toward drugs and sex? - 23. What does it think about children’s rights? - 24. What is this country’s hope for the future? SPIN-OFF ACTIVITY: AUTOBIOGRAPHY The answers from the “Identity Map Search” can be used by students as a guide in writing their autobiographies. ACTIVITY #2: MOCK COURT Appoint a judge and five students to act as jurors. Two students present opposing views to the same problem. The opposing views are supported by witnesses who give testimony. The role of the jurors and judge is to come up with a viable solution. ACTIVITY #3: ALL ABOUT ME Students can assemble a bulletin board about themselves. Student autobiographies are placed in the center. Yarn is used to connect any pictures, certificates, awards, or drawings to the autobiographies. If two large boards are used, the displays of two or three students can be shown. Each week the display can be changed to allow everyone an opportunity to mount his display. ACTIVITY #4: CLASSROOM JOB APPLICATION * This job is temporary and will last one month. - 1. Check the job you are applying for: - _____ washing boards - _____ distributing and collecting papers - _____ passing out and collecting books - _____ messenger - _____ cafeteria monitor - _____ line leader - _____ removing displays from bulletin boards - 2. What are your reasons for applying for this job? - 3. What are your qualifications? - 4. List any previous jobs held. - 5. List references. ACTIVITY #5: PARENT INVOLVEMENT Allow parents an opportunity to assist in raising their child’s self-esteem. Distribute a copy of the following letter to parents. This year I would like to supplement the regular academic curriculum with a unit designed to raise self-esteem in children. The experiences your child will have in school should help him develop a sense of identity and acceptance, but I need your help, too. Your influence on your child’s self-esteem is very important. He needs to feel that you are interested in him and recognize his achievements. At the same time, it you have interests or talents you are willing to share, it will allow your child to feel a sense of pride in you. No interest is too small or insignificant. For example, you might want to share your interest in music, poetry, ethnic foods, crafts, dance, sports, or your career. When possible, plan to use your child as your assistant. Please complete the form below, and return it with your child. I _______ work. I am available for 45 minutes on _____ . I am interested in _____ and would like to share it with the class. I have no special interests, but I do want to see the kinds of things my child is doing in school._____ After the forms have been collected, make a schedule of the times and dates when parents are available to visit the class. ACTIVITY #6: JOURNALS Students record their personal feelings about the events of the day. If they had negative feelings, they should think of ways they can change them into positive feelings. - 1. Luella Cole, Psychology of Adolescence (New York, 1964), p. 267. - 2. Stanley Coopersmith, Antecedents of Self-Esteem, quoted in Janice Gibson, Psychology for the Classroom (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1976), pp. 89-90. - 3. D. Rogers, The Psychology of Adolescence, quoted in John Stewart Dacey, Adolescents Today (Santa Monica, California, 1979), pp. 191-192. This is a sensitive novel about a lonely rich kid who uses money to buy friends. He learns more about himself and others whom he discovers the journal of his father who left many years ago. Bishop, Curtis. Fast Break. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1967. This novel focuses on the importance of team-play in basketball and the pitfalls of athletes “showboating”. Blume, Judy. Are You There God? It’s Me Margaret. New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1970. Confusion about religion and uncertainty about puberty are the themes of this novel. Blume, Judy. Blubber. New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1974. This book illustrates the cruelty groups can direct toward peers. It also demonstrates the power a group leader can wield over a victim. Blume, Judy. Then Again, Maybe I Won’t. New York: Dell Publishing Company, 1971. This novel gives insight into the conflicts adolescents face when they are unable to solve their problems and feel there is no one they can confide in. Danziger, Paula. Can You Sue Your Parents for Malpractice? New York: Delacorte Press, 1979. Family problems and confusion about being oneself are the themes of this novel. Danziger, Paula. The Cat Ate My Gymsuit. New York: Delacorte Press, 1974. A girl with a poor body image invents one hundred excuses for not dressing for gym. Danziger, Paula. The Pistachio Prescription. New York: Delacorte Press. 1978. A teenage girl eats red pistachio nuts to cure any problem. She feels unattractive amidst a family of beautiful people. Family problems, a poor relationship with her sister, and asthma attacks cause her additional problems. She develops a more positive self-image after her election as freshperson class president. Lipsyte, Robert. One Fat Summer. New York. Harper & Row Publishers, 1977. An overweight fourteen year-old boy is the brunt of cruelty, ridicule, and intimidation from a group of roughnecks. He sheds his excess weight and learns to stand up for himself. Miles, Betty. The Real Me. New York: Knopf, 1974. An eleven year-old girl takes a stand to end sex discrimination in her school’s physical education program and change the newspaper’s rule forbidding girls to deliver newspapers. Miles, Betty. The Trouble With Thirteen. New York: Knopf, 1979. Two friends try to maintain their friendship despite one friend’s move to another city and the unexpected changes that begin to pull them apart. A handbook for parents on raising self-esteem in children. A checklist of the basic ideas discussed in the book is included. Caplan, Gerald and Serge Lebovici. Adolescence: Psychosocial Perspectives. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1969. A collection of papers on adolescence. The William Schonfild paper is most helpful in explaining sexual development, physical growth, and body image in adolescents. Cole, Luella. Psychology of Adolescence. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1964. An excellent reference on the social and emotional growth of adolescents. Chapter 13 addresses the adolescent’s self-concept. Committee on Adolescence Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry. Normal Adolescence. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1968. A broad overview of the dynamics and impact of adolescence is presented. Dacey, John Stewart. Adolescents Today. California: Goodyear Publishing Company, 1979. An excellent reference for information on identity, puberty, moral judgment, and the influence of family, peers, and school on adolescents. Each chapter includes activities relevant to the topic of discussion. Fellman, Hazel. The Best Loved Poems of the American People. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1936. A collection of poems frequently requested by readers of the Queries and Answers page of the New York Times Book Review. It contains many poems teachers can use. Gibson, Janice. Psychology for the Classroom. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976. An excellent reference for teachers. Chapter 3 explains the adolescent’s search for identity. Peer, parent, and school influences on self-esteem are discussed. Practical suggestions for teachers are included. Grinder, Robert E. Studies in Adolescence. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1955. A book of readings concerning the nature of adolescence. The article by Mary Cover Jones and Paul Henry Mussen reports the findings of a study of self-concept in early and late maturing girls. Josselyn, Irene M. Adolescence. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1971. The complications and confusion associated with adolescence are discussed. Case examples are cited. Kizziar, Janet and Judy W. Hagedorn. Search for Acceptance. Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1976. Parents are given some background in understanding adolescent problems. The importance of effective, on-going communication between the parent and adolescent is emphasized. Case examples are cited. McGough, Elizabeth. Who Are You? New York: William Morrow and Company, 1976. This is a self-help guide for teenagers in understanding themselves. Physical changes, self-esteem, peer pressure, identity, and family relationships are some of the adolescent problems discussed. O’Neill, Mary. People I’d Like to Keep. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1964. A book of poetry for children. Powell, Marvin and Allen H. Frerichs. Readings in Adolescent Psychology. Minnesota: Burgess Publishing Company, 1971. A collection of studies. Section two includes readings on self-perception. Early adolescent years are associated with changes in physical appearance, family and peer relationships, and attitude development. “Getting Together” Color, cassette, automatic and manual. This filmstrip deals with being a friend without losing one’s own identity and values. “If You Are Changing ” Color, cassette, automatic and manual. Physical development and modified family relationships are the themes. Contents of 1984 Volume V | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Drama need not be performed for an audience, although this is the ultimate goal of this unit. Instead, drama can be as simple as the exchanges made on a daily basis by students within any classroom anywhere. These exchanges are both humorous and natural, but may be disruptive. This unit begins with the premise that through examination of student behavior, the spontaneous acting out that occurs can be the beginning of a study of drama. While not actually a soap opera, the interaction of students is anything but dull. The unit is primarily for seventh and eighth grade students. The major objective is to introduce students to the idea of drama in their own lives; and to then transfer that idea to the works of others. The time frame for the unit will vary according to available time, but one marking period is recommended. Initially, it will be necessary for students to feel comfortable with one another and with themselves. Very often students have few opportunities to be in a play or to speak in front of a class, and therefore there will be inhibitions to overcome. While reading aloud from a script may be worthwhile to a point, it does not begin to address the creativity and energy which is present during spontaneous conversations between classmates. It is this natural energy and spontaneity which this unit hopes to capture. Indeed the language used and types of interaction may offer insights into student behavior and problems, an area of study known as psycho-drama. Psycho-drama focuses on the use of the theatre to help students better understand themselves and the problems they face. It affords students the opportunity to discuss the question of identity. Through improvisations based on everyday situations lines of communication will be opened. Students will gain a better understanding of themselves and their relationships with others. Students must first know who they are before they can hope to portray others. Developing a positive self image through values clarification activities (where difficult choices must be made) will help students deal with problems they must face in everyday life, and will assist in the enjoyment and understanding of theatre. The unit is divided into three main sections. Section I focuses on improvisational games and activities. The activities described in this section-serve two main functions. First, they are non-threatening and help to alleviate any anxiety students may feel about performing in front of their classmates. Second, they establish the fact that the things children say, and the way in which they are said, are important. Section I concludes with a shared improvisational writing activity. This activity assists in the transition to the written script by discussing the strengths and weaknesses of each scene developed. Section II focuses on the study of existing drama. Three one act plays are discussed first and finally a full length drama. The activities in this section serve to identify the major elements of a play. The works discussed in this section all deal with problems faced by children. While written in styles very different from one another, they offer an opportunity to discuss values. The question of why certain choices were made by a particular character in a play may assist students in choices they must make in their own lives. The final section of the unit builds upon the skills introduced in Section I and Section II and uses these skills to help write original scripts. Types of plays, the major components of a script, and the reasons for including certain scenes will all be discussed. While not a necessary outcome, the possible production of one or more original works is certainly a desired outcome. In a variation of this game, each student tells the same story. The story being told happened to only one of the three students. That student has given the details of the incident to the other two contestants before they begin. Each tries to convince the class that the incident being described actually happened to them. Once again, the class votes for the person they feel in telling the truth. Tone of voice, details, and sincerity should be discussed following the presentations. Why did students choose correctly or incorrectly? How did they judge? The second activity within this section deals with the language of the students. Within any classroom it is soon obvious that a great deal of the vocabulary used by the students is indeed unique. “To Tell the Truth” allowed students to share personal stories with one another. In this activity students are asked to share phrases used in conversations with friends. Not only is what children say important, but equally important is the choice of vocabulary. Later in developing written drama the vocabulary compiled in this activity will be incorporated in the scripts. Recently, a high school in Raleigh, North Carolina developed a test based on the street language used by the students at the school. The test was administered to employees of the McGraw-Hill Co., who prepared standardized tests, and none of the eight employees who took the test scored higher than a “C.” The differences in language are worth exploring. Students, in this activity, are asked to describe current phrases used by students in talking with one another. These metaphors, or figures of speech, are usually analogies which take a literal meaning of one object and transfer it to another to suggest a likeness. The term “Home boy” for example is currently used to describe a best friend. Certainly the relationship to the home and the security of a best friend are analogous. As each metaphorical phrase is given it should be listed on the blackboard. The meaning of each term should be stated as well. Children should be questioned as to the origin of each phrase. What is their significance? Having now compiled a current vocabulary, the students will find that the use of improvisation will help to answer these questions. Improvisation is, in simple terms, a play without a script. While later in this unit, various scripts will be studied, it is for the time being better to improvise. Improvisation does not depend on memorizing lines and it is spontaneous. Opportunities for discussion and insight into the areas of importance for students are readily available through this technique. At first, topics for improvisation should be related to the current vocabulary developed in the previous activity. Three or four members of the class are asked to act out the origin or meaning of a particular phrase. The objective of each group in this activity is to use the phrase within a skit to show its meaning. The participants may agree to play themselves in these performances or they may decide to assume the role of someone else and change the setting. Stories or scripts may later be compiled in Section III to further highlight the student vocabulary and to serve as a theme for student writing within this unit. From this point the teacher will introduce the idea of personal conflict. The following may serve as an example. Imagine one student, Rick, who is angry with his friend, Jerry, for using his bike without asking. The situation escalates until Jerry and Rick along with other students are involved in a locker room fight. Could the situation have been avoided? A series of steps can be used to help frame the scene and to show the progression in action which will be necessary later in the development of student situations. The following diagram is a part of the unit Choices: A Unit on Conflict and Nuclear War printed by the National Education Association in 1982. The final activity in Section I takes the unit in a different direction. Until now, the idea of a script has been non-existent. The emphasis has been on sharing experiences and on creating a positive atmosphere. Areas of concern for students have been discussed as well as student behavior and language. Students may feel that although they now feel comfortable in the area of improvisation they are in no way ready to write a script. To alleviate fears and to move into the study of existing drama the following group writing activity is proposed. This activity is, in essence, another form of improvisation. The teacher may later find other uses for this activity, but initially its objectives are to have fun, begin to write, and to add new episodes in our continuing soap opera. Have the class select four characters at random. These characters should be familiar to everyone in the class. They may be fictional super heroes, famous characters in history, or members of the school community. Once having determined the characters, the class is divided into groups of four. Each group is told that they will, as a group, be developing a script to be performed before the other groups. What follows is a bit confusing at first, but will become much more familiar with practice. The results are worth the effort. Each student is given a sheet of paper. On each sheet is written the following opening line. _____ “Oh, no!” Each student on their own sheet of paper then selects the Character from the four agreed upon by the class to say the opening line. It is possible for each of the four students to select a different character for the opening since all of this is done without the other members of the group being aware of what is being written. After writing the opening line of dialogue, the student aids a second line and the name of the new speaker. The following is a sample of what one student might have written. Wonder Woman “Oh, no!” Mickey Mouse “Yes, we must close Disney World.” Each group will now have four entirely different beginnings from which to expand. On a pass signal, after about one minute, the group members each pass their sheet to the person on their right. The group member receiving the new sheet now adds a third line of dialogue as well as the name of the new speaker. The pass signal is repeated and the scripts are once again passed to the right. The process continues for about fifteen minutes with the four scripts for each group continuing to pass from one group member to another. The group is writing four completely different scenes at the same time. Each scene is being written by the entire group and is completely independent of the other three scripts. Once a sufficient number of passes have been made the teacher should allow a definite number of final passes necessary for students to conclude each scene. After the scenes are complete, group members are asked to read individually the four scripts and to grade each script from one to four with four being the highest. They should record the scores on the reverse side of the sheet and pass the scripts around until each member of the group has read and graded the four scripts. Students should not look at the grades others have recorded until they have determined the score they feel is fair. This is to avoid being influenced by others in the group. The script with the highest total score will then be performed by the group after a sufficient amount of time to rehearse. The group will decide who will play each role. Looking at the scenes developed by each group offers the opportunity to discuss the components of a good scene. Why was one particular piece chosen for performance over the others? What were the strengths and weaknesses of each selection? Also, what question did each of the scripts address—what was the conflict? Was the conflict resolved? This type of an activity may be repeated with a different opening line and a different set of characters. It serves three very important functions. First, students are writing and do not feel threatened. Second, the finished products offer examples to study and from which to expand. Finally, it’s fun. Availability of plays will determine exactly what plays are studied. Any play dealing with childhood problems and/or social issues would be helpful. For this unit, I have selected three one-act plays for study as well as one full length drama. The choices are in no way fixed and the teacher should feel free to substitute as desired. What is important, now that interest has been sparked, is that this interest be kindled through the study of existing drama. The three one-act plays all deal with parent-child relationships. Each is contained in the Washington Square Press edition of the book 15 American One-Act Plays, which was edited by Paul Kozelka. The three plays are Red Carnations by Glenn Hughes, Feathertop adapted by Maurice Valency from a story by Nathaniel Hawthorne, and The Undercurrent by Fay Ehlert. The authors’ points of view are different and so are their intentions. The first play is a comedy, the second a satiric fantasy, and the third a serious drama. As each selection is read, the teacher should point out each of the underlined components. The plays open with a description of the setting and an indication of the mood. Where does the story take place and what tone is established before the play begins? How is this achieved? The list of characters may include the way in which they are dressed or important physical characteristics. These notes can give the reader a great deal of insight into how a character thinks and the way in which they will act in a particular situation. Once the audience is interested in the characters and the setting has been established, a dramatic situation is introduced. In Red Carnations, a 1925 play, we find that the action takes place in a city park. A boy has arranged to meet a girl he met earlier at a costume party. Both were wearing masks. The meeting will take place on a park bench and she will only know him if he is wearing a red carnation. Many complications or conflicts develop. A man is also at the park bench, and he too is wearing a red carnation. The man says he is waiting for a girl to meet him. Both the man and the boy have the same name. The girl is late in her arrival and this gives the author an opportunity to develop the scene. When the girl finally arrives she stands off to the side. Neither the man nor the boy is sure of whom she is there to meet. Suspense is an important ingredient in any play. The man convinces the boy to approach the girl and to determine who, in fact, she is there to meet. This suspense leads to the climax. The boy does approach her and learns that she is the girl from the party that he was to meet. The man we learn has carried out this deceptive plan to protect the girl, his daughter. The man soon realizes he knows the boy’s family and the three characters leave the park arm in arm on their way to dinner. The resolution of the play is complete. There is no doubt that the future will be a happy one. This, as we will see, is not always the case. In the second play, Feathertop, we see a scarecrow come to life through the magical powers of a witch. The newly created young man is sent forth with the advice, “Look wise, ask no questions, and tell no lies.” By doing this, Feathertop is told he can hold his own with anyone. His head is clear of corruption and he can change the world. The author in setting the stage with this dramatic situation has a motive. The young man is unspoiled. Why has this type of character been developed? What does the author want us to learn in this satiric fantasy? Feathertop is soon surprised at how quickly people want to tell him of the corruption of others. He is treated with a great deal of respect and honor by the people he meets simply because he says very little and is willing to listen to the problems of others. As the play progresses, Feathertop falls in love with the daughter of a corrupt judge. While the judge insists the daughter marry Feathertop, she is in love with another. Feathertop knows she would be happier with her true love and return to the witch without having changed the world. The resolution of the play is not entirely unhappy, however. In allowing the young girl to marry her true love, Feathertop has, according to the author, done more good in a short time than many do in their entire lives. While this is not necessarily true, the teacher may wish to introduce the author’s point of view. What was he trying to say about people and about life? Fantasy allows the author to discuss serious questions in terms everyone can understand. Various levels of understanding may be introduced at this time, and comparisons may be made to other forms of literature in which this technique is used such as the novel Animal Farm. The final one-act play, The Undercurrent, is a serious drama dealing with the problem of parental discipline. Written by a Chicago social worker, the play addresses the question of how to discipline children. The author stresses the importance of good communication between family members and the need for parents to be consistent in their ideas concerning the way in which they will raise their children. Students, in reading this play, should be encouraged to discuss the point of view of each character. Why is the father so strict? Is this a form of love? Should the mother be more vocal? Should Anne, the teenage daughter, be more understanding? Does the social worker have any right to become involved in this family problem? In the play, Anne has run away because of her father’s very strict form of discipline. Her mother does not want Anne’s father to know that she has run away for fear he will become violent. She instead tells him that Anne is working for the social worker at her home. On a weekly visit to her home an angry neighbor tells the father that Anne was arrested for loitering. As the father is about to strike Anne, the social worker and Anne’s mother create a story to cover up the truth. The social worker at the end of this play takes Anne to live with her in the country realizing that the father will not change. Anne’s mother, while unhappy, realizes this is the best solution. This play offers several topics for discussion and for study. What is good discipline? How much freedom should students have? Can you love your children and be strict at the same time? How important is it for members of the family to communicate and how is this communication established? The Undercurrent is a wonderful play in beginning to discuss these very important issues. The questions asked here may very well be transferred to the writing of one-act plays done in Section III of this unit. Each student, if writing this play should be asked if the resolution they would use to end the play would have been the same. If not, how would it have differed? Having read a variety of one-act plays, the class will now read and analyze a full length drama, A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry. As with The Undercurrent, this too is a serious drama. Unlike The Undercurrent, however, which dealt only with parental discipline, A Raisin in the Sun looks at a great many social issues and themes. Among these topics discussed are poverty, crime, education, religion, race prejudice, pride, family responsibility, and love. The way in which these themes are introduced give the play a more complex dramatic structure than the one-act plays read previously. Set in Chicago’s Southside sometime after World War II, the play takes place over a two week period. Unlike the plays studied earlier, this is a play in three acts. The main plot is soon evident. The Younger family, about whom this play is written is about to receive a ten thousand dollar insurance check. Mama, whose husband’s death is the reason for the check, and Walter, her son, disagree on what to do with the money. Walter would like to go into business. Mama wants to buy a house. Ruth, Walter’s wife, Beneatha, his sister and Travis, Walter’s son, are the other players. The interaction between each member of the family has great value in helping students deal with family problems they too may face. Unlike one-act plays, several sub-plots develop within the play. One sub-plot involves Beneatha. She is dating two men. One, George, is very wealthy and would have her leave her worries for the finer things in life. The other boyfriend is an African nationalist, Asagai, who would have Beneatha move with him to Africa. How this question is introduced and if it is eventually resolved should be traced. Another sub-plot involves the fact that the house Mama buys in Act II-Scene I is in a predominantly white neighborhood. When Lindner, a white businessman, is sent to buy the house back from the Youngers in Act II-Scene 3 Walter throws him out. Later in Act III, Walter calls him back to accept the offer. Once again, Walter changes his mind and throws him out. Why this progression? The questions of race prejudice as well as family pride are necessary to discuss; so too is the way in which themes such as prejudice, the need for education, and the question of religion are introduced. A vital activity would be to take each scene in the play and to decide why the author included it in the play. What is the purpose of each scene? In the lesson plans which conclude this unit, this activity and others relating to the study of A Raisin in the Sun will be provided. Type of Play (Circle one) Comedy Fantasy Serious Drama Setting (Include year, location, scenery notes) Mood (The predominant emotion or feeling in the play; may include type of music or lighting to be used) Characters (Include name, age, physical characteristics, type of dress, feelings about other characters, and any other helpful information such as type of personality or attitude) Exposition—What is going to happen in the play? What is the cause of each event that happens and what is its effect? What is the eventual outcome of the play? (paragraph form) Using the above paragraphs show the scenes your play will use to go from the initial conflict to the resolution. Additional notes should be written on a separate sheet of paper as to how you will go from one step to the next. Once the setting has been described and the audience has the information it will need to understand the play, the dialogue should begin. Like a short story, a one-act play should concentrate on essential elements in understanding the story. The action presented in such plays is usually continuous and the plot relatively simple. Unlike full length plays there in not enough time to develop a complex plot. The one-act play is simply a “slice of life” and very straightforward. The dialogue should be written with the idea of telling the story in a clear manner and using language appropriate for each character. The steps outlined in the scenario should be consulted in planning the major exchanges which will take place. The writer must determine beforehand what characters will be necessary to complete each exchange and how these characters will get on and off the stage. The words EXIT and ENTER should be used as needed. In addition, stage directions and notes on the way lines should be delivered must be given in parentheses after the name of the speaker and before the dialogue. It is important that the writer quickly introduce the characters, get the audience involved in the situation, and establish the mood of the play. Careful planning is the key to accomplishing these objectives. As the play progresses, the audience should become aware of the problem or complication and the resulting suspense caused by this problem. Various alternatives and possible solutions should be offered within the dialogue. There are many choices which are possible when we are confronted with a problem and each of these choices has consequences which will differ. The writer should provide the audience with the various alternatives without revealing which choice is made and the result of that decision. Reading the scripts aloud throughout the writing process will help to clear up awkward or unclear exchanges. It is also an excellent technique to use in showing students how they can help one another both in the writing process and in content. As we are dealing with social questions and attitudes, the situations presented in the various scripts are questions faced by a great number of students. Exchanges between students will help in understanding why the writer chose a particular point of view. There is a great need to discuss common problems as a means of coping with issues which all of the students face in their daily lives. Once completed, the plays should once again be shared with one another. Discussions between members of the class may lead to final revisions. It also gives needed recognition to the students for the plays they have written and deserve to share. A title page should be written with the name of the play followed by the words, “A One-Act Play by.” Additional notes on the play’s format should be compiled through the study of other works. The final copy should be typed and bound if possible. Many of the student plays will be suitable for performance. The teacher, together with the class, should make plans to present their work to other classes and parents. While not a necessary outcome of this unit, the presentation of one-act plays written by the students would be magnificent both for the students and for the audience. Too often students are spectators in education rather than active participants. Education is not a passive activity, and drama offers the opportunity to create and to share. It allows us to explore the questions of life which confront us all. Through psycho-drama, students are encouraged to discuss their concerns in a non-threatening environment. Drama may well be the “Guiding Light” in helping “The Young and the Restless.” Objective The students will determine and list the ways in which author is able to get characters on and off the stage at each moment in Act 1—Scene 1. Second, the students will note the reasons why it is important for certain characters to be present or absent during a particular exchange. - 1. Read through Act 1—Scene 1 a minimum of twice. - 2. Answer the following questions: - ____What character is on stage at all times during this scene? - ____How does the author use the bathroom to add or remove characters within the scene? - ____What purpose does the discussion over fifty cents for Travis play in this scene? - ____List the major conflicts introduced in this scene. When is each problem introduced and by whom? - 3. Using the information from the answers to the above questions, outline the major exchanges in the scene and the reason each is important. Objective Students, using information implied within the play, will describe a conversation between a character from the cast and a person or group of people discussed but never shown. In completing this activity, students will stress the importance of such unseen action in helping to form a complete picture of each character by including personality characteristics which may not be present in what we see on stage. Procedure Each student is asked to describe a meeting between one of the following pairs of characters: This assignment may be completed in story form or using dialogue. Once completed, the students should be asked if this assignment changed the way they felt about a particular character. If so, how? - 1. Walter and Willie - 2. Walter and his boss - 3. Mama and the realtor - 4. Beneatha and her teacher - 5. Travis and a friend Objective Students will review many of the conflicts presented within the play and give predictions for the future based on available information and the personality of each character. Procedure Complete the following chart. What will be the outcome of each conflict? Will it be resolved or will it continue to exist? If it is resolved, what will be the resolution? If it is not resolved, does the question go away, become more of a problem, or change in some other way? Discuss your answers with others in the class. How are your predictions different from those of your classmates. Upon what information is your prediction based? Complete the following chart. Future Reason for Characters Conflict Prediction Prediction Mama and Beneatha importance of religion Beneatha and Walter importance of education Walter and his boss over job pay and responsibility of being to work on time Beneatha and herself deciding between George, Asagri or neither Walter and Mama over decision making power within the family Walter and Bobo what to do in the future to escape poverty Ruth and Walter the loss of communication between the two The Younger family prejudice - and their new A serious drama dealing with the problems of a black family in Chicago after World War II. Kozelka, Paul (editor). 15 American One-Act Plays. New York: Washington Square Press, 1961. Good examples of storytelling in play form . Includes plays on a wide variety of subjects. Offers insight into the use of drama as an important tool in therapy. Focuses on the areas of psycho-drama and the therapeutic method. Volume II deals with this topic for adults. Durland, Frances. Creative Dramatics for Children. Ohio: Antioch Press, 1952. A manual for teachers to use in working with beginning actors. Useful sections include notes of directing and rehearsal problems. Johnstone, Keith. Improvisation and the Theatre. New York: Theatre Arts, 1979. Valuable for teachers as a tool for helping children begin to relax. Spolin, Viola. Improvisation for the Theatre. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1972. A wide variety of improvisational games and ideas. Very useful sequence of activities to assist in the teaching of drama. Walker, Pamela. Seven Steps to Creative Children’s Drama. New York: Hill and Wang, 1957. Helpful in the production of a play. Offers activities for children to use in the sharpening of concentration skills and the use of the five senses. Ward, Winifred. Theatre for Children. Kentucky: Children’s Theatre Press, 1950. Especially helpful in discussing the major components for the writing and structure of a play. National Education Association. Washington D.C. Choices: a unit on conflict and the nuclear war. 1982. Contents of 1983 Volume V | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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Promoting education and achievement of adults learning English Reading and Adult English Language Learners: The Role of the First Language Miriam Burt and Joy Peyton National Center for ESL Literacy Education The ability to read is a critical skill for adults in the United States. Educators Grabe and Stoller (2002) assert, "As we enter a new century, productive and educated citizens will require even stronger literacy abilities (including both reading and writing) in increasingly larger numbers of societal settings" (p. 1). However, most research on reading development has focused on English-speaking children in preschool through Grade 12. (See, for example, the results of the National Reading Panel, 2000; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998.) Little research on reading involves adults learning English as a second (or additional) language. In a review of the research published from 1980-2000 on reading development among adult English language learners in the United States (aged 16 years and older), Adams and Burt (2002) found only 47 studies that addressed this category of learners. Of those, only 24 were carried out in non-postsecondary education settings (adult education programs, community-based programs, and workplace literacy programs). The others were carried out in college-based intensive English programs (IEP). Although the relevant body of research is small and preliminary, it does give us valuable information about second language (L2) learners in adult education programs and points to areas in which further research is needed. (See Adams & Burt, 2002, and Burt, Peyton, & Adams, 2003, for a description of these populations and of the types of studies included in the review.) The Adult English Language Learner Population The adult English language learner population is large. In 2001, 42% (over 1 million) of adults enrolled in state-administered, federally funded adult education programs were enrolled in English as a second language (ESL) classes. This was a 4% increase from 2000, when 38% of the participants were enrolled in ESL classes (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). English language learners are also served in adult basic education (ABE) and adult secondary education (ASE) classes, private language schools, and in programs sponsored by community-based organizations and volunteer literacy organizations such as ProLiteracy. These adults come from diverse backgrounds and have widely differing experiences with literacy in their first languages. A number of factors influence the ways that adults' English literacy develops and the progress that different learners will make in learning to read English. They include level of literacy in the first language and in English, oral language proficiency in English, educational background, personal goals for learning English, and the structure and writing system of the first language. These factors must be taken into account in all areas of instructional program planning, learner placement in classes, and instructional approaches. This paper describes how one of these factors-literacy in the first language-can affect the acquisition of reading skills in English and the ways that instruction should be delivered. Literacy in the First (Native) Language Huntley (1992) describes four types of literacy in the first language (L1) that affect English literacy development and should be considered in adult ESL literacy instruction: preliterate, nonliterate, semiliterate, and non-Roman alphabet literate. Birch (2002) adds to these types nonalphabet literate. Birch and others (Hilferty, 1996; Strucker, 2002) add Roman alphabet literate. These six types of L1 literacy and their impact on English language learners' development of English language literacy are discussed here in the sections on Limited Literate Learners and Literate Learners. Limited Literate Learners Preliterate learners come from cultures where literacy is uncommon in everyday life because the language is not written, has only recently been written, or is being developed. For example, most Bantu people of Somalia are preliterate in their native Af-Maay because it has been codified for just a short time (Van Lehman & Eno, 2002). Preliterate English language learners often have had little or no exposure to written text and may not be aware of the purposes of literacy in everyday life. Traditionally, literacy instruction for preliterate learners builds on their oral language knowledge and is supported by oral language activities (Carroll, 1999). Preliterate learners generally progress slowly in literacy and other language instruction and require re-teaching of skills and concepts (Robson, 1982; Strucker, 2002). Some who never attended school as children may be unfamiliar with school culture and its attendant behaviors and expectations. Nonliterate learners come from cultures where literacy is available, but they have not had access to literacy instruction, often because of their socioeconomic status. For example, some adult learners from Central America may not know how to read or write in their native Spanish because of disrupted schooling due to war and poverty. These learners have probably had some exposure to written language and may have a greater awareness of the value and uses of literacy than preliterate learners. These learners may be reluctant to disclose their limited literacy background in class, and instruction with them may proceed slowly. They may learn classroom content more slowly than other learners, because they cannot make full use of textbooks, other printed materials, and class notes for review. However, they are often highly motivated to learn. Semiliterate learners usually have had access to literacy in their native culture, but because of their socioeconomic status or educational situation, they have not achieved a high level of literacy in their native language. Like nonliterate learners, they may have left school at a young age for economic or political reasons, as was the case with many Southeast Asian refugees and Central American immigrants in the 1970s and 1980s (Holt, 1995; Ranard & Pfleger, 1995). Two studies suggest that either previous or simultaneous acquisition of L1 literacy can have a positive impact on English literacy development among these populations. Robson (1982), in a study of Hmong learners of English at a refugee camp in Thailand, found that adults with minimal literacy in Hmong acquired English reading skills more rapidly than those who had no Hmong literacy. Similarly, a study of adult Haitians learning English in New York City (Burtoff, 1985) found that those who received native language literacy instruction while learning English developed stronger literacy skills in the L2 than did the English-only group, even though the total number of instructional hours for the two groups was equal. Although strong conclusions cannot be drawn from these studies due to the small number of students involved and the nonexperimental nature of the study design, this research points to the need to examine the value of native language literacy instruction prior to or at the same time as L2 literacy instruction. Researchers are now identifying students who have been educated primarily in the United States but have characteristics similar to those described above. Referred to as "Generation 1.5" learners, they have immigrated to the United States where they have attended schools and developed oral fluency in English. However, they are not literate in their native language, and they struggle with reading and writing in English. They may remain in ESL classes throughout their elementary and secondary school education and enter ESL programs as adults or need special attention in college programs (Harklau, Losey, & Siegal, 1999). Many preliterate, nonliterate, and semiliterate learners, including Generation 1.5 learners, may approach English literacy learning with trepidation. They need to be given opportunities to increase their self-confidence in educational situations and to develop positive images of themselves as readers (Goldberg, 1997). Many have high oral skills in English and may have had positive experiences with learning through oral ESL instruction. Learners who are literate in some writing system have the advantage of experience with deciphering and assigning meaning to print and using print to enhance their learning. Learners who are nonalphabet literate read a language that is written logographically, such as Chinese and Japanese. These learners may try to read in English by memorizing whole words. A study of 16 Russian and 11 Japanese learners in an intensive English program (IEP) at a Canadian university and 16 Russian learners of English in a university in Israel (Wade-Woolley, 1999) found that the Japanese learners, who use both a syllabary (kana) and a logographic (kanji) writing system relied more on English word recognition than did the Russian learners, who use a phonologically based alphabet. Wade-Woolley concluded that because the Japanese readers were not used to focusing on phoneme-to-sound mapping in reading, they were more likely than the Russian learners to depend on sight recognition of letter sequences. Learners who depend on whole word recognition to the exclusion of phonological decoding will not become proficient readers in alphabetic languages. Like children (as described in the National Reading Panel report, 2000), in order to become good readers in English, adult readers must develop an "alphabetical strategy" (Birch, 2002, p. 33); they must be able to process an alphabetic script in the way it was designed to be used (Adams, 1990). Non-Roman alphabet literate learners read in a language that uses a non-Roman alphabet, such as Cyrillic or Thai, but that is still phonetically based. These learners have the advantage of being accustomed to reading with an alphabet, but they may struggle to find words in the dictionary and may need time to process written materials presented in class because the orthography of their L1 is different from that of English. For example, Nepali students, whose Sanskrit-derived letters descend below the lines of text, may, at first, attempt to direct their visual attention below the lines of English text where only the "tails" of some English letters (g, j, p, and y) are written (Strucker, 2002). In addition to directionality issues (their alphabet reads right to left; the Roman alphabet, left to right), Arabic students learning to read in English are likely to have problems with vowels, which are usually not written out in everyday Arabic writings (Ryan & Meara, 1991). Strategies that these learners may have developed to read Arabic (e.g., proficient Arabic and Hebrew readers rely on context to determine which vowel sounds to assign to words) may not work as well in English reading and spelling, where vowels must be attended to (Birch, 2002). Both of these groups of learners have valuable reading skills in the first language that they may be able to transfer to second language reading, but they need direct, systematic, sequential instruction in the sound-to-symbol correspondences of written English, rather than merely addressing sound-symbol issues as they arise (Strucker, 2002). Many adult ESL students are literate in a Roman alphabetic language (e.g., Spanish or Serbo Croatian). Like those literate in a non-Roman script or in a logographic script, these learners have already developed reading skills and formed reading behaviors in their L1. They know that written language can represent speech. Their educational background and literacy skills may be an important part of their self-image. They can study English texts, take notes in class to learn new vocabulary or structures, and read outside of class. The English alphabet will be more familiar to them than to others whose native language does not use the Roman alphabet; many of them may appear to have little difficulty reading English, especially those from languages such as Spanish that have many cognates with English. Yet Roman-alphabet-literate learners still need to learn English sound-symbol correspondences before they are able to read well (Hilferty, 1996; Strucker, 2002). They need to know that English does not have the same level of correspondence between sound and written form that other orthographies or spelling systems do-that there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound. For example, some letters are pronounced more than one way depending on the letters/sounds that follow (e.g., c in citation and car), and some sounds are represented by more than one letter (e.g., the hard /k/ sound can be written as c, k, or ck, often depending on the letters/sounds that precede and follow it). Sometimes letters in English are silent as are the g and h in right. At the syllabic level, readers should learn, for example, that the combination ough can be pronounced as in tough and rough or as in bought and sought. Readers also need to learn the many pronunciations of vowels, including their sounds in stressed and unstressed syllables. Conclusion Learning to read is not easy, and it is especially difficult for adults learning to read in an L2. Research suggests that all English language learners, regardless of the type of L1 literacy in their background, need direct teaching in the English symbol system and in English sound-symbol correspondences. Previously learned reading strategies, learners' experiences and access to literacy, and the nature of their L1 written language contribute to the speed and ease with which learners will acquire L2 literacy. These factors, as well as English proficiency levels, should be considered in instruction of adults learning to read English. Types of L1 Literacy and Effects on L2 Literacy Learning |L1 Literacy||Explanation||Special Considerations| |Preliterate||L1 has no written form (e.g., many American indigenous, African, Australian, and Pacific languages).||Learners need exposure to the purposes and uses of literacy.| |Nonliterate||Learners have no access to literacy instruction.||Learners may feel stigmatized.| |Semiliterate||Learners have limited access to literacy instruction.||Learners may have had past negative experiences with literacy learning.| |Nonalphabet literate||Learners are fully literate in a language written in a nonalphabetic script (e.g., Chinese).||Learners need instruction in reading an alphabetic script and in the sound-syllable correspondences in English.| |Non-Roman alphabet literate||Learners are literate in a language written in a non-Roman alphabet (e.g., Arabic, Greek, Korean, Russian, and Thai).||Learners need instruction in the Roman alphabet in order to transfer their L1 literacy skills to English. Some, such as readers of Arabic, will need to learn to read from left to right.| |Roman alphabet literate||Learners are fully literate in a language written in a Roman alphabet script (e.g., French, German, and Spanish). They read from left to right and recognize letter shapes and fonts.||Learners need instruction in the specific letter-to-sound and sound-syllable correspondences of English.| From Reading and Adult English Language Learners: A Review of the Research, by M. Burt, J. K. Peyton, and R. Adams, 2003, Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education and Center for Applied Linguistics. Reprinted with permission. Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Adams, R., & Burt, M. (2002). Research on reading development of adult English language learners: An annotated bibliography. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved January 15, 2003, from http://www.cal.org/caela/readingbib Birch, B. M. (2002). English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the research. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Burtoff, M. (1985). The Haitian Creole literacy evaluation study (Final Report). New York: Ford Foundation. Carroll, S. D. (1999, March). Storytelling for literacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Michigan Reading Association, Grand Rapids, MI. (EDRS No. ED430234) Goldberg, R. (1997). Deconstructing the great wall of print. Connections: A Journal of Adult Literacy, 7, 8-13. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2002).Teaching and researching reading. Harlow, England: Pearson Education. Harklau, L., Losey, K. M., & Siegal, M. (1999). Generation 1.5 meets college composition: Issues in the teaching of writing to U.S.-educated learners of ESL. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Hilferty, A. G. (1996). Coding decoding: Predicting the reading comprehension of Latino adults learning English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Holt, G. M. (1995). Teaching low-level adult ESL learners. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved January 10, 2003, from http://www.cal.org/caela/digests/holt.htm (EDRS No. ED379965) Huntley, H. S. (1992). The new illiteracy: A study of the pedagogic principles of teaching English as a second language to nonliterate adults. Unpublished manuscript. (EDRS No. ED356685) National Reading Panel. (2000, April). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Pub. No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved January 23, 2003, from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm Ranard, D. A., & Pfleger, M. (1995). From the classroom to the community: A fifteen-year experiment in refugee education. Washington, DC, & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems. Robson, B. (1982). Hmong literacy, formal education, and their effects on performance in an ESL class. In B. T. Downing & D. P. Olney (Eds.), The Hmong in the West: Observations and reports (pp. 201- 225). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Ryan, A., & Meara, P. (1991). The case of the invisible vowels: Arabic speakers reading English words. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7, 531-540. Snow, C., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Strucker, J. (2002, June). NCSALL's adult reading components study (ARCS). Paper presented at the conference of the International Dyslexia Association, Washington, DC. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, Division of Adult Education and Literacy. (2002, April 8). State-administered adult education program 2001 enrollment,. Washington, DC: Author. Van Lehman, D., & Eno, O. (2002). The Somali Bantu: Their history and culture. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved January 10, 2003, from http://www.culturalorientation.net/bantu Wade-Woolley, L. (1999). First language influences on second language word reading: All roads lead to Rome. Language Learning, 49, 447-471. This brief is excerpted and adapted from Reading and Adult English Language Learners: A Review of the Research, by M. Burt, J. K. Peyton, & R. Adams, 2003, Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education & Center for Applied Linguistics. This document was produced at the Center for Applied Linguistics (4646 40th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20016 202-362-0700) with funding from the U.S. Department of Education (ED), Office of Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE), under Contract No. ED-99-CO-0008. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of ED. This document is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission.

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By Carl F. Young Tonghak, or Eastern Learning, was the first major new religion in modern Korean history. Founded in 1860, it combined aspects of a variety of Korean religious traditions. Because of its appeal to the poor and marginalized, it became best known for its prominent role in the largest peasant rebellion in Korean history in 1894, which set the stage for a wider regional conflict, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Although the rebellion failed, it caused immense changes in Korean society and played a part in the war that ended in Japan's victory and its eventual rise as an imperial power. It was in this context of social change and an increasingly perilous international situation that Tonghak rebuilt itself, emerging as Ch'ŏndogyo (Teaching of the Heavenly Way) in 1906. During the years before Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910, Ch'ŏndogyo continued to evolve by engaging with new currents in social and political thought, strengthening its institutions, and using new communication technologies to spread its religious and political message. In spite of Korea's loss of independence, Ch'ŏndogyo would endure and play a major role in Korean nationalist movements in the Japanese colonial period, most notably the March First independence demonstrations in 1919. It was only able to thrive thanks to the processes that had taken place in the twilight years of Korean independence. This book focuses on the internal developments in the Tonghak and Ch'ŏndogyo movements between 1895 and 1910. Drawing on a variety of sources in several languages such as religious histories, doctrinal works, newspapers, government reports, and foreign diplomatic reports, it explains how Tonghak survived the turmoil following the failed 1894 rebellion to set the foundations for Ch'ŏndogyo's important role in the Japanese colonial period. The story of Tonghak and Ch'ŏndogyo not only is an example of how new religions interact with their surrounding societies and how they consolidate and institutionalize themselves as they become more established; it also reveals the processes by which Koreans coped and engaged with the challenges of social, political, and economic change and the looming darkness that would result in the extinguishing of national independence at the hands of Japan's expanding empire. Carl F. Young is associate professor in the history department at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada. Edited by Charlotte Horlyck and Michael J. Pettid 288 pages; 21 illustrations Death and the activities and beliefs surrounding it can teach us much about the ideals and cultures of the living. While biologically death is an end to physical life, this break is not quite so apparent in its mental and spiritual aspects. Indeed, the influence of the dead over the living is sometimes much greater than before death. This volume takes a multidisciplinary approach in an effort to provide a fuller understanding of both historic and contemporary practices linked with death in Korea. Contributors from Korea and the West incorporate the approaches of archaeology, history, literature, religion, and anthropology in addressing a number of topics organized around issues of the body, disposal of remains, ancestor worship and rites, and the afterlife. The first two chapters explore the ways in which bodies of the dying and the dead were dealt with from the Greater Silla Kingdom (668–935) to the mid-twentieth century. Grave construction and goods, cemeteries, and memorial monuments in Koryŏ (918–1392) and the twentieth century are then discussed, followed by a consideration of ancestral rites and worship, which have formed an inseparable part of Korean mortuary customs since premodern times. Chapters address the need to appease the dead both in shamanic and Confucian contexts. The final section of the book examines the treatment of the dead and how the state of death has been perceived. Ghost stories provide important insight into how death was interpreted by common people in Koryŏ and Chosŏn (1392–1910) while nonconformist narratives of death such as the seventeenth-century romantic novel Kuunmong point to a clear conflict between Buddhist thought and practice and official Neo-Confucian doctrine. Keeping with unendorsed views on death, the final chapter explores how death and the afterlife were understood by early Korean Catholics of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Death, Mourning, and the Afterlife in Korea fills a significant gap in studies on Korean society and culture as well as on East Asian mortuary practices. By approaching its topic from a variety of disciplines and extending its historical reach to cover both premodern and modern Korea, it is an important resource for scholars and students in a variety of fields. Charlotte Horlyck is lecturer in Korean art history in the Department of the History of Art and Archaeology, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Michael J. Pettid is professor of premodern Korean studies in the Department of Asian and Asian American Studies at Binghamton University (SUNY), where he also is director of the Translation Research and Instruction Program. Edited by Kyung-Ae Park 248 pages; 15 charts The concept of security has undergone significant change in the past few decades. Traditionally thought of in terms of the state-centric, militarily focused, realist discourse, the concept of security has been broadened to include a greater number of potential threats and an increased number of relevant actors. Yet, despite the great changes in security scholarship, the vast majority of studies on North Korea continue to focus primarily on the country's nuclear weapons program, its military, and other traditional security issues surrounding Pyongyang. While North Korea captures headlines with its aggressive behavior and growing nuclear arsenal, the ground-level threats to average, everyday North Koreans go largely unnoticed. This groundbreaking volume seeks to refocus research on North Korean security from the traditional to largely unexplored non-traditional security (NTS) issues. In the wake of political succession to Kim Jung Un, the issue of non-traditional security is increasingly important. From the lasting effects of the famine of the 1990s to continued food shortages and the growing marketization of North Korean society, the Pyongyang regime is facing diverse and unprecedented challenges. This book offers cutting-edge analyses of emerging North Korean NTS issues by the world's leading specialists in the field. It looks at these issues and their effects at the local, regional, and international levels, as well as examining the international community's efforts to promote an NTS approach to North Korea. More specifically, the volume addresses the traditional and non-traditional security paradigms, energy security, gender security, transnational organized crime, the internal and external dimensions of North Korea's food security, the "Responsibility to Protect," refugee issues and international law, and the role of NGOs in promoting NTS in North Korea. Contributors: Tsuneo Akaha, Peter Hayes, Brendan Howe, W. Randall Ireson, David C. Kang, Shin-wha Lee, Mark Manyin, Kyung-Ae Park, Scott Snyder, Jae-Jung Suh, David von Hippel. Kyung-Ae Park holds the Korea Foundation Chair at the Institute of Asian Research, University of British Columbia. By Tatiana Gabroussenko cloth, ISBN 978-0-8248-3396-1, $49.00 An understanding of contemporary North Korea’s literature is virtually impossible without an investigation of its formative period, 1945–1960, which saw a gradual transformation from the initial “Soviet era” to a Korean version of “national Stalinism.” This turbulent epoch established a long-lasting framework for North Korean literature and set up an elaborate system of political control over literary matters, as well as over the people who served in this field. In 1946 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) leader Kim Il Sung described the country’s writers as “soldiers on the cultural front,” thus clearly defining what the nascent Communist regime expected from its intellectuals. As a result, many literary nonentities were rewarded with fame and success (often only to be relegated once again to obscurity within a few years) while many outstanding luminaries of the past were erased from the pages of official publications or even lost their lives. The Soviet cultural impact brought new tropes, artistic images, and rhetoric, which were quickly absorbed into the North Korean discourse. However, the cultural politics of the DPRK and the USSR revealed profound and irreconcilable disparities that were rooted in the different political conditions and traditions of each country. Soldiers on the Cultural Front presents the first consistent research on the early history of North Korea’s literature and literary policy in Western scholarship. It traces the introduction and development of Soviet-organized conventions in North Korean literary propaganda and investigates why the “romance with Moscow” was destined to be short lived. It reconstructs the biographies and worldviews of major personalities who shaped North Korean literature and teases these historical figures out of popular scholarly myth and misconception. The book also investigates the specific forms of control over intellectuals and literary matters in North Korea. Considering the unique phenomenon of North Korean literary critique, the author analyzes the political campaigns and purges of 1947–1960 and investigates the role of North Korean critics as “political executioners” in these events. She draws on an impressive variety and number of sources—ranging from interviews with Korean and Soviet participants, public and family archives, and memoirs to original literary and critical texts—to present a balanced and eye-opening work that will benefit those interested in not only understanding North Korean literature and society, but also rethinking forms of socialist modernity elsewhere in the world. Tatiana Gabroussenko is a visiting fellow in the Faculty of Asian Studies at Australia National University. By Yung-Hee Kim 256 pp.; 10 illus. paper, ISBN 978-0-8248-3409-8, $24.00 cloth, ISBN 978-0-8248-3395-4, $55.00 Available for the first time in English, the ten short stories by modern Korean women collected here touch in one way or another on issues related to gender and kinship politics. All of the protagonists are women who face personal crises or defining moments in their lives as gender-marked beings in a Confucian, patriarchal Korean society. Their personal dreams and values have been compromised by gender expectations or their own illusions about female existence. They are compelled to ask themselves “Who am I?” “Where am I going?” “What are my choices?” Each story bears colorful and compelling testimony to the life of the heroine. Some of the stories celebrate the central character’s breakaway from the patriarchal order; others expose sexual inequality and highlight the struggle for personal autonomy and dignity. Still others reveal the abrupt awakening to mid-life crises and the seasoned wisdom that comes with accepting the limits of old age. The stories are arranged in chronological order, from the earliest work by Korea’s first modern woman writer in 1917 to stories that appeared in 1995—approximately one from each decade. Most of the writers presented are recognized literary figures, but some are lesser-known voices. The introduction presents a historical overview of traditions of modern Korean women’s fiction, situating the selected writers and their stories in the larger context of Korean literature. Each story is accompanied by a biographical note on the author and a brief critical analysis. A selected bibliography is provided for further reading and research. Questioning Minds marks a departure from existing translations of Korean literature in terms of its objectives, content, and format. As such it will contribute to the growth of Korean studies, increasing the availability of material for teaching Korean literature in English, and stimulate readership of its writers beyond the confines of the peninsula. Yung-Hee Kim is professor of Korean literature in the Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. By Alexander Vovin cloth, ISBN 978-0-8248-3278-0, $55.00 The Japonic (Japanese and Ryukyuan) portmanteau language family and the Korean language have long been considered isolates on the fringe of northeast Asia. Although in the last fifty years many specialists in Japonic and Korean historical linguistics have voiced their support for a genetic relationship between the two, this concept has not been endorsed by general historical linguists and no significant attempts have been made to advance beyond the status quo. Alexander Vovin, a longtime advocate of the genetic relationship view, engaged in a reanalysis of the known data in the hope of finding evidence in support of this view. In the process of his work, however, he became convinced that the multiple similarities between Japonic and Korean are the result of several centuries of contact and do not descend from a hypothetical common ancestor. In Koreo-Japonica, Vovin carefully reviews recent advances in the reconstruction of both language families. His detailed analysis of most of the morphological and lexical comparisons offered so far shows that whenever the proposed comparisons are not due to pure chance, they can almost always be explained as borrowings from Korean into a central group of Japanese dialects from roughly between the third and eighth centuries A.D. The remaining group of lexical (but not morphological) comparisons that cannot be explained in this way is, he argues, too small to serve as proof of even a distant genetic relationship. In this volume, a leading historical linguist presents a significant challenge to a view widely held by Japonic and Korean historical linguistics on the relationship between the two language families and offers material support for the skepticism long espoused by general historical linguists on the matter. His findings will both challenge and illuminate issues of interest to all linguists working with language contact and typology as well as those concerned with the prehistory and early history of East Asia. Alexander Vovin is professor of East Asian languages at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. Edited by Timothy R. Tangherlini and Sallie Yea 237 pp.; 9 illus.; 7 maps; index Cloth, ISBN 978-0-8248-3138-7, $58.00 Arranged around a set of provocative themes, the essays in this volume engage in the discussion from various critical perspectives on Korean geography. Part One, “Geographies of the (Colonial) City,” focuses on Seoul during the Japanese colonial occupation from 1910–1945 and the lasting impact of that period on the construction of specific places in Seoul. In Part Two, “Geographies of the (Imagined) Village,” the authors delve into the implications for the conceptions of the village of recent economic and industrial development. In this context, they examine both constructed space, such as the Korean Folk Village, and rural villages that were physically transformed through the processes of rapid modernization. The essays in “Geographies of Religion” (Part Three) reveal how religious sites are historically and environmentally contested as well as the high degree of mobility exhibited by sites themselves. Similarly, places that exist at the margins are powerful loci for the negotiation of identity and aspects of cultural ideology. The final section, “Geographies of the Margin,” focuses on places that exist at the margins of Korean society. Contributors: Todd A. Henry, Jong-Heon Jin, Laurel Kendall, David J. Nemeth, Robert Oppenheim, Michael J. Pettid, Je-Hun Ryu, Jesook Song, Timothy R. Tangherlini, and Sallie Yea. Timothy R. Tangherlini is a professor in the Department of Asian Languages and Cultures at the University of California, Los Angeles. Sallie Yea is a senior research fellow in international development at RMIT University, Melbourne. By Hahn Moo-Sook Trans. by Young-Key Kim-Renaud Paper, ISBN 0-8248-2908-5, $20.00 Cloth, ISBN 0-8248-2888-7, $50.00 Published with support from the Korean Literature Translation Institute A compelling saga of love, jealously, honor, and greed, And So Flows History (Yŏksanun hŭrŭnda, 1947) depicts the relentless power of exterior forces on the lives of three generations of the illustrious Cho family—from the waning years of the Chosŏn dynasty in the late nineteenth century to the tumultuous postliberation era.Hahn Moo-Sook (1918–1993) is one of Korea's most celebrated writers of modern realist literature. She received many awards for her writing, including the 1986 Grand Prix of the Republic of Korea Literature Award for her novel Encounter. And So Flows History, Hahn's first novel, received first prize in a 1947 contest organized by a major Korean daily. "[This] is the first modern Korean novel that defines, both in duration of its action and the issues it addresses, the trajectory of recent Korean history.... [Hahn Moo-Sook] devises a form, which can be characterized as a novel of ideas, in which each character is a symbolic figure, and which interweaves the lives of the Cho family with the social forces of the time. Enormously influential, it prefigures such themes as tradition versus modernization, the repositioning of gender, the redefinition and recomposition of class, the interaction between Koreas in Korea, and those in the diaspora that are taken up in later works." —from the Introduction by JaHyun Kim Haboush Young-Key Kim-Renaud is the eldest daughter of Hahn Moo-Sook. She is chair of the Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures and professor of Korean language and culture and international affairs at George Washington University, Washington, D.C. By Andrei N. Lankov 296 pp., cloth, ISBN 0-8248-2809-7 North Korea remains the most mysterious of all Communist countries. The acute shortage of available sources has made it a difficult subject of scholarship. Through his access to Soviet archival material made available only a decade ago, contemporary North Korean press accounts, and personal interviews, Andrei Lankov presents for the first time a detailed look at one of the turning points in North Korean history: the country's unsuccessful attempts to de-Stalinize in the mid-1950s. He demonstrates that, contrary to common perception, North Korea was not a realm of undisturbed Stalinism; Kim Il Sung had to deal with a reformist opposition that was weak but present nevertheless. Lankov traces the impact of Soviet reforms on North Korea, placing them in the context of contemporaneous political crises in Poland and Hungary. He documents the dissent among various social groups (intellectuals, students, party cadres) and their attempts to oust Kim in the unsuccessful "August plot" of 1956. His reconstruction of the Peng-Mikoyan visit of that year—the most dramatic Sino-Soviet intervention into Pyongyang politics—shows how it helped bring an end to purges of the opposition. The purges, however, resumed in less than a year as Kim skillfully began to distance himself from both Moscow and Beijing. The final chapters of this fascinating and revealing study deal with events of the late 1950s that eventually led to Kim's version of "national Stalinism." Lankov unearths data that, for the first time, allows us to estimate the scale and character of North Korea's Great Purge. Meticulously researched and cogently argued, Crisis in North Korea is a must-read for students and scholars of Korea and anyone interested in political leadership and personality cults, regime transition, and communist politics. Andrei N. Lankov is a lecturer in the Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. By Chan E. Park ISBN 0-8248-2511-X, $44.00 cloth From its humble "straw mat" origins to its paradoxical status as a national treasure, p'ansori has survived centuries of change and remains the primary source of Korean narrative and poetic consciousness. In this innovative work, Chan Park celebrates her subject not as a static phenomenon but a living, organic tradition adapting to an ever-shifting context. Drawing on her extensive literary and performance backgrounds, Park provides insights into the relationship between language and music, singing and speaking, and traditional and modern reception. Her "performance-centered" approach to p'ansori informs the discussion of a wide range of topics, including the amalgamation of the dramatic, the narrative, and the poetic; the invocation of traditional narrative in contemporary politics; the vocal construction of gender; and the politics of preservation. Chan E. Park is associate professor of Korean language, literature, and performance folklore at Ohio State University. By Michael J. Seth 2002. 328 pp. ISBN 0-8248-2534-9, $49.00 cloth. In the half century after 1945, South Korea went from an impoverished, largely rural nation ruled by a succession of authoritarian regimes to a prosperous, democratic industrial society. No less impressive was the country's transformation from a nation where a majority of the population had no formal education to one with some of the world's highest rates of literacy, high school graduates, and university students. Drawing on their premodern and colonial heritages as well as American education concepts, South Koreans have been largely successful in creating a schooling system that is comprehensive, uniform in standards, and universal. The key to understanding this educational transformation is South Korean society's striking, nearly universal preoccupation with schooling—what Koreans themselves call their "education fever." This volume explains how Koreans' concern for achieving as much formal education as possible appeared immediately before 1945 and quickly embraced every sector of society. Through interviews with teachers, officials, parents, and students and an examination of a wide range of written materials in both Korean and English, Michael Seth explores the reasons for this social demand for education and how it has shaped nearly every aspect of South Korean society. He also looks at the many problems of the Korean educational system: the focus on entrance examinations, which has tended to reduce education to test preparation; the overheated competition to enter prestigious schools; the enormous financial burden placed on families for costly private tutoring; the inflexibility created by an emphasis on uniformity of standards; and the misuse of education by successive governments for political purposes. Michael J. Seth is assistant professor of history at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia. By Michael Finch 2002. 256 pp. ISBN 0-8248-2520-9, $45.00 cloth The diplomat and scholar-official Min Yong-hwan (1861–1905), described by one contemporary Western observer as "undoubtably the first Korean after the emperor," is best remembered in Korean historiography for his pioneering diplomacy at the courts of Tsar Nicholas II and Queen Victoria in the late 1890s. Furthermore, he is considered to be the foremost patriot of Korea's Taehan era (1897–1907). This pioneering study of Min Yong-hwan provides us with a new perspective on a period of Korean history that still casts its shadow over the region today. This new biography of Min contributes substantially to our understanding of this period by looking beyond the established view of Korea as being polarized between reformists and reactionaries in the late Chosŏn era. In doing so, it provides us with deeper insight into the full range of responses of the late Chosŏn leadership to the dual challenges of internal stagnation and external intervention at the juncture of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It will be essential reading for anyone interested in the recent history of Korea, late nineteenth-century imperialism, and Russian, Japanese, American, and British foreign policy in northeast Asia. Michael Finch is visiting assistant professor of Korean studies at Keimyung University in Taegu. By Linda S. Lewis 2002. 208 pp. ISBN 0-8248-2479-2, $50.00 cloth. ISBN 0-9248-2543-9, $19.95 paper. The Kwangju Uprising is one of the most important political events in late twentieth-century Korean history. What began as a peaceful demonstration against the imposition of military rule in the southwestern city of Kwangju in May 1980 turned into a bloody people's revolt. In the two decades since, memories of the Kwangju Uprising have lived on, assuming symbolic importance in the Korean democracy movement, underlying the rise in anti-American sentiment in South Korea, and shaping the nation's transition to a civil society. Nonetheless it remains a contested event, the subject still of controversy, confusion, international debate, and competing claims. As one of the few Western eyewitnesses to the Uprising, Linda Lewis is uniquely positioned to write about the event. In this innovative work on commemoration politics, social representation, and memory, Lewis draws on her fieldwork notes from May 1980, writings from the 1980s, and ethnographic research she conducted in the late 1990s on the memorialization of Kwangju and its relationship to changes in the national political culture. Throughout, the chronological organization of the text is crisscrossed with commentary that provocatively disrupts the narrative flow and engages the reader in the reflexive process of remembering Kwangju over two decades. Highly original in its method and approach, Laying Claim to the Memory of May situates this seminal event in a broad historical and scholarly context. The result is not only the definitive history of the Kwangju Uprising, but also a sweeping overview of Korean studies over the last few decades. Linda S. Lewis is associate professor of anthropology and director of the East Asian Studies Program at Wittenberg University. By Wayne Patterson 2000. 284 pp. ISBN 0-8248-2093-2, $49.00 cloth. ISBN 0-8248-2241-2, $24.95 paper. "A clear, persuasive account." —Choice, September 2000 "An insightful and well-researched analysis" —Acta Koreana, 2000 "Patterson provides us with a candid and thorough snapshot of a single generation of Korean immigrants in Hawai`i, each chapter . . . systematically exploring a single aspect of their lives. . . . He underestimates the potential contribution of his research to both Asian and Asian American studies." —Journal of Asian Studies, November 2000 "The Ilse is the most comprehensive work published to date on the initial wave of Korean immigrants to the United States. A well executed qualitative analysis of the life history of the community, the book is also extremely eloquent and entertaining to read. . . . It should be required reading for anyone interested in the history of East Asian immigration in America." —Eui Young Yu, California State University, Los Angeles On January 13, 1903, the first Korean immigrants arrived in Hawai'i. Numbering a little more than a hundred individuals, this group represented the initial wave of organized Korean immigration to Hawai'i. Over the next two and a half years, nearly 7,500 Koreans would make the long journey eastward across the Pacific. Most were single men contracted to augment (and, in many cases, to offset) the large numbers of existing Chinese and Japanese plantation workers. Although much has been written about early Chinese and Japanese laborers in Hawai'i, until now no comprehensive work had been published on first-generation Korean immigrants, the ilse. Making extensive use of primary source material from Korea, Japan, the continental U.S., and Hawai'i, Wayne Patterson weaves a compelling social history of the Korean experience in Hawai'i from 1903 to 1973 as seen primarily through the eyes of the ilse. Japanese surveillance records, student journals, and U.S. intelligence reports—many of which were uncovered by the author—provide an "inner history" of the Korean community. Chapter topics include plantation labor, Christian mission work, the move from the plantation to the city, picture prides, relations with the Japanese government, interaction with other ethnic groups, intergenerational conflict, the World War II experience, and the postwar years. The Ilse is an impressive and much-needed contribution to Korean American and Hawai'i history and significantly advances our knowledge of the East Asian immigrant experience in the United States. Wayne Patterson is professor of history at St. Norbert College in De Pere, Wisconsin, and author of The Korean Frontier in America: Immigration to Hawaii, 1896-1910 (University of Hawai'i Press, 1988). Translated by Peter H. Lee 2000. 240 pp. ISBN 89-7155-050-3, $27.00 cloth. The Imjin nok, or Record of the Black Dragon Year, is the first popular tale inspired by the Japanese invasion of Korea between 1592 and 1598. As a collection of folk narratives clustered around major events and characters, it exists in some forty manuscript and printed versions, long and short, in the vernacular and literary Chinese. Peter H. Lee provides the first accurate and readable translation of this cultural text in English. In the Introduction, Lee traces the rise of popular storytelling in late Choson times, analyzes ten recurrent motifs shared by the most extant versions in the vernacular, and firsthand eyewitness accounts of Korean captives in Japan along with similar accounts of the war in the records of dream journeys and kasa poetry. Peter H. Lee is professor of Korean and comparative literature at the University of California, Los Angeles By Miho Choo and William O’Grady ISBN 0-8248-1738-9, $46.00 cloth. ISBN 0-8248-1815-6, $26.95 paper. This first-ever “root dictionary” of Korean designed for second-language learners contains more than 1,500 lists of words built from shared roots. The lists offer a unique and efficient way for learners to acquire new words. On encountering a word, one can consult the lists for its component roots and discover many other semantically related words built from the same elements. The Handbook consists of two sections, one presenting roots of Chinese origin and the second containing native Korean roots. Within each section, each list begins with the relevant root written in Korean script together with the Chinese character (if there is one) and its English translation. The entries for individual words within a list include information about each item’s colloquial interpretation, the literal meaning of the component parts, and the Chinese characters used to write it. The Handbook will be of value to teachers and students of Korean as well as to native speakers of Korean who wish to use the word structure of their native language as a starting point for the study of English vocabulary. William O'Grady is professor of linguistics at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. By Kajiyama Toshiyuki Translated by Yoshiko Dykstra Introduction by George Akita and Yong-ho Ch’oe 1995. 186 pp. ISBN 0-8248-1532-7, $18.00 cloth. The five stories in this collection are the first English translations of Japanese works dealing with Korea under Japan’s harsh military rule. The stories included in the volume are: “The Clan Records,” “The Remembered Shadow of the Yi Dynasty,” “Seeking Life amdist Death: The Last Day of the War,” “When the Hibiscus Bloom,” and “A Crane on a Dunghill in Seoul in 1936.” “[The stories] are fascinating, sensual, and informative, shedding light on the thought and behavior of colonizers and the colonized in occupied Seoul.” —Journal of Asian Studies Edited by Kenneth M. Wells ISBN 0-8248-1700-1, $35.00 cloth. The minjung (people’s) movement stood in the forefront of the nationwide tide that swept away the military in June 1987 and opened up space for more democratic politics, more responsible economics, and new directions in culture. Yet, as concrete reforms take shape, serious debate has arisen over the identity of the minjung and the values the term represents. This is the first work in English to grapple specifically with the nature, impact, and implications of the diverse forms taken by this national development that lies at the center of the last three decades of tumult and change in South Korea. It offers insights from the per-spective of Korean and Western experts in a variety of disciplines, including leaders of the movement itself. Translated by Peter H. Lee 1991. 197 pp. ISBN 0-8248-1298-0, $24.00 cloth. Taken from the pen names Chong Ch’ol and Yun Sondo, respectively, Pine River and Lone Peak represents the works of the sixtenth- and seventeenth-century Korean masters of the short lyric poetry (sijo) and narrative verse (kasa) forms. This new translation also includes the works of Pak Illo, as well as a literary and cultural introduction to the period, enabling the modern reader to understand the continuous dialogue with the tradition in which these poets engaged. Peter H. Lee is professor of Korean and comparative literature at the University of California, Los Angeles. By Jong-suk Chay 1990. 239 pp. ISBN 0-8248-1236-0, $32.00 cloth. This book contains a wealth of information on early Korean-American relations and offers valuable insights—especially into the role of public opinion in the foreign policy-making process and the influence of systemic change on diplomatic relations. By Wayne Patterson 1988. 274 pp. ISBN 0-8248-1090-2, $30.00 cloth. ISBN 0-8248-1650-1, $19.95 paper. “With remarkable attention to detail, Patterson not only explains how and why Koreans came to Hawai‘i and their fate on arrival, but also the major political, economic, and diplomatic intrigues involved [in Seoul, Tokyo, Washington, D.C., and Hawai‘i’s sugar industry].” —History Wayne Patterson is professor of history at St. Norbert College in De Pere, Wisconsin. By James Irving Matray 1985. 351 pp. ISBN 0-8248-0973-4, $30.00. “Matray‘s monograph . . . is now the best treatment of the subject. . . . [He] addresses a host of issues that have divided scholars for a decade.”—Reviews in American History James I. Matray is professor of history at California State University, Chico. Edited by Youngnok Koo and Dae-Sook Suh 1984. 397 pp. ISBN 0-8248-0945-9, $30.00. The century-long relationship between Korea and the United States is examined in this integrated series of studies by Korean and American scholars. The volume grew out of a conference held at the University of Hawai‘i’s Center for Korean Studies in May 1982 in observance of the centennial of the signing of the treaty establishing relations between the two nations. Not limited to an analysis of the political and economic dimensions of the relationship, this book considers as well the historical, cultural, social, and intellectual ties between Korea and the United States. Edited by Dae-Sook Suh ISBN 0-8248-1598-X, $35.00 cloth. This volume contains sixteen papers selected from the nearly one hundred presented at the First Pacific Basin Conference on Korean studies, held in Honolulu in 1992. The papers reflect the wide range of academic disciplines and geographic regions represented at the conference. They are grouped into five broad categories—history, literature, philosophy and religion, politics and economics, and sociology—and address such topics as rethinking popular culture in 1930s Korea, women’s literature in the Chosŏn period, early Western studies of Korean religions, North Korean foreign policy, and ethnic identity and community involvement of young Korean Americans. Titles in the Hawai'i Studies on Korea series and those listed under "Other Books" may be ordered from the University of Hawai'i Press, Order Dept., 2840 Kolowalu St., Honolulu, HI 96822-1888. Tel. (800) 956-2840 or (808) 956-8255; fax (800) 650-7811 or (808) 988-6052. The Center for Korean Studies welcomes inquiries and proposals regarding publication in the Hawai'i Studies on Korea series. For further information on the series, click here.

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The Past Simple tense is more useful than the Present Simple and Present Continuous tenses, and it is often argued that it should actually be presented earlier than those two. It can also be seen as a great opportunity to teach loads of useful verbs and time expressions like “two years ago”, “once upon a time, a long long time ago” and “the day before yesterday”. What students will need to know about the Past Simple tense includes: - Irregular forms - Pronunciation of regular and irregular forms - Spelling of regular forms - When it should be used, mainly meaning time clauses that it can be used with - Use of the auxiliary “did” in question formation, negatives and short answers Student problems with the Past Simple tense tend to include: - Using the Present Simple instead - Using the Past Perfect tense instead, especially when the action happened a long time ago - Using the Present Perfect instead of the Past Simple, especially for speakers of languages such as French who have a tense with a similar structure that is used in more or less the same way as the Past Simple in English - Pronouncing all –ed endings as /ed/, also meaning adding syllables to many verbs that should remain the same length as the Present Simple/ infinitive - Confusing “before” with “ago” in sentences like “I came here 20 years before” (which would mean twenty years before the previous event I talked about rather than 20 years before now) - Confusion between particular pairs of past forms, e.g. “felt”/ “fell” and “found”/ “founded” - Confusion caused by irregular forms with similar spelling and different pronunciation - Not knowing the meanings of the verbs they are expected to learn the past forms of - Wasting time, effort and mental capacity on things which are not important such as rarely used verbs which are irregular or differences between British and American English - Mixing up prepositions in Past Simple time expressions with sentences like “I did it on yesterday” and “I got up in ten o’clock” Teaching Past Simple pronunciation and spelling rules The general rule with regular forms is that –ed has a /t/ sound when it follows an unvoiced sound, as after /p/ in “stopped” and after /s/ in “passed”. By contrast, voiced sounds like /b/ in “robbed” and /z/ in “phased out” are followed by a /d/ sound. This is quite easy to explain, as the difference between the final /t/ and the final /d/ sound is also that the former is unvoiced and the latter is voiced. This means that unvoiced sounds are followed by the unvoiced /t/ sound and voiced sounds are followed by the voiced /d/ sound, obviously saving you “switching” your vocal cords on and off. Students can almost always work this out for themselves with some help. Once students have understood the straightforward rule above, I generally wouldn’t spend any more time on the distinction between /d/ and /t/ pronunciations of –ed. For one thing, students will often reproduce this effect naturally as their fluency improves anyway, as it is easier to speak that way. In addition, this distinction very rarely causes comprehension problems. More important than the distinction between /t/ and/d/ is the fact that neither form increases the number of syllables in the word. This is because in English the number of syllables is the same as the number of vowel sounds and there is no extra vowel sound in /d/ and /t/, leading to one syllable in both “wash” and “washed” and two syllables in both “increase” and “increased”. In contrast to those two pronunciations, after infinitives ending with /t/ (as in “pasted”) and /d/ (as in “needed”) –ed in pronounced /id/, and this does increase the number of syllables. This is also fairly easy to understand or help students work out for themselves, as it is impossible to pronounce /tt/ in English without an intervening vowel sound. All this means a fairly large distinction between /id/ with its added syllable and /d/ and /t/ without. This is often worth a bit of classroom time, especially with students who add another syllable to all regular past forms. The teaching ideas further down this article can be used with whatever distinction you decide to focus on, or even all three at the same time if for some reason you decide on that. Many textbooks deal with the presentation stage by asking students to listen for the pronunciations of the –ed endings in order to classify and then (often) think about why that might be. I believe the first stage of that is either useless or impossible for students most of the time, because if they can hear the difference they can probably produce it sooner or later without the need to study it! It is therefore usually better to give them the pronunciations of some verbs with –ed endings to think about the reasons for, then they can put other verbs into the same categories by a combination of analysing the last sounds and listening to the pronunciation. Starting with a stage where they listen for the pronunciation can work with /id/ pronunciations, however, especially if you ask them to count syllables rather than think about sounds. The other issue with regular forms is spelling. For example, in the verbs above “stopped” has a doubled consonant before the –ed ending, but “needed” is not “needded”. The simple rule is that short stressed vowel sounds followed by a single consonant need the consonant doubled. This is part of the Magic E spelling rule. The Magic E rule tells us that a short vowel sound followed by a single consonant and the letter E “says its name”. This can be seen in the pairs fat/ fate, gen/ gene, bit/ bite, dot/ dote and cut/ cute, in which the vowel sounds in the second in each pair is the same as the letters of the alphabet A, E, I, O and U. The same thing would not happen with words with long vowel sounds (including diphthongs) and words with more than one final consonant. For example, in the imaginary pairs batt/ batte, bitt/ bitte etc all the words would be pronounced the same way, and the same would be true of deign/ deigne etc. Magic E is probably the most well-known spelling rule amongst native speakers and the most useful for language learners to study. Less well known is that exactly the same rule is true with words ending in –ing and –ed, leading to the spelling rule for –ed endings explained above. How to teach irregular Past Simple forms As with regular forms, the greatest problems with irregular forms like “went” and “bought” tend to be pronunciation and then spelling. As the vast majority of students will take regular –ed endings to be the default mode, students will also need to remember which verbs are irregular, and many students also seem to have a mental subcategory for “verbs which don’t change” such as “put” and “cut”. The good news about irregular Past Simple forms is that almost all of them are close enough to their infinitive forms that even students who have never seen them before can usually match them up, and this is even easier if the verbs are in context. With classes who have confidence (in themselves and the teacher), it is even possible to start with a game in which they do so, such as the Pelmanism game mentioned in the practice section below. It is probably even easier for students to guess which of a pair of words in the past and which is the present, again especially if the words are given in at least a sentence of context (something that could be used to present time expressions as well). This means that this could also be done as a game stage before the presentation, in this case with games such as Stations. How to teach time expressions with Past Simple It isn’t usually worth actually presenting time clauses with Past Simple until you have Present Perfect to contrast it with, so instead I usually just give them suggested phrases like “two years ago” and “the week before last” in whatever speaking games we are using (see below). Another approach is to do a lesson on prepositions of time like “at 7 o’clock” and “on Monday” but no preposition with “yesterday” and “last year”. Students could be asked to spot the similarities between time expressions with the same preposition (e.g. “on Xmas day”, “on 25 December” and “on Monday” are the same because they are actually the same day) and then classify others in the same way, or this could be combined with past verbs forms in an error correction activity with sentences like “I go there yesterday” and “I went there in last year”. How to teach Past Simple question formation and negatives Past Simple questions are easier both than Past Simple positive statements (because the verbs are in the infinitive) and than the Present Simple questions that have probably been presented earlier (because there is no third person S). There is therefore probably no need for specific presentation of this point. The same is true of negatives and short answers. However, this might be a good point to show how “What do you do?” and “What did you do?” are part of the general pattern of “(Wh) + auxiliary verb + S + main verb” that will also be useful later on. Classroom activities for regular Past Simple pronunciation and spelling The most active way of practising this point is getting students to physically react depending on which form they think they hear (preferably being able to analyse them using the rules which have been presented to double check). This only really works with a double distinction (rather than trying to do all three pronunciations of –ed at the same time). Young learner classes can be asked to run and touch opposite walls of the room with “/id/” and “/d/ or /t/” written on them (in a game called Stations) or race to slap one of two cards on their desk. The same thing could also be done with “one syllable” and “two syllables” to emphasize that part of the pronunciation. Adults can do something similar by lifting cards with the –ed pronunciation or number of syllables written on them. There is also a great worksheet called Pronunciation Journey in the book Pronunciation Games which can be adapted for this point in which students take the right or left branch on a kind of tree diagram depending on which sound they think is there and after six or so stages shout out where they have ended up. It is also possible to play the card games Snap and Pelmanism with this pronunciation point, with students competing to be the first to shout out “Snap” whenever two cards which have the same –ed pronunciation come up or students trying to find two words that have the same –ed pron. These games can also be used to make distinctions between all three pronunciations, if you want to go into that much detail. As a preliminary or ending stage, students can also be asked to classify the whole pack of cards by putting them into columns, and the same cards could also be used for storytelling by asking them to place the cards in order as they use as many of them as they can to tell a story starting with a sentence like “Yesterday, John woke up in a field.” This game can also be used for irregular forms or a mix of both. A quieter but possibly more intellectually stimulating activity is an –ed pronunciation maze. Make a ten by ten table with one pronunciation of –ed tracing a route from the top left corner to the bottom right one. Fill all the other squares with other pronunciations of –ed. Students must draw the route on the map by working out which pronunciation the first square has and finding a string of ones which are the same. Classroom activities for irregular Past Simple pronunciation and spelling My favourite activity for this point is to get students to put past forms together by their vowel sound, e.g. putting “brought” and “fought” into one column, preferably with cut up pieces of paper. With more confident classes this can be done straight from the infinitive forms. If you have enough examples of most vowel sounds (only usually possible by eliminating some of them or including some slightly obscure verbs), it is also possible to play Snap or Pelmanism with the match being by vowel sound. A much simpler game, especially for young learners, is Past Simple Tennis/ Volleyball/ Badminton/ Squash. Students “serve” an infinitive to their partner and their partner must reply with the Past Simple. This can be played with the real rules of the game you chose, especially when it comes to who serves, or can be simplified. Classroom activities for Simple Past time expressions The classroom game which is most clearly focussed on this point is Guess the Time. Students choose or are given a time like “5000 years ago” or “last Sunday” and have to describe things that happened then until someone guesses the correct time. They could also be asked to find something that they both did at a certain past time like “This morning” and “Before dinner last night” (although this is easier with Past Continuous). A game where they have to find things that they first did before their partner or did more recently than their partner also brings up this kind of form a lot in exchanges like “I last had coffee an hour ago” “I had one just outside the classroom door about five minutes ago, so I win”. There is also a suitable bluffing game for this in one of the Communication Games books called When Did You Last See Your Father. Students must answer a “When did you last…?” question with one of the given time clauses, and after answering other questions about that event their partners can accuse them of lying in their original answer (because actually the most recent time of that thing was different or because they have never done that thing). Classroom activities for Past Simple questions, negatives and short answers The simplest and nicest game for this is Make Me Say Yes I Did, in which students get one point if they get that response from their partner but no points if they say “No, I didn’t”. That can then be reversed with them getting one point for negative responses to questions like “Did you ride on an elephant yesterday?” and “Did you fall asleep in this class last week?” A similar but more complex game is them having to say “Yes, I did” to all questions even if that isn’t true. After three Wh questions, their partner guesses whether the original “Yes, I did” was true or not. This is also similar to When Did You Last See Your Father above. A bit more imagination is also needed for the variation Make Me Say I Don’t Remember, with questions like “What did you eat for breakfast three days ago?” and “What colour was your last toothbrush?” getting one point if “I don’t remember” is the (true) response. This can also be turned into a bluffing game by getting them to give the real answer whenever they do remember and an imaginary answer whenever they don’t remember the real one. After three Wh questions, their partner guesses which the answer was. The games above are very likely to throw up questions like “Did you clean your teeth this morning?” that are unlikely to be much use in real life. This can be exploited by giving them some good and bad examples of Past Simple conversational questions to rank from five points for completely taboo to one point for nice easy conversation starters. They then ask each other questions and get points depending on how difficult the question was and how well they answered, perhaps including the possibility of choosing more difficult questions so that they can get more points. It is possible to play the Alibi Game (or variations such as Spies) with just Past Simple, but I prefer to leave it until they know at least Past Continuous as well. Classroom activities for a mix of regular and irregular Simple Past Games mentioned above which can be used with both regular and irregular forms include Snap, Pelmanism, Tennis, and Stations (and its sit down versions), e.g. by shouting “Snap” if two words are both regular or running and touching walls with “Regular” and “Irregular” written on them. The games below can also be used with just one kind of verb but work better with a mix. Storytelling also works really well with a mix of both regular and irregular verbs, perhaps after doing it with just one of the categories of verb first. The best way of doing this is to give students cut up cards with one infinitive on each, and ask them to work together to continue a story starter such as “Steven found when he woke up that he had two heads”. This can be made competitive by giving a point for each verb used. Students can also work with individual verbs, this time trying to make true statements about their partner with them to get a point and be able to cross them off the list or discard a card from their hand. For even nicer classroom dynamics, you could also ask them to find things in common with the verbs you give them, e.g. “We both had a bath twice yesterday”. It is also possible to use videos to practise this point, for example by giving students a list of infinitives of verbs and asking them to shout out or write down sentences using as many of those verbs as they can as they watch the film, e.g. “The cat grew really big”. Classroom activities for a mix of pronunciations An activity that can be used for any of the pronunciations above (e.g. /t/ endings and different vowels in irregular verbs) is asking them brainstorm as many examples of one category as they can, perhaps as a race. This works best when you have at least five categories you can ask them to brainstorm. Another nice thing that you need a fair amount of language to make possible is looking at homophones and minimal pairs in past forms, e.g. “past”/ “passed” and “saw”/ “sew”. Freer speaking that should bring up the Past Simple tense The most obvious kind of speaking that brings up loads of Past Simple sentences is anecdotes such as “A memorable day at school” or “My favourite teacher at primary school”. As well as giving them a list of suitable topics, you can give the person who is listening a list of things to listen out for or ask questions about when their partner finishes such as “location” and “season”. You could also give them phrases to react with when their partner is telling their anecdote, e.g. “Poor you” and “That was lucky”. This can be turned into a game by giving them phrases that they should try to get from their partner with (true or made up) past statements like “I lost my keys yesterday”. You can also set up roleplay conversations, e.g. asking them to “boast” in pairs about what a terrible year they had last year. This also works well with roleplay interviews, which naturally tend to be at least half about the past. Latest from 'Teaching English'Read More �

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Concern has been expressed about teaching English to the fifth- and the sixth graders in the public schools of Japan. There appears to be an insufficiency of materials as well as anxiety among teachers who must instruct these grades. Story telling may be an important step for developing English competence. The current study replicated the work of Trostle and Hicks (1998) which investigated vocabulary gains and comprehension using story telling modes including Character Imagery (CI) and Simple Reading (SR) in an LI setting. Significantly, however, this study was conducted in an L2 situation. The effects of CI and SR on comprehension and vocabulary development were compared using a sample of 120 Japanese primary school students ranging in age from 10 to 12 years. In a two-phase procedure, students listened to stories told using CI by the researcher, and a second group listened to stories told by SR. While both modes were effective. CI was found to be significantly greater in improving both comprehension and vocabulary development. Story telling appears to be beneficial for students developing English proficiency. This study provides evidence that teachers should employ suitable stories told using character imagery in L2 classrooms. Background of this study English will be a compulsory subject for the fifth-and sixth-graders in public primary schools from the 2011 academic year in Japan. However, the problem seems to lay in a lack of suitable English materials for the grades and a deficit of classroom teachers' confidence to implement activities in English. The communicative approach can be useful for developing students English listening and speaking ability. Past 10 years, a native English speaking person as an Assistant Language Teacher (hereafter referred to by the acronym, ALT) has been working with a classroom teacher to teach natural English. However, classroom teachers' anxiety has skyrocketed because of their limited communication skills in English, and moreover, their duty which they have to form syllabus and a teaching plan. In fact, classroom teachers rely on an ALT who mainly plan English activities. Most activities have been performed by singing, dancing and playing games which are boring for pre-teens who are eager to gain new knowledge and carry out logical operations (Pinter, 2006). As pre-teens can establish their thoughts systematically and holistically according to Piaget (Lightbown & Spada, 2006), it is natural that pre-teens "require very different materials, methods, and teaching style" (Pinter, 2006, p7) different from younger students. What is more effective way? How can classroom teachers approach them? One positive reaction for pre-teens to English activities was reported on the simple questionnaire performed in May 2008 by the researcher that was to listen to a story. A short story read by an ALT was utterly enchanted students. Especially, telling a story using dramatized action by a native speaker attracted pre-teens. Stories bring a lot of benefits including language development (Wright, 1997). Cameron (2001) has insisted that "Stories present holistic approaches to language teaching and learning that place a high premium on children's involvement with rich, authentic uses of the foreign language" (p. 159). It is possible that pre-teens engage in English learning through using stories as a language teaching material. Research questions of this study In the current study, The Character Imagery Storytelling Style presented by Trostle & Hicks (1998), was administered, which involves the story teller's dressing as the protagonist in the story and vivid and dynamic speech and gestures of the protagonist and the other characters in the story to "tell" the story in the past tense. In Character Imagery, one actor, in fact, "becomes" each significant character momentarily, by using a combination of pantomime, body positioning, and different voice intonations for each new character. However he/she returns to the primary role of protagonist when not assuming another character's role. (Trostle & Hicks, 1998, p129) This research demonstrated that The Character Imagery Storytelling Style (hereafter referred to by the acronym, CI) had great effects to gain vocabulary and progress comprehension of the story in the first language (L 1). If such is the case, the method might be useful for young second language learners as well. CI is assumed to be effective for language development for students (McWilliams, 1998). However, the above study was been implemented in L 1 setting. Therefore, it is very much valuable to examine this in second language (L2) setting. My research questions were as follows: 1. Will students increase their vocabulary by story telling? 2. Will students hearing a story using Character Imagery storytelling style (CI) gain higher vocabulary than students who have a simple reading of the same story (SR)? 3. Will students hearing a story using Character Imagery Storytelling style (CI) have higher comprehension than students who have a simple reading of the same story (SR)? The current study was investigated vocabulary gains and comprehension comparing different modes, such as CI and a simple story reading (hereafter referred to by the acronym, SR). There has been a great discussion about the development of native literacy skills by reading stories aloud. Studies on story reading aloud and incidental vocabulary learning are reported with positive findings (Elley, 1989; Trostle & Hicks, 1998). Elley (1989) conducted two experiments to investigate whether or not incidental vocabulary learning occurred through listening to stories. The first study was performed with 168 seven-year-old students from seven classrooms in seven schools in New Zealand. The book chosen was Gumdrop at Sea which had an impressive story and many attractive pictures. The result showed that percentage of children who acquired knowledge of the target words in the post-vocabulary test was higher than percentage of that in the pre-vocabulary test. Incidental vocabulary learning using listening to stories was proven. In the second experiment in which the procedures were replicated in the current study, the purpose was to make sure whether or not incidental vocabulary learning occurred in two different story books with 127 six classes of eight year olds in New Zealand and 51 children of the similar age and background from two schools for a control group. The experimental children were divided into two groups (A and B). Two picture books, Rapscallion Jones and The White Crane, were read aloud to three groups, two experimental groups (with explanation and without explanation) and one control group. The treatments were exchanged with each story between the two experimental groups. The control group took all tests at the same times as Group A and B, but did not hear any stories. The result showed that the group with explanation had much vocabulary gain for the Trostle and Hicks (1998) investigated through comparing the effects of storytelling and story reading on comprehension and vocabulary development with British primary school students. One approach was the CI in which a storyteller who read aloud books dressed and took on the role of protagonist. Another approach was SR in which a trained student read stories aloud. Thirty two students aged seven to 11 years, consisting of 16 boys and 16 girls, were divided into eight groups of four students per group who were sub-grouped by age, gender and literacy ability. Four groups had SR approach and the other four groups had CI approach. Over a period of six weeks, students listened to four stories includes Mop Top and Dandelion for young students and Strega Nona and The Widow's Broom for the older groups. Four groups listened to stories with CI by a researcher or a trained student teacher and other four groups with SR by an investigator or a trained student teacher. During reading/telling stories, pictures were shown to subjects. Results showed that CI had a great effect on story comprehension and vocabulary development. They concluded that CI approach could be more effective than SR for students aged seven to 11, and story telling should be given a place in reading programs and also literacy curriculums. In the field of second language acquisition, the study of L2 language development using storybooks has been few empirical studies. Brett, Rothlein & Hurley (1996) investigated whether students with ethnic backgrounds such as white non-Hispanic, African-American, Hispanic, and Asian, aged nine to 11 years can acquire unknown words through listening to two stories, Bunnicula and The Reluctant Dragon with different conditions. A total of 175 the fourth graders from six classrooms in two elementary schools in Miami divided into three groups such as (1) story-with-word-explanation group, (2) story-without-word-explanation group, and (3) no exposure to the stories or vocabulary (the control condition group). All three groups were given pre-test and post-test for each story. Six weeks later, a delayed post-test was administrated. Results showed that the story-with-word-explanation group made significantly more progress the pre-vocabulary test to the post-vocabulary tests than the other two groups. They concluded that the fourth graders were able to acquire new vocabulary from listening to stories with a brief explanation of the new words which appeared in the stories. Cabrera and Martinez (2001) investigated teachers' strategies to make the input comprehensible in reading/telling stories in two conditions with 60 Spanish ten year-old English second language users in the Canary Islands. They found that the children were able to follow the thread of the story told by a teacher only when children listened to the story both linguistic and interactional adjustment. (1) Linguistic adjustment (the first version) consists of short utterances, simple syntactic structures (simple present, imperatives, comparatives, etc.) and (2) interactional adjustments (the second version) in which repetitions, questions, and comprehension checks were given in L2 and paralinguistic cues were also given. The same male teacher told two stories, The Long Nose and The Princess and the Pea, to the two groups of children in two different classroom situations. Interestingly, the reason children were able to follow the thread of the story told even if without any visual supports is that body language, such as emphatic gestures, physical appearance and actions, assisted children in their comprehension. Cabrera and Martinez (2001) concluded that teacher talk, such as repetition, questions, and comprehensions checks, are one of L2 resources in second language classrooms, and interactional adjustment should be created more in L2 learning. Huang (1991) investigated whether or not comprehensive oral input using a multisensory approach scaffold understanding of real literature reading with 129 sixth-graders, aged 11 year-olds, from a public school using the stories, Ice Cream and Dragons and Giants. Students were divided into three groups. The control group (CG) read the text-only story without any illustrations or storytelling and illustration-supplement group (IG) read the text with illustrations. The study group (SG) used multi-sensory approach through the contexualized storytelling, which is very similar to CI. SG group listened to the story with the multi-sensory approach before reading the illustrated text. To measure their word understanding, a word recall test was conducted in which the half of the word list of the fifty words came from the story and the rest of the words were distracting words. Students checked the word which they thought came from the story. To measure their comprehension of the reading text, a story retelling test was conducted in English or Chinese. Evaluation elements of the retelling test consisted of setting, characters, initiating events, internal response, plans or attempts, direct consequence and ending. The results showed that there were no significant differences among three groups, that is, multi-sensory approach did not affect the word recall test. However, in the retelling story test, the mean score of the retelling test using multi-sensory approach was significant. Character Imagery Storytelling Style (CI) might help comprehensible input, raising students' awareness to linguistic features and promoting understanding of storylines reducing the listener's affective filter (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). CI is presented by Trostle & Hicks (1998) for promoting L1 literacy skills and Cary proposed contextualized storytelling for developing L2 listening comprehension (Huang, 1991). Stories are told using the target language without a mother tongue and, moreover, not only verbally but also nonverbally. Students could infer the meaning of the words, where "deep processing" (Cameron, 2001, p85) occurs and "high mental effort" (Hulstijn, 1992, p.122) is needed. Image could be created visually and aurally, and stored in his or her brain firmly. 1. Post-vocabulary scores will be significantly higher than pre-vocabulary scores. This will be true for both grades, both modes of telling, and for both stories. 2. Average positive scores of English vocabulary change will be significantly higher for students told stories using Character Imagery Style than for students who simply read stories. 3. Average scores of English comprehension will be significantly higher for students told stories using the Character Imagery Style than for students who read stories. Participants were selected from the same L1 cultural and educational background including L2 experiences. The major experiment was conducted with 120 students in the fifth-and six-grade, aged 10 to 12 years-old in public primary school (coeducation) in Tokyo in July, 2009. Students were divided into two groups in order to control the variables in the study. Both groups were exposed to English in previous year and they had been doing English activities several times by an ALT who provided games and singing. In 2009 academic year, three times English activities were given by an ALT before the current study. A pilot test was implemented in a different public primary school in Tokyo with 34 fifth grade students with the story, One Eyed Jake. 120 students were divided into two groups. In phase 1, the book, One Eyed Jake was read/told. Group 1 listened to the story using SR. Group 2 listened to the story using CI. In phase 2, the book, Silly Billy was read/told. Group 1 listened to the story using CI. Group 2 listened to the story using SR. The pre-and post-vocabulary tests and a comprehensive test were conducted. First of all, pre-vocabulary test was conducted with each whole class for ten minutes. After ten minutes reading or telling the story by the researcher, immediately a post-vocabulary test was conducted the same way as was done in the pre-vocabulary test for ten minutes. After post-vocabulary test sheets were collected, comprehension test was immediately conducted for 15 minutes. Vocabulary gain was measured by using a vocabulary test. The pre-vocabulary test and the post-vocabulary test were the same. Fifteen target words chosen were repeated at least twice and presented the key words of story line. One correct answer was given one point, therefore, 15 points given was perfect in vocabulary test. Students were asked to listen to a word provided by the researcher and to choose its meaning from four alternatives that were written in Japanese. Students were asked to choose the right answer from four alternatives pronounced by the researcher. The alternatives consisted of one right answer and three fillers on the answer sheet which was written in Japanese. The fillers had three types of distracters. One type was a Japanese word that resembled a target word pronunciation. The other filler was the word which showed up in the same scene. The last type was the word which students were able to imagine from the target words in their schema Twelve comprehension questions for each story were used. For the story, One Eyed Jake, a literal question was, "What was the protagonist?" An interpretive level question was, "Why did the protagonist throw three crews onto other ships?" An analytic question was, "Why did Jim, the cabin boy throw the cabin key to the protagonist?" A critical question was, "What would you want to recommend to the protagonist?" A creative level question was, "Can you tell me what comes next in the story?" The presented order of questions both vocabulary and comprehension followed the sequence of story. Students were asked his/her answers in Japanese on the answer sheet. Regarding the rive literal questions, two interpretive questions and two analytic questions, the way of multiple choices was conducted and students were asked to read questions and to choose the right answer from four alternatives which were written in Japanese. The alternatives consisted of one right answer and three fillers on the answer sheet. The three fillers consisted of the event which students were able to associate with other events from the same page, from whole pages and from students' general schema. Regarding the two critical questions and one creative question, students wrote own ideas or thoughts in Japanese. It was difficult to measure the score, therefore, nine comprehension questions were measured and the right answer was given one point. Therefore, a perfect score was nine points in comprehension test. In addition, both vocabulary tests and the comprehension test were marked by a researcher and checked by two graduated university students. To assess vocabulary gain, a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA on each story was performed. The independent variables were mode and grade while the dependent variable was the pre and post scores of the vocabulary test. To assess differences in comprehension, a two-way ANOVA was performed. The independent variables were again grade and mode of reading/storytelling, and the dependent variable was the score of the In the Story, One Eyed Jake, the mean score of the CI (2.72) for the pre-vocabulary test increased to the score (6.26) of for the post-vocabulary test. The mean score of SR (2.67) for the pre-vocabulary test increased to the score (5.33) on the post-vocabulary test. In both modes, vocabulary gain dramatically increased. It can be seen that the total of story modes showed good evidence of vocabulary gains in initial learning. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed as outlined in the methodology section. Table 1 illustrates that there was significant difference between vocabulary in pre-test and in post-tests with F (1, 117) = 203.385, p (.000) < .01. For mode, F-ratio was significant with F (1,117) = 4.149, p (.044) < .05. No effect for grade or any interaction of grade and mode were anticipated, and no significant results were round for these two-tailed hypothesis. In the story, Silly Billy, the mean score of the CI (5.30) for the pre-vocabulary test increased to the score (9.57) of for the post-vocabulary test. The mean score of SR (4.83) for the pre-vocabulary test increased to the score (8.65) on the post-vocabulary test. In a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA in the story, Silly Billy, Difference in mode was somewhat directional with F(1,119)=0.958, p (.330)> .05. A two-way ANOVA was performed as earlier outlined in the methodology section. For One Eyed Jake, difference in mode was significant with F (1, 117) = 9.059, p (.003) < .01 (Table 2). Difference in mode was also significant for Silly Billy with F (1, 119) = 4.216, p (.042) < .05 (Table 3). No significant effect for grade or interaction between mode and grade was found. In addition, the mean scores of both modes in the story, Silly Billy were higher than those in the story, One Eyed Jake. Figure 1 shows results of the difference between modes. The CI mean scores, (5.25 for One Eyed Jake, 6.53 for Silly Billy) are higher than the SR mean scores, (4.31 for One Eyed Jake, 5.75 for Silly Billy). Discussion of findings The answer, whether storytelling affected student's vocabulary, appears to be positive. Using stories told with both CI and SR in vocabulary learning could be greatly effective for young second language learners. Studies on story reading/telling and incidental vocabulary learning are again proven with positive findings. Vocabulary learning using CI is effective. Students listening to stories using CI had higher comprehension than students who listened to stories using SR. Results were significant in a positive direction. The technique of storytelling with CI, using sounds and gestures promoted understanding, which may have also reduced student anxiety toward L2. Sounds give meaning to a word and students not only identify sound units within words but also perceive "emotion, involvement, and empathy" (Harmer, 2001, p.28) by listening to sounds. Students encounter pronunciation and individual phonemes in the word and also recognize word meanings from pitch, intonation, and stress of the word. The pitch range shows human tension. Low and slow tones represent fear and sadness and a high and fast pitch shows happiness and cheerfulness. Intonation conveys emotion and empathy. Intonation tone is exaggerated when we are surprised or frightened. Harmer (2001) insists that "stress is vitally important in conveying meaning in phrases and sentences" (p.33). Therefore, the sounds through storytelling with CI are an indispensable factor in order to understand meanings. So far, many factors corroborated, such as visual aids, auditory aids and context clues, to enhance guessing the new word's meaning. Students giggled when they saw a storyteller who wore a protagonist's costume, including a hat with bird feathers and a black patch for one eye (for a pirate) and a big red ribbon (for Hazel). They were admittedly relaxed. To convey the emotions, flamboyant gestures and a range of facial expressions were used. Those props and a storyteller's attitude drew students into real life situations and students involved in the enthusiastic world. Students could extend their knowledge beyond what they have at present and information is stored emotionally and meaningfully. The storytelling using CI drew students into the fantastic world and they could connect with the protagonist and other characters there that enhanced his or her memory and could recall the story line easily. There are some limitations that should be acknowledged within this study. The current study was conducted with approximately 120 subjects who were randomly chosen in a public school in Tokyo, but not other the fifth-and the sixth-graders in Japan. With respect to who read or told stories, a storyteller might favor storytelling with CI, therefore, story reading in SR might be disregarded. But when the same person read and told stories, equal opportunities were given to subjects differing from Brett, Rothlein and Hurley's study (1996), in which two stories were read by six classroom teachers. They demonstrated the limitation, that is, the way of instruction was different depending on the classroom teacher, so that they were not able to "measure how much the target vocabulary words were discussed in the story-with-word-explanation group classroom" (Brett, Rothlein & Hurley, 1996, p.420). Storytelling not only provides language development to students but also works as scaffolding for teachers. Storytelling or the story reading technique could contribute to teacher education or teacher training (Wright, 1995). If classroom teachers have some hesitation to dress up as the protagonist, just reading stories aloud is also beneficial. To memorize all story lines in a L2 is very tough for non-native speaking teachers, but read stories aloud seems to be There are some recommendations to extend the current research. According to relation between vocabulary acquisition and academic ability, Elley (1989) found that the lowest group gained target vocabulary more than the higher group. If the result will be proven that the lowest level students might increase their language ability, those students could receive much benefit in language learning. In addition, storytelling with CI in different genres without background knowledge could be valuable. Storytelling or reading aloud stories in L2 language classes contain a lot of benefits so that teachers as long as possible take in these techniques into their L2 language classrooms. If story listening/telling is included in a curriculum steadily, students will firmly make dramatic progress in English learning. Brett, A., Rothlein, L., & Hurley, M. (1996). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories and explanations of target words. The elementary school Journal, 96(4), 415-421. Cabrera, M. P., & Martinez, P. B. (2001). The effects of repetition, comprehension checks, and gestures, on primary school children in an EFL situation. ELT Journal, 55(3), 281-288. Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching language to young learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elley, W. B. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories. Reading Research Quarterly, 26(2), 174-187. Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Huang, H. (1991). The effects of storytelling on EFL young learners' reading comprehension and word recall. Retrieved December 5, 2009 from National Yunlin University of Science and Technology Web site: http://campusweb.yuntech.edu.tw/~huange/p aper/paper.doc Hulstijn, J. H. (1992).Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In Arnaud, P. J. L., & H. Bejoint (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp.113-125). London: MacMillan Academic and Professional Ltd. Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach, language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McWilliams, B. (1998). Effective storytelling: A manual for beginners. Largo: Indian Rocks Christian School. Retrieved August 16, 2009, from http://www.eldrbarry.net/roos/eest.htm. Pinter, A. (2006). Teaching young language learners. Oxford: Oxford Trostle, S., & Hicks, S. J. (1998). The effects of storytelling versus story reading on comprehension and vocabulary knowledge of British primary school children. Reading Improvement, 35(3), 127-136. Wright, A. (1995). Storytelling with children. Oxford: Oxford Wright, A. (1997). Creating stories with children. Oxford: Oxford I would like to express my gratitude to supervisor Dr. Steven Renshaw, Graduate School of Language Sciences Kanda University of International Studies in Japan for his helpful comments, insights and encouragement. His support, moral and academic, especially statistical analysis has been invaluable throughout my master's course. Takumi Uchiyama taught primary grade in public schools for 30 years in Japan. She studied for her Master of Education and Master of TESOL from Griffith University in Queensland, Australia and her Master of Arts from Graduate School of Language Sciences Kanda University of International Studies in Japan. Her special interests are to create English activities for young second language learners and to form syllabus includes a teaching plan. She is currently working as a teacher trainer at public primary schools in Tokyo. A Two-Way Repeated-Measures ANOVA in the Story, One Eyed Jake. Sum of df Mean Vocabulary Squares Square Vocab Linear 564.704 1 564.704 Vocab * Grade Linear .610 1 .610 Vocab * Mode Linear 11.521 1 11.521 Vocab * Grade * Mode Linear 2.908 1 2.908 Error(vocab) Linear 316.524 114 316.524 Vocab 203.385 .000 * Vocab * Grade 0.220 .640 Vocab * Mode 4.149 .044 Vocab * Grade * Mode 1.047 .308 A Two-Way ANOVA in Mode Effects in the Story, One Eyed Jake Sum of df Mean F Sig. Grade .306 1 .306 .107 .744 Mode 25.817 1 25.817 9.059 .003 * Grade * Mode 8.541 1 8.541 2.997 .086 Error 324.896 114 2.850 A Two-Way ANOVA in Mode Effects in the Story, Silly Billy. Sum of df Mean F Sig. Grade 14.669 1 14.669 3.514 .063 Mode 17.599 1 17.599 4.216 .042 * Grade * Mode 3.321 1 3.321 .796 .374 Error 484.201 116 484.201 Figure 1. Comprehension Test Scores in the different modes in the story, One Eyed Jake & the story, Silly Billy CI 5.25 6.53 SR 4.31 5.75 Note: Table made from line graph.

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Return to | Educational Psychology Interactive | In general, when you write an answer to an essay question you should follow the format you learned in Freshman English: Some examples of good essay writing are provided by the Educational Testing Service, developer of the GRE-Writing Test. 1. Define educational psychology and discuss how it can help teachers and administrators to carry out their respective roles. Include in your discussion how the use of the scientific method and research have impacted the development of a knowledge base for educational psychology. A. Define educational psychology - Define and differentiate the following terms: psychology, education, educational psychology, schooling, learning, and teaching. - Name and discuss the types of topics that might be of interest to educational psychologists. - Name and discuss four different ways of knowing and validating truth. B. Educational research - Define and differentiate the following terms: science, paradigm, measurement, evaluation, research, reliability, and validity. - Name and discuss 5 levels of scientific knowledge (fact, concept, principle, theory, law.) How do these terms relate to the concept of a scientific hypothesis? - Define and differentiate 3 types of research studies used in educational psychology (descriptive, correlational, experimental.) How can we establish cause and effect relationships? What conditions must be met in order to have a true experimental study? Why is this difficult in educational psychology? How are these type of studies related to the 4 major methods of collecting data used in research and/or evaluation? *2. Draw and discuss a model of the teaching-learning process. Name and define each of the categories of variables in your model and identify some of the research that has been used to build the model. (Be certain to identify the source of your model.) Compare and contrast the categories of Context, Input, Classroom Processes, and Output. Which category is most important? Why? What are some of the most important variables within each category? Why do you believe these are the most important? What is the relationship among variables in these categories as they relate to variables in other categories, especially student achievement? 3. Provide an overview of the systems model of human development presented in class, describing how the humanistic, cognitive and behavioral learning/development theories address different factors in this model. The ancient Greeks discussed human beings in terms of mind, body and spirit. What are the 3 components of mind and what are some topics of interest to educational psychologists associated with each? What are the two aspects of body discussed in the model? Would you include spirit in your model of human behavior? If so, how would you define it? What are the 3 major categories of contextual influences on human behavior? Give examples of subcategories within each category with specific examples of an important variable for each subcategory. [Hint: Relate to information provided in the presentation on the systems model of the teaching/learning process.] How does a scientific view of human behavior compare with other methods of establishing knowledge? *4. Discuss at least 5 important factors that are presently influencing or are likely to influence education during the next 20 years. Include in your discussion the impact the transition to the information age is having on the required knowledge, attitudes, and skills required for successful living. Make recommendations on how professional educators should respond to changing conditions. What is a paradigm? What is a trend? According to many futurists, what is the most important trend occuring today? Why is this important? What are 4 other trends you believe are important for educators to consider? How are these trends related to the most important trend and to each other? How should educators change their normal activities in order to help students be prepared for the impact these trends will have on their lives? *5. Name and discuss the essential foundations and competencies needed to work effectively in the information age as developed by the (U.S. Department of Labor) Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). Discuss Dr. Huitt's critique of the SCANS report in terms of important attitudes, knowledge, and skills for being successful in the information age? How do these compare to the concept "Becoming a Brilliant Star?" What evidence would you use to persuade students, parents, educators and community members that these are indeed important? What is the SCANS report? Who prepared it and why is it important? What is the basis of Huitt's critique? How does this relate to the 9 dimensions of the Brilliant Star? (Be specific; select specific qualities or characteristics in the SCANS report and relate them to specific attributes that may or may not be in Huitt's critique or in the Brilliant Star. [Hint: Relate information reviewed in question #3 to specific attributes or qualities or skills in SCANS report.] 6. Discuss the research relating to the effects of teacher expectations and efficacy on student performance. What can teachers do to maximize the positive effects of teacher expectations? Define teacher efficacy and differentiate it from teacher expectations. How does Proctor's model relate to the teaching/learning model discussed previously. What are some specific domains or topics that teachers should be concerned with if they want to improve their efficacy? 7. Compare and contrast four major behavioral theories of learning, giving examples of how each of these can be used in the teaching-learning process. What is the function of the behavioral system in the systems model of human behavior? What is the primary assumption that underlies all behavioral theories? What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Compare and contrast: 1) Contiguity theory, 2) Classical (Respondent) Conditioning, 3) Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning, and 4) Observational (Social Learning) Theory. Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology? *8. Define operant learning and give original examples of how consequences can be used to change behavior using this theory. Discuss how this theory can be applied to the teaching-learning process, including how the Premack principle can be used to determine reinforcers. Additionally, name and define each of the schedules of reinforcement, and give an example of each kind as it might be used in the classroom. Why is operant conditioning so important to educator's today? How does it differ from classical conditioning? Use the following terms to define and differentiate methods used in operant conditioning: increase, decrease, desired/pleasant, undesired/aversive, present, remove, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, response cost, extinction. What is the basis for differentiating schedules of reinforcement (i.e., continuous, fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, variable ratio)? 9. Define and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the cognitive system in the systems model of human behavior. What is the function of the cognitive system of the human mind. What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology? *10. Define and differentiate the stage, levels-of-processing, parallel distributed processing, and connectionist models of information processing. Draw and discuss the information-processing model of memory and give an example of how it works. Discuss the kinds of stimuli likely to arouse the orienting response and describe how short-term memory and long-term memory operate. Discuss some principles for getting information into both types of memory. How might these principles be implemented to improve instruction? Why are there different theories of information processing in human beings? Why are these approaches important for educators? Be specific when describing the model of memory, paying special attention to limits for each stage, if any. Be specific in terms of recommendations, discussing which aspect of memory might be affected. 11a. Describe each of the six levels of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain, providing an original example of actions students might take to demonstrate competency at each level. What is the cognitive domain? How is it similar to and different from the affective and psychomotor domains? Why is the cognitive domain important in the information age? Is the taxonomy truly a hierarchy? If not, how should it be modified? 11b. What evidence exists, pro and con, for the use of higher-level and lower-level questions in classes? Based on this evidence what would your recommendations be concerning the use of each type in the classroom? How does the issue of lower- and higher-level questions relate to Bloom's cognitive domain? *12a. Give a definition of intelligence that you could defend, explaining why you believe you could defend it. Give examples of ways your definition of intelligence might be measured and skills people might have who would do well on those measures. Describe how would you differentiate measures of intelligence from measures of achievement? What are the different approaches to defining intelligence (psychometric, learning, cognitive, triarchic, multiple)? What are some advantages and disadvantages of each approach? In general, which approach do you favor and why? *12b. Suppose you were asked to give a talk to parents and educators on the topic "Can IQ scores be raised?" You are asked to discuss both the hereditarian and environmental aspects of the issue. What would your arguments be for both a strong hereditarian position and a strong environmentalist position? Be certain to give specific suggestions from an environmentalist perspective on how IQ could be raised. How does the issue of IQ relate to the major approaches to the study of intelligence? Why are twins studies the major source of data related to the influence of heredity on intelligence? Why is the Tennessee example used by those who favor a nuturance approach to influencing intelligence? How are the characteristics of researchers related to their view of heredity and environment as influences on intelligence? Why is this issue of relevance to educators? *13a. Describe intellectual development according to Piaget, including a discussion of both the process and the stages of development. Note behavioral characteristics of each stage, describing how assimilation and accommodation are exemplified for each stage of development. Describe specific actions that teachers can take to incorporate Piaget's theory into the classroom. Who was Piaget and why is his theory of importance to educators? How did his early experiences influence his viewpoint on the development of intelligence? What are the meanings of the following terms: schema, reflex, adaptation, equilibration, homeostasis, assimilation, accomodation, object permanence, conservation, operation? What produces energy to act in Piaget's theory? How is this similar to or different from Freud's, Maslow's, and Erikson's theories? What is the evidence to support or refute Piaget's theory? Why is this issue important to educators today? [Hint: Be certain to describe both the PROCESSES and STAGES related to Piaget's theory.] 13b. Discuss what is meant by the statement that "the schemata one brings to learning might be the most important determiner of what is learned." How might this statement influence teacher behavior? What is the difference between the terms schema and schemata? How do these terms relate to the topics of World View Paradigm, Values, Conation, and Information Processing discussed earlier? 14. Define critical thinking and discuss why it is an important topic to be addressed by today's educators. How is critical thinking similiar to and different from creativity? How has the definition of critical thinking changed over the past two decades? Which definition of critical thinking do you prefer? How is critical thinking related to the topics of Values and Information Processing discussed earlier? Is critical thinking more important, equally important, or less important than creative thinking in the information age? Why? 15. Define metacognition and describe five ways to help students increase their metacognitive skills. What does the the "meta" mean? How has this prefix been used earlier in this course? How does metacognition relate to the SCANS report? Why is this issue especially relevant in the information age? 16. What is the SQ3R/SQ4R/PQ4R method of study? What is the relationship of study habits and attitudes to achievement? What can you as a teacher do to improve these in students? Be specific about what you as an educator can do to help students in each step of the study process. 17. Name and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the affective/emotional system in the systems model of human behavior. What is the function of the affective system of the human mind. What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology? *18a. Name and define five values you believe are especially important for students in the 21st century. Support your proposal with research, theory, and statements the requirements of being successful in an information age economy. How would recommend educators go about teaching those values? What is a value? How does it relate to a belief? An attitude? A skill? What are some examples of values presented in the SCANS report? In Huitt's critique and subsequent summary of successful attributes for the information age? [Hint: Relate back to content on the information age and desired student outcomes.] Be specific about the approaches and methods you would use to teach each value. 18b. Describe each of the five levels of Krathwol's affective domain, providing an original example of actions students might take to demonstrate competency at each level. What is the affective domain? How is it similar to and different from the cognitive and psychomotor domains? Why is the affective domain important in the information age? *19. Name and describe Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Note behaviors associated with each stage and the implications of the theory for classroom practice. Evaluate the theory--that is, what evidence exists for its validation or what evidence would lead you to reject it? Be able to describe the overall purpose of the theory, the approximate ages for each stage and what educators can do to help children develop appropriately in each stage? Why is this theory important? How does this relate to Maslow's theory? To Piaget's theory? 20. Describe how optimism and enthusiasm might influence the teaching/learning process. Differentiate opitmism and pessimism? Who are some major researchers in this area? Differentiate enthusiasm from apathy? Why are these two concepts especially important in the information age? 21. Name and discuss the major viewpoints and theories related to the regulatory system in the systems model of human behavior. What is the function of the regulatory system of the human mind? What are some major topics studied in educational psychology that relate to this system? Why is each of these important in the study of educational psychology? 22. Define the terms self-concept and self-esteem and discuss how these might influence learning. What is meant by the term "self?" What is self-concept? How does it relate to self-esteem? To self-determination? To self-control? How does self-concept relate to academic achievement? Is there a correlational or causal relationship? What can teachers do to improve students' academic self-concepts? 23. Name and discuss the stages in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. How does this theory relate to achieving excellence in the nine areas of life presented in the "Becoming a Brilliant Star" exercise discussed in class? What is the difference between a deficiency need and a growth need? Where does need for academic achievement fall in this hierarchy? What are some implications of this for educators? What is the research support for this theory? What are the nine different areas of the Brilliant Star? How does each area relate to the systems model of human behavior? To the SCANS report? To Maslow's theory? Why are these issues of importance to educators? 24. Name and discuss the major principles and objectives of humanistic education. Describe what a teacher might do in order to implement these principles. Summarize the findings from the meta-analyses examining the outcomes of open education discussed in your text. Include findings regarding both achievement and affective outcomes. What is the evidence (if any) to support the principles and objectives of humanistic education? In general, have open education programs met the goals established for them? How does facilitative instruction differ from other humanistically-oriented educational programs? Does that method have different results in terms of attitudes and achievement? *25. Discuss social learning theory and the social cognitive theory of learning. Define conation, describe how it works and how it might develop. How does goal-setting impact conation and learning? How does conation relate to self-regulation and self-control? What can educators do to help students develop conation? What are some other terms for conation? How does conation relate to dreams, visions, goals and needs? What are some indicators of conation? How can educators help students develop conation? *26. Define learning and compare and contrast the factors that behavioral, cognitive and humanistic, and behavioral theorists believe influence the learning process. Mention ways in which the theories are alike and ways in which they are different and how each can be used by educators to improve student learning. Use the table provided to define and differentiate the 3 major theoretical approaches to learning (i.e., relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential as a result of experience or practice.) Present examples of how each approach can be used in the classroom. [Hint: Go back to previous discussions of these approaches and select specific, representative examples of classroom applications most appropriate for the information age.] *27. Name and discuss at least 5 principles of learning that most learning theorists agree on, regardless of their theoretical orientation. Give specific examples of how these principles could be used in the classroom. What is the basis for you selection of the 5 principles you want to discuss. Have you selected a "variety" of principles? Describe the source (theory or research) for each of the principles you selected. 28. Discuss how your view of humankind's spiritual nature might influence your interpretation of human growth and development literature as well as the teaching/learning process. Do you believe this is an appropriate topic to be discussed in this course? Has this topic been discussed in other courses? Why or why not? How do you approach this topic with your students? Do you do so in an ethical, professional manner? Would you want someone with different beliefs to approach this topic in the same manner you do? 29. Describe the structure and functioning of the brain and other components of humankind's biological nature that might influence human growth and development as well as the teaching/learning process. What do you find especially interesting about the human brain? What is your "brain lateralization" preference? How does the research on the human brain relate to the topics discussed related to the regulatory system (especially paradigm, self-concept and conation), the affective system (especially optimism and the unconscious), and the cognitive system (especially information processing and intelligence)? *30. Define character and describe why it may be an important issue for today's educators. Describe three different approaches to impacting character development and relate these to theories and issues discussed in the course. How does educating for character development relate to values education? What are some major influences on character development? What are some major outcome measures? How important is character development in the information age? 31. Name and discuss Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Is it possible to train people to make advances along these stages? Compare Kohlberg's theory to Gilligan's theory of female moral development. How does Kohlberg's theory of moral development relate to Piaget's theory of cognitive development (be specific in terms of process and stages)? Why is Gilligan's research so important in this area? Discuss the research support for these two theories. *32a. Define motivation and discuss why a concept like motivation is or is not necessary in a model of teaching and learning and human behavior. If it is necessary to what aspects of learning might it apply? Discuss how the concepts of underachievement and overachievement might be related to motivation. How does motivation relate to intelligence or ability? How do the theories of learning discussed previously relate to the concept of motivation? Which approach do you prefer? Give specific examples of how you as a professional educator can use different approaches to motivation. How can someone be an overachiever? *32b. Discuss the differences between internal and external motivation. Describe the positions that behaviorists, cognitivists and humanists might take on this distinction. How might the three major theories of learning help you to decide what you can do as a teacher or administrator to influence student motivation? How do theories of learning relate to internal verses external motivation? Which approaches seem to work best for you? Why? *33. Name and define the major aspects of the systems model of human behavior presented in class. Be certain to distinguish between internal and external influences on development. Explain why context is such an important aspect of human behavior at this point in history. How can such a model help educators in their professional roles? Your answer to this question will summarize what you have learned in this course. Your organization of the content as well as utilizing an appropriate level of detail is critically important. [Hint: Review the help to Objective 6.] 34. Discuss J. B. Carroll's model of school learning. Relate Carroll's model to Bloom's model of mastery learning and to the concept of Academic Learning Time. Why is John Carroll's model so important in the history of educational psychology? How did it impact Ben Bloom's work? How did it impact educational research in the 1960s and 1970s? How does his model relate to the Systems Model of the Teaching/Learning Process discussed in this class? *35. Define and discuss academic learning time and how it might be improved? (be specific about whether the proposed changes relate to the school or to the classroom; if to the classroom, whether they relate to instruction or management). Define and differentiatate the following terms related to school time: school year, attendance year, school day, allocated time, engagement rate, engaged time, time on task, time on target, academic learning time? Which time variable is the best predictor of student achievement? Why? How can educators improve academic learning time? Be specific about what state and local policy boards, principals and teachers can do. [Hint: Relate improvements to the Systems Model of the Teaching/Learning Process.] 36. Describe why planning is an important classroom activity. Name and define the major steps often used by educators in the planning process. Provide an original example of how you might use this process. Write an instructional objective for six different topics according to the standards set forth by either Mager or Gronlund. Relate the concept of planning to having a target and a starting point before describing what you are going to do. When writing objectives, if you use Mager, be certain to have a student behavior, a condition statement and a criteria statement. If you use Gronlund, include enough representative specific statements to convey meaning to the general statement. 37. Name and discuss four different categories of models of instruction, relating each category to a specific goal and/or desired outcome as described in the systems model of human behavior. How do these categories relate to the learning theories discussed above? How important are the outcomes advocated by instructional developers in each of these categories in the information age? Give specific examples of programs for each category. *38. Name and describe at least three general categories of classroom management activities a teacher might use if implementing a behavioral approach to classroom management, giving original examples of each. State which of these principles would be especially important during the first week of school year, and why. What are three different approaches to classroom management? [Hint: Relate each approach to an approach to learning.] Why might the behavioral approach demonstrate such effectiveness? How do the major categories of management events relate to the major categories of instructional events? 39. Summarize the findings of the 1982 follow-up study regarding the lasting educationally significant effects of early education compensatory education programs for low-income children. What recommendations would you make for continuing these types of programs? How much does $1 invested properly in early education programs return to society? What seem to be the major benefits of these programs? Why do you think more money is not being invested in these programs? 40. Name and discuss how technology can be applied to instruction and give an example of how you might use different technologies as a professional educator. Give some examples of important technologies that educators can and have used. How can computers be used most effectively in the school and/or classroom? 41. Define and contrast the following terms related to measurement and evaluation of educational outcomes, giving original examples of each: a) reliability and validity; b) formative and summative evaluation; and c) criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests. Discuss how and when these concepts would be important in classroom assessment, evaluation, and grading practices relative to the important variables discussed in this course. How are reliability and validity related? When would you use formative and summative evaluations? Criterion- and norm-referenced evaluations? Why are norm-referenced evaluations mainly advocated by non-educators? What is the purpose of grades? Who is the major beneficiary(ies) of the current approach towards grading? What can you do to take into account the normal errors made in the process of assigning grades? What is the major difficulty in using authentic assessment?

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Virginia Woolf 1882-1941 (Born Adeline Virginia Stephen) English novelist, critic, essayist, short story writer, diarist, autobiographer, and biographer. The following entry provides an overview of Woolf's life and works of short fiction. Recognized as one of the major figures of modern literature, Woolf is highly regarded both for her innovative fiction techniques and insightful contributions to literary criticism. In her short fiction, she explored such themes as the elusive nature of storytelling and character study, the nature of truth and reality, and the role of women in society. Like her novels, these highly individualized, stylistic works are noted for their subjective explorations and detailed poetic narratives that capture ordinary experience while depicting the workings and perceptions of the human mind. Written in an elliptical and impressionistic style, Woolf's brief, apparently plotless stories are considered to have significantly influenced the development of modern short fiction. Woolf was born into a talented and distinguished literary family in London in 1882, the third of four children of Sir Leslie Stephen, a prominent literary scholar, and his second wife, Julia. Virginia's parents maintained friendships with figures of the Victorian intellectual aristocracy, often hosting visits from such eminent writers as Thomas Hardy, George Meredith, and Henry James. Virginia and her sister, Vanessa, did not receive a formal education, but access to their father's extensive library provided a rich source for their private learning. In 1895 the Stephens' comfortable existence was disrupted by the sudden, tragic death of their beloved mother, Julia. Virginia's subsequent mental breakdown was the first of several that troubled her throughout her life. After her father's death in 1904, Woolf, along with her sister, and two brothers, Thoby and Adrian, moved to the Bloomsbury district of London. It was there they met weekly with several of Thoby's Cambridge associates to discuss the arts and together formed what is now known as the Bloomsbury Group. Within this circle of friends that included, among others, John Maynard Keynes, Clive Bell, Vita Sackville-West, and Lytton Strachey, Woolf was exposed to a variety of modern theories on art and literature that deeply affected the development of her own ideas. Also during this time, she published her first essays and reviews, a practice she continued throughout her life. In 1912 she married Leonard Woolf, a writer and socialist political figure, also among the Bloomsbury circle, whose stabilizing influence on Virginia is considered to have nurtured her literary career. Nevertheless, in 1913, after completing her first novel, The Voyage Out (1915), she collapsed from mental exhaustion, and the ensuing breakdown, her most severe, lasted several years. In 1917, following Virginia's recovery the proceeding year, she and Leonard founded the Hogarth Press—a business venture which was intended partly as a release from the anxiety she experienced when writing, and which subsequently kept her from having to send her work to an outside publisher. By 1924 Hogarth had grown into a successful and respected business, publishing all of Virginia's writings as well as the early works of such writers as Katherine Mansfield, T. S. Eliot, and Sigmund Freud. During the period 1922 to 1941, Virginia immersed herself in writing fiction, completing the critically acclaimed novels Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927), and The Waves (1931), which form the foundation of her literary reputation. In addition, her nonfiction works from this time, particularly A Room of One's Own (1929) and Three Guineas (1938), established her as an important contributor to modern critical and feminist writing. Yet, despite these successes, Woolf feared the onslaught of another breakdown—from which, she believed, it would be impossible to recover—and in 1941, she took her own life by drowning. The posthumous publication of many of Woolf's essays, short stories, journals, diaries, and letters attest to an abiding interest in her career. Major Works of Short Fiction In her short fiction Woolf typically focused on minute physical detail and experimented with stream-of-consciousness techniques, interior monologue, and symbolism to capture the subjective workings of human thought. “Kew Gardens” typifies her lyrical portrayal of varied narrative perspectives through the interior monologue of an omniscient narrator. In this seemingly plotless story, Woolf creates the atmosphere of an afternoon at London's Kew Gardens by fusing the shifting points of view of several people with those of a snail, insects, flowers, and even such inanimate objects as buses and airplanes. In “Mark on the Wall” she employs interior monologue to impart the musings of a narrator who, in speculating about a small detail on a wall, ponders a variety of topics, including personal reminiscence, history, and nature. Every rumination returns to the mark only to stray anew into reverie, as each of the narrator's seemingly meandering thoughts builds upon one another to create an intricate discourse on the nature of reality and truth. Themes in Woolf's short fiction are intrinsically fused with narrative form. Similar to Joyce's short stories, in which epiphany is frequently an essential element, Woolf's short fiction often depends on “moments of being” to delineate themes. Whereas Joyce's notion of epiphany focuses on the power of a single event to reveal truth, Woolf's “moments of being” encompass various incursions into time and place. In “Moments of Being: ‘Slater's Pins Have No Points,’” the protagonist, Fanny Wilmot, searches for a lost pin while she simultaneously attempts to gain insight into the personality of her elderly piano teacher, Julia Craye. In the brief time she searches for the pin, Fanny juxtaposes thoughts about Julia's past with the present and speculates on Julia's happiness. The narrative returns after each rumination about Julia's life to Fanny's search for the pin until, finally, at the instant when Fanny finds the pin, she experiences the revelation that Julia is indeed happy. Woolf's fascination with the elusive nature of storytelling, as well as the inherent difficulty of knowing character, provided subject matter for several of her short stories. In “An Unwritten Novel” she explored this theme through the capricious mind of the narrator as she rides a train with a stranger, observing details of the unknown woman's appearance and behavior to construct a story surrounding her life. At the end of the tale the narrator is stunned to realize that her conclusions are utterly incorrect. In this and in several other stories, Woolf overturned conventional Edwardian precepts that relied on observable details to discern veracity and illustrated the unknowable nature of truth and character. In both her fiction and nonfiction Woolf was devoted to raising the social consciousness of readers. Her disarming and often humorous feminist works are informed with pointed criticism of sexism, as well as praise for neglected women writers. For example, “A Society” highlights ten years in the lives of a group of women who meet regularly to question conventions of art, literature, scholarship, law, and military achievement in a male-dominated society. One of the group's vows is to forego having children until they have resolved their questions. However, when one woman, Castilia, becomes pregnant, a new resolution is adopted to allow only the unchaste into their society, and Castilia is appointed president. The story's ironic stance, humor, and extensive use of allusion to the Bible and mythology serve, for several critics, to elevate it above the level of polemic. Like her contemporary James Joyce, with whom she is often compared, critics argue that Woolf revolted against the traditional narrative methods of her time and experimented with stream-of-consciousness prose and interior monologue. They note that she first introduced many of these formal experiments in short stories that often present “moments of being”—instances of intense sensibility during which disparate thoughts and events culminate in a flash of insight. Recent critical studies of Woolf's short fiction have investigated the symbolism of mirrors and glass in her work, traced revisions of her stories, assessed the influence of Thomas Browne and Bertrand Russell on her fiction, and explored aspects of her alleged anti-Semitism. Commentators have discussed her as a lesbian writer, and have emphasized parallels between her lesbian-themed stories with those of Gertrude Stein. Most critics acknowledge that Woolf's short stories frequently served as experimental studies in which ideas for her longer works of fiction originated and developed. Yet many commentators have contended that Woolf's experiments with poetic style, her psychological focus, and her subjective point of view expanded the limits of time and perception within the framework of the short story, influencing and contributing significantly to the development of modern short fiction. *The Mark on the Wall 1917 Kew Gardens 1919 Monday or Tuesday 1921 A Haunted House, and Other Short Stories 1944 Mrs. Dalloway's Party: A Short Story Sequence 1973 The Complete Shorter Fiction of Virginia Woolf 1985 The Voyage Out (novel) 1915 Night and Day (novel) 1919 Jacob's Room (novel) 1922 Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown (criticism) 1924 The Common Reader (criticism) 1925 Mrs. Dalloway (novel) 1925 To the Lighthouse (novel) 1927 Orlando: A Biography (novel) 1928 A Room of One's Own (essays) 1929 The Waves (novel) 1931 The Common Reader: Second Series (criticism) 1932 Flush: A Biography (biography) 1933 The Years (novel) 1937 Three Guineas (essays) 1938 Roger Fry: A Biography (biography) 1940 Between the Acts (novel) 1941 The Death of the Moth, and Other Essays (essays) 1942 The Moment, and Other Essays (essays) 1947 The Captain's Death Bed, and Other Essays (essays) 1950 A Writer's Diary: Being Extracts from the Diary of Virginia Woolf (diary) 1953 Hours in a Library (essay) 1957 Granite and Rainbow: Essays by Virginia Woolf (essays) 1958 Collected Essays. 4 vols. (essays) 1966-67 The Letters of Virginia Woolf. 6 vols. (letters) 1975-80 Moments of Being: Unpublished Autobiographical Writings (autobiographical essays) 1976 Books and Portraits (essays) 1977; also published as Some Further Selections from the Literary and Biographical Writings of Virginia Woolf: Books and Portraits, 1979 The Diary of Virginia Woolf. 5 vols. (diary) 1977-84 The Essays of Virginia Woolf. 4 vols. (essays) 1986-93 A Moment's Liberty: The Shorter Diary of Virginia Woolf (diary) 1990 A Passionate Apprentice: The Early Journals, 1897-1909 (journals) 1990 *This work was also published with Leonard Woolf's “Three Jews” as Two Stories in 1917. SOURCE: Kurtz, Marilyn. “Glass Breaking: Later Fiction.” In Virginia Woolf: Reflections and Reverberations, pp. 115-23. New York: Peter Lang, 1990. [In the following excerpt, Kurtz considers the symbolism of windows and mirrors in Woolf's later short fiction.] Windows and mirrors play as compelling a part in the later fiction of Virginia Woolf as they do in the earlier works. Even the short stories are infused with images of glass, for here, as in the novels, Virginia Woolf makes explorations into personal identity and the human condition through vehicles of glass in a quest for meaning. Because of their power to separate and divide (as the self... (The entire section is 3488 words.) SOURCE: Narey, Wayne. “Virginia Woolf's ‘The Mark on the Wall’: An Einsteinian View of Art.” Studies in Short Fiction 29, no. 1 (winter 1992): 35-42. [In the following essay, Narey views “The Mark on the Wall” as an “artistic manifesto” of time and perspective influenced by the theories of Albert Einstein.] James Naremore's study of Virginia Woolf, The World without a Self, refers to her short story “The Mark on the Wall” as “a sketch in which the protagonist indulges in what appears to be a Freudian daydream” (58-59). The Freudian aspect of the story comes from the free-associative quality of the protagonist's thoughts, the only... (The entire section is 3288 words.) SOURCE: Clements, Susan. “The Point of ‘Slater's Pins’: Misrecognition and the Narrative Closet.” Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 13, no. 1 (spring 1994): 15-26. [In the following essay, Clements regards “Slater's Pins Have No Points” as an “emblematic representation” of difficulties faced by lesbian writers and focuses “on the destructive and ultimately self-effacing practice of misrecognition.”] “Chloe liked Olivia,” I read. And then it struck me how immense a change was there. Chloe liked Olivia perhaps for the first time in literature. —Virginia Woolf, A Room of One's... (The entire section is 5382 words.) SOURCE: Cyr, Marc D. “A Conflict of Closure in Virginia Woolf's ‘A Mark on the Wall.’” Studies in Short Fiction 33, no. 2 (spring 1996): 197-205. [In the following essay, Cyr explores the meaning of the mark in “The Mark on the Wall” and debates the sense of closure in the story.] Virginia Woolf's “The Mark on the Wall” concludes with the identification of that mark as a snail, this after several pages of digressions—on history, reality, society, art, writing, and life itself—incited by the flimsy ruse of an ontological inquiry. Readers have reacted variously to this revelation: As T. E. Apter notes, some, like M. C. Bradbrook, have found it... (The entire section is 4078 words.) SOURCE: Newman, Herta. “Stories about Storymaking.” In Virginia Woolf and Mrs. Brown: Toward a Realism of Uncertainty, pp. 17-29. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. [In the following essay, Newman assesses Woolf's success as a storyteller, concluding that her stories “fail to satisfy the reader's desire for certainty.”] But what are stories? Toys I twist, bubbles I blow, one ring passes through another. Sometimes I begin to doubt if there are stories.1 Virginia Woolf's stories have not generally received the acclaim accorded to her novels and essays. Yet she is an inveterate storyteller, and it is in... (The entire section is 4022 words.) SOURCE: Greene, Sally. “Brownean Motion in ‘Solid Objects.’” Virginia Woolf Miscellany, no. 50 (fall 1997): 2-3. [In the following essay, Greene assesses the influence of Thomas Browne on Woolf's fiction, particularly “The Mark on the Wall.”] As Woolf refashioned her early empirical realism into a modernist practice, her work began to reflect a deeper engagement with the Renaissance, including the works of an old friend, Sir Thomas Browne. While she was finishing Night and Day (1919), she was embarking on a new direction in short fiction. “The Mark on the Wall” and other stories collected in Monday or Tuesday (1921) reflect, in their... (The entire section is 1357 words.) SOURCE: Séllei, Nóra. “The Snail and The Times: Three Stories ‘Dancing in Unity.’” Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies 3, no. 2 (1997): 189-98. [In the following essay, Séllei finds thematic and stylistic similarities in “The Mark on the Wall,” “Kew Gardens,” and “An Unwritten Novel.”] “[Y]esterday I … arrived at some idea of a new form for a new novel. Suppose one thing should open out of another—as in ‘An Unwritten Novel’—only not for 10 pages but 200 or so—doesn't that give the looseness and lightness I want; doesn't that get closer and yet keep form and speed, and enclose everything?” asks Virginia Woolf... (The entire section is 4993 words.) SOURCE: Blackmer, Corinne E. “Lesbian Modernism in the Shorter Fiction of Virginia Woolf and Gertrude Stein.” In Virginia Woolf: Lesbian Readings, edited by Eileen Barrett and Patricia Cramer, pp. 78-93. New York: New York University Press, 1997. [In the following essay, Blackmer analyzes the lesbian-themed short stories of Woolf and Gertrude Stein to gain insight into their “distinctive approaches to creating lesbian modernist literature.”] To the extent that lesbians have been associated with the obscure, the neglected, and the marginal, there is something quintessentially “lesbian” about bringing the shorter fictions of Virginia Woolf and Gertrude Stein... (The entire section is 6882 words.) SOURCE: Lackey, Michael. “The Gender of Atheism in Virginia Woolf's ‘A Simple Melody.’” Studies in Short Fiction 35, no. 1 (winter 1998): 49-63. [In the following essay, Lackey perceives “A Simple Melody” to be a transitional work in Woolf's short fiction oeuvre and examines her portrayal of male atheism in the story.] Posthumously published, the 1925 short story “A Simple Melody” is one of the most pivotal works in Virginia Woolf's corpus, signaling a decisive break with her first four novels, yet anticipating the central issues of her last five. Typical of Woolf's fiction, the story features a main character who is an... (The entire section is 6463 words.) SOURCE: Oxindine, Annette. “Sexing the Epiphany in ‘Moments of Being,’ Woolf's Nice Little Story about Sapphism.” Journal of the Short Story in English, no. 31 (autumn 1998): 51-61. [In the following essay, Oxindine links the homoerotic and epiphanic moments in “Slater's Pins Have No Points.”] You remember there is a very fine instinct wireless telepathy nothing to it—in women—the darlings—which fizzles up pretenses, and I know what you mean though you don't say it … —Virginia Woolf to Violet Dickinson, 1903 Critical avoidance of the lesbian intimacy at the conclusion of... (The entire section is 4182 words.) SOURCE: Tremper, Ellen. “Prologue: ‘The Journal of Mistress Joan Martyn’ and Wordsworth's Guide to the Lakes.” In “Who Lived at Alfoxton?”: Virginia Woolf and English Romanticism, pp. 35-61. Cranbury, N.J.: Bucknell University Press, 1998. [In the following essay, Tremper investigates the influence of William Wordsworth's Guide to the Lakes on Woolf's “The Journal of Mistress Joan Martyn.”] Here are the poets from whom we descend by way of the mind. —Between the Acts Virginia Woolf's relations with her father, Leslie Stephen, were exceptional. Beyond... (The entire section is 12600 words.) SOURCE: Rosenfeld, Natania. “Incongruities; or, The Politics of Character: Departures.” In Outsiders Together: Virginia and Leonard Woolf, pp. 81-95. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. [In the following essay, Rosenfeld juxtaposes the style and themes of the two pieces collected in Two Stories: “The Mark on the Wall,” and Leonard Woolf's “Three Jews.”] Five years after their [Virginia and Leonard Woolf's] marriage, in 1917, the newly founded Hogarth Press issued its first publication. The Woolfs saw their press as an opportunity for creative and intellectual freedom, and as a respite from mental labor. It would enable Virginia to... (The entire section is 8073 words.) SOURCE: Benzel, Kathryn N. “Woolf's Early Experimentation with Consciousness: ‘Kew Gardens,’ Typescript to Publication, 1917-1919.”1 In Virginia Woolf: Turning the Centuries, edited by Ann Ardis and Bonnie Kime Scott, pp. 192-99. New York: Pace University Press, 2000. [In the following essay, Benzel speculates about the origin, creation, and revision of “Kew Gardens.”] In Michael Cunningham's novel The Hours, he describes a park that his character Virginia Woolf envisions in a dream: It seems, suddenly, that she is not in her bed but in a park; a park impossibly verdant, green beyond green—a Platonic... (The entire section is 3526 words.) SOURCE: de Gay, Jane. “An Unfinished Story: The Freshwater Drafts of ‘The Searchlight.’” In Virginia Woolf: Turning the Centuries, edited by Ann Ardis and Bonnie Kime Scott, pp. 207-15. New York: Pace University Press, 2000. [In the following essay, de Gay traces the revision of “The Searchlight” into “A Scene from the Past,” and contends that the final version deserves more critical attention than it has been given.] This paper will focus on a collection of drafts relating to Woolf's short story “The Searchlight,” which differ significantly from the version published by Leonard Woolf in A Haunted House (1943). Unlike the published version,... (The entire section is 4329 words.) SOURCE: Westman, Karin E. “The First Orlando: The Laugh of the Comic Spirit in Virginia Woolf's ‘Friendships Gallery.’” Twentieth-Century Literature 47, no. 1 (spring 2001): 39-71. [In the following essay, Westman maintains that “Friendships Gallery” best represents Woolf's development of a “new ‘art’ of biography that could negotiate the tension between fact and fiction” and identifies the story as the roots of her novel Orlando.] The Comic Spirit laughed meanwhile. —“Friendships Gallery” (284) If Orlando (1928) has typically been read as the literary... (The entire section is 12130 words.) SOURCE: Besnault-Levita, Anne. “What ‘It’ Is About: The Implicit in Virginia Woolf's Short Fictions.” Journal of the Short Story in English, no. 40 (spring 2003): 135-47. [In the following essay, Besnault-Levita analyzes Woolf's use of the pronoun “it” in her short fiction and explores “the implicit theories of meaning and interpretation behind the implicit as they are put to the test by Woolf's fictional prose.”] How does “it” mean, what is “it” about and what does “it” reveal about the ethics of Virginia Woolf's poetics of the implicit, and therefore of fiction, are the three questions I would like to raise in this paper. My starting point... (The entire section is 5102 words.) SOURCE: Schröder, Leena Kore. “Tales of Abjection and Miscegenation: Virginia Woolf's and Leonard Woolf's ‘Jewish’ Stories.” Twentieth-Century Literature 49, no. 3 (fall 2003): 298-327. [In the following essay, Schröder explores elements of anti-Semitism in Woolf's short story “The Duchess and the Jeweller” and Leonard Woolf's “Three Jews.”] There can be no straightforward account of attitudes toward Jewishness in the work of Virginia Woolf. This is a woman who lived happily married to a Jew and whose private references to Leonard as “my Jew” are marital jokes (Diary [The Diary of Virginia Woolf] 1: 11), yet whose diaries regularly... (The entire section is 11856 words.) SOURCE: Henry, Holly. “Maps, Globes, and ‘Solid Objects.’” In Virginia Woolf and the Discourse of Science: The Aesthetics of Astronomy, pp. 71-92. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. [In the following excerpt, Henry investigates the influence of Bertrand Russell's theories of material phenomena on her “Solid Objects.”] BERTRAND RUSSELL AND WOOLF'S “MULTIFORM ARTWORK” In her short fiction experiments like “Solid Objects,” “Kew Gardens,” and “The Mark on the Wall,” Woolf explored the questions that Russell and Whitehead were working out in their own theories regarding what can be known of the material world.... (The entire section is 4598 words.) SOURCE: Levy, Heather. “‘These Ghost Figures of Distorted Passion’: Becoming Privy to Working-Class Desire in ‘The Watering Place’ and ‘The Ladies Lavatory.’” Modern Fiction Studies 50, no. 1 (spring 2004): 31-57. [In the following essay, Levy argues that “The Watering Place,” “The Ladies Lavatory,” and “The Cook” reveal Woolf's exploration of the “fricative interrelationships between class, lesbian desire, and the occupation of public and private space.”] The bodies and minds of working-class women are elided in most of Virginia Woolf's earliest shorter fiction and then only partially or unflatteringly staged in most of her middle and... (The entire section is 11728 words.)

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Obviously, students’ life stressors and their abilities to cope with them will vary from time to time and from one student to another. The problem of stress must be dealt with if students/teachers are to begin to learn/teach more successfully. The stress that adolescents experience can cause a great emotional block and resistance to the learning process. It is impossible to feed new information into an already fully logged computer disc and a student cannot be fed information if he/she is fully logged with life stress. For simplicity, a universal approach must be taken in designing an educational structure to help this situation. This unit will provide an easy way to begin to deal with some of the stress that occupies the adolescent’s mind. First, let’s be clear about what stress is and what recent research offers to deal with this problem. Stress is a created state or tension occurring in response to demands and pressures that come from the outside and the inside. It causes bodily as well as mental changes. Some bodily responses in dealing with stress pertain to hormone levels, high blood pressure and the lymphatic system. Stress has also been correlated with poor sleep patterns; either not being able to sleep restfully or the manifestation of increased sleep time. Most of these changes would not be readily visible to the teacher. Stress is usually most apparent during major life events. How might a teacher recognize stress? Early signs can vary and sometimes no signs are apparent. Some of the mental signs of personal stress are:2 |1.||Lack of ability to think rationally. (A student is bumped accidently by another student and a fight ensues)| |2.||Aggression and irritability that is manifested in a displaced manner. (Uncontrollable profanity directed at authority)| |3.||Drawing away from a relationship. Isolation.| |4.||An all around inability to relax.| The result of adolescent stress is a classroom full of students unable to focus on anything. The teacher teaches to a room of chaos or a room of zombies. Listening and daily tasks suddenly become foreign to the students. The teacher begins to feel as though he/she is beating his/her head against a brick wall. The teacher becomes stressful because he/she can’t get enough work don in a classroom full of stressed students. What do experts say will help? The most current answers deal with behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, distraction, physical activity, imagery, humor, escape time and relaxation techniques. Most of these are complicated and not readily available to all teachers, many of whom are already feeling an overload in the classroom. This unit will borrow from all the current findings, combine them with drama, and take a form that can be easily used in the classroom to help students cope with stress. It will supply a light in the darkest part of the tunnel. It will produce laughter, tears, and hope. The unit will only need one hour of classroom time a week. The unit borders on dramatic therapy with the difference being in its exclusively creative approach. Dramatic therapy would be presented as a definite tool to identify a problem and work it through. It would demand a willing participant, one who would agree that help and therapy is needed. The student in trouble may not realize that the need for help exists or might refuse it. The teacher will need to recognize the troubled student and provide as much help as possible. The basic requirements for the teacher are not difficult, as they primarily consist of common sense tempered with compassion and warmth. The most important things to remember while using the unit are to remain calm and to be supportive through the initial phases of the unit. Students should be encouraged to decide for themselves what is safe to reveal under the tent of performing and should be offered other areas for possible stress release, if indicated, through teacher guidance. The unit is constructed in three phases. |1.||For the unit to work successfully there must be a letting down of regular classroom walls during the hour spent on the unit each week. The students need to be allowed the freedom, while on stage, to use profanity, sexual comments and outbursts when necessary. When students confront the teacher with questions concerning these freedoms, students seem to respond best when phases like, “Use your own best judgement” and “Make sure you use common sense,” are used by the teacher. The teacher will need to walk a thin line of monitoring this freedom and allowing it at the same time. Full creative freedom for the student is essential for the unit to operate on its best level. The teacher is the best judge of creativity versus unwarranted behavior displayed by a student. Although you must be aware that even obnoxious behavior or strong displays are signals of a students mental well being.| |2.||As a class, the students must be briefed on their role as a supportive audience. They won’t talk to the performer on stage, but they will “act” as still and quiet as possible. Laughing and clapping in support are acceptable. Each student needs to play the role’ of paying attention (the first attempt at good acting).| |3.||The teacher should not expect immediate results with this unit. The students will test to see if they will be allowed complete freedom of expression. A student may present a written work containing strong language or content and ask if it is acceptable. If the teacher allows the student to make the decision of performing it in front of the class, rather than imposing restrictions, “the wind is usually taken out of their sails” and the student performs another piece. The students will also test to see if the teacher cares about each student as a person. When a student reveals personal information, he/she will look for acknowledgement from the teacher, and sometimes warmth. It may be advisable to show some simple form of physical affirmation such as a pat on the back or a hug as a simple way of showing concern for the student.| The teacher needs to be a friend and a guide during this hour. The testing of the teacher is “being put through the fire.” If the teacher can make it through this fire somewhat calmly, then he/she is fifty percent of the way to a better classroom atmosphere for all. If the teacher is feeling abused, try talking with the students about the way “it feels.” The students have hearts, sometimes they just need to be prompted. The nature of the unit is one that could be viewed much like group therapy. The unit should not be presented to the student as a form of therapy, it should be presented in its pure creative form. The creative work will produce results on its own merit. The teacher will be very much like a coach for the students. Because of the nature of the unit and the nature of dramatic performing, there will be some awkwardness. This awkward feeling is due to the vulnerable nature of the work. Once the ice has been broken the threat and fearfulness becomes lessened and enjoyment ensues. The first and most crucial relaxation exercise consists of an imaginary trip. The students begin by lying flat on their backs and focusing on their breathing. The student should count silently to ten while inhaling and exhaling. (The teacher can count to ten out loud a few times to set the pace for the class.) This type of breathing enables the student to slow down mentally and physically. The teacher should talk in a basic tone, with a slow rhythm, guiding the students verbally through the tensing up and releasing of tension throughout the body. The teacher may begin with the toes progressing upward or the top of the head progressing down. An example would be: “Students tense your toes, breath, relax your toes.”*(See Lesson Plan) After guiding the students through this process the next step is to guide the student through an imaginary trip. Explain to the students that the trip is in the mind only and minimal movement is acceptable but extensive movement will disrupt the relaxed state. An imaginary trip is included in the lesson plan. The muscle relaxation technique can also be used without the imaginary trip after the completion of the exercise 2 or 3 times. The use of this exercise should be explained to the students as a tool to use when developing their monologues or when working on characters. It is also a tool to help gain control of nervousness. The simple act of breathing slowly and with great awareness can give the student control again in a moment that lacks control. The teacher can use the exercise to help students begin to make choices in life. The old count to ten with breathing and then thinking will help the student learn to behave more rationally in irrational times. The length of time devoted to the relaxation portion of the unit can vary. After the completion of the first technique two or three times as a class the students will be prepared for Phase II and Phase III. Mastery of relaxation could take a lifetime, so the teacher may want to return to this phase even after having moved forward into Phases II and III. It is the beginning of the unit, but should not be left behind when the students have gone through the phase. Even the student who does not master this exercise will still reap some of its benefits. The idea is that without the pressure of actually going through therapy, the student will learn, slowly but surely, to transfer the control offered to help them as performers into control of everyday life situations. Just as the actor assesses unwanted behavior in a developed character, the students can begin to recognize unwanted behavior in their own lives and start to find ways to make new choices in situations where previously they may have reacted without forethought. Relaxation helps the imagination, strengthens the performer, puts ideas into perspective, and is the stepping stone to performing in life as well as on stage. Objective Students will learn to actively take part in relaxing themselves physically and mentally. Students will learn to become aware of specific thought processes through relaxation exercises. Materials Needed Mats or towels (optional for students to lie on) |1.||Explain to students they will be doing a relaxation exercise. It will help them act (on stage) and exercise their imagination.| |2.||Have students lie flat on their backs with legs flat or knees bent. (their option)| |3.||Tell students to close their eyes and that no looking around or talking should be done during the relaxation exercise.| |4.||Have students focus on their breathing by saying something like: “Focus on nothing but breathing, feel the air going in, feel the air coming out. Concentrate on the sound of your breathing, notice if you are taking slow or rapid breaths. Try to release all the thoughts from your mind while exhaling.”| |*5.||Tell students to continue to be aware of their breathing and to listen to the directions given by the teacher.| |*6.||Now the teacher will begin giving directives to the student for body relaxation. Example lead in: “Now I will guide you through relaxing the entire body. Tense your toes, breathe in, release the air and tension in your toes. Tense your feet, breathe in, release the air and tension in your feet.” As students and teacher become more familiar the guiding can be simplified to: “Tense (guide word) and breathe and release. Using these guide words, toes, feet, ankles, calves, thighs, buttock, pelvis, lower back, upper back, shoulders, neck, chin, lips, face, scalp, entire head, students are lead through complete muscle relaxation.| |7.||Tell students to continue to breathe and be aware of any body tension being released. Tell students to do this on their own while following in their minds the imaginary trip. Example Imaginary Trip: As you are lying on the floor, suddenly you realize it is sand beneath you not a floor. Then you realize the sun is on you and you are hot, very hot. The sand you are lying in is warm and the sound of the water is in the background. The heat is almost unbearable, you try to move and cannot. (Now give students a few moments to absorb this much.)| |*Finally, you are able to move and slowly you make your way to the water to cool off. What color is your water? Blue, green, blue/green. Is it clear or dark? You look around and realize you are on an island. What type of trees does your island have? Palm, oak, etc. . . . Are there animals? What sounds do you hear? Do you hear birds, wild animals, bugs, wind, etc. . . . You see a raft over by the shore and you get into it. What color is it? Is it made of logs, wood or rubber? You get into the raft and lie down and begin to float. Feel the water underneath you. What does it feel like? Is it soothing or unsettling? You are very tired so you lie serenely on your raft. Suddenly you realize you are lying on the floor again.| |8.||Tell students to take their time getting up and make sure all are awake as some may have fallen asleep. Evaluation should begin immediately with the students grouped together.| - Were you able to feel relaxed and focus on the imaginary trip? - Did your mind wander? - What did your island look like? - Did you decide why you were there? - How do you feel right now?..More relaxed, the same, a little different? - What color was your raft and what was it made of? - Students should show some proficiency the first time they attempt this exercise. After a few times look for increased ability. The island trip can be used again, expanded on or new trips may be developed. Make sure new trips are of some sort of relaxed nature at the onset. When beginning the performance of the monologue, it will probably be advisable to choose a student to go first who is likely to excel. Then give something extra to the student who does well in front of the group and be prepared to give the student actions to go with the piece. An example of something extra would be: A student does a piece on the death of someone, suggest they do the monologue again and improvise a conversation with the spirit of the person. An example of added action would be physically reenacting the event described. *(See Lesson Plan) If students who excel are resistant to extras try not to push them. If any student is unable to perform, have them write down and turn in what they would like to do. During this phase, compassion and warmth, supportive statements and positive feedback from the teacher should be used. It may be necessary for the teacher to work with one student for the entire hour. The teacher should also have information on hand to direct students to extra help if necessary; such as books on presentations, experienced people, other students who have met with success. This phase will also give the teacher some clues into what the student is like emotionally. The beauty of this phase is that it becomes a time of stepping out of the basic day to day doldrums. Whether a student does something silly or serious, as the emotions flow, everyone’s stress becomes lessened. There is no secret to why it works. It is simply wonderful to have the chance to express oneself. The personal monologues will help the teacher and student get to know one another. Personal Monologues can be done as long as the teacher chooses. Objective The student will learn to express themselves creatively through a monologue, speak in front of an audience as well as learning to be a good audience to others. Materials Needed Space provided for a stage area, a chair |1.||Give students an explanation of monologue, and that it will be performed by them alone in front of the class. *Allow students time to prepare a personal monologue of their choice. (written or improvised)| |2.||*Meet with students for several one hour sessions and work with individuals to help them formulate and feel comfortable with the subject chosen as well as the personal monologue itself.| |3.||Explain to the students that being an audience is as important as being a performer. Classrooms that do not naturally respond to being a good audience can be given letter and/or conduct grades for being an audience member.| |4.||Set a chair up on ‘stage’ (real or created) and choose a student to perform their personal monologue.| |*See essay portion for suggestions in dealing with problems.| |5.||Have a student perform their monologue and when finished give him/her additions and/or new ideas and the opportunity to perform again with these additional suggestions.| |6.||*Close out student work on the monologue when deemed necessary. Have the audience applaud.| |7.||Give student personal words of affirmation.| |“I really liked ____________________________________”| |“It was funny when ____________________________________”| |“I could really empathize with ____________________________________”| - Was student successful at choosing a monologue? - Did the student perform monologue? - Was the audience supportive? Optional Letter grades may be used if the teacher feels they are helpful. Talent and effort should be balanced for letter grades. Excerpts from Monologues actually written and performed by students . . . “Has someone really close to you ever died? Well it’s happened to me. Two people within two months. First it was my Grandmother. Not only was she my Grandmother but she was my best friend. She gave me everything I needed . . . food, clothes, money and shelter. She was always there for me and always took care of me. But then things changed. I had to start taking care of her. The doctors said that she had cancer. After 3 weeks, she passed away. Then, my Grandfather. He got really sick the day before my Grandmother died. He was admitted into the hospital. After two long months in the hospital bed, he died.“Have you ever really been in love? Well, I have, and it’s really shocking because I’m not the type of person to fall in love, and all my friends know that. They were really shocked when I poured my heart out to them and cried on their shoulders. I really didn’t know what I was gonna do. I mean my friends were there for me, they were really supportive. But, I mean do you know how it feels lying awake at night and crying. I mean first you’re guilty cause you didn’t even get to say goodbye then you keep asking, ‘Why God, why this person?’ I mean you always think they’re gonna be there for you and they’re gonna see you graduate high school. But, as the months passed I realized that even though that person passes on their memory will be there forever.” Now this is how it all started. It was about 2 weeks before Valentines Day when this certain person who never even looked at me started noticing me and saying ‘Hi!’ when he passed me in the halls. Then he started calling me. Well I thought he was just being nice. I never knew what I was in for. One thing led to another and we started going out. I wasn’t sure how much I liked him. I knew I liked him a lot but I has no idea it was love. It finally hit me on Valentines Day when he didn’t even call me. I was really upset, cried all day. I kept the crying to myself, I didn’t let anyone know it effected me. The next night he ditched me. I got dumped. Yeah, I guess you can say he played me. After that we didn’t talk. Well actually I didn’t talk to him for about two months. I went out with a few people that didn’t really mean much to me to try to take my mind off him and to help me forget him. But I knew no matter what, I still wasn’t over him. I wanted to kill myself, I was so miserable, until April vacation! He called me, I said ‘Wait a minute, this has to be a joke, you’re actually talking to me?’ We talked for an real long time and then just out of the blue he asked me out. I didn’t understand why, but I didn’t care at the moment because I was happy and going out with him! This relationship was going pretty good, well that’s what I thought. On our one week anniversary he called me up (himself) and said ‘I don’t think we should go out anymore, but he wants to stay friends’. Well I just said O.K. and hung up and cried for days. That is the worst thing to say, and he said it. I couldn’t believe what he was putting me through. I couldn’t even look at him, my eyes would get all glassy, but I refused to cry in front of him. I kept on saying to myself ... ‘He isn’t worth it’, but I knew in my heart it really was. Recently he started talking to me again, just when I was trying to get over him. Now I love him even more. I try to get over him, but I just can’t help myself. He tells me he likes me but I don’t believe him and I don’t want to because I really don’t feel like getting hurt again. He told me he would ask me out, but his best friend likes me. That was like a knife going through my heart. In a way I wanted to believe him but I couldn’t. Sometimes I say to myself . . . ‘Why do I love him? Why am I wasting my time on someone I don’t have a chance with? Why me?’ I guess I don’t really have a choice. There is one thing I know, and that’s he is my first true love and even if I never get him back I will never forget him.” Role Play is similar to scene work but it is specifically used for working on standing in another person’s shoes. A common use of role play is to allow students to solve daily problems on stage. Problems with parents, teachers and one another are possible options. Role play can be very helpful in dealing with conflict situations. Improvisational Work can be fun or a way to tackle serious issues. It is a great way to play while performing. It is work using thoughts from off the top of one’s head. There are many improvisational games. One is called the one word story. Each student is allowed to use one word with the next student adding a word and together the words are to form some sort of story. Another improvisation game is “draw the idea from the hat.” Different ideas for scenes are put into a hat and drawn by groups of 2 to 3 people. The students then must perform a scene using the idea. Listening and cooperating are focal points for improvisational work. Other improvisational games can be found in theater books, some of which will be included on the unit teacher resource book list. Character Development is yet another area of enrichment. Character development can be done through the study of character within a play or through real people and their personalities. When deriving a character profile from a play, traits can be determined from context clues and/or personal interpretation. This project may be done by individuals or as a group. When using everyday people; observing and the use of stereotypes are fun. The key to developing a well rounded character is using one’s own life experiences and expanding them with observations and imagination. *(See Lesson Plan) All of the suggestions of further enrichment in Phase III are easily found in books that deal with theater. Using the strengths of stressful emotional release found in Phase I and II in combination with other areas of drama, stress can be released in new and innovative ways. The teacher can create a system that works for his or her classroom. Objectives Students will learn to work from instinct and think quickly. Materials Paper and pen (optional) Procedures The following is a basic outline for improvisational work. |1.||Participants are chosen.| |2.||Ideas are chosen. Conflict situations are usually the simplest to work with.| |Friendship conflicts, etc. . . .| |3.||Short discussion among performers (teacher may also participate) about how the improvisation will go.| |4.||Put the scene on stage.| |If necessary, the teacher can ask students to find way to end the scene.| Evaluation As the class discusses choices made on stage new or alternative choices can be discussed. Now the option to restage with new choices exists. Objective Students will learn to observe the characteristics that create personalities in life and stage. Materials Needed Any written play (optional) Procedures This is just one of several basic observation lessons used to give insight into character development and the following can be transposed for usage in other ways. |1.||Discussion: Personalities, What creates them? Voice, movement, nice, cool, villain, hero . . .| |2.||Have each student choose one person to observe for one week. The way they walk and talk. How do they act when happy, angry, upset, nervous, etc. . . . Noting as many characteristics, physical and/or emotional, as possible.| |3.||Have students report their findings and emulate at least one thing observed.| |4.||Discuss these traits as building blocks for characters.| |5.||If using a play, after completing steps 1 through 4 have the class read the play and discuss possible traits of one or two characters and how they relate to the actual people observed.| Did student participate in the discussion? Was student able to observe characteristic traits? Was student able to transfer this knowledge to understanding characters in a play? Benedetti, Robert. The Actor At Work: An Introduction to the Skills of Acting. Englewood Cliff, NJ:Prentice-Hall, 1981. Cohen, Robert. Acting Power: An Introduction to Acting. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 111978. Franklin, Miriam. Rehearsal: The Principles and Practice of Acting for the Stage. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Lane, Yoti. The Psychology of the Actor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1960. Stanislavski, Constantin. Building A Character. New York: Theatre Art Books, 1949. Chilver, Peter. Improvised Drama. London: B.T. Batsford, 1967. Martin, William and Vallins, Gordon. Exploration Drama. London: Evans, 1970-77. Pierini, Mary Paul Frances. Creative Dramatics: A Guide for Educators. New York: Herder & Herder, 1971. Barker, Clive. Theatre Games. London: Eyre Methuen, 1977. Eberle, Robert. Games for Imagination Development. Buffalo: DOK Publishers, 1971. Spolin, Viola. Improvisation for the Theatre: A Handbook of Teaching and Directing Techniques. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, 1963. Anjanaro, Altshuler. Response to Drama. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976. Barranger, M.S. Theatre: A Way of Seeing. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1980. Early, Michael and Keil, Philippa, Eds. The Best Monologues of the 80’s. (Women) Early, Michael and Keil, Philippa, Eds. The Best Monologues of the 80’s. (Men) Harling, Robert. Steel Magnolias. Henley, Beth. Crimes of the Heart. Howe, Tina. Painting Churches. Kaufman, George S. and MacGrath, Leveen. Amicable Parting. Nigro, Don. Seascape With Sharks and Dancer. Noonan, John Ford. A Coupla White Chicks Sitting Around Talking. Simon, Neil. Brighton Beach Memoirs. Terkel, Studs. Working. Wade, Kevin. Key Exchange. |1.||Chandler, Louis A. Assessing Stress in Children. New York: Praeger, 1985.| |2.||D’Onofrio, Jan and Klesse, Ed. Adolescent Stress. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1990.| |3.||Hanson, Peter G. Stress for Success: How to Make Stress on the Job Work for You. 1st ed. New York: Springer Verlag, 1986.| |4.||Johnson, James H. Life Events as Stressors in Childhood and Adolescence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1986.| |5.||Kendall, Phillip C. (Eds.) Advances in Cognitive Behavioral Research and Therapy. Vol. 3, Florida: Academic Press, Inc., 1984.| |6.||Klein, D.M. and Aldons J. (Eds.) Social Stress and Family Development. New York: Guilford Press, 1988.| |7.||Krohne Heinz W. and Laux, L. Achievement Stress and Anxiety. New York: Hemisphere Publishing, 1982.| |8.||Landy, Robert J. Drama Therapy: Concepts and Practices. Springfield, IL: CCThomas, 1986.| |9.||Lefcourt, Herbert M. and Martin, Rod A. Humor and Life Stress: Antidote to Adversity. New York: Springer Verlag, 1986.| |10.||Robertson, Warren. Free to Act: How to Star in Your Life. New York: Putnam, 1978.| |11.||Schattner, G. and Courtney, R. (Eds.) Drama in Therapy. 1st ed. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1981.| Contents of 1991 Volume V | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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1.the discipline that records and interprets past events involving human beings"he teaches Medieval history" "history takes the long view" 2.all that is remembered of the past as preserved in writing; a body of knowledge"the dawn of recorded history" "from the beginning of history" 3.a record or narrative description of past events"a history of France" "he gave an inaccurate account of the plot to kill the president" "the story of exposure to lead" 4.the aggregate of past events"a critical time in the school's history" 5.the continuum of events occurring in succession leading from the past to the present and even into the future"all of human history" HistoryHis"to*ry (?), n.; pl. Histories (#). [L. historia, Gr. 'istori`a history, information, inquiry, fr. 'istwr, "istwr, knowing, learned, from the root of � to know; akin to E. wit. See Wit, and cf. Story.] 1. A learning or knowing by inquiry; the knowledge of facts and events, so obtained; hence, a formal statement of such information; a narrative; a description; a written record; as, the history of a patient's case; the history of a legislative bill. 2. A systematic, written account of events, particularly of those affecting a nation, institution, science, or art, and usually connected with a philosophical explanation of their causes; a true story, as distinguished from a romance; -- distinguished also from annals, which relate simply the facts and events of each year, in strict chronological order; from biography, which is the record of an individual's life; and from memoir, which is history composed from personal experience, observation, and memory. Histories are as perfect as the historian is wise, and is gifted with an eye and a soul. Carlyle. For aught that I could ever read, Could ever hear by tale or history. Shak. What histories of toil could I declare! Pope. History piece, a representation in painting, drawing, etc., of any real event, including the actors and the action. -- Natural history, a description and classification of objects in nature, as minerals, plants, animals, etc., and the phenomena which they exhibit to the senses. Syn. -- Chronicle; annals; relation; narration. -- History, Chronicle, Annals. History is a methodical record of important events which concern a community of men, usually so arranged as to show the connection of causes and effects, to give an analysis of motive and action etc. A chronicle is a record of such events, conforming to the order of time as its distinctive feature. Annals are a chronicle divided up into separate years. By poetic license annals is sometimes used for history. Justly Cæsar scorns the poet's lays; It is to history he trusts for praise. Pope. No more yet of this; For 't is a chronicle of day by day, Not a relation for a breakfast. Shak. Many glorious examples in the annals of our religion. Rogers. HistoryHis"to*ry, v. t. To narrate or record. [Obs.] Shak. definition of Wikipedia science du passé (fr)[Classe] qui se rapporte à une science humaine (fr)[Classe...] conforme à la vérité (fr)[Classe] qualificatif d'un genre littéraire ou d'un type de littérature (fr)[DomaineDescription] intellectual, noetic, rational[Dérivé] bygone, earlier, former, past[Similaire] collection d'informations (fr)[Classe] event; happening; occurrence[Classe...] science of history[Classe] contenu écrit des livres (fr)[DomainDescrip.] photography, picture taking[Domaine] Histoire (fr)[termes liés] past; past times; yesteryear; ancient times; antiquity[ClasseHyper.] bygone, earlier, former, past[Similaire] History (from Greek ἱστορία - historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation") is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events. Historians debate the nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history. Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory. Amongst scholars, the 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus is considered to be the "father of history", and, along with his contemporary Thucydides, forms the foundations for the modern study of history. Their influence, along with other historical traditions in other parts of their world, have spawned many different interpretations of the nature of history which has evolved over the centuries and are continuing to change. The modern study of history has many different fields including those that focus on certain regions and those which focus on certain topical or thematical elements of historical investigation. Often history is taught as part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in University studies. A derivation from *weid- "know" or "see" is attested as "the reconstructed etymon wid-tor ["one who knows"] (compare to English wit) a suffixed zero-grade form of the PIE root *weid--'see' and so is related to Greek eidénai, to know "... Ancient Greek ἱστορία (hístōr) means "inquiry","knowledge from inquiry", or "judge". It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his Περὶ Τὰ Ζῷα Ἱστορίαι (Perì Tà Zôa Ηistoríai "Inquiries about Animals"). The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar). The word entered the English language in 1390 with the meaning of "relation of incidents, story". In Middle English, the meaning was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "record of past events" arises in the late 15th century. It was still in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about "Natural History". For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy). In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669. Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive "history" is still used to mean both "what happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, "History", or the word historiography. Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse. All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true past'). The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history. Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. For the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before. Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However, archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within textual sources. Indeed, Historical Archaeology is a specific branch of archaeology, often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of "liberty" inherent in written documents at this time. There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The International Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity. |↑ before Homo (Pliocene)| |Three-age system prehistory| The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world. In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote: The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such as Australian Aboriginals and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with European civilization. Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative towards long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s"). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives. History's philosophical questions Philosophy of history is a branch of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the processes of human history. Philosophy of history should not be confused with historiography, which is the study of history as an academic discipline, and thus concerns its methods and practices, and its development as a discipline over time. Nor should philosophy of history be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas through time. Historical method basics The following questions are used by historians in modern work. Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC) has generally been acclaimed as the "father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (ca. 460 BC – ca. 400 BC) is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention. In his historical method, Thucydides emphasized chronology, a neutral point of view, and that the human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring. There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was established by the Han Dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC), author of the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). For the quality of his timeless written work, Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese Historiography. Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature. Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study. In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science". His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography" or the "father of the philosophy of history". In the West historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. The 19th-century historian with greatest influence on methods was Leopold von Ranke in Germany. In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or individuals, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as an art, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert Fogel, Lucien Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while Wehler, Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics. More recently, the field of digital history has begun to address ways of using computer technology to pose new questions to historical data and generate digital scholarship. In opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was the power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an art. French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. Another genre of social history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period. Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges Lefebvre, Eugene D. Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D. Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of History, Richard J. Evans, a professor of modern history at Cambridge University, defended the worth of history. Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History. Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included. Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians. The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the start and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied. Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others. World history is especially important as a teaching field. It has increasingly entered the university curriculum in the U.S., in many cases replacing courses in Western Civilization, that had a focus on Europe and the U.S. World history adds extensive new material on Asia, Africa and Latin America. Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat. The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture. The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy. Every major country is covered, and most smaller ones as well. Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life. In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%. In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%). The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible." While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in." The chief subfields of social history include: Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Diplomatic history, sometimes referred to as "Rankian History" in honor of Leopold von Ranke, focuses on politics, politicians and other high rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of what history should be. Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments. Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990. The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews. A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other type of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. This history also usually focuses on events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur. Historiometry is a historical study of human progress or individual personal characteristics, by using statistics to analyze references to eminent persons, their statements, behavior and discoveries in relatively neutral texts. Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. It is in many ways, an outgrowth of women's history. Despite its relatively short life, Gender History (and its forerunner Women's History) has had a rather significant effect on the general study of history. Since the 1960s, when the initially small field first achieved a measure of acceptance, it has gone through a number of different phases, each with its own challenges and outcomes. Although some of the changes to the study of history have been quite obvious, such as increased numbers of books on famous women or simply the admission of greater numbers of women into the historical profession, other influences are more subtle. Public history is a term that describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government. Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. Closely related to deceptive historical revisionsm, works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory. From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after 1980 attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy. At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives. The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians’ approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery." Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity. In most countries history textbook are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official line about national enemies. In many countries history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire World War II is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography. In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centred on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness." |Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.| |Find more about History on Wikipedia's sister projects:| |Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |Images and media from Commons |Learning resources from Wikiversity |News stories from Wikinews |Quotations from Wikiquote |Source texts from Wikisource |Textbooks from Wikibooks Dictionary and translator for handheld New : sensagent is now available on your handheld A windows (pop-into) of information (full-content of Sensagent) triggered by double-clicking any word on your webpage. Give contextual explanation and translation from your sites ! With a SensagentBox, visitors to your site can access reliable information on over 5 million pages provided by Sensagent.com. Choose the design that fits your site. Improve your site content Add new content to your site from Sensagent by XML. Crawl products or adds Get XML access to reach the best products. Index images and define metadata Get XML access to fix the meaning of your metadata. Please, email us to describe your idea. Lettris is a curious tetris-clone game where all the bricks have the same square shape but different content. Each square carries a letter. To make squares disappear and save space for other squares you have to assemble English words (left, right, up, down) from the falling squares. Boggle gives you 3 minutes to find as many words (3 letters or more) as you can in a grid of 16 letters. You can also try the grid of 16 letters. Letters must be adjacent and longer words score better. See if you can get into the grid Hall of Fame ! Change the target language to find translations. Tips: browse the semantic fields (see From ideas to words) in two languages to learn more.

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Table of Contents |Previous |Next Or how to enjoy some of the great literature of the world, and learn Composition skills, without buying more textbooks! To learn strategies to facilitate our understanding of What follows is a mere overview, an attempt to consolidate terminology and a general approach which will allow us all to work better together, with a common vocabulary and understanding. This handout should be supplemented with, at minimum, the study of Chapter 37 in LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO FICTION, POETRY, AND DRAMA (LIT), "Writing about Literature" (1393). All parenthetical page references that follow are to LIT (Second Compact Edition). If you are using Kennedy & Gioia's anthology, LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO FICTION,POETRY, AND DRAMA (LIT), the normal EWRT 1B text, look up the terms in the index in the back of the book. Also scan the table of Contents in the front of the text. You will note that there is an entire section in the back of this text called "Writing" (LIT 1391-1499). It is worth the price of the text by itself. All literature may be better appreciated from the title of the late John Ciardi's great critical work, HOW DOES A POEM MEAN? If we analyze a poem, a short story, a novel, or a play or movie from the perspective of its component parts, we can "put it back together againî with a better understanding of HOW it works. Not only will you understand the work better, you will be able to more clearly articulate your own evaluation of the effectiveness of the work and the techniques that underly the effectiveness. We shall examine how THEMES (175) are developed by an author 's using THEMES are major ideas that are contained WITHIN a work. (You'll find an index of major themes on page 1511.) Themes are different from MEANING--which is your PERSONAL RESPONSE to the Typically, we shall examine POETRY from the three-headed vision of IMAGERY, SOUND, and STRUCTURE. But we supplement this by asking the questions 1. "Who is the speaker?" which carries implications about CHARACTER andPOINT OF VIEW and 2. "What is the occasion?" which carries implications about SETTING and CHARACTER. SOUND is typically of greater import in poetry than prose, and may contribute to themes. The British poet, Henry Reed, has written a poem, "Naming of Parts," which is ideal for examining how contrasts in each of the three elements, IMAGERY, SOUND, and STRUCTURE, contributes to the author's THEME. THEMES (175) are those major ideas that the author is concerned about. A partial list of recurring THEMES includes GOOD vs. EVIL; APPEARANCE vs. REALITY; The INDIVIDUAL and his/her relationship to GOD, NATURE, COMMUNITY (or STATE as a special case of community), SELF, &/or FAMILY; MATURITY; GUILT; RESPONSIBILITY; IDENTITY, and others. Themes that are specific to the novel LOVE MEDICINE include alcoholism, the Ojibwa culture vs. the Roman Catholic (or White) culture, Life on the reservation vs. city Life, child and spousal abuse, & Vietnam. In Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story, "Young Goodman Brown (see 10.4.1, below)," and Oliver Stone's movie, PLATOON (see 10.2.8, below), the authors both treat the themes of a maturing protagonist, and Appearance vs. Reality. Stories with recurring themes and plots (Here, young man goes into the woods/jungle and confronts the forces of evil), are called METASTORIES. Note the similarities of plot and theme between Disney's THE LION KING and Shakespeare's HAMLET--they are virtually the same story. PLOT or STRUCTURE (9) refers to the order of events in a work. In addition to the chronology, the causation, may be very important. A great story, like a great life, usually has a beginning, a middle, and an end. INTRODUCTION, COMPLICATION (The interacting of characters and events), CLIMAX, FALLING ACTION OR DENOUEMENT, and RESOLUTION are terms that we often use in analyzing PLOT or STRUCTURE. A Shakespearean play normally has five acts, with the Introduction occuring in Act 1, the Rising Action or Complication in Acts 2 and 3, followed by the climax in Act 4, and the Falling Action and resolution occuring in Act 5. Most stories are told in linear, chronological fashion, from the perspective of one narrator. But LOVE MEDICINE, like Faulkner's AS I LAY DYING, is an episodic novel--or a book of episodes, which, seemingly has little plot. SETTING (92) is the context of the work. Where does it take place? What is the weather? What is the time of day or night, or the time frame? What props or other items are introduced? The stick of the old man (Devil?) in "Young Goodman Brown" is a good example of the latter, or the sewing needle that keeps going through the ear of Tang Ao in Maxine Hong Kinston's "On Discovery." A poem set in the Maine woods (Edwin Arlington Robinson's "New England") brings different assumptions than the tale of the Trung Sisters set in Viet Nam. IMAGERY (or DICTION) (588) are the word pictures or language used in the work. IMAGERY is particularly critical in poetry. The TONE of the language in a novel or short story is normally important. In Albert Camus' THE STRANGER, the imagery in the latter part of the novel is that of incarceration; the tone is that of a detached, indifferent protagonist. Word choice, or Diction, also influeneces the Tone of a work. The language in PULP FICTION is different in tone from that of Truman Capote's great story about a boy, his kite, and an older woman who befriended him, "A Christmas Memory." Images may be images of sight, smell, touch, or hearing. Images may be metaphors (Nguyen is a deer.) or similes, comparisons using the terms "like" or "as." (Nguyen is like a deer.) See LIT, 610 for a detailed explanation of metaphors and similes. CHARACTER & CHARACTERIZATION (60). Characters are the people (or animals) in the story or poem. We can think of them as the MAIN character or PROTAGONIST, MAJOR CHARACTERS, or MINOR CHARACTERS. In Flaubert's MADAME BOVARY, Emma is the PROTAGONIST, Emma and Charles and Homais are the MAJOR CHARACTERS, and Hippolyte is a minor character. Think, however about the THEME developed by Hippolyte's operation. CHARACTERIZATION refers to HOW characters are developed. Characters may be further categorized as major or minor, flat or round, or foils, characters who exist in order to tell or show us things about another character. (see 10.4.9 Forrest Gump, below). POINT OF VIEW (20) refers to WHO is telling the story (or who is the speaker in poetry). Point of View is generally FIRST PERSON, in which a character tells the story, or THIRD PERSON in which an outsider tells the story. The THIRD PERSON may be omniscient, knowing everything, including character's minds, and able to move to the past or present, or future. The third person may or may not be objective, or his omniscience might be limited to one character. The answer to the question of who is (are) the narrator(s) in John Crowe Ransom's poem "Bells for John Whiteside's Daughter,î is critical to the development of the author's THEME, and your understanding. By looking at the parts and pieces of a literary work we are able to put them back together into a whole with a far greater appreciation for the THEMES of the work itself. This will heighten our understanding and therefore the MEANING of the work to our own To effectively write about literature we may ARGUE how an element contributes to a THEME, or we might do a CLOSE READING of a representational passage. As always in effective writing, we want to think small and RESTRICT. A detailed analysis of a minor character is preferable to a surface analysis of a major character. In 'Mr. Green' Butler develops the theme of a woman's self-discovery through the use of a plot that illustrates the inner conflicts she feels because of her traditional Vietnamese upbringing. The structure of the story unfolds throughout the life of the protagonist from a child living in Vietnam to middle adulthood living in America. The story is told in first person through the point of view of the main character. In the setting of a family environment, a female, the protagonist, maintains a close relationship to two antagonists, her grandfather, and a parrot, who symbolizes family and the passage of time. While a child, the female develops conflicts with the harsher aspects of being Vietnamese. Her grandfather is the catalyst for her struggles with religion, gender, and death. In the story, she becomes invalidated for being female when her grandfather tells her that she cannot worship ancestors because she is not male. She also learns that her Catholic religion is less than admired by her grandfather. Her struggles become more complex when she acknowledges her first experience with death. Her grandfather takes her to the market to purchase some sparrows, brings them home, and she learns from her mother how to twist the heads to prepare them for dinner. Eventually, her struggles are further complicated by the experience of her grandfather's illness and death. In adulthood she provides care for Mr. Green, the parrot bequeathed to her from her grandfather. It is while she is caring for this parrot that she comes to realize that her current struggles are due to conflicts from the past; mainly because of her grandfather. I believe the climax of the story is when she realizes that her grandfather, while dead, continues to influence her conflicts through the life of the parrot. The parrot symbolizes the presence of her grandfather and eventually she kills the parrot when the first signs of its impending death are near. By swiftly ending the parrot's suffering, the act symbolizes her deeper self realization and self acceptance. "Had Goodman Brown fallen asleep in the forest, and only dreamed a wild dream of a witch meeting?" (Hawthorne 71) This is a concluding question in the short story "Young Goodman Brown" written by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Were the events of the night actual or a dream? Real or not? Brown receives a shocking blow in this story when he becomes aware that people, whom he has revered his entire life, are not what they appeared to be. Appearance can be an unreliable measure. In "Young Goodman Brown," the author uses point of view to help develop the theme of appearance vs. reality. I say this because the author chose a non-omniscient, third person to tell his story. This speculative narrator uses words that contribute to an atmosphere of uncertainty, while he intentionally fosters ambiguity by presenting two interpretations of the same event. The use of a nonparticipant narrator, who stays with Goodman Brown from beginning to end, provides a reliable witness to the events that take place, while his lack of omniscience adds to the mysterious nature of the story. Although he does not know everything, he can see into Brown's mind and he lets the reader know what this character is thinking and feeling. For example, when Brown decides not to go any further into the forest, the narrator tells us, "The young man sat a few moments, by the roadside applauding himself greatly and thinking with how clear a conscience he should meet the minister..."(Hawthorne 201). Or, at the beginning of the story we are given: " 'Poor little Faith!' thought he, for his heart smote him" (Hawthorne 197). Most information, though, comes to us from conversations and from descriptions of the characters and the events as they unfold. Since Hawhtorne uses the third person the reader gets a more reliable rendering of this trip into the forest than if it was told by the emotionally involved main character. By way of this calm and impartial narrator, the reader actually sees more than Goodman Brown does, as Brown is distracted by his own feelings as things are revealed to him. When the devil throws down his staff at Goody Cloyse's feet "where, perhaps, it assumed life," Brown misses seeing it because he is so astonished by the revelation that Goody Cloyse knows this evil man, he looks away for a moment (Hawthorne 200). The mysterious occurrences are more believable coming from the witness, which makes them even more mysterious. The reader can not dismiss his observations as those of an unbalanced or distraught main character; he is just reporting what he sees, or at least what he thinks he sees. Or is he? The narrator uses words and asks questions that cause the reader to feel uncertain about what is really happening. Words like "might," "appeared to," "seemed to," "perhaps," "as if," "fancied," "might almost," and "were such a thing possible," are used to describe events, creating doubt on the part of the reader and a desire to know what is real. When Brown's companion bursts out laughing, the narrator tells us he shook so hard "that his snake-like staff actually seemed to wriggle in sympathy," causing the reader, again, to question whether the staff might actually be a serpent (this was the second time it was mentioned in the story) (Hawthorne 199). He did not say the staff "actually wriggled," which would imply that it did, or "seemed to wriggle," which implies that it just looked like it did, but "actually seemed to wriggle," which falls somewhere closer to saying it did, but not quite. The reader finds himself squinting his eyes trying to see it for himself. The speaker also asks questions that he never gives the answers to. When the devil was about to dip his hands in the baptism bowl, the narrator asks, "Did it contain water reddened by the lurid light, or was it blood? or perchance a liquid flame?" (Hawthorne 205) The reader will never know. And the narrator only gets trickier. Throughout the story, he teases the readers by presenting two interpretations of the same event. One of the best examples of this is the first description of the staff belonging to the man Goodman Brown met in the forest "which bore the likeness of a great black snake, so curiously wrought, that it might almost be seen to twist and wriggle itself, like a living serpent. This, of course, must have been an ocular deception assisted by the uncertain light" (Hawthorne 198). Is the staff twisting or is it an illusion? Another example is the horses and riders in the woods. Goodman Brown hears the hoof-tramps of horses and can hear the voices of the riders. The sounds appear to be "within a few yards of the hiding place; but owing, doubtless, to the depth of the gloom" the riders and horses can not be seen" (Hawthorne 201). Are they invisible, or is it too gloomy to see them? We simply do not know. When the narrator uses the words "this of course must have been" and "but owing, doubtless," offering pat explanations for these strange circumstances, he actually increases the reader's curiosity and doubt. "These ambiguities he conveys and fortifies by what Yvor Winters has called 'the formula of alternative possibilities,' and F.O. Matthiessen 'the device of multiple choice,' in which are suggested two or more interpretations of a single event....This device of multiple choice, or ambiguity, is the very essence of Hawthorne's tale" (Fogle 16). And he uses the narrator to accomplish this task. Nathaniel Hawthorne chose a third person, non-omniscient narrator to tell this story. The speaker uses words that cause uncertainty and he teases the readers by offering more than one interpretation of a single event, in order to create ambiguity that is central to the story's theme. In "Young Goodman Brown," the author uses point of view to help develop the theme of appearance vs. reality. We live in a society that thrives on appearances; and yet, it is near impossible to understand and attain insight into the actions and motives of others, good or bad. In the story, the reader never can conclude if anything is real or not. It offers a great example of the consequences of disappointment and disillusionment one risks when judging by appearance. D, Richard. Peer Editor. Cyber-classmate to the author of this paper. 17 May 2000: 30 minutes Fogle, Richard Harter. HAWTHORNE'S FICTION: THE LIGHT & DARK. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. "Young Goodman Brown." LITERATURE: AN INTRODUCTION TO FICTION POETRY, AND DRAMA. Eds. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 2nd compact ed. New York: Longman, 2000: 196-206. S, John. Peer Editor. Cyber-classmate to the author of this paper. 18 May 2000: 20 minutes W, Bill. Peer Editor. Cyber-classmate to the author of this paper. 20 May 2000: 45 minutes A young man, Chris Taylor, drops out of college and volunteers for Viet Nam. He is white, well-educated, and naive. In the setting of the jungle he meets the contrasting forces of good in Sgt Elias (a Christ figure--note the biblical name, the crucifixion imagery when Elias, played by Willem Dafoe, is killed) and the forces of evil in Sgt Barnes (note the scar, the image of evil on the face of this character played by Tom Berenger.) Initially blamed for a blown ambush in which he is wounded, Chris returns to the unit and his soul is torn between the two camps in the Platoon. After he realizes that Barnes has caused the death of ELias by shooting him and then lying about it, Chris resolves to kill Barnes, but not before the great battle (based on the actual battle of Suoi Cat). After he kills Barnes, who dares him to, Chris leaves the jungle setting on a helicopter, resolving to tell "The World" about the meaning of Viet Nam, namely that we were our own enemy, and defeated each other. I personally believe the climax of the story is not when Tayler kills Barnes, but earlier when he broke up the rape in the village, just after he had been as evil as he ever was in shooting at the feet of the mentally handicapped, one legged boy--that to seem seems the irrevocable turning point. The Point of View is often First Person, with an interior monologue done in voice over. This is virtually the same tale as Hawthorne's "Young Goodman Brown," but with a happier ending. (Not in PLATOON, Chris Taylor eventually became a community college teacher, with his own televised course about Viet Nam.) Another Oscar-winning Best Picture (PLATOON won in l986), FG has a flat major character, he of the title. The flatness derives from the mental retardation (IQ of 75), nicely set against Jenny, the girl he met going to first grade on the bus. Jenny goes through much character development throughout the movie. Other major characters include Forrest's mother, Bubba, and LT Dan Taylor. The movie covers the American cultural waterfront with an allusion to Herman Melville's MOBY DICK in the scene in which Gary Sinise (LT Taylor) rides out a storm lashed to the mast, and goes from that historical starting point--and the concurrent joke of Forrest's being named for Gen Nathan Bedford Forrest, the founder of the Ku Klux Klan, all the way to Viet Nam, and Jenny sadly dying of AIDS. My 84 year-old father-in-law said it was the greatest movie he had ever seen. I concur. I wonder where FIRE BIRDS comes in--it, like TOP GUN, is heavily based on the metastory in WINGS, the first (1928) Best Picture winner. If Paramount had let us reuse the title. . . THEMES are developed by an author and are major ideas with which s/he are concerned. MEANING is the personal significance of the work to you, given your particular universe. An author might develop alchoholism as a theme; the meaning of that theme to you may be colored by your having a friend or relative who is an Authors develop THEMES using PLOT or STRUCTURE, SETTING, CHARACTER & CHARACTERIZATION techniques, IMAGERY (or tone or diction), and POINT OF VIEW. You can begin to evaluate poetry by asking the question, "How does a Poem Mean?" IMAGERY, SOUND, and STRUCTURE are the major elements of Poetry, and you should also ask the questions: "Who is the Speaker?' and "What is the Occasion?" Recurring THEMES are noted above. The key to effective writing about literature is to think small, and restrict. Write about a minor character, not a major one. Develop one theme, or one element, but do not try too much. Focus is the key.

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TeachersPreschool, Kindergarten, Elementary, Middle, and Secondary * Public school teachers must be licensed, which typically requires a bachelor's degree and the completion of an approved teacher education program; private school teachers do not have to be licensed but may still need a bachelor's degree. * Many States offer alternative licensing programs to attract people into teaching, especially for hard-to-fill positions. * Teachers must have the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand students' educational and emotional needs. * Job prospects are best for teachers in high-demand fields, such as mathematics, science, and bilingual education, and in less desirable urban or rural school districts. Teachers play an important role in fostering the intellectual and social development of children during their formative years. The education that teachers impart plays a key role in determining the future prospects of their students. Whether in preschools or high schools or in private or public schools, teachers provide the tools and the environment for their students to develop into responsible adults. Teachers act as facilitators or coaches, using classroom presentations or individual instruction to help students learn and apply concepts in subjects such as science, mathematics, or English. They plan, evaluate, and assign lessons; prepare, administer, and grade tests; listen to oral presentations; and maintain classroom discipline. Teachers observe and evaluate a student's performance and potential and increasingly are asked to use new assessment methods. For example, teachers may examine a portfolio of a student's artwork or writing in order to judge the student's overall progress. They then can provide additional assistance in areas in which a student needs help. Teachers also grade papers, prepare report cards, and meet with parents and school staff to discuss a student's academic progress or personal problems. Many teachers use a "hands-on" approach that uses "props" or "manipulatives" to help children understand abstract concepts, solve problems, and develop critical thought processes. For example, they teach the concepts of numbers or of addition and subtraction by playing board games. As the children get older, teachers use more sophisticated materials, such as science apparatus, cameras, or computers. They also encourage collaboration in solving problems by having students work in groups to discuss and solve problems together. To be prepared for success later in life, students must be able to interact with others, adapt to new technology, and think through problems logically. Preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers play a vital role in the development of children. What children learn and experience during their early years can shape their views of themselves and the world and can affect their later success or failure in school, work, and their personal lives. Preschool, kindergarten, and elementary school teachers introduce children to mathematics, language, science, and social studies. They use games, music, artwork, films, books, computers, and other tools to teach basic skills. Preschool children learn mainly through play and interactive activities. Preschool teachers capitalize on children's play to further language and vocabulary development (using storytelling, rhyming games, and acting games), improve social skills (having the children work together to build a neighborhood in a sandbox), and introduce scientific and mathematical concepts (showing the children how to balance and count blocks when building a bridge or how to mix colors when painting). Thus, a less structured approach, including small-group lessons, one-on-one instruction, and learning through creative activities such as art, dance, and music, is adopted to teach preschool children. Play and hands-on teaching also are used by kindergarten teachers, but academics begin to take priority in kindergarten classrooms. Letter recognition, phonics, numbers, and awareness of nature and science, introduced at the preschool level, are taught primarily in kindergarten. Most elementary school teachers instruct one class of children in several subjects. In some schools, two or more teachers work as a team and are jointly responsible for a group of students in at least one subject. In other schools, a teacher may teach one special subjectusually music, art, reading, science, arithmetic, or physical educationto a number of classes. A small but growing number of teachers instruct multilevel classrooms, with students at several different learning levels. Middle school teachers and secondary school teachers help students delve more deeply into subjects introduced in elementary school and expose them to more information about the world. Middle and secondary school teachers specialize in a specific subject, such as English, Spanish, mathematics, history, or biology. They also may teach subjects that are career oriented. Vocational education teachers, also referred to as career and technical or career-technology teachers, instruct and train students to work in a wide variety of fields, such as healthcare, business, auto repair, communications, and, increasingly, technology. They often teach courses that are in high demand by area employers, who may provide input into the curriculum and offer internships to students. Many vocational teachers play an active role in building and overseeing these partnerships. Additional responsibilities of middle and secondary school teachers may include career guidance and job placement, as well as follow-ups with students after graduation. In addition to conducting classroom activities, teachers oversee study halls and homerooms, supervise extracurricular activities, and accompany students on field trips. They may identify students with physical or mental problems and refer the students to the proper authorities. Secondary school teachers occasionally assist students in choosing courses, colleges, and careers. Teachers also participate in education conferences and workshops. Computers play an integral role in the education teachers provide. Resources such as educational software and the Internet expose students to a vast range of experiences and promote interactive learning. Through the Internet, students can communicate with other students anywhere in the world, allowing them to share experiences and differing viewpoints. Students also use the Internet for individual research projects and to gather information. Computers are used in other classroom activities as well, from solving math problems to learning English as a second language. Teachers also may use computers to record grades and perform other administrative and clerical duties. They must continually update their skills so that they can instruct and use the latest technology in the classroom. Teachers often work with students from varied ethnic, racial, and religious backgrounds. With growing minority populations in most parts of the country, it is important for teachers to work effectively with a diverse student population. Accordingly, some schools offer training to help teachers enhance their awareness and understanding of different cultures. Teachers may also include multicultural programming in their lesson plans, to address the needs of all students, regardless of their cultural background. In recent years, site-based management, which allows teachers and parents to participate actively in management decisions regarding school operations, has gained popularity. In many schools, teachers are increasingly involved in making decisions regarding the budget, personnel, textbooks, curriculum design, and teaching methods. Work environment. Seeing students develop new skills and gain an appreciation of knowledge and learning can be very rewarding. However, teaching may be frustrating when one is dealing with unmotivated or disrespectful students. Occasionally, teachers must cope with unruly behavior and violence in the schools. Teachers may experience stress in dealing with large classes, heavy workloads, or old schools that are run down and lack many modern amenities. Accountability standards also may increase stress levels, with teachers expected to produce students who are able to exhibit satisfactory performance on standardized tests in core subjects. Many teachers, particularly in public schools, are also frustrated by the lack of control they have over what they are required to teach. Teachers in private schools generally enjoy smaller class sizes and more control over establishing the curriculum and setting standards for performance and discipline. Their students also tend to be more motivated, since private schools can be selective in their admissions processes. Teachers are sometimes isolated from their colleagues because they work alone in a classroom of students. However, some schools allow teachers to work in teams and with mentors to enhance their professional development. Including school duties performed outside the classroom, many teachers work more than 40 hours a week. Part-time schedules are more common among preschool and kindergarten teachers. Although most school districts have gone to all-day kindergartens, some kindergarten teachers still teach two kindergarten classes a day. Most teachers work the traditional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation during the summer. During the vacation break, those on the 10-month schedule may teach in summer sessions, take other jobs, travel, or pursue personal interests. Many enroll in college courses or workshops to continue their education. Teachers in districts with a year-round schedule typically work 8 weeks, are on vacation for 1 week, and have a 5-week midwinter break. Preschool teachers working in day care settings often work year round. Most States have tenure laws that prevent public school teachers from being fired without just cause and due process. Teachers may obtain tenure after they have satisfactorily completed a probationary period of teaching, normally 3 years. Tenure does not absolutely guarantee a job, but it does provide some security. The traditional route to becoming a public school teacher involves completing a bachelor's degree from a teacher education program and then obtaining a license. However, most States now offer alternative routes to licensure for those who have a college degree in other fields. Private school teachers do not have to be licensed but still need a bachelor's degree. A bachelor's degree may not be needed by preschool teachers and vocational education teachers, who need experience in their field rather than a specific degree. Education and training. Traditional education programs for kindergarten and elementary school teachers include courses designed specifically for those preparing to teach. These courses include mathematics, physical science, social science, music, art, and literature, as well as prescribed professional education courses, such as philosophy of education, psychology of learning, and teaching methods. Aspiring secondary school teachers most often major in the subject they plan to teach while also taking a program of study in teacher preparation. Many 4-year colleges require students to wait until their sophomore year before applying for admission to teacher education programs. To maintain their accreditation, teacher education programs are now required to include classes in the use of computers and other technologies. Most programs require students to perform a student-teaching internship. Teacher education programs are accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and the Teacher Education Accreditation Council. Graduation from an accredited program is not necessary to become a teacher, but it may make fulfilling licensure requirements easier. Many States now offer professional development schools, which are partnerships between universities and elementary or secondary schools. Professional development schools merge theory with practice and allow the student to experience a year of teaching firsthand, under professional guidance. Students enter these 1-year programs after completion of their bachelor's degree. Licensure and certification. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require public school teachers to be licensed. Licensure is not required for teachers in most private schools. Usually licensure is granted by the State Board of Education or a licensure advisory committee. Teachers may be licensed to teach the early childhood grades (usually preschool through grade 3); the elementary grades (grades 1 through 6 or 8); the middle grades (grades 5 through 8); a secondary-education subject area (usually grades 7 through 12); or a special subject, such as reading or music (usually grades kindergarten through 12). Requirements for regular licenses to teach kindergarten through grade 12 vary by State. However, all States require general education teachers to have a bachelor's degree and to have completed an approved teacher training program with a prescribed number of subject and education credits, as well as supervised practice teaching. Some States also require technology training and the attainment of a minimum grade point average. A number of States require that teachers obtain a master's degree in education within a specified period after they begin teaching. Almost all States require applicants for a teacher's license to be tested for competency in basic skills, such as reading and writing, and in teaching. Almost all also require teachers to exhibit proficiency in their subject. Many school systems are presently moving toward implementing performance-based systems for licensure, which usually require teachers to demonstrate satisfactory teaching performance over an extended period in order to obtain a provisional license, in addition to passing an examination in their subject. Most States require teachers to complete a minimum number of hours of continuing education to renew their license. Many States have reciprocity agreements that make it easier for teachers licensed in one State to become licensed in another. Licensing requirements for preschool teachers also vary by State. Requirements for public preschool teachers are generally more stringent than those for private preschool teachers. Some States require a bachelor's degree in early childhood education, while others require an associate's degree, and still others require certification by a nationally recognized authority. The Child Development Associate (CDA) credential, the most common type of certification, requires a mix of classroom training and experience working with children, along with an independent assessment of the teacher's competence. Nearly all States now also offer alternative licensure programs for teachers who have a bachelor's degree in the subject they will teach, but who lack the necessary education courses required for a regular license. Many of these alternative licensure programs are designed to ease shortages of teachers of certain subjects, such as mathematics and science. Other programs provide teachers for urban and rural schools that have difficulty filling positions with teachers from traditional licensure programs. Alternative licensure programs are intended to attract people into teaching who do not fulfill traditional licensing standards, including recent college graduates who did not complete education programs and those changing from another career to teaching. In some programs, individuals begin teaching quickly under provisional licensure under the close supervision of experienced educators while taking education courses outside school hours. If they progress satisfactorily, they receive regular licensure after working for 1 or 2 years. In other programs, college graduates who do not meet licensure requirements take only those courses that they lack and then become licensed. This approach may take 1 or 2 semesters of full-time study. The coursework for alternative certification programs often leads to a master's degree. In extreme circumstances, when schools cannot attract enough qualified teachers to fill positions, States may issue emergency licenses to individuals who do not meet the requirements for a regular license that let them begin teaching immediately. In many States, vocational teachers have many of the same licensure requirements as other teachers. However, knowledge and experience in a particular field are important, so some States will license vocational education teachers without a bachelor's degree, provided they can demonstrate expertise in their field. A minimum number of hours in education courses may also be required. Private schools are generally exempt from meeting State licensing standards. For secondary school teacher jobs, they prefer candidates who have a bachelor's degree in the subject they intend to teach, or in childhood education for elementary school teachers. They seek candidates among recent college graduates as well as from those who have established careers in other fields. Other qualifications. In addition to being knowledgeable about the subjects they teach, teachers must have the ability to communicate, inspire trust and confidence, and motivate students, as well as understand the students' educational and emotional needs. Teachers must be able to recognize and respond to individual and cultural differences in students and employ different teaching methods that will result in higher student achievement. They should be organized, dependable, patient, and creative. Teachers also must be able to work cooperatively and communicate effectively with other teachers, support staff, parents, and members of the community. Private schools associated with religious institutions also desire candidates who share the values that are important to the institution. Additional certifications and advancement. In some cases, teachers of kindergarten through high school may attain professional certification in order to demonstrate competency beyond that required for a license. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards offers a voluntary national certification. To become nationally certified, experienced teachers must prove their aptitude by compiling a portfolio showing their work in the classroom and by passing a written assessment and evaluation of their teaching knowledge. Currently, teachers may become certified in a variety of areas, on the basis of the age of the students and, in some cases, the subject taught. For example, teachers may obtain a certificate for teaching English language arts to early adolescents (aged 11 to 15), or they may become certified as early childhood generalists. All States recognize national certification, and many States and school districts provide special benefits to teachers who earn certification. Benefits typically include higher salaries and reimbursement for continuing education and certification fees. In addition, many States allow nationally certified teachers to carry a license from one State to another. With additional preparation, teachers may move into such positions as school librarians, reading specialists, instructional coordinators, or guidance counselors. Teachers may become administrators or supervisors, although the number of these positions is limited and competition for them can be intense. In some systems, highly qualified, experienced teachers can become senior or mentor teachers, with higher pay and additional responsibilities. They guide and assist less experienced teachers while keeping most of their own teaching responsibilities. Preschool teachers usually work their way up from assistant teacher, to teacher, to lead teacherwho may be responsible for the instruction of several classesand, finally, to director of the center. Preschool teachers with a bachelor's degree frequently are qualified to teach kindergarten through grade 3 as well. Teaching at these higher grades often results in higher pay. Kindergarten, elementary school, middle school, and secondary school teachers, held about 3.5 million jobs in 2008. Of the teachers in those jobs, about 179,500 were kindergarten teachers, 1.5 million were elementary school teachers, 659,500 were middle school teachers, and 1.1 million were secondary school teachers. Employment of teachers is geographically distributed much the same as the population. Employment is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. Job prospects are best for teachers in high-demand fields, such as mathematics, science, and bilingual education, and in less desirable urban or rural school districts. Employment change. Employment of kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers is expected to grow by 13 percent between 2008 and 2018, which is about as fast as the average for all occupations. Through 2018, overall student enrollments in elementary, middle, and secondary schools—a key factor in the demand for teachers—are expected to rise more slowly than in the past as children of the baby-boom generation leave the school system. Projected enrollments will vary by region. Rapidly growing States in the South and West will experience the largest enrollment increases. Enrollments in the Midwest are expected to hold relatively steady, while those in the Northeast are expected to decline. Teachers who are geographically mobile and who obtain licensure in more than one subject are likely to have a distinct advantage in finding a job. The number of teachers employed is dependent on State and local expenditures for education and on the enactment of legislation to increase the quality and scope of public education. At the Federal level, there has been a large increase in funding for education, particularly for the hiring of qualified teachers in lower income areas. Job prospects. Job opportunities for teachers will vary with the locality, grade level, and subject taught. Most job openings will result from the need to replace the large number of teachers who are expected to retire over the 2008–18 period. Also, many beginning teachers—especially those employed in poor, urban schools—decide to leave teaching for other careers after a year or two, creating additional job openings for teachers. Job prospects should be better in inner cities and rural areas than in suburban districts. Many inner cities—often characterized by overcrowded, ill-equipped schools and higher-than-average poverty rates—and rural areas—characterized by their remote location and relatively low salaries—have difficulty attracting and retaining enough teachers. Currently, many school districts have difficulty hiring qualified teachers in some subject areas—most often mathematics, science (especially chemistry and physics), bilingual education, and foreign languages. Increasing enrollments of minorities, coupled with a shortage of minority teachers, should cause efforts to recruit minority teachers to intensify. Also, the number of non-English-speaking students will continue to grow, creating demand for bilingual teachers and for those who teach English as a second language. Specialties that have an adequate number of qualified teachers include general elementary education, physical education, and social studies. The supply of teachers is expected to increase in response to reports of improved job prospects, better pay, more teacher involvement in school policy, and greater public interest in education. In addition, more teachers may be drawn from a reserve pool of career changers, substitute teachers, and teachers completing alternative certification programs. In recent years, the total number of bachelor's and master's degrees granted in education has been increasing slowly. But many States have implemented policies that will encourage even more students to become teachers because of a shortage of teachers in certain locations and in anticipation of the loss of a number of teachers to retirement. Median annual wages of kindergarten, elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers ranged from $47,100 to $51,180 in May 2008; the lowest 10 percent earned $30,970 to $34,280; the top 10 percent earned $75,190 to $80,970. According to the American Federation of Teachers, beginning teachers with a bachelor's degree earned an average of $33,227 in the 2005-2006 school year. In 2008, of the majority of all elementary, middle, and secondary school teachers belonged to unions—mainly the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association—that bargain with school systems over salaries, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment. Teachers can boost their earnings in a number of ways. In some schools, teachers receive extra pay for coaching sports and working with students in extracurricular activities. Getting a master's degree or national certification often results in a raise in pay, as does acting as a mentor. Some teachers earn extra income during the summer by teaching summer school or performing other jobs in the school system. Although private school teachers generally earn less than public school teachers, they may be given other benefits, such as free or subsidized housing.

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- the (fictional) world in which the situations and events narrated occur; and - telling, recounting, as opposed to showing, enacting. In diegesis the narrator tells the story. The narrator presents to the audience or the implied readers the actions, and perhaps thoughts, of the characters. Diegesis in contrast to mimesis Diegesis (Greek διήγησις) and mimesis (Greek μίμησις) have been contrasted since Plato's and Aristotle's times. Mimesis shows rather than tells, by means of action that is enacted. Diegesis, however, is the telling of the story by a narrator. The narrator may speak as a particular character or may be the invisible narrator or even the all-knowing narrator who speaks from above in the form of commenting on the action or the characters. In Book III of his Republic (c.373BCE), the ancient Greek philosopher Plato examines the "style" of "poetry" (the term includes comedy, tragedy, epic and lyric poetry): All types narrate events, he argues, but by differing means. He distinguishes between narration or report (diegesis) and imitation or representation (mimesis). Tragedy and comedy, he goes on to explain, are wholly imitative types; the dithyramb is wholly narrative; and their combination is found in epic poetry. When reporting or narrating, "the poet is speaking in his own person; he never leads us to suppose that he is any one else"; when imitating, the poet produces an "assimilation of himself to another, either by the use of voice or gesture". In dramatic texts, the poet never speaks directly; in narrative texts, the poet speaks as his or herself. In his Poetics, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle argues that kinds of "poetry" (the term includes drama, flute music, and lyre music for Aristotle) may be differentiated in three ways: according to their medium, according to their objects, and according to their mode or "manner" (section I); "For the medium being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may imitate by narration—in which case he can either take another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own person, unchanged—or he may present all his characters as living and moving before us" (section III). Though they conceive of mimesis in quite different ways, its relation with diegesis is identical in Plato's and Aristotle's formulations; one represents, the other reports; one embodies, the other narrates; one transforms, the other indicates; one knows only a continuous present, the other looks back on a past. What diegesis is Diegesis may concern elements, such as characters, events and things within the main or primary narrative. However, the author may include elements which are not intended for the primary narrative, such as stories within stories; characters and events that may be referred to elsewhere or in historical contexts and that are therefore outside the main story and are thus presented in an extradiegetic situation. Diegesis in literature For narratologists, all parts of narratives—characters, narrators, existents, actors—are characterized in terms of diegesis. For definitions of diegesis, one should consult Aristotle's Poetics; Gerard Genette's Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method (Cornell University Press, 1980); or (for a readable introduction) H. Porter Abbott's The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative (Cambridge University Press 2002). In literature, discussions of diegesis tend to concern discourse/sjuzet (in Russian Formalism) (vs. story/fabula). Diegesis is multi-levelled in narrative fiction. Genette distinguishes between three "diegetic levels." The extradiegetic level (the level of the narrative's telling) is, according to Prince, "external to (not part of) any diegesis." One might think of this as what we commonly understand to be the narrator's level, the level at which exists a narrator who is not part of the story he tells. The diegetic level is understood as the level of the characters, their thoughts and actions. The metadiegetic level or hypodiegetic level is that part of a diegesis that is embedded in another one and is often understood as a story within a story, as when a diegetic narrator himself/herself tells a story. Diegesis in film The classical distinction between the diegetic mode and the mimetic mode relate to the difference between the epos (or epic poetry) and drama. The "epos" relates stories by telling them through narration, while drama enacts stories through direct embodiment. When we come to a modern consideration of the cinema, it may appear that the medium is a straight-forward example of mimetic storytelling--but it is not. In terms of classical poetics, the cinema is an epic form that utilizes dramatic elements; this is determined by the technologies of the camera and editing. Even in a spatially and temporally continuous scene (mimicking the theatrical situation, as it were), the camera chooses where to look for us. In a similar way, editing causes us to jump from one place (and time sometimes) to another, whether it be somewhere else in the room, or across town. This jump is a form of narration; it is as if a narrator whispers to us: "meanwhile, on the other side of the forest". It is for this reason that the "story-world" in cinema is referred to as "diegetic"; elements that belong to the film's narrative world are diegetic elements. This is why, in the cinema, we may refer to the film's diegetic world "Diegetic," in the cinema, typically refers to the internal world created by the story that the characters themselves experience and encounter: the narrative "space" that includes all the parts of the story, both those that are and those that are not actually shown on the screen (such as events that have led up to the present action; people who are being talked about; or events that are presumed to have happened elsewhere). Thus, elements of a film can be "diegetic" or "non-diegetic." These terms are most commonly used in reference to sound in a film, but can apply to other elements. For example, an insert shot that depicts something that is neither taking place in the world of the film, nor is seen, imagined, or thought by a character, is a non-diegetic insert. Titles, subtitles, and voice-over narration (with some exceptions) are also non-diegetic. Film sound and music Sound in films is termed diegetic if it is part of the narrative sphere of the film. For instance, if a character in the film is playing a piano, or turns on a CD player, the resulting sound is "diegetic." If, on the other hand, music plays in the background but cannot be heard by the film's characters, it is termed non-diegetic or, more accurately, extra-diegetic. The score of a film is "non-diegetic" sound. Some examples: - Jacques Tati's film Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot (Mr. Hulot's Holiday) systematically builds much of its humor through the systematic confusion and shifting placement of "diegetic" and "non-diegetic" sound-image relationships, showing that these positions depend on the audience's perception of the mimetic space of the film. - In the 1959 film, School for Scoundrels, Alastair Sim's character, Mr. S. Potter, requests that the orchestra, unseen by the viewer, attenuate its music. - In Sunset Boulevard when we enter the mansion eerie organ music is playing, however, this is just the butler Max playing the organ. - In Blazing Saddles the new sheriff rides across the desert to swelling sound, revealed eventually as Count Basie and his well-known Big Band jazz group playing their hit "April in Paris" in the middle of the desert. Mel Brooks reuses this in High Anxiety with a symphony orchestra on a coach in the traffic surprising the protagonist, and hence the audience. - In The Truman Show, a sequence shows the characters at night, when most of them are sleeping. Soft, soothing music plays, as is common in such scenes, but we assume that it does not exist in the fictional world of the film. However, when the camera cuts to the control room of Truman's artificial world, we see that the mood music is being played by Philip Glass standing at a bank of keyboards. This abrupt shift from apparently non-diegetic to diegetic is a kind of cinematic joke. - The same joke is used in I'm Gonna Git You Sucka where the hero's theme is heard in a non-diegetic context and then the camera pans back to show a group of musicians following him, playing the music diegetically, after their presence is pointed out by another character. The hero goes on to describe the band as his theme music, also parodying the idea of character themes in the movies that the film itself parodies. - In other cases, a shift from diegetic to extra-diegetic context is less ostensible. In Kill Bill Volume 1, Daryl Hannah's character Elle Driver whistles the "Twisted Nerve" tune as she is walking down the hospital corridor to kill the bride. But as she enters a changing room, the music becomes background with additional instrumentation. In Volume 2, the reverse occurs: as Uma Thurman's character "The Bride" exits the wedding chapel, the sound of a flute playing appears entirely extra-diagetic, then shifts to diegesis as she appears to be hearing the music in her head, and finally becomes entirely diegetic as she realizes she can actually hear the flute in the world of the film—it is being played by Bill, sitting outside the chapel. - A similar instance (but reversed) is in the Scrubs episode "My Mentor" - J.D. is listening to Leroy's "Good Time" diegetically on his mp3 player. However, it seems to shift to more ambient, although not non-diegetic sound as nurses change bedsheets in time with the music and the janitor sweeps the floor in time to the music followed by a patient and Dr Kelso lip-synching part of the chorus respectively. - Quentin Tarantino, true to his French New Wave roots seems to have a distaste for non-diagetic music as well, famously in the Reservoir Dogs in which Michael Madsen's character turns on a radio to serve as an ironic soundtrack to torture a police officer. We are reminded of the diagesis when Mr. Blonde (Michael Madsen) leaves the building and walks back in during the same song, the camera following him in a continuous shot and the music fading in and out with proximity to the radio. - In the film Blowup, directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, all the music heard in the film is diegetic - either heard from a live pop group, record player or car radio. - Director Luis Buñuel disliked non-diegetic music, and tried to avoid it in his films. The films of his French era have absolutely no score, some (Belle de Jour, Diary of a Chambermaid) contain absolutely no music whatsoever. Belle de Jour does, however, feature (potentially) non-diegetic sound effects, believed by some to be clues as to whether or not the current scene is a dream. - "The Sound of Drums", an episode of the BBC series Doctor Who, features a scene in which the Master concludes a threatening monologue by exclaiming "Here come the drums!", at which point the Rogue Traders single "Voodoo Child" begins playing over a PA system, beginning with the line "Here come the drums!/Here come the drums!". As the scene progresses, several quick shots show the character Lucy Saxon quietly dancing along to the song. The Master later flips a switch to turn off the music, as the soundtrack segues into a non-diegetic orchestral piece. In the same episode, it is established that the Master continually hears a drumming rhythm in his head, and this same rhythm is transferred to those under his control. This rhythm is based upon the underlying rhythm of the Doctor Who Theme. The following episode, Last of the Time Lords, features the diegetic use of another song, "I Can't Decide" by the Scissor Sisters, as the Master sings along to a recording of the song while taunting the Doctor. - In "The Stolen Earth", the season finale for the fourth series, the convention is played around with slightly. The episode features a crossover with The Sarah Jane Adventures, including an appearance by her supercomputer "Mr. Smith." In The Sarah Jane Adventures, the computer's activation is always heralded by an assumedly non-diegetic fanfare. However, In "The Stolen Earth," Sarah Jane irritatedly wishes that Mr. Smith could dispense with the actually diegetic fanfare! - In the James Bond film Octopussy, there is a bit of diegesis that also "breaks the fourth wall". British agent Vijay, disguised as a snake charmer, signals his affiliation to Bond and MI6 by playing the "James Bond Theme" on a recorder while Bond is disembarking from a boat in the harbor near the Taj Mahal, as if Bond would know that he has a theme song. Bond (Roger Moore) comments, "Catchy tune!" - Xena, Mr. Incredible and Invader Zim are all heard to hum or whistle their own theme songs. - Death Note has had references to the opening and ending videos, especially when Misa's cell phone ringtone is the ending theme song. - The film A Clockwork Orange has several occurrences of diegesis. Sometimes the music is apparently only heard by the audience, other times the same music track is definitely heard by the characters. One example is the electronic version of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, Fourth Movement. The audience hears it when Alex visits a record store, but he gives no indication that he can hear it. Later, while undergoing psychological reprogramming, the same track plays over footage of Nazi Germany, and Alex comments on it. Some other segments of the Ninth are audible to Alex at various times. One odd bit of music is a pseudo-Top-40 song, "I Want to Marry a Lighthouse Keeper", which Alex's father extinguishes by switching the radio off. The track used in the film is a different portion of the song than appears in the soundtrack album version. - The film Eyes Wide Shut has an occurrence of diegesis. Classical music can be heard in the apartment of Dr. William "Bill" Harford and Alice Harford as they prepare for a Christmas party held by Victor Ziegler. The audience realizes the music is diegetic when Bill stops it by switching off a cd player. - The film Miller's Crossing features an example of diegetic music becoming non-diegetic. In one scene, the character Leo is listening to the song Danny Boy on a phonograph, when assassins come to kill him. His house is lit on fire, and he flees through the window, the music still playing. It continues as he kills off the assassins. - In the 2007 film Atonement the score is to a great extent made up of piano scoring combined with typewriter ticking. Often, characters are shown typing on a typewriter in rhythm with the music or playing a few notes on a piano and then stop, with the music stopping at the same time creating an interesting effect. Perhaps the most moving example of the crossover from nondiegetic to diegetic sound occurs in the evacuation of Dunkirk scene, when a long shot reveals the horrors of the beach. An instrumental score plays during this shot; when the camera pans over a choir of soldiers singingly morosely, the song they are singing harmonizes with the score. - Musicals are often a combination of diegesis and non-diegesis. For example, even when the characters are "aware" that they are singing (see below), there may be an off-screen orchestra accompanying them. The Wizard of Oz plays with this concept at one point. After the Witch's spell in the poppy field is broken, the off-screen "Optimistic Voices" begin their "You're out of the woods..." number. The Scarecrow looks around and moves in rhythm to the song, acknowledging the off-screen music. Likewise, when the Scarecrow sings If I Only Had a Brain (originally meant to be both sung and danced before the dance section was edited out), and when the Tin Man sings and dances If I Only Had a Heart, Dorothy congratulates them on their performance. - In the film Casablanca (film) almost the entire score is diegetic, played by Sam. The tune "As time goes by" has a special meaning for the protagonists. There is also a very strong scene with a musical battle between the Nazi Germans and the French people / Immigrants overpowering their hymn. Diegesis in music-theatre As with film, the term "diegetic" refers to the function of the music within a work's theatrical narrative, with particular relevance to the role of song. Within the typical format of opera/operetta, characters are not "aware" that they are singing. This is a non-diegetic use of song. If however the song is presented as a musical occurrence within the plot, then the number may be described as "diegetic". For example, in The Sound of Music, the song "Do-Re-Mi" is diegetic, since the characters are aware they are singing. The character Maria is using the song to teach the children how to sing. It exists within the narrative sphere of the characters. In contrast, the song "How Do You Solve A Problem Like Maria?" is non-diegetic, since the musical material exists externally to the narrative. In both the 1936 and the 1951 film versions of Show Boat, as well as in the original stage version, the song "Bill" is diegetic. The character Julie LaVerne sings it during a rehearsal in a nightclub. A solo piano (played onscreen) accompanies her, and the film's offscreen orchestra (presumably not heard by the characters) sneaks in for the second verse of the song. Julie's other song in the film, Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man is also diegetic. In the 1936 film, it is supposed to be an old folk song known only to blacks; in the 1951 film it is merely a song which Julie knows; however, she and the captain's daughter Magnolia are fully aware that Julie is singing. When Julie, Queenie, and the black chorus sing the second chorus of the song in the 1936 version, they are presumably unaware of any orchestral accompaniment, but in the 1951 film, when Magnolia sings and dances this same chorus, she does so to the accompaniment of two deckhands on the boat playing a banjo and a harmonica, respectively. Two other songs in the 1936 Show Boat are also diegetic, "Goodbye My Lady Love" (sung by the comic dancers Ellie and Frank), and After the Ball, sung by Magnolia. Both are interpolated into the film, and both are performed in the same nightclub in which Julie sings Bill. The "Once More, With Feeling" episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer toys with the concept of non-diegetic versus diegetic music when the characters find themselves compelled to burst into song in the style of a musical. The audience's first critical assumption—that this is a "musical episode" where the Buffy cast is presumably unaware that they are singing—is overturned when it becomes clear that the characters are all too aware of their musical interludes and that determining the supernatural causes for the singing will be the focus of the episode's story. The audience is then forced to abandon one form of suspension of disbelief (i.e. that musical numbers will go unacknowledged by the characters in a musical) in favor of another (that the characters are aware of how unnatural spontaneous singing is in the context of the "real world"). Diegesis in role-playing games In role-playing games diegesis includes all the "in-game" parts of the story, both those that are and aren't actually played out. However, rules or system elements that are used to resolve what does and doesn't happen in the imagined situation are typically "non-diegetic." For example, the number of hit points that a character has may determine whether or not a character dies in a fight, but are not themselves part of the narrative situation. The term "meta-concept " is also used for some non-diegetic elements. Discussion of non-diegetic information by role-playing characters comprises much of the humor in the comic strip The Order of the Stick. For example, characters frequently discuss their saving throws, hit points, and experience points. Cartoon tropes are also skewered, such as when one character notices that another "has the X's in the eyes" - in other words, is dead. - Aristotle. 1974. "Poetics". Trans. S.H. Butcher. In Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Ed. Bernard F. Dukore. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN 0030911524. p.31-55. - Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN: 0416720609. - Pfister, Manfred. 1977. The Theory and Analysis of Drama. Trans. John Halliday. European Studies in English Literature Ser. Cambridige: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 052142383X. - Plato. c.373BCE. Republic. Retried from Project Gutenberg on 2 September 2007.

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- Korean art Korean art is art originating or practiced in Korea or by Korean artists, from ancient times to today. Korea is noted for its artistic traditions in pottery, music, calligraphy, and other genres, often marked by the use of bold color, natural forms, and surface decoration. - 1 Introduction - 2 History of Korean Art - 3 Visual arts - 4 Ceramics and sculpture - 5 Architecture and interior design - 6 Performing arts - 7 Literature - 8 See also - 9 References - 10 External links This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) was one of the most prolific periods for artists in many disciplines, especially in pottery. The Korean art market is concentrated in the Insadong district of Seoul where over 50 small galleries exhibit and there are occasional fine arts auctions. Galleries are co-operatively run, small and often with curated and finely designed exhibits. In every town there are smaller regional galleries, with local artists showing in traditional and contemporary media. Art galleries usually have a mix of media. Attempts at bringing Western conceptual art into the foreground have usually had their best success outside of Korea in New York, San Francisco, London and Paris. History of Korean Art Professionals have begun to acknowledge and sort through Korea’s own unique art culture and important role in not only transmitting Chinese culture but also assimilating it and creating a unique culture of its own. "An art given birth to and developed by a nation is its own art." says one scholar. Humans have occupied the Korean Peninsula since at least 700,000 BCE. Pottery dated to approximately 7,000 BCE has been found. This pottery was made from clay and fired over open or semi-open pits at temperatures around 700 degrees Celsius. . The earliest pottery style, dated to circa 7,000 BCE, were flat-bottomed wares (yunggi-mun) were decorated with relief designs, raised horizontal lines and other impressions. . Jeulmun-type pottery, is typically cone-bottomed and incised with a comb-pattern appearing circa 6,000 BCE in the archaeological record. This type of pottery is similar to Siberian styles. . Mumun-type pottery emerged approximately 2000 BCE and is characterized as large, undecorated pottery, mostly used for cooking and storage. Bronze Age art Between 2000 BCE and 300 BCE bronze items began to be imported and made in Korea. By the seventh century BCE, an indigenous bronze culture was established in Korea as evidenced by Korean bronze having a unique percentage of zinc. . Items manufactured during this time were weapons such as swords, daggers, and spearheads. Also, ritual items such as mirrors, bells, and rattles were made. These items were buried in dolmens with the cultural elite. Additionally, iron-rich red pots began to be created around circa 6th century. Comma-shaped beads, usually made from nephrite, known as kokkok have also been found in dolmen burials. Kokkok may be carved to imitate bear claws. Another Siberian influence can be seen in rock drawings of animals that display a “life line” in the X-ray style of Siberian art. . Iron Age art The Iron Age began in Korea around 300 BCE. Korean iron was highly valued in the Chinese commanderies and in Japan. . Korean pottery advanced with the introduction of the potters wheel and climbing kiln firing. Three Kingdoms art Buddhism was introduced to Goguryeo first in 372 CE because of its location spanning much of Manchuria and the northern half of Korea, closest to the northern Chinese states like the Northern Wei. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to begin commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. A notable aspect of Goguryeo art are tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom as well as its culture. UNESCO designated the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs and as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting was influential in East Asia, including Japan, an example being the wall murals of Horyu-ji which was influenced by Goguryeo. Mural painting also spread to the other two kingdoms. The murals portrayed Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about kingdom such as architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. However, the treasures of the tombs were easily accessible and looted leaving very little physical artifacts of the kingdom. Baekje is considered the kingdom with the greatest art among the three states. Baekje was a kingdom in southwest Korea and was influenced by southern Chinese dynasties, such as the Liang. Baekje was also one of the kingdoms to introduce a significant Korean influence into the art of Japan during this time period. Baekje Buddhist sculpture is characterized by its naturalness, warmness, and harmonious proportions exhibits a unique Korean style. Another example of Korean influence is the use of the distinctive "Baekje smile", a mysterious and archaic smile that is characteristic of many Baekje statutes. While there are no surviving examples of wooden architecture, the Mireuksa site holds the foundation stones of a destroyed temple and two surviving granite pagodas that show what Baekje architecture may have looked. An example of Baekje architecture may be gleaned from Horyu-ji temple because Baekje architects and craftsmen helped design and construct the original temple. The tomb of King Muryeong held a treasure trove of artifacts not looted by grave robbers. Among the items were flame-like gold pins, gilt-bronze shoes, gold girdles (a symbol of royalty), and swords with gold hilts with dragons and phoenixes. The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences. The Silla Kingdom tombs were mostly inaccessible and so many examples of Korean art come from this kingdom. The Silla craftsman were famed for their gold-crafting ability which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. Because of Silla gold artifacts bearing similarities to European techniques along with glass and beads depicting blue-eyed people found in royal tombs, many believe that the Silk Road went all the way to Korea. Most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns that are made from pure gold and have tree and antler-like adornments that suggest a Scythe-Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition. The Gaya confederacy was a group of city-states that did not consolidate into a centralized kingdom. It shared many similarities in its art, such as crowns with tree-like protrusions which are seen in Baekje and Silla. Many of the artifacts unearthed in Gaya tumuli are artifacts related to horses, such as stirrups, saddles,and horse armor. Unified Silla art Unified Silla was a time of great artistic output in Korea, especially in Buddhist art. Examples include the Seokguram grotto and the Bulguksa temple. Two pagodas on the ground, the Seokgatap and Dabotap are also unique examples of Silla masonry and artistry. Craftsmen also created massive temple bells, reliquaries, and statutes. The capital city of Unified Silla was nicknamed the “city of gold” because of use of gold in many objects of art. Goryeo Dynasty art The Goryeo Dynasty lasted from 918 CE to 1392. The most famous art produced by Goryeo artisans was Korean celadon pottery which was produced from circa 1050 CE to 1250 CE. While celadon originated in China, Korean potters created their own unique style of pottery that was so valued that the Chinese considered it “first under heaven” and one of the “twelve best things in the world.” The Korean celadon had a unique glaze known as “king-fisher” color, an iron based blue-green glaze created by reducing oxygen in the kiln. Korean celadon displayed organic shapes and free-flowing style, such as pieces that were made to look like fish, melons, and other animals. Koreans invented an inlaid technique known as sanggam, where potters would engrave semi-dried pottery with designs and place materials within the decorations with black or white clay. Joseon Dynasty art The influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism in this period, however Buddhist elements remained and it is not true that Buddhist art declined, it continued, and was encouraged but not by the imperial centres of art, or the accepted taste of the Joseon Dynasty publicly; however in private homes, and indeed in the summer palaces of the Joseon Dynasty kings, the simplicity of Buddhist art was given great appreciation - but it was not seen as citified art. While the Joseon Dynasty began under military auspices, Goreyo styles were let to evolve, and Buddhist iconography (bamboo, orchid, plum and chrysanthemum; and the familiar knotted goodluck symbols) were still a part of genre paintings. Neither colours nor forms had any real change, and rulers stood aside from edicts on art. Ming ideals and imported techniques continued in early dynasty idealized works. Mid-dynasty painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting. The mid to late Joseon dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the shock of the collapse of Ming dynasty links with the Manchu emperors accession in China, and the forcing of Korean artists to build new artistic models based on nationalism and an inner search for particular Korean subjects. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive. Korean art is characterized by transitions in the main religions at the time: early Korean shamanist art, then Korean Buddhist art and Korean Confucian art, through the various forms of Western arts in the 20th century. Art works in metal, jade, bamboo and textiles have had a limited resurgence. The South Korean government has tried to encourage the maintenance of cultural continuity by awards, and by scholarships for younger students in rarer Korean art forms. Calligraphy and printing Korean calligraphy is seen as an art where brush-strokes reveal the artist's personality enhancing the subject matter that is painted. This art form represents the apogee of Korean Confucian art. Korean fabric arts have a long history, and include Korean embroidery used in costumes and screenwork; Korean knots as best represented in the work of Choe Eun-sun, used in costumes and as wall-decorations; and lesser known weaving skills as indicated below in rarer arts. There is no real tradition of Korean carpets or rugs, although saddle blankets and saddle covers were made from naturally dyed wool, and are extremely rare. Imperial dragon carpets, tiger rugs for judges or magistrates or generals, and smaller chair-covers were imported from China and are traditionally in either yellow or red. Few if any imperial carpets remain. Village rug weavers do not exist. Korean paper art includes all manner of hand-made paper (hanji), used for architectural purposes (window screens, floor covering), for printing, artwork, and the Korean folded arts (paper fans, paper figures), and as well Korean paper clothing which has an annual fashion show in Jeonju city attracting world attention. In the 1960s Korean paper made from mulberry roots was discovered when the Pulguksa (temple) complex in Gyeongju was remodelled. The date on the Buddhist documents converts to a western calendar date of 751, and indicated that indeed the oft quoted claim that Korean paper can last a thousand years was proved irrevocably. However after repeated invasions, very little early Korean paper art exists. Contemporary paper artists are very active. Contemporary Korean painting demands an understanding of Korean ceramics and Korean pottery as the glazes used in these works and the textures of the glazes make Korean art more in the tradition of ceramic art, than of western painterly traditions, even if the subjects appear to be of western origin. Brush-strokes as well are far more important than they are to the western artist; paintings are judged on brush-strokes more often than pure technique. The contemporary artist Suh Yongsun, who is highly appreciated and was elected "Korea's artist of the year 2009", makes paintings with heavy brushstrokes and shows topics like both Korean history and urban scenes especially of Western cities like New York and Berlin. His artwork is a good example for the combination of Korean and Western subjects and painting styles. Other Korean artists combining modern Western and Korean painting traditions are i.e. Junggeun Oh and Tschoon Su Kim. While there have been only rare studies on Korean aesthetics, a useful place to begin for understanding how Korean art developed an aesthetic is in Korean philosophy, and related articles on Korean Buddhism, and Korean Confucianism. In the north, changing political systems from Communism merging with the old yangban class of Korean nationalistic leaders have brought out a different kind of visual arts that again is quite distinctive from the common socialist art styles. This is so particularly in the patriotic films that dominated that culture from 1949 to 1994, and the reawakened architecture, calligraphy, fabric work and neo-traditional painting, that has occurred from 1994 to date. The impact was greatest on revolutionary posters, lithography and multiples, dramatic and documentary film, realistic painting, grand architecture, and least in areas of domestic pottery, ceramics, exportable needlework, and the visual crafts. Sports art and politically charged revolutionary posters have been the most sophisticated and internationally collectible by auction houses and specialty collectors. North Korean painters who escaped to the United States in the late 1950s include the Fwhang sisters. Duk Soon Fwhang and Chung Soon Fwhang O'Dwyer avoid overtly political statements in favor of tempestuous landscapes, bridging Western and Far Eastern painting techniques. Photography and cinema Ceramics and sculpture Korean pottery is the most famous and senior art in Korea, it is closely tied to Korean ceramics which represents tile work, large scale ceramic murals, and architectural elements. - Korean bronze art, as represented in the work of Kim Jong-dae, master of yundo or bronze mirror casting; and Yi Bong-ju, who works in hammered bronze metalware. - Korean silver art, as represented in the work of Kim Cheol-ju in circular silver containers. - Korean jade carving, as represented in the work of Master Jang-Ju won typically in Joseon Dynasty imperial style, with complex jade knotwork, Buddhist motifs, and Korean shamanistic grotesques. - Korean grass weaving as represented in the work of Master Yi Sang-jae, in his legendary wancho weaving containers. - Korean bamboo pyrography, as represented in the work of Kim Gi-chan in this unique artwork involved with burning patterns and art on circular bamboo containers. - Korean bamboo strip work, as represented in the work of Seo Han-gyu (chaesang weaving), and Yi Gi-dong (bamboo fans). - Korean ox-horn inlaying, as represented in the work of Yi Jae-man in his small storage box, and commissioned gift furniture. - Korean blinds weaving, as represented in the work of seventh generation master, Jo Dae-yong, and descended from Jo Rak-sin, who created his first masterworks for King Cheoljong; and through Jo Seong-yun, and Jo Jae-gyu. Winners of Joseon Craft Contests. The artwork known as Tongyeong blinds has gained more recognition with the appointment of Jo Dae-yong as Master Craftsman of Bamboo Blinds weaving *Yeomjang) by the Korean government, and his artworks as "Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 114", with Jo at age 51 becoming the youngest 'human cultural property' in the republic. - Korean wood sculpture, as represented in the work of Park Chan-soo and is a subdivision of Korean sculpture. Architecture and interior design There is a long tradition of Korean gardens, often linked with palaces. Patterns often have their origins in early ideographs. Geometric patterns and patterns of plant, animal and nature motifs are the four most basic patterns. Geometric patterns include triangles, squares, diamonds, zigzags, latticework, frets, spirals sawteeth, circles, ovals and concentric circles. Stone Age rock carvings feature animal designs in order to relate to food-gathering activities. These patterns are found doors of temples and shrines, clothes, furniture and daily objects such as fans and spoons. In the performing arts, Korean storytelling is done in both ritualistic shamanistic ways, in the songs of yangban scholars, and the cross-overs between the visual arts and the performing arts which are more intense and fluid than in the West. Depicted on petroglyphs and in pottery shards, as well as wall-paintings in tombs, the various performing arts nearly always incorporated Korean masks, costumes with Korean knots, Korean embroidery, and a dense overlay of art in combination with other arts. Some specific dances are considered important cultural heritage pieces of art. The performing arts have always been linked to the fabric arts: not just in costumery, but in woven screens behind the plays, ornaments woven or embroidered or knotted to indicate rank, position, or as shamanistic charms; and in other forms to be indicated. Historically the division of the performing arts is between arts done almost exclusively by women in costume, danceworks; and those done exclusively by men in costume, storytelling. And those done as a group by both sexes with women's numbers in performances reduced as time goes on as it became reputable for men to function as public entertainers. The Korean tea ceremony is held in a Korean tea house with characteristic architecture, often within Korean gardens and served in a way with ritualized conversation, formal poetry on wall-scrolls, and with Korean pottery and traditional Korean costumes, the environment itself is a series of naturally flowing events that provide a cultural and artistic experience. Musical arts and theatre The skill of contemporary Korean performing artists, who have had great recognition abroad, particularly in stringed instruments and as symphony directors, or operatic sopranos and mezzos, takes part in a long musical history. Korean music in contemporary times is generally divided into the same audiences as the west: with the same kind of audiences for music based on age, and city (classical, pop, techno, house, hip-hop, jazz; traditional) and provincial divisions (folk, country, traditional, classical, rock). World music influences are very strong provincially, with traditional musical instruments once more gaining ground. Competition with China for tourists has forced a much larger attention to traditional Korean musical forms in order to differentiate itself from the west, and east. The new Seoul Opera house, which will be the anchor for Korean opera has just been given the go-ahead, is set for a $300 million dollar home on an island on the Han river. Korean opera and an entirely redeveloped western opera season, and opera school, to compete with the Beijing opera house, and Japan's historical centre for western operas in the far east is the present focus. Korean court music has a history going back to the Silla where Tang court music was played; later Song dynasty inspired "A-ak" a Korean version played on Chinese instruments within the Joseon era. Recreations of this music are done in Seoul primarily under the auspices of the Korea Foundation and The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts (NCKTPA). Court musicians appear in traditional costume, maintain a rigid proper formal posture, and play stringed five-stringed instruments. Teaching by this the "yeak sasang" principles of Confucianism, perfection of tone and acoustic space is put ahead of coarse emotionality. Famous works of court music include: jongmyo jeryeak, designated a UNESCO world cultural heritage, Cheoyongmu, Taepyeongmu, and Sujecheon. Korean folk music or pansori is the base from which most new music originates being strongly simple and rhythmic. Korean musicals are a recent innovation, encouraged by the success of Broadway revivals, like Showboat, recent productions such as the musical based on Queen Min have toured globally. There are precedents for popular musical dance-dramas in gamuguk popular in Goryeo times, with some 21st century concert revivals. Korean stage set design again has a long history and has always drawn inspiration from landscapes, beginning with outdoor theatre, and replicating this by the use of screens within court and temple stagings of rituals and plays. There are few if any books on this potentially interesting area. A rule of thumb has been that the designs have much open space, more two-dimensional space, and subdued tone and colour, and been done by artists to evoke traditional brush painting subjects. Modern plays have tended towards western scenic flats, or minimalist atonality to force a greater attention on the actors. Stage lighting still has to catch up to western standards, and does not reflect a photographer's approach to painting in colour and light, quite surprisingly. Korean masks are generally used in shamanistic performances that have increasingly been secularized as folkart dramas. At the same time the masks themselves have become tourist artefacts post 1945, and reproduced in large numbers as souvenirs. Storytelling and comedy Narrative storytelling, either in poetic dramatic song by yangban scholars, or in rough-housing by physical comedians, is generally a male performance. There is as yet virtually no stand-up comedy in Korea because of cultural restrictions on insult-humour, personal comments, and respect for seniors, despite globally successful Korean comic films which depend on comedy of error, and situations with no apparent easy resolution under tight social restraints. Korean oral history includes narrative myths, legends, folk tales; songs, folksongs, shaman songs and p'ansori; proverbs that expand into short historical tales, riddles, and suspicious words which have their own stories. They have been studied by Cho Dong-Il; Choi In-hak, and Zong In-sop, and published often in editions in English for foreigners, or for primary school teachers. Dance is a significant element of traditional Korean culture. Special traditional dances are performed as part of many annual festivals and celebrations (harvest, etc), involving traditional costumes, specific colors, music, songs and special instruments. Some dances are performed by either men only or women only, while others are performed by both. The women usually have their hair pulled back away from the face in a bun, or may be wearing colorful hats. Some variation of the traditional hanbok is typically worn, or a special costume specific to that dance. In some dances, the women's costumes will have very long sleeves, or trail a long length of fabric, to accentuate graceful arm movements. Outdoor festivals are loud and joyous, and cymbals and drums can prominently be heard. Masks may be worn. Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with moveable type, often imperial encyclopaedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo era the world's first metal type, and books printed by metal type were produced. Genres include epics, poetry, religious texts and exigetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianist learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Korean's weave. Korean poetry began to flourish in the Three Kingdoms period. Collections were repeatedly printed. With the rise of Joseon nationalism, poetry developed increasingly so and reached its apex in the late 18th century. There were attempts at introducing imagist and modern poetry methods in the early 20th century, and in the early republic period, patriotic works were very successful. Lyrical poetry dominated from the 1970s onwards. - ^ - ^ - ^ - ^ - ^ - ^ "'Artist of the Year 2009' - Seo Young-Sun". National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea. http://www.moca.go.kr/engN/engNExhibition.do?_method=exhView&exhId=201012280000003&cur_page_name=past. Retrieved 2 April 2011. - ^ Alves-Richter, Verena. "Suh Yongsun". Galerie Son. http://www.galerie-son.com/artists/suh/yongsunsuh_text_en.html. Retrieved 2 April 2011. - Online Gallery introducing North Korean painters - The Art of Korean Potters - Overview of Rarer Korean artforms - Gallery of rarer Korean artforms - Korean Studies Audio and Slideshow Files - Cultural Assets of Korea - Korean Exhibit at CSUN Library - Korean Art Held in Japan - Online Collection of Selected Pieces of Modern and Contemporary Korean Art - The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum Asian art Sovereign - Burma (Myanmar) - People's Republic of China - East Timor (Timor-Leste) - North Korea - South Korea - Saudi Arabia - Sri Lanka - United Arab Emirates States with limited - Northern Cyprus - Republic of China (Taiwan) - South Ossetia - Christmas Island - Cocos (Keeling) Islands - Hong Kong Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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“…for he has no right to give names to objects which he cannot define.” –Charles Darwin Do “races” exist as meaningful biological categories? Physical anthropologists and human biologists have been studying race (i.e., blacks vs. whites, or Europeans vs. Asians) for centuries. For most of that time, they subscribed to the perspective that race was a taxonomic category, and they sought to identify the biological characteristics (such as cranial shape or skin color) that characterized and defined these different groups. This perspective assumed that each individual was a member of a single racial category, that the differences between racial categories were biological, and that these categories were predictive of other traits (such as ancestry, temperament, intelligence, or health). But it gradually became clear that this understanding was not scientifically sound. Groupings of people by skin color did not produce the same result as groupings of people by skull shape, nor of blood type. Furthermore, as scientists began to study human variation with the tools of genetics (in the process creating my fields, anthropological genetics and human population genetics), it became apparent that human genetic variation does not divide humans into a few discrete groups. There are virtually no sharp boundaries, either with physical features or with patterns of genetic diversity, that show where one population “ends” and the next “begins”. These observations have led the majority of physical anthropologists, human biologists, and human geneticists in recent decades to conclude that the racial groups we recognize are social categories constructed in a specific cultural and historical setting, even if we consider physical features when categorizing people. These social categories can have biological consequences (for example, someone who experiences the stress of racism may be more likely to develop high blood pressure and hypertension than someone who does not). Racial groupings differ from culture to culture. For example, although in the United States Chinese and Japanese peoples are usually viewed as one “race” (Asian), they are seen as members of different racial groups in South Africa. Racial groupings also vary over time within a single culture, as can be seen below in the United States census classifications of race over several decades. However, according to former New York Times science writer Nicholas Wade, we should never have stopped thinking of race as a biological taxonomic category. In his new book, “A Troublesome Inheritance: Genes, Race and Human History”, Wade takes it upon himself to educate scientists about the errors of our interpretations of human genetic diversity. Wade claims that the latest genomic findings actually support dividing humans into discrete races, and that the genetic makeup of different races contributes to behavioral and economic disparities. In a spectacular failure of logic, he asserts that those who disagree that races are meaningful biological categories in humans must ALSO think that human populations do not differ genetically, or have not been affected by evolution. There is a lot to criticize in this book, particularly Wade’s imaginative storytelling in chapters 6-10 (“a much more speculative arena,” as he puts it). He explains that English populations have a “willingness to save and delay gratification”, which “seems considerably weaker in tribal societies” (pp. 184-185), and these differences must be genetically based, despite his admission that “the genetic underpinnings of human social behavior are for the most part still unknown” (p. 15), and numerous critiques of this hypothesis. In chapter 8, he asserts that Jews are adapted for capitalism in a manner analogous to the Eskimo’s adaptation to survival in an Arctic environment (p. 214) — an assertion unsupported by scientific evidence, to put it mildly. (Wade seems to be unaware of the consequences of laws prohibiting Jews from owning land and farming over much of Europe for centuries – and instead speculates that “their genes were adapted for success in capitalism”). But others have already critiqued these aspects of his book. I’m far more interested in the central premise of Wade’s argument, which is passing unchallenged by all but a few reviews: “At least at the level of continental populations, races can be distinguished genetically, and this is sufficient to establish that they exist” (p. 122). If Wade is right and races are distinct biological categories, then we would reasonably expect that they would be unambiguously different from each other genetically and physically (as well as behaviorally, according to Wade). One should be able to define each race with a set of objective criteria, which could be used by any person to independently reach the same classifications (and number of classifications) as Wade. Furthermore, these categories should have predictive power; that is, features that define race should be in concordance with new discoveries of genetic diversity. What is race? To begin with, Wade can’t provide a clear definition of “race.” He tries to rely instead on loose associations rather than definitive characteristics, which forces him to conclude both that physical traits define race but that the traits can vary from person to person: “races are identified by clusters of traits, and to belong to a certain race, it’s not necessary to possess all of the identifying traits” (p. 121). With such a shifty, casual footing, it’s no surprise that Wade’s conclusions are unsound. He can’t keep the number of races straight: Wade can’t settle on a definite number of races because he can’t come up with a consistent, rigorous definition of what “race” means. He uses terms like “major race”, “race”, “subrace”, “group”, or “population,” but doesn’t provide any serious, objective ways to distinguish between these terms for arbitrary groupings of people arbitrary groups. Rather than just announcing his subjective opinions about race, Wade wants to ground them in science. He tries to use genetics: “Such an arrangement, of portioning human variation into five continental races, is to some extent arbitrary. But it makes practical sense. The three major races are easy to recognize. The five-way division matches the known events of human population history. And, most significant of all, the division by continent is supported by genetics.” (p. 94) To support his claim, Wade relies heavily on a 2002 paper (by Rosenberg et al.) that used a program called structure to group people based on similarities in markers distributed across the genome. He notes that the program identified five major clusters in this 2002 study, which corresponded to the major geographic regions (Africa, Eurasia, East Asia, Oceania, and America) of the world. Therefore, Wade argues, these results clearly show that humans are divided up into racial categories that match continents. Charles Murray, author of The Bell Curve, who recently reviewed Wade’s book in the Wall Street Journal, agrees: A computer given a random sampling of bits of DNA that are known to vary among humans—from among the millions of them—will cluster them into groups that correspond to the self-identified race or ethnicity of the subjects. This is not because the software assigns the computer that objective but because those are the clusters that provide the best statistical fit. But Wade and Murray are both wrong. Structure didn’t simply identify five clusters. It also identified two, three, four, six, and seven clusters. (Rosenberg et al. 2002 actually identified up to 20 divisions, but 1-7 are the primary ones they discussed. They also divided their worldwide sample up into regions, and then ran structure within those regions, to look at more fine-scale population structure.) Why? Researchers using structure have to define the number (K) of clusters in advance, because that’s what the program requires. The program was designed to partition individuals into whatever pre-specified number of clusters the researcher requests, regardless of whether that number of divisions really exists in nature. In other words, if the researcher tells structure to divide the sampled individuals into 4 clusters, structure will identify 4 groups no matter what–even if there is really only 1 group, or even if there are really 14 groups. So, when Rosenberg et al. (2002) told structure to use K=6? They got six clusters, with the sixth corresponding to a northwestern Pakistani group, the Kalash. Does this make the Kalash a separate race? Wade doesn’t think so. When they told structure to use K=3? They got three clusters back, corresponding to Africa, Europe/Middle East/South Asia, and East Asia/Oceania/Americas. So are Native Americans and Australians not separate races? Rosenberg et al. never published any statistical evidence that justifies picking 5 races instead of 7, or 4, or 2 (although such methods do exist–see Bolnick et al. 2008). Wade seems to like K=5 simply because it matches his pre-conceived notions of what race should be: “It might be reasonable to elevate the Indian and Middle Eastern groups to the level of major races, making seven in all. But then many more subpopulations could be declared races, so to keep things simple, the five-race, continent-based scheme seems the most practical for most purposes.” (p. 100) Practical. Simple. Wade wants us to cut up human diversity into five races not because that’s what the statistical analyses show, but because thinking about it as a gradient is hard. Wade isn’t even using the tools of genetics competently. The authors of the paper he relied on, as well as subsequent studies, showed that different runs of the program with the same data can even produce different results (Bolnick, 2008). Structure’s results are extremely sensitive to many different factors, including models, the type and number of genetic variants studied, and the number of populations included in the analysis (Rosenberg et al. 2005). When Rosenberg et al. (2005) expanded the 2002 dataset to include more genetic markers for the same population samples, they identified a somewhat different set of genetic clusters when K=6 (Native Americans were divided into two clusters and the Kalash of Central/South Asia did not form a separate cluster). In fact, Rosenberg et al. (2005) explicitly said: “Our evidence for clustering should not be taken as evidence of our support of any particular concept of ‘biological race.’” Finally, the creators of structure themselves caution that it will produce rather arbitrary clusters when sampled populations have been influenced by gene flow that is restricted by geographic distance (i.e. where more mating occurs between members of nearby populations than between populations that are located farther apart, a pattern we geneticists refer to as isolation by distance). As this pattern applies to the majority of human populations, it makes the results of structure problematic and difficult to interpret in many cases. These limitations are acknowledged by anthropological geneticists and population biologists, who interpret the results of structure cautiously. It’s very telling that Wade, a science reporter, chose to ignore the interpretations of the experts in favor of his own. Human biological variation is real and important. I’ve studied it my entire professional career. We can see this variation most easily in physical traits and allele frequency differences between populations at extreme ends of a geographic continuum. Nobody is denying that. Let me repeat this: no one is denying that humans vary physically and genetically. All anthropologists and geneticists recognize that human differences exist. But Wade, and others who agree with him, have decided that certain patterns of variation—those which happen to support their predefined notions of what “races” must be—are more important than others. Wade’s perspective fits with a larger pattern seen throughout history and around the world. Folk notions of what constitutes a race and how many races exist are extremely variable and culturally specific. For example, the Bible claims that all peoples of the world are descended from Noah’s three sons, mirroring the popular concept of three racial divisions (Caucasians, Africans, and Asians). On the other hand, the five-part division of races seems most “logical” to Wade. Anticipating confusion on this point he claims: “Those who assert that human races don’t exist like to point to the many, mutually inconsistent classification schemes that have recognized anywhere from 3 to 60 races. But the lack of agreement doesn’t mean that races don’t exist, only that it is a matter of judgment as to how to define them” (p. 92). A matter of judgment. So, rather than being defined by empirical criteria, as Wade had asserted so confidently earlier in the book, it really is just a subjective judgment call. The differences between groups are so subtle and gradual that no objective lines can be drawn, so Wade draws his own on the basis of his own preconceptions. How subtle is the gradient that Wade is chopping up? Humans are incredibly similar genetically. We only differ by about 0.1% of our genome. Compare that to chimpanzees, our closest relative. Individual chimps from the same population show more genetic differences than humans from different continents. The genetic differences that exist in human populations are important, because they help us understand our evolutionary history. The most genetic diversity is found in populations in Africa, where our species originated. Subsequent migrations across the continents resulted in sampling a subset of the genetic diversity present in the ancestral populations; thousands of years of localized evolution and cultural practices have produced region-specific adaptations, such as the ability to thrive at high altitudes. These adaptations have influenced particular genes and traits, but the overall pattern of genetic variation is clinal, meaning that for the most part it varies gradually with geographic distance. Groups that live close together are more closely related to each other (and more genetically similar) than they are to groups farther away. (People marry and have children more frequently with people who live close to them than they do with people who live farther away). Other evolutionary forces (founder effects, selection, drift, and migration) have all contributed to patterns of genetic diversity that we see in populations today. But these patterns of human diversity don’t give us a scientifically viable definition of race as a taxonomic unit. As Agustin Fuentes puts it, with emphasis added: “when you compare people from Nigeria, Western Europe and Beijing you do get some patterned differences…but these specific groups do not reflect the entire continental areas of Africa, Europe, and Asia (the proposed “continental races” of African, Caucasian and Asian). There are no genetic patterns that link all populations in just Africa, just Asia or just Europe to one another to the exclusion of other populations in other places. If you compare geographically separated populations within the “continental” areas you get the same kind of variation as you would between them. Comparing Nigerians to Western Europeans to people from Beijing gives us the same kind of differences in variation patterns as does comparing people from Siberia, Tibet and Java, or from Finland, Wales and Yemen, or even Somalia, Liberia and South Africa— and none of these comparisons demonstrates “races.” In fact if you use the common level of genetic differentiation between populations used by zoologists to classify biological races (which they called subspecies) in other mammals, all humans consistently show up as just one biological race.” (Also see Templeton AR, 2013. Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.04.010) Wade even seems to agree with population geneticists that there aren’t any races, just clinal distributions of genetic diversity: “Because there is no clear dividing line, there are no distinct races—that is the nature of variation within a species.” (p 92). In other words, he can’t define distinct races. He just knows them when he sees them I’ve focused a lot of this review on numerous technical details because I think that it’s very important that non-geneticists understand the degree to which Wade is distorting the results of recent research on genome-wide human variation. I won’t speculate whether this distortion is deliberate or a result of simple ignorance about genetics, but it is serious. There is a great deal more in this book that also needs to be critiqued, such as Wade’s assertion that the genetic differences between human groups determine behavioral differences, resurrecting the specter of “national character” and “racial temperaments”. But as I’ve shown here, Wade’s book is all pseudoscientific rubbish because he can’t justify his first and primary point: his claim that the human racial groups we recognize today culturally are scientifically meaningful, discrete biological divisions of humans. This claim provides a direct basis for the whole second half of the book where he makes those “speculative” arguments about national character. In other words, the entire book is a house of cards. It’s also worth noting the extent to which Wade’s argument here is a variation on the Galileo fallacy: the fact that one bravely holds a minority view in science is considered to be sufficient evidence of the worth of one’s position. I’ve seen it used over and over again in responses to my criticisms of pseudoscience, and it’s no more persuasive for Wade than it is for creationists or homeopaths. “If scientists were to make the arbitrary decision that biological race is real, can you think of a positive outcome?” –a nice piece by Holly Dunsworth: http://ecodevoevo.blogspot.com/2014/05/if-scientists-were-to-make-arbitrary.html Agustin Fuentes’ online debate with Wade: (https://aaanetevents.webex.com/ec0606l/eventcenter/recording/recordAction.do?theAction=poprecord&AT=pb&internalRecordTicket=00000001fcaac3649dadd2c6e78a2511ed436c75acea0fcceaf7ff0731dc4216dec6996b&isurlact=true&renewticket=0&recordID=8614987&apiname=lsr.php&needFilter=false&format=short&&SP=EC&rID=8614987&RCID=e801bfd96855006077205e3d2e023699&siteurl=aaanetevents&actappname=ec0606l&actname=%2Feventcenter%2Fframe%2Fg.do&rnd=4944230866&entactname=%2FnbrRecordingURL.do&entappname=url0108l) “The troublesome ignorance of Nicholas Wade”, also by Agustin Fuentes: “On the origin of white power” by Eric Michael Johnson: A critique of Structure: Bolnick DA. Individual ancestry inference and the reification of race as a biological phenomenon. In: Koenig BA, Lee SS-J, Richardson SS, editors. Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press; 2008. pp. 77–85. Jon Marks: “The genes made us do it: The new pseudoscience of race.” Barbujani and Colonna, 2010. Human genome diversity: frequently asked questions. Many thanks to Deborah Bolnick, Colin McRoberts, Jay Kaufman, Jonathan Kahn, Troy Duster, and Rick Smith. Please review my Site Policies before commenting. Disagreement with me is fine; bigotry is not.

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By Kindergarten Teacher Christine Pierce Inglis Our early childhood program lays a foundation for writing and reading but does not begin formal instruction until the children are in first grade. What do we do in the kindergarten to prepare our children and what practical things can you do at home to further this process? Let’s take a look at some of the important skills and abilities involved in the process of learning to write and read: Language Skills, including Speech Proficiency Physical and Sensory Development Social and Emotional Intelligence The richer and more varied the child’s vocabulary, the more clearly he differentiates sounds and words, the better foundation he will have when he needs to translate these sounds into symbols. We immerse the children in poetry and songs everyday at circle time and we use the important element of repetition to reinforce the learning. It is well known to linguists that a child needs constant repetition of new sounds and words before he is able to reproduce them himself. Unlike physical objects which the child is free to pick up and examine at will, as often as he likes, a sound or word is transitory; it is there for a brief moment in time and then gone again. If it is not repeated enough, the child has no way to grasp it and learn about it. For this reason we continue for several weeks with certain poems and songs at circle time, and we repeat our stories and puppet shows many times in a row, to familiarize the children with the language, imagery and concepts. As teachers we have many techniques to ensure that the circles do not grow stale or over-familiar while at the same time keeping the repetition of the words. We can expand and add new gestures or imagery, add costumes or turn the song or poem into a game. And as teachers we know the importance of delving deeply into the imagery and meaning of the fairy tales and stories for ourselves to keep them interesting and fresh for us, which is the key to keeping them alive for the children. Experience has shown that the child must have reached a point of maturity with regard to oral language before beginning to read. This is known as the “speech age” of the child and is determined by the child’s use of phonemes and his ability or inability to form a particular sound. It has been estimated that by the age of seven the average child is able to correctly articulate the consonants and consonant blends ninety percent of the time. The learning of the alphabet of sound is an important prerequisite to learning the alphabet of letters. Children with reading difficulties frequently have problems in speech. Therefore, by helping children to overcome their speech defects one can assist them in their association of sound and letter/word, and their capacity for oral reading. The best situation would be to help the child to learn to form his speech correctly before he begins to write and read. In a study made by Sonenberg and Glass, forty children with reading problems were tested for speech and auditory defects. All but two of the children had speech problems and nearly half had problems with auditory discrimination. The children with difficulties in auditory discrimination frequently made the following sound reversals: K to G, P to D, W to WH, F to T, T to L, P to M, P to G, B to D, T to K, M to S, D to T, T to unvoiced TH, F to unvoiced TH, F to V. These substitutions often show up as reading reversals. Van Riper and Butler have set outlines for phoneme teaching that stress the importance of identifying each sound with a sound in the child’s environment, giving the sound a name, and identifying the sound with a picture. For example, “S” is described as the whistling sound of the teakettle. For our young children, it is enough to identify the sound without naming it; although on occasion I make an exception (Pattacake, or the folk song BINGO). Speech Proficiency Tip: Sing to your child! Sing songs that you remember from your childhood. When choosing a fairy tale or story for your child, think about the complexity of the conflict in the story. For a preschool child, a simple story about a child searching for, and finding, her cat can be enough of a conflict and resolution. For older kindergarten children, a story with more complex tasks or difficulties to overcome (such as three tasks to be performed to break the enchantment) can be considered. Always look at the level of conflict and tension within the story to guide you. Three to four year old children are still coming to terms with their own bodies and the everyday life and world of objects and nature. (Also a primitive “animism” is still alive in the child, and there are many delightful folk tales that reflect this…the door speaks, the table speaks, etc.) Putting on boots and mittens, walking in the woods, helping mother knead bread dough or sweep the kitchen floor; these everyday activities are special events for the young child, and opportunities for learning. Watching the postman or the farmer at work, observing how grown-ups do things, are all very important at this age. Therefore stories which center around daily life, home or work activities are well-loved, and at circle time young children love to mime these activities in connection with the poems or songs. Try singing “Here we go ‘round the mulberry bush” with its endless verses of “this is the way we wash our hands” (or brush our teeth, or put on our boots) when you are doing these activities with your child. It is a great way to get happy compliance! Nursery rhymes are also wonderful and you can use them to accompany certain routine activities. Everyday when the children come in for lunch I stand at the door, holding it open and making a sort of bridge with my arm that they walk under, and I often sing “London Bridges”. Or when I pour the water into each of their cups at lunch it reminds me of “Jack and Jill” who went to fetch a pail of water and I sing that song each day as I pour the water. It is a simple little ritual but the children often like to join in, and the repetition gives them a chance to become very familiar with the sounds and rhythms. At age five and six the children have developed to a different stage and their drawings are indicative of their awakening consciousness. The sky and the earth are now often separated on the page, the child is no longer living completely “at one” with the world but is beginning to connect to the concept of separation in a new way. This shows his readiness for slightly more complicated plots, such as some of the Grimm’s Fairy Tales. These creative pictures feed his imagination developing a capacity for rich imagery. The children are now less dependent on the visual props of the puppet show (we do mostly puppet shows with the younger nursery children) and can listen and independently picture the happenings in the story. Speech Proficiency Tip: All children love to hear stories about what their parents did as little children. Try to remember some – it doesn’t matter how mundane they are, your children will be delighted! Also, it is great to observe something in nature and share it with your child at mealtimes. I store up memories of things that I have seen on the way to school that morning, for example, a cardinal flying across the road, or a bunny hopping into the bushes, and of course endless stories about my cat, Kippy, which children love. (“Tell us about Kippy!”). Once I have shared a short story/observation from my day, the children quite naturally follow my lead and often will take turns telling things that they have seen. It is a nice way to begin a mealtime conversation, and these conversations are a great place for the children to practice their language skills. The eye becomes structurally complete at about eight years of age. Before that time, the eyes are still in a process of development. The unnatural hand and eye movements required for writing and reading must be learned. In writing, the hand must be able to move across the page from left to right in a controlled manner. In reading, the eyes must be able to make this same movement, over and over. In daily life, one would rarely (if ever) move one’s eyes in such a way for any length of time. Instead, the eyes would be constantly moving back and forth, up and down, near and far, in a very different pattern. Emerald Dechant (author of “Improving the Teaching of Reading”) asserts that the child of six is usually too farsighted to see objects as small as a word clearly and with ease. Some authorities have even suggested that children are made myopic (nearsighted) through premature attempts to adapt to the demand of close vision. Visual Proficiency Tip: At the end of clean-up time I ask the children, one at a time, to use their “eagle eyes” and find anything that is out of place. You can do the same at home, and make a little game of it. Unless the child is able to differentiate the sounds that make up a word, he will not be able to form the proper association of spoken sound to graphic symbol. In fact, it has been found that listening is generally more effective than reading as a learning device for children under eight years. Listening is the first language art that the child develops. This power of mastering new sound discriminations decreases as one grows older. A baby will easily pick up the language with which he is surrounded and imitate the precise intonations necessary. Contrast this with the adult trying to learn a foreign language; it is much more difficult for him to master, partly due to a fixation of the speech organism, but also in a large part due to an inability to distinguish sounds. Often an adult retains an “accent” in the foreign language because he doesn’t perceive the subtle difference in the phonetics or cadences of the new language as compared to his native tongue. Research has shown that good listeners rated higher than poor listeners in intelligence, reading, socioeconomic status, and achievement, but not on a hearing test. This indicates that the activity of listening is not necessarily bound up with a person’s physical, auditory acuity. Listening occurs only when the child organizes and remembers what is heard. It requires the active engagement of one’s thinking processes. Obviously, a hearing impairment would create difficulties for a child, but clearly, the physical capacity only provides the basis for the activity of listening to take place. The ability to listen is basic to the learning of reading. It is generally recognized that this ability must be consciously fostered, as children enter school with quite varied degrees of listening ability. Dechant names several ways in which listening can be taught: through storytelling, conversation, dramatization, singing of songs, reading of poems and reading or speaking rhymes. Some schools have so-called “listening centers” with pupil-operated devices consisting of a CD player, earphones and response sheets which are filled in by the pupil. It has been noted that the listening center equipment does little to improve empathic listening, reactive listening, projective listening or interpretative listening which seem to be better fostered in face-to-face situations, which is what we emphasize in Waldorf Schools. Auditory Proficiency Tip: Find a stringed instrument such as a lyre or guitar, or a chime bar or xylophone that rings. Play one tone (by plucking the string or chiming one bar) and have your child tell you when they can no longer hear it. Or get a big conch shell and hold it to their ears to see if they can “hear the ocean” in it. Or go outside in the woods and listen for the birds calling. And when you despair that you have to call them at least ten times before they come, start training them to come the first time you call them (let them know that you are going to call them and you will only say their name once – then go get them silently and take their hand if they weren’t listening. Eventually they will get it, and then you can give them a lot of praise!) Physical and Sensory Development In addition to what has already been mentioned in the way of physical development, there is a great deal of new information available in the area of brain research. As Carla Hannaford, Phd., says in her book “Smart Moves: Why Learning Is Not All In Your Head”: “The notion that intellectual activity can somehow exist apart from our bodies is deeply rooted in our culture. It is related to the attitude that the things we do with our bodies, and the bodily functions, sensations, and emotions that sustain life, are lower, less distinctly human…Thinking and learning are not all in our head. On the contrary, the body plays an integral part in all our intellectual processes from our earliest moments right through to old age. It is our body’s senses that feed the brain environmental information with which to form an understanding of the world… And it is our movements that express knowledge and facilitate greater cognitive function as they increase in complexi…” Einstein once said: “Learning is experience. Everything else is just information.” So much of what we learn is taken in through our senses, especially as young children. The more we can give our children hands-on learning, the more we are allowing them to learn through experience. If we are constantly talking at them, and explaining, we are robbing them of the possibility of learning through observation. Physical and Sensory Development Tip: Children often ask: “What are you doing?” or “What are we going to do now?” or “What are you going to use that for?” Often adults feel that they are obligated to explain what they are doing. Try saying: “Watch and you will see.” And then carry on with your work. When the child sees that you are not going to tell him, he starts to pay attention and his interest shifts to a whole new level. It is very satisfying for him when he figures out what is going on through his own observation. Sometimes a child will ask “what are we having for snack?” I might say “what do you smell?” or “what did we chop together this morning?” If I just quickly answered “bread” or “soup” they haven’t been encouraged to pay attention to their own senses. When we quickly provide very detailed and complete answers to all of their questions we are training them to be inactive and always look to someone else, rather than trying to find their own answers. Of course, there are certainly times when you want to use the “teachable moment” to explain something; but don’t be too quick to jump in or too detailed at first. They need time to take it in and process the information. Start with simple, pictorial explanations. The child will continue to mull it over and think about it more if you leave something for them to discover. Physical and Sensory Development Tip: Since children don’t get to move as much as they used to (it is popular and sometimes easier to take them everywhere in the stroller or the car) give them as much time walking as possible. And if your child missed or hurried through the crawling phase, play crawling games with them! (Mama Bear and Baby Bear, or Papa Turtle and Baby Turtle, etc.) Walking over varied ground (such as hikes in the woods) is fantastic. Go to the beach in the summer and let them experience walking barefoot on the sand. Physical and Sensory Development Tip: Games to play for developing sensory awareness…Place three familiar objects under a cloth. Ask your child to reach under the cloth and identify the objects through touch alone. (This is a great game to play when you are waiting – in a doctor’s office, or a restaurant, or an airport.) Another game for the sense of hearing is to have your child close his eyes and then you play different instruments (for example a flute, or bell, or drum) and have the child identify the different instruments. Another game for the sense of smell is to put three pungent substances in three containers and (with eyes closed) have your child identify them (for example, lemon, ginger, cinnamon). You can keep the same objects and do them over and over, every time you play the game, so that your child can get confident in the identification. They love repetition! When you have done it many times you can change to new objects. Just remember to keep these games light and playful rather than “instructional”. Physical and Sensory Development Tip: Any songs or games with “body geography” are helpful, such as “Heads, shoulders, knees and toes” or the finger game “Two Fat Gentlemen”. Social and Emotional Intelligence Although research has shown that a mental age of six and a half years is the optimal age for beginning reading, intelligence is not the only factor that should be considered. Emotional and social maturity is also important. Mason and Prater found that: “…younger children make less progress than older ones of the same intelligence when they are exposed to the same program…” Although many studies have shown that it is possible to teach children under the age of five to read, it is important to consider whether this is desirable. Research has shown that the teaching of reading in the kindergarten tended to increase negative social behavior among the boys, and that learning was a much slower process than with first grade children. It would therefore seem unwise to push children beyond their emotional or social maturational level, since reading disability is often caused by starting a child in a reading program before he is ready. As Dechant asserts: “Such a child cannot handle the day by day learning tasks and finds himself farther and farther behind as time goes by. He becomes frustrated and develops antipathy toward reading. He actually learns not to read.” The relationship between reading disability and emotional and social maladjustment is often a “vicious circle”. If the child has difficulty reading this leads to a loss of self-esteem and a stigmatization which can become a tremendous social difficulty. But it is equally true to say that if a child comes to school with emotional problems or social handicaps, it is very possible that he or she may experience difficulty in learning, and this includes writing and reading. In her book “Is Your Child In The Wrong Grade?” by Louise Bates Ames, Phd., of the Gesell Institute of Child Development, the author makes the point that a large proportion of school children are being forced to perform at levels beyond their ability, thus creating behavioral problems, and antipathy toward school and learning. Ames asserts that a high I.Q. can give the illusion that a child is ready for more advanced work at a higher grade level, when in fact, the child’s emotional and social behavior is not capable of more demands. Clearly, it is important that a child’s emotional and social behavior be considered in deciding when to begin writing and reading; and any activities which foster this maturational development would seem to be beneficial to the development of the child’s reading capabilities. Social and Emotional Intelligence Tip: Young children are constantly learning through their play. They learn a great deal when they play on their own: including working through and digesting many sense impressions and emotions and reflecting on things. Children also learn an enormous amount when they play with others: how to interact, how to share, how to stand up for themselves, how to be compassionate. It is a constant give and take. Provide opportunities for both solitary, creative play and creative play with others. Don’t overschedule your child with school all day, and then provide constant, structured activities and playdates after school. They need time to digest their school experiences. But if your child is having social difficulties it can be helpful to invite another child over for a playdate so that social skills can be practiced in a relatively quiet, focused way, in a familiar and secure setting. Some basic social skills include: - Learning to say “No Thank You” to someone who is bothering them (pushing, taking a toy, speaking rudely, etc.) - Learning how to enter into other children’s play, for example, knocking at the door of their “house” and saying “knock, knock, knock, may I come in?” and conversely, inviting in friends who want to come in and play. - If two children are fighting bring them together rather than separating them. If one has hurt the other, let him go and get a tissue and cup of water for his friend. Let them take hands and say “sorry, friend” then give them a task to do together. A shortened version of this article was published in the Spring 2012 Mosaic Newsletter of the Great Barrington Rudolf Steiner School (PDF).

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A selection of biwa in a Japanese museum The biwa (琵琶?) is a Japanese short-necked fretted lute, often used in narrative storytelling. The biwa is the chosen instrument of Benten, goddess of music, eloquence, poetry, and education in Buddhism. It arrived in Japan in two forms. Since that time, the number of biwa types has more than quadrupled. Guilds supporting biwa players, particularly the biwa hoshi, helped proliferate biwa musical development for hundreds of years. Biwa hōshi performances overlapped with performances by other biwa players many years before heikyoko and continued until today. This overlap resulted in a rapid evolution of the biwa and its usage and made it one of the most popular instruments in Japan. Yet, in spite of its popularity, the Onin War and subsequent Warring States Period disrupted biwa tutelage and decreased the number of proficient users. With the abolition of Todo in the Meiji period, biwa players lost their patronage. Furthermore, reforms stemming from the Meiji Restoration led to massive, rapid industrialization and modernization. Japan modeled its development on Europe and the US, praising everything Western and condemning everything native. Traditions identifiably Japanese became associated with terms like backwards or primitive. Such associations even extended into areas like art and music, and the biwa. By the late 1940s, the biwa, a thoroughly Japanese tradition, was nearly completely abandoned for Western instruments; however, thanks to collaborative efforts by Japanese musicians, interest in the biwa is being revived. Japanese and foreign musicians alike have begun embracing traditional Japanese instruments, particularly the biwa, in their compositions. While blind biwa singers no longer dominate the biwa, many performers continue to use the instrument in traditional and modern ways. The biwa came to Japan in the 7th century and it was evolved from the instrument pipa, while the pipa itself was derived from similar instruments in Western Asia. This type of biwa is called the gaku-biwa and was used in gagaku ensembles and is the most commonly known type. While the route is unclear, another type of biwa found its way to the Kyushu region, and this thin biwa (called mōsō-biwa or kōjin-biwa) was used in ceremonies and religious rites. Before long, as the Ritsuryō state collapsed, the court music musicians were faced with the reconstruction and sought asylum in Buddhist temples. There they assumed the role of Buddhist monks and encountered the mōsō-biwa. They incorporated the convenient aspects of mōsō-biwa, its small size and portability, into their large and heavy gaku-biwa, and created the heike-biwa, which, as indicated by its namesake, was used primarily for recitations of The Tale of the Heike. Through the next several centuries, players of both traditions intersected frequently and developed new music styles and new instruments. By the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the heike-biwa had emerged as a popular instrument. The heike-biwa could be described as a cross between both the gaku-biwa and mōsō-biwa. It retained the rounded shape of the gaku-biwa and was played with a large plectrum like the mōsō-biwa. The heike biwa was also small, like the mōsō-biwa (actually smaller) and was used for similar purposes. While the modern satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa both find their origin with the mōsō-biwa, the Satsuma biwa was used for moral and mental training by samurai of the Satsuma Domain during the Warring States period, and later in general performances. The Chikuzen biwa was used by Buddhist monks visiting private residences to perform memorial services, not only for Buddhist rites, but also for telling entertaining stories and news while accompanying themselves on the biwa, and this form of storytelling was thought to be spread in this way. Not much seems to have been written about biwas from roughly the 16th century to the mid-19th century. What is known is that three main streams of biwa emerged during that time: zato (the lowest level of the state-controlled guild of blind biwa players), shifu (samurai style), and chofu (urban style). These styles emphasized 琵琶歌 (biwa-uta) — vocalization with biwa accompaniment — and formed the foundation for 江戸歌 (edo-uta) styles such as shinnai and kota [Allan Marett 103]. From these styles also emerged the two principal survivors of the biwa tradition: satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa [Waterhouse 156]. From roughly the Meiji Era (1868–1912) until the Pacific War, the satsuma-biwa and chikuzen-biwa were popular across Japan, and, at the beginning of the Showa Era (1925–1989), the nishiki-biwa was created and gained popularity. Of the remaining biwa traditions, only higo-biwa remains a style almost solely performed by blind persons in the post-war era. The higo-biwa is closely related to the heike-biwa and, similarly, relies on an oral-narrative tradition focusing on wars and legends. By the middle of the Meiji period (1868–1912), improvements had been made on the instruments and easily understandable songs were composed in quantity. In the beginning of the Taisho period (1912–1926), the Satsuma biwa was modified into the Nishiki biwa which was popular among female players at the time. With this the biwa met a great period of prosperity, and the songs themselves were not just about the Tale of the Heike but songs connected to the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War such as “Takeo Hirose”, “Hitachimaru”, “203 Hill” gained popularity. However, the playing of the biwa nearly became extinct during the Meiji period as Western music and instruments became popular, until players such as Tsuruta Kinshi and others revitalized the genre with modern playing styles and collaborations with Western composers. Types of biwa There are more than seven types of biwa, characterised by number of strings, sounds it could produce, type of plectrum, and their use. As the biwa does not play in tempered tuning, pitches are approximated to the nearest note. - Gagaku-biwa (雅楽琵琶) - A large and heavy biwa with four strings and four frets used exclusively for gagaku. It produces distinctive Ichikotsuchō (壱越調) and Hyōjō (平調). Its plectrum is small and thin, often rounded, and made from a hard material such as boxwood or ivory. It is not used to accompany singing. Like the heike biwa, it is played held on its side, similar to a guitar, with the player sitting cross-legged. In gagaku, it is called gaku-biwa (楽琵琶). - Gogen-biwa (五絃琵琶) - This T'ang variant of biwa can be seen in paintings of court orchestras and was used in the context of gagaku, however was removed with the reforms and standardizations made to the court orchestra during the late 10th Century. It is assumed that the performance traditions died out by the 10th or 11th century (William P. Malm). This is instrument also disappeared in the Chinese court orchestras. Recently, this instrument, much like the Kugo harp has been revived for historically informed performances and historical reconstructions. Not to be confused with the five-stringed variants of modern biwa, such as Chikuzen biwa. - Mōsō-biwa (盲僧琵琶) - A biwa with four strings used to play Buddhist mantra and songs. It is similar in shape to the chikuzen-biwa, but with a much more narrow body. Its plectrum varies in both size and materials. The four fret type is tuned to E, B, E and A, and the five fret type is tuned to B, e, f♯ and f♯. The six fret type is tuned to B♭, E♭, B♭ and b♭. Middle and Edo biwa - Heike-biwa (平家琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and five frets used to play Heike Monogatari. Its plectrum is slightly larger than that of the gagaku-biwa, but the instrument itself is much smaller, comparable to a chikuzen-biwa in size. It was originally used by traveling biwa minstrels, and its small size lent it to indoor play and improved portability. Its tuning is A, c, e, a or A, c-sharp, e, a. - Satsuma-biwa (薩摩琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets popularized during the Edo Period in Satsuma Province (present day Kagoshima) by Shimazu Nisshinsai. Modern biwas used for contemporary compositions often have five or more frets, and some have a doubled fourth string. The frets of the Satsuma biwa are raised 4 centimeters from the neck allowing notes to be bent several steps higher, each one producing the instrument's characteristic sawari, or buzzing drone. Its boxwood plectrum is much wider than others, often reaching widths of 25 centimeters or more. Its size and construction influences the sound of the instrument as the curved body is often struck percussively with the plectrum during play. The satsuma-biwa is traditionally made from Japanese mulberry, although other hard woods such as Japanese zelkova are sometimes used in its construction. Due to the slow growth of the Japanese mulberry, the wood must be taken from at least a 120 year old tree and dried for ten years before construction can begin. The strings are made of wound silk. Its tuning is A, E, A, B, for traditional biwa, G, G, c, g, or G, G, d, g for contemporary compositions, among other tunings, but these are only examples as the instrument is tuned to match the key of the player's voice. The first and second strings are generally tuned to the same note, with the 4th (or doubled 4th) string is tuned one octave higher. The most eminent 20th century satsuma-biwa performer was Tsuruta Kinshi, who developed her own version of the instrument, which she called the tsuruta-biwa. This biwa often has five strings (although it is essentially a 4-string instrument as the 5th string is a doubled 4th that are always played together) and five or more frets, and the construction of the tuning head and frets vary slightly. Ueda Junko and Tanaka Yukio, two of Tsuruta Kinshi's students, continue the tradition of the modern Satsuma biwa. Carlo Forlivesi's compositions Boethius (ボエティウス) and Nuove Musiche per Biwa (琵琶のための新曲) had both been written for performance on the Satsuma model of the biwa designed by Kinshi Tsuruta and Yukio Tanaka. "These works presents a radical departure from the compositional languages usually employed for such an instrument. Also, thanks to the possibility of relying on a level of virtuosity never before attempted in this specific repertory, the composer has sought the renewal of the acoustic and æsthetic profile of the biwa, bringing out the huge potential in the sound material: attacks and resonance, tempo (conceived not only in the chronometrical but also deliberately empathetical sense), chords, balance and dialogue (with the occasional use of two biwas in Nuove Musiche per Biwa), dynamics and colour." - Chikuzen-biwa (筑前琵琶) - A biwa with four strings and four frets or five strings and five frets popularized in the Meiji Period by Tachibana Satosada. Most contemporary performers use the five string version. Its plectrum is much smaller than that of the Satsuma biwa, usually about 13 centimeters in width, although its size, shape, and weight depends on the sex of the player. The plectrum is usually made from rosewood with boxwood or ivory tips for plucking the strings. The instrument itself also varies in size, depending on the player. Male players use biwas that are slightly wider and/or longer than those used by females or children. The body of the instrument is never struck with the plectrum during play, and the five string instrument is played upright, while the four string is played held on its side. The instrument is tuned to match the key of the singer. An example tuning of the four string version is B, e, f♯ and b, and the five string instrument can be tuned to C, G, C, d and g. For the five string version, the first and third strings are tuned the same note, the second string down three steps down, the fifth string an octave higher than the second string, and the fourth string a step down from the fifth. So the previously mentioned tuning can be tuned down to B♭, F, B♭, c, d. Asahikai and Tachibanakai are the two major schools of Chikuzen biwa. Popularly used by female biwa players such as Uehara Mari. - Nishiki-biwa (錦琵琶) - A modern biwa with five strings and five frets popularized by Suitō Kinjō. Its plectrum is the same as that used for the Satsuma biwa. ts tuning is C, G, c, g, g. Generally speaking, biwa is considered one of Japan`s principal traditional instruments, and, as such, it has both influenced and been influenced by other traditional instruments and compositions throughout its long history in Japan. The following section will situate the biwa in the context of traditional Japanese music. - General Background on Music in Japan The general term used for music in Japan is 音楽 (ongaku). 音 means sound or tone, and 楽 means music or enjoyment. Both characters together technically refer to all forms of music but, more recently, evoke images of modern (post-Pacific War) ensembles and compositions. Traditional music styles have their own designations. - 邦楽 Hōgaku - Japanese Traditional Music Broken apart, 邦 means (home) country and, 楽 means music. The characters together are thought to be an abbreviation of the term 本邦音楽, which literally means “music of Japan.” The term Hogaku is also derived from 近世邦楽, which translates as “national music of modern times.” It is usually defined as traditional Japanese Music. Japan`s Ministry of Education classifies Hogaku as a category separate from other traditional forms of music, such as Gagaku (court music) or Shōmyō (Buddhist chanting), but most ethnomusicologists view Hogaku, in a broad sense, as the form from which the others were derived [Sosnoski 34]. Outside of ethnomusicology, however, Hogaku usually refers to Japanese music from around the 17th to mid 19th Centuries [Sugiura 1]. In Hogaku, musical instruments usually serve as accompaniments to vocal performances. Song dominates hogaku, and the overwhelming majority of hogaku compositions are vocal. In this context, the biwa was one of the prominent instruments [Dean 156]. - 雅楽 Gagaku – Japanese Court Music Since雅 means elegance, Gagaku literally means elegant music and generally refers to musical instruments and music theory imported to Japan from China and Korea from 500-600 CE. Gagaku is divided into two main categories: Old Music and New Music. Old Music refers to music and musical compositions from before the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618-906), and New Music refers to music and compositions produced during or after Tang, including music brought from various regions in China and Korea [Randel 339] [The International Shakuhachi Society]. Old and New Music are further divided into 左楽 (Music of the Left) and 右楽 (Music of the Right) Categories. 左楽 is composed of 唐楽 (music from Tang) and 林邑楽 (music from Indo-China). 右楽 is composed of 高麗楽 (music from Korea). Gagaku was usually patronized by the imperial court or the shrines and temples. Gagaku ensembles were composed of string, wind, and percussion instruments, where string and wind instruments were more respected and percussion instruments were considered lesser instruments. Among the string instruments, the biwa seems to have been the most important instrument in gagaku orchestral performances [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 16]. - 声明 Shōmyō – Buddhist Chanting The two characters: 声 and 明 literally mean “voice” and “clear”. Shōmyō is a translation of the Sanskrit word, sabda-vidya, which means “the (linguistic) study of language”. Shōmyō is a kind of chanting of Buddhist scriptures syllabically or melismatically set to melodic phrasing, usually performed by a male chorus. It is said to have come to Japan in the early 9th Century [Randel 270]. While biwa was not used in shōmyō, the style of biwa singing is closely tied to shōmyō, especially mōsō and heike style biwa singing [Matisoff 36]. Both shōmyō and mōsō are rooted in Buddhist rituals and traditions. Before arriving in Japan, shōmyō was used in Indian Buddhist. The mōsō-biwa was also rooted in Indian Buddhism, and the heike-biwa, as a predecessor to the mōsō-biwa, was the principle instrument of the biwa hōshi, who were blind Buddhist priests. - Biwa Aesthetics Generally speaking, biwas have four strings. That being said, modern satsuma and chikuzen biwas might have five strings. The first string is thickest and the fourth string is thinnest (the second string is the thickest on the chikuzen-biwa, and the fourth and fifth strings are the same thickness on five-stringed chikuzen and satsuma-biwas) [Minoru Miki 75]. The varying string thickness creates different timbres when stroked from different directions. In biwa, tuning is not fixed. General tones and pitches can fluctuate up or down entire steps or microtones [Dean 157]. When singing in a chorus, biwa singers often stagger their entry and often sing through non-synchronized, heterophony accompaniment [Dean 149]. In solo performances, a biwa performer sings monophonically, with melismatic emphasis throughout the performance. These monophonic do not follow a set harmony. Instead biwa singers tend to sing with a flexible pitch without distinguishing soprano, alto, tenor, or bass roles. This singing style is complemented by the biwa, which biwa players use to produce short glissandi throughout the performance [Morton Feldman 181]. Biwa singing style tends to be nasal, particularly when singing vowels, the consonant ん, and notes containing “g” (e.g., が, ぎ, ぐ, げ, ご, ぎゃ, ぎゅ, ぎょ). Also, biwa performers vary the volume of their voice between barely audible to very loud (rarely deafening). Since biwa performances were generally for small groups, singers did not need to project their voices as do opera singers in the Western tradition Biwa music is based on a pentatonic scale (sometimes referred to as a five-tone or five-note scale), meaning that each octave contains five notes. This scale sometimes includes supplementary notes, but the core remains pentatonic. The rhythm in biwa performances allows for a broad flexibility of pulse. Songs are not always metered, although more modern collaborations are metered. Notes played on the biwa usually begin slow and thin and progress through gradual accelerations, increasing and decreasing tempo throughout the performance. The texture of biwa singing is often described as “sparse.” The plectrum also contributes to the texture of biwa music. Different sized plectrums produced different textures; for example, the plectrum used on a moso-biwa was much larger than that used on a gaku-biwa, producing a harsher, more vigorous sound [Morley 51]. The plectrum is also critical to creating the sawari sound, which is particularly utilized with satsuma-biwas [Rossing 181]. What the plectrum is made of also changes the texture, with ivory and plastic plectrums creating a more resilient texture to the wooden plectrum`s twangy hum [Malm 215]. Use in modern music Biwa usage in Japan has declined greatly since the Heian period. Outside influence, internal pressures, and socio-political turmoil redefined biwa patronage and biwa image; for example, the Onin War during the Muromachi period (1338–1573) and the subsequent Warring States period (15th-17th centuries) disrupted the cycle of tutelage for heikyoku performers. As a result, younger musicians turned to other instruments and interest in biwa music decreased. Even the biwa hoshi transitioned to other instruments such as the shamisen (a three stringed lute) [Gish 143]. Interest in the biwa revived during the Edo period (1600–1868) when Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and established the Tokugawa Shogunate. Ieyasu favored biwa music and became a major patron. He helped strengthen biwa guilds (called Todo) by financing them and allowing them special privileges (142). Shamisen players and other musicians found it financially beneficial to switch to the biwa, and, as they crossed over, they brought new styles. The Edo period proved to be one of the most prolific and artistically creative periods for the biwa in its long history in Japan (143). In 1868, the Tokugawa Shogunate collapsed, giving way to the Meiji period and the Meiji Restoration. In Meiji, the samurai class was abolished, and the Todo lost their patronage. Biwa players no longer enjoyed special privileges and were forced to support themselves. At the beginning of Meiji (1868), it was estimated that there were at least one hundred traditional court musicians in Tokyo. Yet, by the 1930s, there were only forty-six traditional court musicians in Tokyo. A quarter of these musicians died in the war. Life in Post-war Japan was difficult, and many musicians abandoned their music in favor of more sustainable livelihoods [Garfias, Gradual Modifications of the Gagaku Tradition 18]. While many styles of biwa flourished in the early 1900s (e.g., Kindai-biwa from the 1900s-1930s), the cycle of tutelage was broken yet again. Currently, there are no direct means of studying biwa in many biwa traditions [Ferranti, Relations between Music and Text in "Higo Biwa"_ The "Nagashi" Pattern as a Text-MusicSystem 150]. Even higo-biwa players, who were quite popular in the early 20th century, may no longer have a direct means of studying oral composition, as the bearers of the tradition have either died or are no longer able to play. Kindai biwa still retains a significant number of professional and amateur practitioners, but zato, heike, and moso-biwa styles have all but died out [Tokita 83]. As biwa music declined in post-Pacific War Japan, many Japanese composers and musicians found ways to revitalize interest in it. They recognized that studies in music theory and music composition in Japan almost entirely consisted in Western theory and instruction. Beginning in the late 1960s, these musicians and composers began to incorporate Japanese music and Japanese instruments into their compositions; for example, one composer, Toru Takemitsu, collaborated with Western composers and compositions to include the distinctly Asian biwa. His well-received compositions such as November Steps, which incorporates biwa heikyoku with Western orchestral performance, revitalized interest in the biwa and sparked a series of collaborative efforts by other musician in genres ranging from jpop and enza to shin-hougaku and gendaigaku [Tonai 25]. Other musicians, such as Yamashika Yoshiyuki, who is considered by most ethnomusicologists to be the last of the biwa hoshi, preserved scores of songs that were almost lost forever. Yamashika, born in the late Meiji, continued the biwa hoshi tradition until his death in 1996. Beginning in the late sixties to the late eighties, composers and historians from all over the world visited Yamashika and recorded many of his songs. Up to that time, the biwa hoshi tradition of songs was completely an oral tradition. When Yamashika died in 1996, the era of the biwa hoshi tutelage died with him, but the music and genius of that era continues thanks to his recordings [Sanger]. - Silenziosa Luna - 沈黙の月 / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008). - biwa from Britannica - ALM Records ALCD-76

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View stunning SlideShares in full-screen with the new iOS app!Introducing SlideShare for AndroidExplore all your favorite topics in the SlideShare appGet the SlideShare app to Save for Later — even offline View stunning SlideShares in full-screen with the new Android app!View stunning SlideShares in full-screen with the new iOS app! Module A: Comparative Study of Text and Context– Exploring Connections: King Richard III & Looking for Richard Module B: Critical Study of Text – George Orwell, Essays AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Area of Study An Area of Study is the exploration of a concept that affects our perceptions of ourselves and our world. Students explore, analyse, question and articulate the ways in which perceptions of this concept are shaped in and through a variety of texts. In the Area of Study, students explore and examine relationships between language and text, and interrelationships among texts. They examine closely the individual qualities of texts while considering the texts’ relationships to the wider context of the Area of Study. They synthesise ideas to clarify meaning and develop new meanings. They take into account whether aspects such as context, purpose and register, text structure, stylistic features, grammatical features and vocabulary are appropriate to the particular text. In addition, students will explore texts of their own choosing relevant to the Area of Study. Students draw their chosen texts from a variety of sources, in a range of genres and media. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging AREA OF STUDY: Belonging This Area of Study requires students to explore the ways in which the concept of belonging is represented in and through texts. Perceptions and ideas of belonging, or of not belonging, vary. These perceptions are shaped within personal, cultural, historical and social contexts. A sense of belonging can emerge from the connections made with people, places, groups, communities and the larger world. Within this Area of Study, students may consider aspects of belonging in terms of experiences and notions of identity, relationships, acceptance and understanding. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Texts explore many aspects of belonging, including the potential of the individual to enrich or challenge a community or group. They may reflect the way attitudes to belonging are modified over time. Texts may also represent choices not to belong, or barriers which prevent belonging. Perceptions and ideas of belonging in texts can be constructed through a variety of language modes, forms, features and structures. In engaging with the text, a responder may experience and understand the possibilities presented by a sense of belonging to, or exclusion fromthe text and the world it represents. This engagement may be influenced by the different ways perspectives are given voice in or are absent from a text. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging In their responses and compositions students examine, question, and reflect and speculate on: how the concept of belonging is conveyed through the representations of people, relationships, ideas, places, events, and societies that they encounter in the prescribed text and texts of their own choosing related to the Area of Study assumptions underlying various representations of the concept of belonging how the composer’s choice of language modes, forms, features and structures shapes and is shaped by a sense of belonging their own experiences of belonging, in a variety of contexts the ways in which they perceive the world through texts the ways in which exploring the concept and significance of belonging may broaden and deepen their understanding of themselves and their world NOTE: THIS MEANS YOUR PERSONAL RESPONSE IS IMPORTANT!! AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Section I(15 marks) There will be ONE section based on unseen texts related to the Area of Study. This question will consist of a number of short response parts. Section I - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the way perceptions of belonging are shaped in and through texts describe, explain and analyse the relationship between language, text and context. If asked to considerAudience, think about: Age Sex Education Interests Background If asked to considerPurpose think about: Persuade? Inform? Entertain? Review? Express Feelings? Narrate? Share an opinion? Arouse Emotion? Express P.O.V? If asked to consider Tone think about: Attitudes to self, audience, context? Sincere? Serious? Critical? Positive/negative? Neutral? Cynical? Authoritative? If asked to consider Structure think about: Words, Sentences, Paragraphs, Overall Frame… Short, long, exhaustive, extended, littered with commas, cyclic, concise. Beginning, Middle, End? Climax? Anti-climax? Coda? AREA OF STUDY: Belonging 1. When you first look at a text you should make notes on: FORM PURPOSE AUDIENCE CONTEXT 2. You should decide what aspect of belonging is being presented (see Syllabus outline for this) 3. You should decide how the composer has reflected these aspects of belonging through their chosen form AREA OF STUDY: Belonging IF IT’S A WRITTEN TEXT, CONSIDER: Strong Action Verbs? Metaphor, Simile, Personification??? Colloquialisms? imply relaxed view of journey Connotations…positive? negative? Use of; Rhetorical Q’s? Parody? Pun? Formal/Colloquial/Slang? Sophisticated vocab? Use of Humour? Emotive? Description? Jargon? Cliché? Irony? Euphemism? Subjective/Objective language? IF IT’S A VISUAL TEXT, CONSIDER: Composition, Framing, Colour, Symbolism, Modality, Vectors, Tone, Clarity? AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION I DO: use direct quotations or paraphrases where appropriate in your responses analyse a text rather than simply explain or describe it choose appropriate textual references to support your ideas include a conceptual as well as technique-based discussion Write a longer response than necessary, brief responses are required for one and two mark questions. Use limited textual support Quote large portions of the text without explanation Simply describe the content of the texts Describe generalised aspects of belonging with limited textual references AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Section II(15 marks) There will be ONE question. Candidates will be required to compose or adapt a text for a specified context, purpose and audience. Section II - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: express understanding of belonging in the context of your studies organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Here are some suggestions that might be helpful if writing a narrative: • strong sense of voice, if writing in first person • clear characterisation suggesting who is affected/involved in the belonging/not belonging • barrier(s) to the belonging encountered on the way • clear evocation of place through descriptive language • sensory detail • metaphorical language linked to chosen aspects of belonging • clear conceptual reflection on certain aspects of belonging • framing devices linking beginning and end AREA OF STUDY: Belonging YOUR TURN Task: This person chooses not to belong. In what ways has this decision been prompted by and/or impacted upon the individual’s experiences and notions of identity, relationships, acceptance and understanding? Describe the place that this person finds themself in. Your description must include full sensory detail, this means olfactory, visual and aural imagery. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION II Compose a response that is lengthy enough to allow you to explore the concept of belonging in an enhanced manner. Demonstrate an understanding and conceptual awareness of belonging Demonstrate your ability to skilfully apply the mechanics of language, punctuation, sentence structure and paragraphing as these are important elements of writing Show an awareness of the question and the rubric Respond with originality and insight to the question; this applies to content as well as form Demonstrate an insightful understanding of the concept of belonging in an insightful and succinct manner Use an authentic, sustained and engaging voice Employ structural complexity and cohesion Simply use a linear structure and discuss belonging with limited or no conceptual awareness Use imagery that is simplistic or clichéd Simply recount a basic situation of belonging or not belonging with minimum reflection on the concept of belonging AREA OF STUDY: Journey Section III(15 marks) There will be ONE question based on the Area of Study and prescribed texts. The question will require an extended response. Section III - RUBRIC In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the concept of belonging in the context of your study analyse, explain and assess the ways belonging is represented in a variety of texts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging What does belonging mean? From the Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus: belong, verb. 1 to be rightly put into a particular position or class; 2 fit or be acceptable in a particular place or environment; 3 belong to be a member of; 4 belong to be the property or possession of. belonging, noun. affiliation, acceptance, association, attachment, integration, closeness, rapport, fellow feeling, fellowship antonym: alienate, verb 1 cause to feel isolated 2 lose the support or sympathy Synonyms for alienate, verb: estrange, divide, distance, put at a distance, isolate, cut off, set against, turn away, drive apart, disunite, set at odds/variance, drive a wedge between The most successful essays have a clear focus, expressed in a thesis statement at the end of the first paragraph. The thesis statement is the most important sentence in the whole essay; weak thesis statements lead to weak essays. In an argumentative essay, the thesis statement should express the position you're taking on an issue. Effective essays are organised around the thesis; everything you write in the essay should directly or indirectly relate to the thesis statement. DEVELOPING A THESIS STATEMENT: The first way to tackle an essay is to READ, and read A LOT!! You cannot develop an effective thesis for your extended response if you haven’t read enough to inform the thesis. In class you have been given ample information (both verbal and written – in the form of copious handouts!!) to adequately answer all questions thrown at you by the HSC examiners. What you need to do is read, summarize and brainstorm the information. By now I am assuming that you have covered the first two stages of that task (yes, the reading and summarizing parts!) and that you are on to the brainstorming. This stage is important as it is where you actually develop your thesis. You need to decide which ideas in the texts you will focus on and why. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging Example introduction: An individual’s perception of belonging is determined by the world in which they live, grow and learn. Through the connections made with others and the world, an individual can better appreciate what it is to belong and thus develop a heightened sense of self-awareness . These very ideas about the nature of belonging and not belonging are explored through the employment of language, tone and recurring motifs in the poetry of Peter Skrzynecki, specifically ‘Felix Srzynecki’ and ‘Ancestors’, as well as the Australian western film The Proposition, and the novel Perfume (The Story of a Murderer)by Patrick Suskind. (ADD IN HERE A BIT RELATING TO THE ESSAY QUESTION) AREA OF STUDY: Belonging HSC MARKERS’ DOs AND DON’Ts – AREA OF STUDY: SECTION III demonstrate a sophisticated control of language, expression and spelling in an integrated and logical structure display a depth of understanding of the concept of belonging and the ability to construct an argument in response to the question compose a response that it thoughtful and astute establish a sense of personal involvement in the argument, and engage with the question be prepared to respond to the specific issues raised by the examination display evidence of a personal voice and demonstrate a structured argument select suitable supporting evidence from your texts choose related material which demonstrate san insightful understanding of the concept of belonging and which add substance to your argument support your discussion of texts with reference to purpose, structure and language features skilfully analyse textual features in relation to a conceptual understanding of belonging commenting on their impact successfully link your texts by reflecting on your conceptual understanding and analysis as this will result in a perceptive and sophisticated argument address the question specifically explain how textual features contribute to your understanding of belonging confidently engaged with the question and its focus underpin your thesis with analysis and discussion in a cohesive manner integrate an analysis of textual features seamlessly to support your argument use related texts of a sophisticated nature that advance your point of view Analyse textual features making insightful comments, accompanied by close textual reference and appropriate quotations use a variety of textual features to support your argument USE THIS AS A CHECK LIST FOR YOUR DRAFT BELONGING ESSAY!! AREA OF STUDY: Belonging YOUR TURN Task: Write down your own thesis statement for the ‘belonging’ extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: To what extent has studying the concept of belonging expanded your understanding of yourself and your world? In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and at least TWO other related text of your own choosing. AREA OF STUDY: Belonging PAST HSC QUESTIONS Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC) “In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the concept of belonging in the context of your study analyse, explain and assess the ways belonging is represented in a variety of texts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and context” More than anything else, physical journeys are about notions of identity. Do you agree? Argue your point of view. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts. 2005 To what extent has studying the concept of belonging expanded your understanding of yourself and your world? In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts. ‘Belonging is essential to a fulfilled life.’ Discuss this statement, focusing on how composers of texts represent the concept of the belonging. In your answer, refer to your prescribed text and TWO related texts. MODULE A: Exploring Connections Module A: Comparative Study of Texts and Context This module requires students to compare texts in order to explore them in relation to their contexts. It develops students’ understanding of the effects of context and questions of value. Each elective in this module requires the study of groups of texts which are to be selected from a prescribed text list. These texts may be in different forms or media. Students examine ways in which social, cultural and historical context influences aspects of texts, or the ways in which changes in context lead to changed values being reflected in texts. This includes study and use of the language of texts, consideration of purposes and audiences, and analysis of the content, values and attitudes conveyed through a range of readings. Students develop a range of imaginative, interpretive and analytical compositions that relate to the comparative study of texts and context. These compositions may be realised in a variety of forms and media. (English Stage 6 Syllabus, p 51) MODULE A: Exploring Connections Context defined … personal context refers to those elements that are one's own, individual and private cultural context is complex and refers generally to way of life, lifestyle, customs, traditions, heritage, habits - civilisation. More specifically, it refers to intellectual and artistic awareness, education and discernment. Popular culture refers to the Arts, the humanities, intellectual achievement, literature, music, painting and philosophy. historical context refers to the factual and documented evidence of a set time, either of the composer and/or the text. social context refers to the larger community or group, its organisation or hierachy. It also refers to that which is civil, public and of society at large. MODULE A: Exploring Connections 16th century Europe: time of change beginning of modern life Italian Renaissance spread to England growing economy – capitalist, money-based, scientific and technological innovation development of the printing press – making ideas, religious/philosophical/aesthetic/scientific rhetoric accessible to the people and the bible (people could question/judge/inquire into the teachings of the Church for themselves Reformation – Europe no longer united in religious belief, brought about social and political changes Initial optimism of populace dwindles due to changed social structure, rich became richer, poor became poorer growing middle classes due to merchant trading humanism Queen Elizabeth: an age of genius, exploration, national pride dynastic struggles between Spain, France, England and Scotland have cost Europe dearly and by the end of the century poverty rates are high causing tensions amongst the classes Humanism: Scholars in the 16th century were heavily influenced by the ideologies of humanism. Humanism is a movement, started in Italy during the 15th century, which affirms the potential scope of human understanding and that, through the application of reason, all individuals have the capacity for self-determination. Humanism asserts that it is possible to come to a full understanding of humanity through the application of reason and scientific method and as a result individuals will acknowledge their free-will and with honour and integrity which will benefit the whole of society. Some humanist however, such as Michel de Montaigne, held that human understanding was limited due to the impossibility of knowing what lies beyond the ‘appearances’ which an individual projects to society. MODULE A: Exploring Connections Wheel of Fortune: According to this medieval belief, still held by most people living during the Elizabethan era, the main controlling force in life is fate. All fate was determined by the Goddess Fortuna whose role it was to spin the wheel of fortune. The wheel of fortune visually depicts the precarious nature of man’s fortune. The Great Chain of Being: According to this medieval belief, still held by most people living during the Elizabethan era, everything and everyone exists in a certain order. This hierarchical view of the world posits God at the top of the chain, then the king, the pope, man, animals, plants and finally minerals. It was believed that any disruption to this chain of being, such as the murdering of a king, would create universal chaos. MODULE A: Exploring Connections Some quotes from Shakespeare’s context: "In her (Nature's) inventions nothing is lacking, and nothing is superfluous." Leonardo da Vinci 1452 - 1519 "The experience of our times shows that the princes who have done great things are the ones who have taken little account of their promises and who have known how to addle the brains of men with their craft." "So far as he is able, a prince should stick to the path of good but, if the necessity arises, he should know how to follow evil." "It is much safer for a prince to be feared than loved, if he is to fail in one of the two." "The prince must be a fox, therefore, to recognize the traps and a lion to frighten the wolves." "Men should either be treated generously or destroyed, because they take revenge for slight injures - for heavy ones they cannot." Niccolò Machiavelli 1469 - 1527 "A desperate disease requires a dangerous remedy." Guy Fawkes 1570 - 1606 "Cogito, ergo sum." (I think, therefore I am.) René Descartes 1596 - 1650 "I am about to take my last voyage, a great leap in the dark." (Last words) Thomas Hobbes 1588 - 1679 MODULE A: Exploring Connections Aspects of Pacino’s 20th century context: Existentialism – Jean-Paul Satre Nihilism – Frederick Nietzsche War: WWI, WWII, Cold War, Vietnam War, Gulf War Civil Rights movement – liberty, human rights, equality, feminism, queer theory Religious uncertainty – atheism; secular society Psychology/Psychoanalysis – anxiety & neurosis Scientific revolutions – space race, Darwin, Einstein Postmodernism – focus on language and its role & power in society as well as its inadequacies MODULE A: Exploring Connections Shakespeare’s context Pacino’s context: VALUES: progress freewill self-awareness tolerance emancipation materialist enlightenment virtue dignity honour Loyalty VALUES: reason democracy freedom human rights scepticism nihilism materialism disillusionment atheism/secularism individuality – or lack of it MODULE A: Exploring Connections YOUR TURN Task: Write your own thesis statement for the extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: How does Pacino’sLooking for Richard sustain interest in the values represented in Shakespeare’s King Richard III ? MODULE A: Exploring Connections PAST HSC QUESTIONS: Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC) “In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: evaluate the relationships between texts and contexts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form” How does Pacino’sLooking for Richard sustain interest in the values represented in Shakespeare’s King Richard III ? 2004: How has your perception of Exploring Connections been illuminated by your comparative study of the prescribed texts? MODULE A: Exploring Connections Dos and Do nots from the HSC Marking Centre DO: Evaluate and analyse the comparative nature of the module through a well-developed thesis which incorporates a discussion of texts and contexts Demonstrate your individual learning and engagement with the plays Include detailed textual references to support your evaluation of the plays Write in an integrated way which allows you to demonstrate a clear understanding of the connection between the plays Ensure that a consideration of both composers’ context is integrated into the whole response Make strong connections between texts, contexts and the implications of the question Show a detailed knowledge of the plays and the techniques composers employ to convey meaning Remember that Module A is a comparative study and therefore plays should be explored in the light of their relationship rather than as separate entities Use textual references that are perceptive and well integrated to develop an effective argument Show appreciation of the way language forms, features and structures shape meaning Demonstrate a strong personal engagement through the use of a personal voice as well original examples Sustain a strong thesis Develop a highly literate responses which is well structured and clearly argued Demonstrate a clear engagement with the rubric and the question Explore the relationship between the texts and the values and attitudes of respective contexts MODULE A: Exploring Connections DO NOT: Simply make connections about the relationships between texts rather than making evaluative judgements Simply describe ideas about the texts instead of discussing context Use references that are inappropriate Allow context to become the focal point of your discussion. Rely on simple narration Fail to maintain a central focus Persist with a non-integrated approach by overlooking the comparative nature of the module Structure a response around themes and issues alone as this does not address the nature of transformations Use textual references that are inaccurate, inappropriate and obvious Simply identify language forms and features without explaining how language shapes meaning Heavily favour one text over the other Simply demonstrate an understanding of texts without dealing with the specific demands of the question Confine your response to a description of parallel events and characters in the two texts Ability to respond to the question Understands requirements of module Ability to write well MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Module B requires students to respond to their prescribed text both personally and intellectually through an analysis and evaluation of language, content and construction, leading to an understanding of its textual integrity. They develop and refine their own understanding and interpretations of the prescribed text and critically consider these in the light of the perspectives of others. Students explore how context influences their own and others' responses to the text and how the text has been received and valued. Textual integrity/overall unity- coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value - either individual or whole body of work. It is the artistry of the moment. MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Textual integrity is a really broad term but, put very simply it's a measure of how well the text is written and how well it speaks to and is received by its audience, both during its time and today i.e. withstanding the test of time etc... The notion of textual integrity rests on the close reading of the text (language, form, structure) and how these things work to coherence (in meaning). Going out to notions of context (and also the interpretations of others) might then test out a (developing) notion of textual integrity, as it will shine new light on language and ideas etc. Reading for textual integrity is associated with a particular way of reading and the values that go with that. Students need to read "inwards" (to the text) to come to grips with it if they are to understand its textual integrity. THEN they might read "outwards" (to contextual matters, interpretations of others) to see if what they see as its integrity (or lack of it) holds up. MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Textual integrity refers to the extent to which the text makes internal sense, and leads a responder to ask: does it create a consistent world within its own boundaries? does it make sense within its own terms? if it raises questions about life or society, does it answer them? if it doesn’t, is this a deliberate device to suggest that there are no answers, or did the composer just neglect to provide answers? does the text stand up to close examination? MODULE B: Critical Study of Text Wikipedia definition: Integrity is consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations and outcome. As a holistic concept, it judges the quality of a system in terms of its ability to achieve its own goals. A value system's abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with empirical observation. A value system may evolve over time while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies. Integrity may be seen as the quality of having a sense of honesty and truthfulness in regard to the motivations for one's actions. The term "hypocrisy" is used in contrast to integrity for asserting that one part of a value system demonstrably conflicts with another, and to demand that the parties holding apparently conflicting values account for the discrepancy or change their beliefs to improve internal consistency. MODULE B: Critical Study of Text YOUR TURN Task: Write your own thesis statement for the extended response. Now write an introduction using this thesis statement to answer the following essay question: Your class has been exploring the question, ‘What will continue to make Orwell’s essays worthy of critical study?’ Your personal response has been challenged by another student. Defend your response through a critical evaluation of Orwell’s essays analysing the construction, content and language of the text. MODULE B: Critical Study of Text PAST HSC QUESTIONS Rubric: (This will be the same for the trial and the HSC) “In your answer you will be assessed on how well you: demonstrate understanding of the ideas expressed in the text evaluate the text’s reception in different contexts organise, develop and express ideas using language appropriate to audience, purpose and form” To what extent has your personal response to the essays been shaped by the enduring power of Orwell’s focus on language and power? Support your evaluation with a close analysis of TWO essays by Orwell. 2005: Your class has been exploring the question, ‘What will continue to make Orwell’s essays worthy of critical study?’ Your personal response has been challenged by another student. Defend your response through a critical evaluation of Orwell’s essays analysing the construction, content and language of the text. 2004: ‘Interpretations of texts can shift and change with time and place.’ Considering your time and place, reflect on the ways in which context has shaped your critical interpretation of the prescribed text. In your response, refer to TWO essays you have studied. MODULE B: Critical Study of Text DO: develop an informed personal understanding of Orwell’s essays analyse and evaluate language (essay-writing techniques), content (themes and subject matter) and construction (rhyme scheme/rhythm) of Orwell’s essays develop and refine your own understanding and interpretations of the essays critically and consider these in the light of the perspectives of others this means critics who have written about the writings of Orwell in a variety of different contexts since the time of the composition of the essays explore how context influences your own and others' responses to the text and how the text has been received and valued Remember context refers to Historical, Social and Cultural influences establish and maintain a clear thesis integrate a close critical analysis of the essays, with fluency and authority make reference to how others’ perspectives have informed and/or challenged your own understanding of the text firmly ground your response in the essays evaluate any ‘reading’ as it applies to the essays acknowledge and address the question in an integrated way MODULE B: Critical Study of Text DON’T: rely solely on supplementary support material use barely understood critical theory in your assessment of the essays use critical readings about the text as a substitute for your study of the essays use too much jargon as it impedes meaning, fluency and clarity simply present a prepared essay with little real attention to the requirements of the question rely on, or provide a regurgitation of, various critical theories or of ‘readings’ with little sense of an evaluation of or personal engagement with these ‘readings’ ‘top and tail’ (make connections with the set question that are limited to the introduction and conclusion) the material that they have prepared for the examination. summarise rather than analyse simply describe various readings of the essays and fail to discuss the actual poems simply present a discussion/description of Orwell’s life rather than an analysis of his essays GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS aesthetic Having an appreciation of beauty. affective Relating to a thoughtful consideration and evaluation of emotions and values associated with an idea or set of ideas. appropriated text A text which has been taken from one context and translated into another. The process of translation allows new insights into the original text and emphasises contextual differences between the two. assess To establish the value of a particular idea or text. concept A concept is an abstract idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences. In the context of an Area of Study, ‘concept’ typically operates in and through language and text which enables ideas and experiences to be organised and at the same time shapes meaning and inferences. context The range of personal, social, historical, cultural and workplace conditions in which a text is responded to and composed. conventions Accepted practices or features which help define textual forms and meaning. creative thinking The ability to think laterally and imaginatively looking at all sides of an issue and devising interesting and imaginative solutions. critical thinking The ability to think using hypothesis and deduction as a way to question, interpret and draw conclusions. culture The social practices of a particular people or group, including shared beliefs, values, knowledge, customs and lifestyle. electronic media Media technology, such as television, the internet, radio, teletext and email, that communicates with large numbers of people. evaluate To estimate the worth of a text in a range of contexts and to justify that estimation and its process. explore To examine closely and experiment with texts. genre A category of text that can be recognised by specific aspects of its subject matter, form and language. imaginative The ability to think divergently, to generate original ideas by thinking drawing on emotional and cognitive experiences. interpretation Explanation of meaning within the context of one’s own understanding. language formsand features The symbolic patterns and conventions that shape meaning in texts. These vary according to the particular mode or medium of production of each text. GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS cont. meaning The dynamic relationship between text and responder involving information (explicit and implicit), the affective and the contextual. medium The physical form in which the text exists or through which the text is conveyed. paradigmOrganising principles and underlying beliefs that form the basis of a set of shared concepts. perspective A way of regarding situations, facts and texts and evaluating their relative significance. popular culture Cultural experiences widely enjoyed by members of various groups within the community. recreating texts Transforming texts to explore how changes in particular elements of a text affect meaning. register The use of language in a text appropriate for its purpose, audience and context. A register suited to one kind of text may be inappropriate in another. representation The ways ideas are portrayed through texts. structuresof The relationships of the different parts of a text to each other texts and to the text as a complex whole. synthesis The collecting and connecting of many specific elements or ideas from various sources to form something new. systems of Principles and processes which combine to allow people to valuation ascribe value to texts. technology The knowledge, tools and processes used to create the medium in which the text exists or through which the text is conveyed. texts Communications of meaning produced in any medium that incorporates language, including sound, print, film, electronic and multimedia representations. Texts include written, spoken, nonverbal or visual communication of meaning. They may be extended unified works or series of related pieces. textual integrity The unity of a text; its coherent use of form and language to produce an integrated whole in terms of meaning and value. value (verb) To estimate or assign worth to a text; to consider something to have worth. value (noun) A quality desirable as a means or an end in itself.

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Introduction: New Culture, "i-Person" and Education Several years ago we entered a New Age, the Internet Age, with a New Culture that clearly deviates from the contemporary culture of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and since then we are living "the greatest social change in human history" (Partal, 2001) Understanding culture as the "set of representations, rules of conduct, ideas, values, forms of communication and behavior learned patterns (not innate) that characterize a social group" (Quintanilla, 1992), economic globalization and constant cultural and scientific advances, especially the construction of Cyberspace, have conducted profound changes in our cultural substrate forming a "new technological paradigm organized around Information Technology" (Castells, 2000:60). So today among the instruments that most of us have ALWAYS available when we are building learning or carrying out a task, besides the traditional pencil and paper we also have Internet access (via mobile phones, digital tablets, computers...). The Internet helps us to locate any type of information we may need and multiplies our possibilities to communicate and work in Cyberspace, this parallel world where we can do more and more things each day and where we consequently spend more and more time. The Internet has become so important that in some of its reports the UN has considered “free Internet access” as a human right and is promoting governmental actions against the “digital gap” (El Mundo, 2011). The changes in our vital context are substantive and force us to face new challenges but also provide us with new resources and new possibilities. The (almost) permanent access to the Internet gives us access to an alternative parallel world where we have the chance to make most of our activities. It is like our brains had been expanded with a new lobe (the Internet lobe) that can ALWAYS access any information we are interested in. This is not the result of a mutation and does not give us onmiscience, but it is certainly a first-rate evolutionary leap in human evolution. Now some people (specially those who can be identified with what has been called the "i-Person", that is to say, people who have integrated i-devices, such as the i-Phone, i-Pad, etc. in their daily life) are potentially much more powerful than other "Homo Sapiens" because they are adapting better to our new cultural scene (Marquès, 2011 b). In this framework, Education, today as always, aims at helping students develop their full potential (intellectually, emotionally, morally, physically, etc.) and transmitting them the culture of our society, so that they can become functioning members of society, help others and live a satisfactory life themselves. This function of culture transmission, however, requires a thorough review of the curriculum that we develop in schools. If today we have a "New Culture", new tools and new forms of communication we cannot continue teaching and assessing students with the goals, instruments and procedures of the past. And just in the same manner that until today Education was meant to help us to take advantage of the wonderful potential of our brain (to communicate, read, calculate, create, live...), now it must also help us to do the same with the omnipresent Internet, to which we always have access to and which frees us from memorizing many things (and here we must say many, not all), but also requires us to develop new skills if we are to avoid some risks like dependency, misinformation, shallow thinking, etc. (Carr, 2010; Marquès, 2011) Because although it is said that new generations, the "digital natives" as Marc Prensky calls them (2010), are very skilled using IT, the truth is that this ability is manifested only in what interests them (playing, searching for music and movies, interacting on social networks ...) Although many times we can see in them some of the characteristics that Prensky points out (like predisposition for multithreading, interaction in screens, sharing, nonlinear accessing to information with preference for the textual versus multimedia...), most of them are not familiar with many of the risks of Cyberspace and don’t know how to select the most efficient tools and methodologies for their homework. This is because the development of the good judgment needed for the selection of information and tools requires training and plenty of practice time, and these are not promoted in schools where little attention is paid to Cyberspace, even though when Cyberspace has become today a parallel world where students (and more and more citizens of all ages) spend many hours a week. Should we start thinking of complementing the classic subjects of "science" and "social sciences" with a new subject, the "Science of Cyberspace"? What is the bimodal curriculum? (or bimodal approach of the curriculum) The changing cultural scenario of the Internet Age is forcing us to evolve into the i-Person, always connected to the Internet. Now, whenever we have to carry out a task, we can (almost) always go on the net and find the information we need in a more and more stable and faster and faster Internet. We can do this provided that we know how to search, that is to say, how to do it efficiently and in a limited time, not spending hours clarifying concepts in reference sources (like Wikipedia and others). So in addition to knowing how to search, we need to have a good vocabulary, which will free us from having to be constantly looking up words in encyclopedias and other reference sources on the Internet. Here, remembering having made similar previous experiences will be of great help. In this scenario, once the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic have been learned, adopting the bimodal curriculum means accepting that almost all the learning activities of our students are of two types: “memorizing” activities or “practicing, doing, applying” activities, and here “doing” means always doing with the support of their “auxiliary memory”, like their class notes, books or the Internet. Now let us see in detail these two types of activities of the bimodal curriculum: 1. - Memorizing activities. They are activities that focus mainly on vocabulary and data acquisition (concepts, events, people, multiplication tables, spelling...) that even in our Internet Age remain essential to people: to think (we think using "our vocabulary”), to understand what we read or what we are told, to communicate with others, to search on the Internet and understand others contributions ... In this context, for each subject and grade, the teacher will decide at the start of course the 50 or 100 concepts (processes, events, characters...) that students should memorize and integrate into their mental frameworks (to know, to understand, to use, to able to explain) by the end of the course. These concepts will make up the essential vocabulary and data list. Optionally, the teacher will also prepare a second list of words and data that he considers not essential but desirable for students to know by the end of the course, this will be the desirable vocabulary and data list. Students will receive these lists at the start of course and will know from the beginning what they are expected to know by the end of the course. In each class session a part of this lists will be systematically worked, with multiple learning activities (individual, group and collaborative) oriented to memorize these contents, like for example exercises with the glossary, interest centers, project work... Probably teachers will continue doing many of the exercises that have been “traditionally” done at school, but we can use all kinds of methods (traditional or innovative, with or without IT), taking into account that the aim is that students understand, memorize and integrate into their mental maps this information... so that they are able to recognize these words (in documents and oral discourses), to use this words (in thinking, speaking and performing other activities) and to explain (define each of the words of this vocabulary, accordingly to their age and grade). We know that people remember easily the information that they use often. Therefore we must provide students chances to use this vocabulary and data, so that they can learn it by carrying out new activities (alternative definitions, relationships, creative writing...) requiring its use (functionality and transfer of learning) and being presented with questions that trigger their relating and reflecting skills. Many of the learning activities focused on memorizing vocabulary and data will be done without IT support, however the review and study of media content and the practice with self-corrected exercises of digital textbooks and other educational Internet platforms will be a great help for teachers and students. 2. – Practical activities for applying knowledge. They are activities involving the execution of a task (to solve problems, analyze sentences and processes, assess situations or materials, plan and develop projects, synthesize, create...). The approach of the bimodal curriculum requires that students are ALWAYS able to make these practical activities with the support of their "auxiliary memory", reviewing their notes, books, the Internet ... The teacher will decide in each case which information sources can be used. The goal is that students get used to work with the supports that are always present in the Internet Age (notes, books, the Internet and other IT tools). Of course, all tasks will be assigned a specific time that must be respected, so that students who do not possess the essential vocabulary and who have no experience in similar tasks most likely will not be able to finish the assignment in time, since searching and finding information on the Internet takes time. These “practical activities” include also some activities, like psychomotor development, mental agility or development of cognitive functions, in which the consultation of external sources does not bring anything or, like exercises where an immediate answer is required, will simply not be possible. These are not memorizing activities in themselves but must be however executed with the resources that each student has available in their memories, like for example mental arithmetic or identification of elements in a photograph. Practical activities with documentary support will sometimes be done individually, to strengthen the students’ autonomy and self-confidence, and sometimes will be done in groups, to promote mutual support and collaborative work. In any case, in these activities students should not memorize data (since they have the data already on the net) but should acquire new experiences that will leave a mark on their memories, so that when they remember them in the future, their self-confidence will be strengthened and they will find performing similar tasks easier. Performing the same activity in different contexts over time will allow them to accumulate experiences that will enrich their "know how" (knowing what they have just learned or read in a manual) and will provide them "criteria" to adjust better and better their "know how" to the context in which they must work in. Furthermore, the execution of these activities requires students to apply various cognitive skills (analysis, synthesis, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, assessment, exploration, selection, creation, planning...) and with that they will develop their intellectual abilities and basic skills in general. In this context, for each subject and grade, the teacher will decided at the start of course the practical activities that students should know how to perform by the end of the course (basic list of practical activities). Optionally he will also prepare a second list of advanced practical activities. Students will receive these lists at the start of course and will know from the beginning what they are expected to know by the end of the course. In their classes teachers may apply all kinds of methods (traditional or innovative, with or without IT) but here the use of IT resources will enlarge greatly (in quantity, educational potential and relevance of learning) the range of possible learning activities that we can offer students. The bimodal curriculum approach fits into the framework of George Siemens’ connectivism theory of learning that focus on today’s need of knowing and connecting the changing sources of information. The data we memorize may become obsolete tomorrow, however the right sources of information will always provide us up-to-date information. "Learning (defined as applicable knowledge) can be outside us" (Siemens, 2004). Knowledge is not only inside humans but is also spread across multiple sources of information that students must learn to use according to their interests and needs. On the same line, Professor Manuel Area points out: "With so much information available, it is more useful to know at all times the best procedure to get the right information than to store data in case it may be useful in the future" (Area, 2008). How are exams like in a bimodal curriculum? According to the dual type of learning activities of the bimodal curriculum, we consider two types of exams: 1. – Exams with memorizing exercises to verify that students have learned the basic vocabulary and data of the subject and that they are able to explain it: essential and desirable lists of vocabulary and data (the knowledge of the desirable list will allow to obtain a higher score). As until now, in order to pass the exam, students should study before the exam day to strengthen their knowledge of memorized concepts. During the exam they should provide basic information of people and events, define concepts and processes... 2. – Exams with practical exercises with support from the "auxiliary memory" (students may have access to their notes, books, the Internet…). These exams will include activities such as problem solving, analysis, grammar, text commentaries, summaries of documents, relating historical facts and circumstances... They will refer to lists of basic and advanced practical activities. The advanced activities will allow them to obtain a higher score. Teachers will specify a limited time for each exam. It is recommended that exams include some practical activities (compulsory for all) and other complementary activities with advanced exercises (for those who wish to obtain a higher score). In these exams, students that usually do all class exercises and homework using their documentary support (“auxiliary memory”) will not need to study to prepare the exam. The exam will be similar to a class exercise and students will be able to use their “auxiliary memory”: notes, books and (if the teacher allows it) the Internet.Our starting proposal for compulsory education, and that each teacher can adjust to subject, grade and circumstances, is that memorizing exams (vocabulary and data) be between 33% and 50% of the total score of the subject. What do we mean by "auxiliary memory"? Having a permanent Internet connection, the "i-Person" can always access the vast sources of information in Cyberspace to search and find the data needed at any time. When, for example, we are watching a historical film and we want to place a character in its historical context and the historical references that we remember, we can quickly access this information on our Smartphone or tablet. If we are good searching on the Internet (one of the key activities that should be learned at school today), in a few seconds we will get the answer. As Dolors Reig says, "the Internet becomes our external hard drive, the place where we store a lot of things that before we could only learn" (Reig, 2012). In this sense, today Google has already become our external memory always available. In this way, we can change the way we learn: we may retain the information directly in our brains or recall that it is on the Internet (sometimes even remember where on the Internet it is). According to research by Betsy Sparrow, assistant professor of Columbia University (New York), published in the journal Science, as the Internet provides a kind of collective memory, people stop remembering the information they know they can access from their computer but take good care to remember where to find it (Sparrow et al., 2011). That is, we tend to store less information in our brain memory bank and use the Internet as personal data bank, such as an "external auxiliary memory." Moreover, the brain still remembers the specifics of the issues that interest us. As George Siemens says: "Technology is altering (rewiring) our brains. The tools we use define and shape our thinking. Many of the processes previously handled by learning theories can now be made, or supported by technology”. “Knowing how and knowing why are being supplemented with knowing where (the understanding of where to find the required knowledge)" (Siemens, 2004). The pipe is more important than its contents. According to Siemens, it is a challenge to activate the previously acquired knowledge in situations where it is required. However when the required knowledge is unknown, our ability to connect with sources that can provide this knowledge becomes essential. As knowledge grows and evolves, our ability to learn what we may need tomorrow is more important than what we know today, the access to what is needed is more important than what is already known. Therefore, "nourishing and maintaining connections is needed for continuous learning" and "the ability to see connections between fields, ideas and concepts is a key skill." (Siemens, 2004). In this context we must consider that searching information on the Internet always takes time. Therefore, despite the continuous availability of Internet content, to make our access to information (documents, links, videos...), contacts (people, networks...) and Internet tools related to our regular activities easier and faster, a good option is to build an environment (web, blog, wiki...) where we can store and order all these resources as we find them, so that when we need them, we can find them much faster. We call this environment our "auxiliary memory" or "enhanced memory". It is like a library-book-workshop that can be filled (as we do with our memory) with data and tools for information processing, and when we need it, we can go there to search information or work with our tools. For the author of this article, his auxiliary memory is this website: <http://peremarques.net/> When we don’t find what we need in our “auxiliary memory”, we still are able to search information on the Internet using search engines and also asking our colleagues in our social networks. The “auxiliary memory” is a personal environment that students should start building at school, little by little. Young students may start with a notebook, folder or portfolio where they can collect notes and clippings of interest. Later students can begin creating their first personal digital environment on the Internet. When applying the bimodal curriculum approach, the “auxiliary memory” will immediately be useful, as it can be used as a support for practical activities and also as a "vademecum" where students can synthesize the vocabulary and data they have to memorize. Ultimately the matter is that students build their memory (its representation of reality, of the world) as always from the information they receive, from their learning, their actions and experiences, etc. but now they distribute this information between the usual space of "brain memory" and the new, always accessible space that we call "auxiliary memory".The concept of "auxiliary memory" is close to the so-called "Personal Learning Environments" (PLE): "a set of tools, information sources, links and activities that a person frequently uses to learn" (Adell and Castañeda, 2010). The “auxiliary memory”, however, is an environment that can be useful in many different circumstances throughout life (not only during learning activities): studies, work, leisure, etc. The bimodal curriculum and the PISA test "PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) is a comparative, international study that evaluates the performance of pupils aged 15 at the end of compulsory school, by means of assessing certain key competencies, such as reading, math and science. This project evaluates the ability of students to apply concepts and work in various situations within each area ... " (OCDE, 2009) Andreas Schleicher, head of the OECD PISA program, summarizes the new role of education in today's world where information sources are always within our reach, "educational success does no longer mean to retrieve content knowledge but to extrapolate what we know and apply it to new situations. Education, therefore, has to do much more with ways of thinking, creativity, critical thinking, problem solving and decision-making; with ways of working, including communication and collaboration; with tools, including the ability to recognize and exploit the potential of new technologies, and the ability to live in a multifaceted world as active, responsible citizens" (Scheleicher, 2011). In this context, PISA tests are part of the assessment of competency-based learning. They assess the students' ability to extract and process information in a task-solving situation.Although so far authorizing students to use their "auxiliary memory", or any other source of external information, has not been considered in these tests, the tests overall provide the basic information needed to perform the required tasks, mostly practical activities. (To see some of the activities for reading comprehension and math, please refer to <http://docentes.leer.es/wp-content/pisa/index2.html> <http://evalua.educa.aragon.es/admin/admin_1 / file / Math% 20PISA.pdf>). These activities do not intend to measure the memory of young students but are meant to proof that students can do them. Moreover, the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) claims that in the near future some tests will be able to be answered on a computer (LA VANGUARDIA, 2012). Will there be less school failure with the bimodal curriculum? Currently there are many students who fail "test problems" because they do not remember the formulas. Well, with the bimodal curriculum approach this will not happen again. The students will only fail if, even with the help of their notes or the Internet, they don’t know how to solve the problems in the given time. By freeing students from the pressure of memorizing so much content, since in the bimodal curriculum approach many of the exercises and exams (practical activities) will be made with the "auxiliary memory" support, we will prevent that students with memorizing difficulties become unmotivated (due to their inability to remember) and manage to do their exercises and pass their tests thanks to the support of their notes and other information sources. By anticipating their eventual success ("If I can refer to my information sources, I can do it") some students will be motivated to work more and therefore learn more. This is the result from research conducted at UAB DIM about "new techniques against school failure" <http://peremarques.pangea.org/casio/> during the school year 2010-11and that will continue on 2011-12 . It is particularly sad that much of this 30% of students who fail in their secondary-school studies fail due to memorizing tests, without having been able to proof that, beyond this limitation (often they simply do not want to spend hours memorizing things meaningless to them), they have a capacity (sometimes brilliant) to develop the skills necessary for social integration. And I say that it is especially sad because they are forced to memorize many things that no longer needed to know by heart… because they are available in their i-Phones. And how is the full development of students like? As mentioned in the introduction, Education as well as ensuring cultural transmission must provide each person with the maximum development of their faculties and for that, today as always, we must perform many different activities next to memorizing tasks and practical exercises with documentary support. In this sense, "we may make the mistake of overrating the areas of language and mathematics at the expense of other areas such as Physical Education, Art, Music and Technology. In fact it is in these areas where we can apply the most innovative methodologies and where students can learn how to do things and above all learn to develop their creativity and complete their full development... " (Rey, 2011) It is also essential to encourage reflection and dialogue on ethics and values, to help students discover their talents, knowledge (Robinson, 2009) and multiple intelligences (Gardner, 2003), as well as channel their emotions (emotional education) and self-esteem and cultivate their willpower and self-confidence. Multiple intelligences "can only be understood if one admits that students can be intelligent too by, for example, controlling their bodies, drawing a picture or building an invention, instead of reducing their intelligence to writing well or solving equations... " (Rey, 2011) The tutoring activity of teachers in this regard, and especially the work of the tutor-teacher of each student, is the substrate on which to build the bimodal approach of the curriculum.In this context, we agree with Mark Prensky that all these regards should be integrated in a curriculum that considers "5 metaskills that all curricula should incorporate: discovering what to do (behaving ethically, thinking critically, setting goals...); getting it done (planning, problem solving, self-evaluation...); doing it with others (taking the lead, communicating, interacting...); doing it creatively (adapting, researching, designing...) and improving continuously (thinking, being proactive and taking risks)" (Prensky, 2011) So... are you in? The bimodal curriculum approach can be applied at any time, regardless of the official curriculum, because it does not interfere with it. It involves working in a different educational paradigm whose principles are: - Accepting that we are in an "i-Person" world, always connected to the Internet. - Considering, as part of a careful tutoring action, that there are two types of learning activities: memorizing activities and practical activities. - Allowing always students to do practical activities with documentary support (“auxiliary memory”). - Providing students at the start of course with the vocabulary and data that they will have to memorize and with the practical activities they will have to learn by the end of the course. While waiting for education authorities to conduct a thorough review of the official curriculum and upgrade it to the demands of modern society, considering the concept of the "i-Person" and beginning to implement the bimodal curriculum can help providing a better education to students and can contribute reducing school failure. Currently this bimodal approach to the curriculum is implemented in 24 schools in Spain and 5 schools in Latin America, in the context of a research carried out by the research group DIM-UAB <http://peremarques.net/telefonica/> and sponsored by the Telefónica Foundation.And so far that's all. I will appreciate your comments and suggestions on the main FORUM of the DIM social network <http://dimglobal.ning.com/> ADELL, Jordi. y CASTAÑEDA, Linda. (2010). Los Entornos Personales de Aprendizaje (PLEs): una nueva manera de entender el aprendizaje. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en AREA, Manuel. (2008) Innovación pedagógica con TIC y el desarrolla de las competencias informacionales y digitales. Investigación en la escuela nº 64, 5-18 CARR, Nicholas. (2010). ¿Qué está haciendo Internet con nuestras mentes? Superficiales. Madrid: Taurus Santillana. CASTELLS, Manuel. (2000). La era de la información. La sociedad red. Vol.1 Madrid: Alianza. GARDNER, Howard. (2003). La inteligencia reformulada. Las inteligencias múltiples en el siglo XXI. Barcelona: Paidós. EL MUNDO (2011). Naciones Unidas declara el acceso a Internet como un derecho humano. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en <http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2011/06/09/navegante/1307619252.html> LA VANGUARDIA (2012). Las escuelas proponen exámenes con acceso a internet. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en MARQUÈS, Pere (2011). ¿Electricidad, velas u oscuridad? Reflexiones de un Google dependiente. Blog Chispas TIC y Educación Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en MARQUÈS, Pere (2011 b). Y la evolución humana sigue: ¿eres ya “i-Person”?.Tecnonews Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en < http://www.tecnonews.info/Y-la-evolucion-humana-sigue--eres-ya--iPerson-/_pE0Aj1BfZN7VtoFZxcYP-P8oHseGtVPsPnm-4Gx9fOuJDsPZhDjFS2ou5OiUHcUe>. MARTÍNEZ-SALANOVA-SÁNCHEZ, E. (2009). De la Tierra al ciberespacio. Comunicar 33; 102-105. OCDE (2009). PISA 2009 Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en PARTAL, Vicent. (2001). Catalunya 3.0. Barcelona: Beta Editorial PRENSKY, Mark (2010). Nativos e Inmigrantes Digitales. Madrid: Institución educativa SEK. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en PRENSKY, Mark (2011). Educar para el presente y el futuro. Escuela, núm. 3927, pag. 31 QUINTANILLA, Miguel Ángel (1995). Educación y tecnología. En RODRÍGUEZ, J.L.; SÁEZ, O. Tecnología Educativa. Nuevas Tecnologías aplicadas a la Educación. Alcoy: Editorial Marfil. REIG, Dolors (2012) 12 cambios en el cerebro conectado. El caparazón. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en REY, Roger (2011). Puntos de vista: Hacia un nuevo paradigma educativo: el currículum bimodal. Revista DIM, núm 21. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en ROBINSON, Ken (2009).El Elemento: Cómo encontrar su pasión lo cambia todo. Madrid: Grijalbo. ROMERO, Francesca; MARQUÈS, Pere (2012). La competencia léxica en el currículum bimodal. Revista Didáctica, Innovación y Multimedia, núm. 22 SCHELEICHER, Andreas (2011) Cuando las escuelas entorpecen a sus estudiantes. Escuela, núm. 3915, pp. 3 SIEMENS, George (2004). Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. Elearnspace. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en SPARROW, Betsy (2011) Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips. Revista Science. Recuperado el 15-2-2012 en <http://www.sciencemag.org/content/333/6043/776> Translation: Diana & Hèctor Marquès

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Paul Lawrence Dunbar, James Weldon Johnson, Langston Hughes, and Maya Angelou are black writers who have produced some of the best black writing over the years, ranging from the serious to the light. Their thoughts, emotions, and accomplishments transcend the color line. Their works, like those of other black writers, combine entertainment, historical interest, and literary value. They share a common subject and set of feelings: the black experience. Margaret Butcher says in an article from The Negro in American Culture that every Negro writer has “something to say.” He cannot escape having important things to say. His mere body, for that matter, is eloquence. His quiet walk down the street is a speech to the people. Dunbar, Johnson, Hughes, and Angelou represent the varieties of the black experience. Through their magical words and musical phrases, it is easy to comprehend their roots, joys, sorrows, dreams, and anger. The mention of their names can bring instant excitement. Two of these major writers, James Weldon Johnson and Langston Hughes, come out of the Harlem Renaissance. Paul Lawrence Dunbar dates back before the Renaissance period, and Maya Angelou is considered a remarkable contemporary writer of the present. The ties that bind these artists are not only color but also tradition, form, and language. Dunbar, Johnson, Hughes, and Angelou use the spoken language of black people, often dialect or something close to it. Frequently, Paul Lawrence Dunbar captured the language of his people in a colorful and exaggerated way. He loved to write about the lives of average blacks during the post-Civil War period. Dunbar wrote about people involved in the simple pursuits of life, showing them as they sang, conversed, hunted, fished, or napped by the fireplace. He wrote most freely when he used dialect. He described and evaluated pretty girls, handsome young men, and selfish old men. What young woman wouldn’t want to be praised like the songbird in Dunbar’s poem “When Malindy Sings”? In 1895, W. D. Howells, for want of a closer phrase, suggested that such pieces be called “dialect pieces,” but they are really not dialect so much as delightful ways of glorifying the spoken language. - G’way an’ quit dat noise, Miss Lucy— - Put dat music book away; - What’s de use to keep on trying? - Ef you practise twell you’re grey, - You cain’t sta’t no notes a-flyin’ - Lak de ones dat rants and rings - F’om de kitchen to de big woods - When Malindy sings. Whatever the consensus may be, the language of the common black man, whether past or present, is unique and interesting in itself. Often dialect was looked upon as a weakness in black speech, but today it is considered chic. “Right On, Bro!” Whites imitate blacks in picking up and popularizing the latest in “street language.” Each of the four writers shows skill in using colorful, vivid black language. Sometimes James Weldon Johnson hesitated to use dialect in his compositions because he felt that dialect had its place in fun and jest, and used it in the poem “Sence You Went Away.” The language of that verse is uniquely black, as is the language of the following epitaph taken from Dunbar’s “A Death Song”: - Seems lak to me de stars don’ shine so - Seems lak to me de sun done loss his - Seems lak to me der’s nothing goin’ - Sence you went away. In his poem “Po Boy Blues” Langston Hughes shows his skill at a language very close to dialect: - Lay me down beneaf de willers in de grass, - Where de Branch’ll go a-singin’ as it pass, - An’ w’en I’s a-layin’ low - I kin heah it as I go, - Sayin’, sleep, Ma Honey, tek yo’ res’ - at las’. Maya Angelou steps outside of poetry to prose in her autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings as she describes a conversation with her mother that took place in Stamps, Arkansas:. - I was a good boy - Never done no wrong - Yes, I was a good boy - Never done no wrong, - But this world is weary, - An’ de road is hard an’ long. Langston Hughes once said, “The passing of dialect as a medium for Negro poetry will be an actual loss for in it many beautiful things can be done, and done best.” If W.D. Howells had lived during Hughes’ time, he would have agreed. Howells had written, “There is a precious difference of temperament between the races which would be a great pity to ever lose. This is best preserved and most charmingly suggested by Mr. Dunbar in those pieces of his where he studies the moods and traits of his race in its own accent.” - He said, “Annie, I done tole you, - I ain’t gonna mess around in no - niggah’s mouth.” I said, “Some- - body’s got to do it then.” And he - said, “Take her to Texarkana to - the colored dentist.” Margaret Larkin in Opportunity pointed out that Robert Burns had caught the dialect, speech cadences, and character of the Scottish people in his poems, and that Langston Hughes had done for the Negro race what Burns did for the Scotch—squeezed out the beauty and rich warmth of a noble people into enduring poetry. Dunbar, Johnson, Hughes, and Angelou also reflect in their works a respect for the power of the folk preacher in providing an imaginative view of the world and coherence to his community. Dunbar did not advocate organized religion and dogma, but he believed in the Christian faith. At the end of The Uncalled, Fred says to Eliphalet: “I can do all the good I can, Uncle Liph, but I shall do it in the name of poor humanity until I come nearer to Him.” When Eliphalet suggests that he has lost his religion, Fred replied, “Lost it all? I’ve just come to know what religion is. It’s to be bigger and broader and kinder, so that people around you will be happy.” Biblical references are found in the works of all four of the writers selected here. Vivid pictures of the Shepherd and his sheep abound. From the printed page, the roar of the black preacher delivering a rousing sermon peals. From the tradition of slavery emerged the strong respect for the Church that blacks have treasured. The ability of writers to capture the sense of deliverance from the trials and tribulations of everyday life is indeed a talent. The spirituals, an extradinary rich example of black folk art, have taken a significant place in black folklore. Dunbar joyfully put words to rhyme as he told of the Christmas story in his poem “Christmas Carol.” Many religious messages come from sermons or sermonettes in black literature or from well-known Biblical allusions, such as this verse from “The Prodigal Son” by Johnson. - Ring out, ye bells! - All Nature swells - With gladness of the wondrous story. - The world was lorn, - But Christ is born - To change our sadness into glory. Johnson said in reference to the poems in God’s Trombones that the power of the old-time preacher was still a vital force; in fact, it was still the greatest influence among the colored people of the United States. Not only did Johnson write sermons, he told his readers how he wanted them read. “This intoning is always a matter of crescendo and diminuendo in the intensity—arising and falling between plain speaking and chanting . . . A startling effect is gained by breaking off suddenly at the highest point of intensity and dropping into the monotone of ordinary speech.” Langston Hughes allows the high-spirited Laura to preach her first sermon in the novel Tambourines to Glory in just this way. She stands on a street corner in Harlem: - Oh-O-oh, sinner, - When you’re mingling with the crowd in - Drinking the wine of Babylon- - Running with the women of Babylon- - You forget about God, and you laugh - at Death . . . Laura drew in enough sympathizers from that one sermon to collect money to feed Essie and herself for a whole week. - “I were drowning once, friends, but - now I’m saved. I were down there in - sin’s gutter lower than a snake’s belly— - now look at me. Look at me up here on - the curbstone of life reaching out with - my voice to you to come and be saved, too. - Our Church is this corner, our roof is - God’s sky, and there’s no doors, no place - in our church that is not open to you - because there are no doors. So come in - and be one with us, one with God, and - be Saved.” Angelou, too, has pictured the mighty preacher at the altar giving out the “do’s” and the “don’ts” to the congregation in I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings. James Weldon Johnson would have been pleased by the depth of that sermon and by sisters and brothers of the church giving out loud Amens. - First Corinthians tells me, “Even if I have the tongue of men and of angels and have not charity, I am as nothing. Even if I give all my clothes to the poor and have not charity, I am as nothing . . . Wooooo, Charity . . . it don’t want nothing for itself. I’m talking about Charity. Oh Lord . . . help me tonight. Charity is poor. Charity is simple. Dunbar, Johnson, Hughes, and Angelou also shared the belief that beauty can be extracted from the ability of blacks to transcend bondage and oppression, that the black experience could be transformed into a literary equivalent of music. Arna Bontemps has said, “Negro experience in America has found a vastly satisfying medium of expression in music. If occasionally this has been felt as a mood of the times, in the broad sense, perhaps that is true. The lyrics . . . are certainly as valid as the music.” Just as Louis Armstrong composed beautiful notes on the horn and intimately touched the black ear, some black writers have touched the black mind. James Weldon Johnson paid tribute to the unknown composers of the spirituals in his poem “0 Black and Unknown Bards”: The title of Maya Angelou’s I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings is a sort of parody of Paul Lawrence Dunbar’s poem, “Sympathy”: - O black and unknown bards of long ago, - How came your lips to touch the sacred fire? - How, in your darkness, did you come to know - The power and beauty of the minstrel’s lyre? Human bondage becomes melodious in Dunbar’s poems, loudly enough to impress Maya Angelou when she wrote a novel about bondage—bondage of the mind which is the hardest to escape. Through the isolation and depression of being black rose part of the essence of the black experience—soul. Although soul is not the whole black experience, it is the most romanticized. In the poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers,” Langston Hughes used the word “soul” in the refrain, and was perhaps one of the first to give it the same meaning it would come to have fifty years later for all young blacks. (His reference probably goes back to The Souls of Black Folk by Du Bois.) - I know why the caged bird sings, ah me, - When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore, - When he beats his bars and would be free; - It is not a carol of joy or glee, - But a prayer that he sends from his - heart’s deep core, - But a plea, that upward to Heaven he flings- - I know why the caged bird sings. Hughes talked about another type of soul in The Best of Simple, one with which many Black Americans can identify: - I’ve known rivers: - I’ve known rivers ancient as the world - and older than the flow of human blood - in human veins. - My soul has grown deep like the rivers. Only those that have lived what Simple lived can appreciated what he was saying. Curly, who is Rita’s lover in Gather Together in My Name by Angelou, brings soul closer to home: - “I have been laid off, fired and not - rehired, jim crowed, segregated, insulted, eliminated, locked in, locked - out, locked up, left holding the bag, - and denied relief. I have been caught - in the rain, caught in jails, caught - short with my rent, and caught with the - wrong woman, but I am still here.” Dunbar makes readers feel that “something extra” that the colored band emits as it struts proudly in “The Colored Band”: - He drove his 1941 Pontiac without seeming - to think about it. I sat in the corner - pushed against the door trying desperately - not to watch him. - “Where’s the baby’s Daddy?” - “I don’t know.” - “He wouldn’t marry you, huh?” His voice - hardened in the question. - “I didn’t want to marry him.” Partly - “Well, he’s a low-down bastard in my - book and needs his ass kicked.” I began to - love him at that moment. No one has yet rivaled James Weldon Johnson’s soulful version of the “Creation”: - You kin hyeah a fine perfo’mance w’en de - white ban’s serenade, - An’ dey play dey high-toned music mighty sweet, - But hit’s Sousa played in ragtime, an’ - hit’a Rastus on Parade, - W’en de colo’ed ban’ comes ma’chin’ down de street. Dunbar, Johnson, Hughes, and Angelou present the phenomenon of the black folk-preacher. Collectively, they describe a belief in beauty that transcends bondage. Frequently they use a language that retains certain qualities of dialect. And they enrich the immense volume of black literature with their labors. These same qualities appear and will continue to reappear in new forms in the black writing of today and tomorrow. - And there the great God Almighty - Who lit the sun and fixed it in the sky, - Who flung the stars to the most far corner - of the night, - Who rounded the earth in the middle of - His hand; - This Great God, - Like a mammy bending over her baby, - Kneeled down in the dust - Toiling over a lump of clay - Till He shaped it in His own image; - Then into it He blew the breath of life, - And man became a living soul. - Amen. Amen. STRUCTURE: Each lesson contains a biographical sketch of the author, a motivational activity, a reading selection and an evaluation. PREPARATION: These two steps are recommended in helping the instructor prepare for teaching this unit. INSTRUCTION: These three steps will help your students get as much as possible from the reading selections. 1. PREVIEW—Read as much background information as possible on the selected writers. Familiarize yourself with some of the major works of these writers. Pay attention to pictures, captions, sub-headings, topic sentences, summaries, so that you can point them out to your students as they come across them in their reading. Listen to all cassettes or tapes beforehand as well as previewing all video materials. 2. RELATE—as you preview materials you will recognize facts and ideas that may relate to other writers or other periods. Tie in the selections of these authors with those of other American writers. MOTIVATION: The presentation of this unit cannot be done in a passive manner. Black literature is not passive, but rigorous, exciting, and unique. In order to get and keep the attention of your students, you must make the effort to keep the lessons as interesting as possible. In order to persuade middle-school youngsters to appreciate black literature, the introduction to such must be as satisfying as the drama and trauma of its most prevalent challenger—the TV set. 1. READ—Students must have ample time to read quietly and undisturbed under your supervision. Some reading can be assigned outside of the classroom, but in order to guarantee that the reading is actually done, time must be allotted by the teacher. It is imperative that the teacher provide a suitable atmosphere for silent reading in his classroom. 2. REVIEW—Have students re-read for main ideas and chief aims of selections. Have them skim over parts which they understand, and concentrate on sections that are difficult or unfamiliar. 3. RECALL—Have students collect information, facts, ideas, that will be useful to them. Have them criticize dogmatic selections, have them list facts, outline sections, etc. OBJECTIVES: After teaching this unit students should be able to— —Appreciate some of the contributions of blacks to American Literature. —Critically place these contributions in the spectrum of literature as a whole. —Form opinions on the aims and goals of the four writers. —Analyze, criticize, and evaluate literature more meaningfully. —Become more selective in their choices of reading materials. EVALUATING: A pretest is valuable to the teacher in preparing for this unit. Teachers should not spend valuable time in teaching information that has already been taught by a previous teacher. In order to find out where students rank in their present knowledge of the subject matter covered by this unit, a pre-test is helpful. After all lessons have been taught, a post-test is usually administered. Often it is an interesting practice if the instructor keeps the pre-test results to compare with later post-test results. It is to be hoped that a show of growth will be recorded. Both pre-test and post-test are good tools for measurement and can be easily developed by the instructor. 1. PRETEST—Usually composed of true-false questions of a general nature concerning authors and their works. 2. POST-TEST—detailed test consisting of essay questions, multiple-choice, and completions, centering on actual works of the authors. In much of his writing, Dunbar portrayed the lives, customs, and speech of Negro Americans. His best novel, The Sport of the Gods (1902), describes the hardships of Southern Blacks transplanted to a Northern city, but also their dignity and humor. Dunbar wrote many poems in the dialect of the former slaves. They include “When Malindy Sings,” and “When De Co’n Pone’s Hot.” He died in 1906. A. Paul L. Dunbar was an American novelist and poet. He was born in 1872. His father escaped from slavery in Kentucky before the Civil War. Dunbar was born in Dayton, Ohio. He was one of the first authors to picture black life with honesty and realism. For this reason, his works are historically important, though most critics do not consider him a major writer. (World Book 1976) B. Was Paul L. Dunbar a slave? What is meant by “dialect” of the former slaves? Give an C. Listen to the cassette recording of several selected poems of P.L. Dunbar performed by thirteen-and fourteen-year-old students. D. Reading Assignment: “When Malindy Sings,” and “We Wear the Mask,” from the Complete Poems of P.L. Dunbar. E. Would “When Malindy Sings” be considered a serious or light poem? Why? Who was “Malindy?” Why was she so popular? Who is the wearer of the mask in the poem, “We Wear the Mask?” Do you feel Black Americans still wear the “masks”? Which of these poems do you prefer? Why. Which poem could easily convert into a song? Why? In addition to his writing, he had a varied public career. He was U.S. consul in Venezuela and Nicaragua and served as secretary of the NAACP. He died in 1938. A. Early in his writing career, James W. Johnson wrote songs for vaudeville, minstrel shows, and light opera. He was born in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1871. His experience as a vaudeville writer influenced the dramatic and musical qualities of his later poetry. Johnson’s best known book is God’s Trombones (1927). It consists of seven sermons in verse, expressed in the manner of a black preacher speaking on a southern plantation. The poems combine biblical materials with black folklore. At least two of them—“The Creation” and “Go Down Death”—are still performed on the stage. (World Book 1976) B. Which of Johnson’s poems is still performed today? What other occupations did Johnson hold besides writing? C. Ask students to write (one page or more) their own ideas of how the world was made. Ask them to draw one sketch (on poster paper provided) illustrating their ideas. Collect pictures and papers for a bulletin board titled “In the Beginning . . .” D. Reading Assignment: From God’s Trombones read the poem “The Creation.” E. Why do you suppose Johnson compared darkness with a hundred midnights in the poem “The Creation”? How did God use his arms, eyes, and hands in creating the world? Why does Johnson compare the Great God Almighty with a “mammy” bending over a baby? Describe what you think God looked like as Johnson portrays him. What is the rhyming pattern in this poem? Explain. Would you consider performing this poem on stage? Why? Hughes’ later volumes, from The Dream Keeper (1932) to The Panther and the Lash (1967), reflect the rapidly changing times. His work told of the black man’s growing demands for social justice, and warned the white: “you’re the one/Yes, you’re the one/ Will have the blues.” In spite of his increasing anger, Hughes avoided the violence that marked the work of later black writers. A. Langston Hughes was born in 1902 and died in 1967. He was an American poet and short-story writer. In his first collection of poetry, The Weary Blues (1926), he expressed the despair of blacks over social and economic conditions under which they lived. This despair was relieved by what he then felt was the black man’s only defense— sharp humor and self-control. He also wrote plays and autobiographical works. Many of his humorous sketches of black life were collected in The Best of Simple (1961). Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri. He attended Columbia University for a year in 1921 and then held a variety of jobs before the publication of his first book. He received the Spingarn Medal in 1960. (World Book 1976) B. What did the poems of The Weary Blues protest? Why was Langston Hughes angry with America? For what and why is the Spingarn Medal given? What was the title of his first book? C. Pass around the class the 8 x 10 snapshots of storefront churches in Harlem and New Haven. D. 1. Reading Assignment: Read chapters 1Ð6 of Tambourines To Glory orally, with your class following you silently. 2. Have students listen to cassette recording of a female Baptist minister preaching an actual sermon. 3. Assign reading of chapters 7-12 of Tambourines to Glory. 4. Discuss the plot of the book so far. 5. Assign chapters 13-20 of Tambourines to Glory. 6. Discuss development of plot thus far. Take a look at character development. Ask students for descriptions (physical) of the various characters. 7. Assign chapters 21-29 of Tambourines to Glory. 8. Play recordings of Gospel music featuring female artists. Have the class decide which recording best fits the music of the “Reed Sisters’ Tambourine Temple.” 9. Read chapters 30Ð36 of Tambourines to Glory orally with the class. 10. Tie all of the reading together. Discuss highlights of the book. Review the character development. Try to get students to moralize about the way the book ends. E. How did Laura and Essie decide upon the name “The Reed Sisters”? Describe Essie’s appearance and personality. Describe Laura’s appearance and personality. Which character represented the “good” in people? Which character reflects the “bad” in people? Why did Laura feel threatened by Sister Birdie Lee and Marietta? How did Buddy treat Laura? Why? How many illegal games was the “Temple” involved in? Why was Buddy killed? Who witnessed Buddy’s death? Why was Essie accused of Buddy’s death? How did Essie manage to show mercy and forgiveness in spite of all that had gone on in the “Temple”? Who is the heroine of the book? What incident would be considered the climax of the story? How did you feel about Laura after reading the entire book? A. Maya Angelou, author of the best-sellers I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and Gather Together In My Name, and an original poetry collection Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ‘fore I Diiie, has studied dance in San Francisco and has toured Europe and Africa for the State Department in Porgy and Bess. She taught dance in Rome and Tel Aviv. In collaboration with Godfrey Cambridge, she produced, directed, and starred in Cabaret for Freedom. She also starred in Genet’s The Blacks at the St. Mark’s Playhouse. At the request of the late Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Miss Angelou became the northern coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. From this she went to Africa, where she wrote for newspapers in Cairo and taught at the University of Ghana. She has written and produced a ten-part TV series on African tradition in American life and she wrote the musical score and original screenplay for the film Georgia, Geogia. At this writing, Miss Angelou is working on another sequel to her autobiography. (Random House 1974) B. What makes Miss Angelou different from the other writers in this unit? At what time was Maya Angelou involved in civil rights? C. Present a slide show to the class depicting scenes from the rural South that are comparable to the atmosphere of Stamps, Arkansas. D. Reading Assignment: Read aloud pp. 3-8 of Gather Together in My Name to the class. Have them read silently. Have class continue to read chps. 1Ð6 at this sitting. Discuss Rita and the Baby through chapter 10. Discuss the hardship of being a single parent from Rita’s standpoint. Assign chapters 11Ð14 for silent reading during another class sessions. Answer questions that students may have. Discuss character development. Read chapters 15Ð16 orally with class. Review chapters 1-16 to make sure students are following the plot successfully. The remaining half of the book should be assigned now. Only one day a week should be given to silent reading; the bulk of the remaining reading should be done outside of the classroom. At this time, divide class into five or six groups. Assign each group several chapters to report on orally. The group reporting for that day should sit before the class as a panel of experts. The group should take turns giving the plot development of the assigned chapters and should be able to respond to any questions that might arise. Tie everything together. Review character and plot development. Try to localize the changing settings. Discuss “hero” and “heroine” of book. Get students to discuss why the author wrote the book and the social significance of the book. E. How did Rita feel about people saying her baby could pass for white? Describe Rita’s relationship with Curly. Why didn’t Rita join the army? Where did Rita work as a nightclub dancer? Why did Rita return to Stamps, Arkansas? What happens to Rita’s baby? How did Bailey help Rita? Why was Rita worried about him? What did you think about Troub? After leaving Guy with her mother, where did Rita go at the end of the book? - Angelou, Maya. Gather Together in My Name. Westminster: Random, 1974. - _____. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Westminster: Random, 1971. - _____. Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ’fore I Diiie. Westminster: Random, 1974. - Brawley, Benjamin. Paul Lawrence Dunbar: Poet of His People. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936. - Bronz, Stephen. Roots of Negro Racial Consciousness. New York: Libra, 1964. - Cunningham, Virginia. Paul Laurence Dunbar and His Song. Chicago: Bibliography Press, 1969. - Dunbar, Paul Lawrence. The Complete Poems. New York: Dodd, 1913. - _____. The Sport of the Gods. New York: Macmillan, 1970. - Emmanuel, James. Langston Hughes. New Haven: College and Univ. Press, 1967. - Franklin, John. James Weldon Johnson: Black Leader, Black Voice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976. - Hughes, Langston. Best of Simple. New York: Hill & Wang, New York, 1961. - _____. Not Without Laughter. New York: Macmillan, 1969. - _____. Tambourines to Glory. New York: Hill & Wand, 1958. - Johnson, James Weldon. The Book of American Negro Poetry. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1958. - _____. Fifty Years and Other Poems. New York: AMS Press, 1975. - _____. God’s Trombones. New York: Viking, 1927. - Martin, Jay. A Singer In the Dawn. New York: Dodd, 1975. - Meltzer, Milton. Langston Hughes: A Biography. New York: Crowell, 1968. - Robinson, William. Early Black American Poets. Dubuque: William C. Brown, 1969. Contents of 1978 Volume II | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity and is intended to promote goodness or improve human quality of life. In return, this activity can produce a feeling of self-worth and respect. There is no financial gain involved for the individual. Volunteering is also renowned for skill development, socialization, and fun. Volunteering may have positive benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served. It is also intended to make contacts for possible employment. It is helping, assisting, or serving another person or persons without pay. Many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Others serve on an as-needed basis, such as in response to a natural disaster. - 1 Etymology and history - 2 Types - 2.1 Volunteering as Utilized by Service Learning Programs - 2.2 Skills-based volunteering - 2.3 Volunteering in developing countries - 2.4 Virtual volunteering - 2.5 Micro-volunteering - 2.6 Environmental volunteering - 2.7 Volunteering in an emergency - 2.8 Volunteering in schools - 2.9 Corporate volunteering - 2.10 Community voluntary work - 2.11 International work-camps - 3 Political view - 4 Moral resources, political capital and civil society - 5 Criticisms - 6 See also - 7 References - 8 Further reading - 9 External links Etymology and history The verb was first recorded in 1755. It was derived from the noun volunteer, in C.1600, "one who offers himself for military service," from the Middle French voluntaire. In the non-military sense, the word was first recorded during the 1630s. The word volunteering has more recent usage—still predominantly military—coinciding with the phrase community service. In a military context, a volunteer army is a military body whose soldiers chose to enter service, as opposed to having been conscripted. Such volunteers do not work "for free" and are given regular pay. If a student is engaged in some sort of volunteer work, taking a gap year after high school or during college is also a form of volunteering. Career break is also considered to be a form of volunteering, until involved in a voluntary work. During this time, America experienced the Great Awakening. People became aware of the disadvantaged and realized the cause for movement against slavery. Younger people started helping the needy in their communities. In 1851, the first YMCA in the United States was started, followed seven years later by the first YWCA. During the American Civil War, women volunteered their time to sew supplies for the soldiers and the “Angel of the Battlefield” Clara Barton and a team of volunteers began providing aid to servicemen. Barton founded the American Red Cross in 1881 and began mobilizing volunteers for disaster relief operations,including relief for victims of the Johnstown Flood in 1889. 20th & 21st centuries The Salvation Army is one of the oldest and largest organization working for disadvantaged people. Though it is a charity organization, it has organized a number of volunteering programs since its inception. Prior to the 19th century, few formal charitable organizations existed to assist people in need. In the first few decades of the 20th century, several volunteer organizations were founded, including the Rotary International, Kiwanis International, Association of Junior Leagues International, and Lions Clubs International. The Great Depression saw one of the first large-scale, nation-wide efforts to coordinate volunteering for a specific need. During World War II, thousands of volunteer offices supervised the volunteers who helped with the many needs of the military and the home front, including collecting supplies, entertaining soldiers on leave, and caring for the injured. After World War II, people shifted the focus of their altruistic passions to other areas, including helping the poor and volunteering overseas. A major development was the Peace Corps in the United States in 1960. When President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a War on Poverty in 1964, volunteer opportunities started to expand and continued into the next few decades. The process for finding volunteer work became more formalized, with more volunteer centers forming and new ways to find work appearing on the World Wide Web. According to the Corporation for National and Community Service (in 2012), about 64.5 million Americans, or 26.5 percent of the adult population, gave 7.9 billion hours of volunteer service worth $175 billion. This calculates at about 125–150 hours per year or 3 hours per week at a rate of $22 per hour. Volunteer hours in the UK are similar; the data for other countries is unavailable. Volunteering as Utilized by Service Learning Programs Many schools on all education levels offer service-learning, which allow the student to serve a group through volunteering while earning educational credit. According to Alexander Astin in the forward to Where's the Learning in ServiceLearning? by Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles, Jr.,"...we promote more wide-spread adoption of service-learning in higher education because we see it as a powerful means of preparing students to become more caring and responsible parents and citizens and of helping colleges and universities to make good on their pledge to 'serve society.'" When describing service learning, the Medical Education at Harvard says, "Service learning unites academic study and volunteer community service in mutually reinforcing ways. ...service learning is characterized by a relationship of partnership: the student learns from the service agency and from the community and, in return,gives energy, intelligence, commitment, time and skills to address human and community needs." Volunteering in service learning seems to have the result of engaging both mind and heart, thus providing a more powerful learning experience; according to Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles,it succeeds by the fact that it "...fosters student development by capturing student interest...":1–2,8 While not recognized by everyone as a legitimate approach, research on the efficacy of service learning has grown.:xv-xvii Janet Eyler and Dwight E. Giles conducted a national study of American college students to ascertain the significance of service learning programs,:xvi According to Eyler and Giles,"These surveys, conducted before and after a semester of community service, examine the impact of service-learning on students.":xvi They describe their experience with students involved in service-learning in this way: "Students like service-learning. When we sit down with a group of students to discuss service-learning experiences, their enthusiasm is unmistakable. ...it is clear that [the students]believe that what they gain from service-learning differs qualitatively from what they often derive from more traditional instruction.":1–2 Skills-based volunteering is leveraging the specialized skills and the talents of individuals to strengthen the infrastructure of nonprofits, helping them build and sustain their capacity to successfully achieve their missions. This is in contrast to traditional volunteering, where specific training is not required. The average hour of traditional volunteering is valued by the Independent Sector at between $18–20 an hour. Skills-based volunteering is valued at $40–500 an hour, depending on the market value of the time.[not in citation given] Skill based volunteering include medical internship, dental elective, teaching English etc. Volunteering in developing countries An increasingly popular form of volunteering among young people, particularly gap year students, is to travel to communities in the developing world to work on projects. Activities include teaching English, working in orphanages, conservation, and so on. International volunteering is said to give participants valuable skills, knowledge, and the experience of a lifetime. However, "voluntourism" has been criticized by some as being paternalistic and reinforcing historic power imbalances. Some critics argue that in many cases, voluntourism does more harm to communities than good. Also called e-volunteering or online volunteering, virtual volunteering is a term that describes a volunteer who completes tasks, in whole or in part, offsite from the organization being assisted. They use the Internet and a home, school, telecenter or work computer, or other Internet-connected device, such as a PDA or smartphone. Virtual volunteering is also known as cyber service, telementoring, and teletutoring, as well as various other names. Virtual volunteering is similar to telecommuting, except that instead of online employees who are paid, these are online volunteers who are not paid. Micro-volunteering is an unpaid task that is operated via an internet-connected device and completed in small increments of time. It is distinct from virtual volunteering in that it typically does not require an application process or a training period. Environmental volunteering refers to the volunteers who contribute towards environmental management or conservation. Volunteers conduct a range of activities including environmental monitoring, ecological restoration such as re-vegetation and weed removal, protecting endangered animals, and educating others about the natural environment. The Giant Panda Conservation program in Xi'an and Sichuan, China, is a famous endangered animals protection program. Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries conservation program attracts huge foreign support and volunteers. Volunteering in an emergency Volunteering often plays a pivotal role in the recovery effort following natural disasters, such as tsunamis, floods, droughts, hurricanes, and earthquakes. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami attracted a large number of volunteers worldwide, deployed by non-governmental organizations, government agencies, and the United Nations. During the 2012 hurricane Sandy emergeny, Occupy Sandy volunteers, formed a laterally organized rapid-response team that provided much needed help during and after the storm, from food to shelter to reconstruction. It is an example of mutualism at work, pooling resources and assistance and leveraging social media. Volunteering in schools Resource poor schools around the world rely on government support or on efforts from volunteers and private donations, in order to run effectively. In some countries, whenever the economy is down, the need for volunteers and resources increases greatly. There are many opportunities available in school systems for volunteers. Yet, there are not many requirements in order to volunteer in a school system. Whether one is a high school or TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language graduate or college student, most schools require just voluntary and selfless effort. Much like the benefits of any type of volunteering there are great rewards for the volunteer, student, and school. In addition to intangible rewards, volunteers can add relevant experience to their resumes. Volunteers who travel to assist may learn foreign culture and language. Volunteering in schools can be an additional teaching guide for the students and help to fill the gap of local teachers. Cultural and language exchange during teaching and other school activities can be the most essential learning experience for both students and volunteers. A majority of the companies at the Fortune 500 allow their employees to volunteer during work hours. These formalized Employee Volunteering Programs (EVPs), also called Employer Supported Volunteering (ESV), are regarded as a part of the companies' sustainability efforts and their social responsibility activities. About 40% of Fortune 500 companies provide monetary donations, also known as volunteer grants, to nonprofits as a way to recognize employees who dedicate significant amounts of time to volunteering in the community. According to the information from VolunteerMatch, a service that provides Employee Volunteering Program solutions, the key drivers for companies that produce and manage EVPs are building brand awareness and affinity, strengthening trust and loyalty among consumers, enhancing corporate image and reputation, improving employee retention, increasing employee productivity and loyalty, and providing an effective vehicle to reach strategic goals. Community voluntary work ||This section is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states the Wikipedia editor's particular feelings about a topic, rather than the opinions of experts. (May 2014)| Community volunteering refers to the volunteers who work to improve their surrounding community. Neighborhood, religious, and civic groups may promote community volunteering in furtherance of shared goals. Community volunteer work can also be defined as volunteerism that requires a certain number of people, however they are organized, to bring about the desired results. An international work-camp is an international voluntary project in which participants from different countries can meet, live, work, learn, and exchange with local people concerning issues about environmental conservation, cultural heritage, social justice, rural and human development, etc. Groups including CCIVS, NVDA, Group Work Foundation, and Service Civil International (SCI) are a few providing International work camps. International work-camp volunteering can be divided into the short term voluntary projects (STV) and long- or middle-term voluntary projects (LMTV). STV projects are international workcamps for less than two months, while LMTV projects are those lasting two months or more. The most common international workcamp lasts for two weeks with a group of 10-20 overseas and local work-camp participants. Modern societies share a common value of people helping each other; not only do volunteer acts assist others, but they also benefit the volunteering individual on a personal level. Despite having similar objectives, tension can arise between volunteers and state-provided services. In order to curtail this tension, most countries develop policies and enact legislation to clarify the roles and relationships among governmental stakeholders and their voluntary counterparts; this regulation identifies and allocates the necessary legal, social, administrative, and financial support of each party. This is particularly necessary when some voluntary activities are seen as a challenge to the authority of the state(e.g., on January 29, 2001, President Bush cautioned that volunteer groups should supplement—not replace—government agencies’ work). Volunteering that benefits the state but challenges paid counterparts angers labor unions that represent those who are paid for their volunteer work; this is particularly seen in combination departments, such as volunteer fire departments. Difficulties in cross-national aid Difficulties in the cross-national aid model of volunteering can arise when it is applied across national borders. The presence of volunteers who are sent from one state to another can be viewed as a breach of sovereignty and showing a lack of respect towards the national government of the proposed recipients. Thus, motivations are important when states negotiate offers to send aid and when these proposals are accepted, particularly if donors may postpone assistance or stop it altogether. Three types of conditionality have evolved: - Financial accountability: Transparency in funding management to ensure that what is done by the volunteers is properly targeted - Policy reform: Governmental request that developing countries adopt certain social, economic, or environmental policies; often, the most controversial relate to the privatization of services traditionally offered by the state - Development objectives: Asking developing countries to adjust specific time-bound economic objectives Some international volunteer organizations define their primary mission as being altruistic: to fight poverty and improve the living standards of people in the developing world, (e.g. Voluntary Services Overseas has almost 2,000 skilled professionals working as volunteers to pass on their expertise to local people so that the volunteers' skills remain long after they return home). When these organizations work in partnership with governments, the results can be impressive. However, when other organizations or individual First World governments support the work of volunteer groups, there can be questions as to whether the organizations' or governments' real motives are poverty alleviation. Instead, a focus on creating wealth for some of the poor or developing policies intended to benefit the donor states is sometimes reported. Many low-income countries’ economies suffer from industrialization without prosperity and investment without growth. One reason for this is that development assistance guides many Third World governments to pursue development policies that have been wasteful, ill-conceived, or unproductive; some of these policies have been so destructive that the economies could not have been sustained without outside support. Indeed, some offers of aid have distorted the general spirit of volunteering, treating local voluntary action as contributions in kind, i.e., existing conditions requiring the modification of local people’s behavior in order for them to earn the right to donors’ charity. This can be seen as patronizing and offensive to the recipients because the aid expressly serves the policy aims of the donors rather than the needs of the recipients. Moral resources, political capital and civil society Based on a case study in China, Xu and Ngai (2011) revealed that the developing grassroots volunteerism can be an enclave among various organizations and may be able to work toward the development of civil society in the developing countries. The researchers developed a “Moral Resources and Political Capital” approach to examine the contributions of volunteerism in promoting the civil society. Moral resource means the available morals could be chosen by NGOs. Political capital means the capital that will improve or enhance the NGOs’ status, possession or access in the existing political system. Moreover Xu and Ngai (2011) distinguished two types of Moral Resources: Moral Resource-I and Moral Resource-II (ibid). - Moral Resource I: Inspired by Immanuel Kant’s (1998 ) argument of “What ought I to do,” Moral Resource-I will encourage the NGOs’ confidence and then have the courage to act and conquer difficulties by way of answering and confirming the question of “What ought I to do.” - Moral Resource II: given that Adorno (2000) recognizes that moral or immoral tropes are socially determined, Moral Resource-II refers to the morals that are well accepted by the given society. Thanks to the intellectual heritage of Blau and Duncan (1967), two types of political capital were identified: - Political Capital-I refers to the political capital mainly ascribed to the status that the NGO inherited throughout history (e.g., the CYL). - Political Capital-II refers to the Political Capital that the NGOs earned through their hard efforts. Obviously, “Moral resource-I itself contains the self-determination that gives participants confidence in the ethical beliefs they have chosen”, almost any organizations may have Moral Resource-I, while not all of them have the societal recognized Moral Resource-II. However, the voluntary service organizations predominantly occupy Moral Resource-II because a sense of moral superiority makes it possible that for parties with different values, goals and cultures to work together in promoting the promotion of volunteering. Thus the voluntary service organizations are likely to win the trust and support of the masses as well as the government more easily than will the organizations whose morals are not accepted by mainstream society. In other words, Moral Resource II helps the grassroots organizations with little Political Capital I to win Political Capital-II, which is a crucial factor for their survival and growth in developing countries such as China. Therefore, the voluntary service realm could be an enclave of the development of civil society in the developing nations. In the 1960s, Ivan Illich offered an analysis of the role of American volunteers in Mexico in his speech entitled "To Hell With Good Intentions". His concerns, along with those of critics such as Paulo Freire and Edward Said, revolve around the notion of altruism as an extension of Christian missionary ideology. In addition, he mentions the sense of responsibility/obligation as a factor, which drives the concept of noblesse oblige—first developed by the French aristocracy as a moral duty derived from their wealth. Simply stated, these apprehensions propose the extension of power and authority over indigenous cultures around the world. Recent critiques of volunteering come from Westmier and Kahn (1996) and bell hooks (née Gloria Watkins) (2004). Also, Georgeou (2012) has critiqued the impact of neoliberalism on international aid volunteering. The field of the medical tourism (referring to volunteers who travel overseas to deliver medical care) has recently attracted negative criticism when compared to the alternative notion of sustainable capacities, i.e., work done in the context of long-term, locally-run, and foreign-supported infrastructures. A preponderance of this criticism appears largely in scientific and peer-reviewed literature. Recently, media outlets with more general readerships have published such criticisms as well. - "Etymology:VOLUNTEER". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2012-04-30. - "The origin of the word "Volunteering"". Jocote.org. Retrieved 2012-04-30. - ISBN 1-86287-376-3, Volunteers and Volunteering, The Federation Press - "Medical Education at Harvard". Retrieved 2014-07-29. - Janet Eyler (1999), Where's the learning in service-learning?, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, ISBN 0787944831, 0787944831 - "Need of skills based volunteering for Non-Profit activities". National Service Resources. - Independent Sector "Skills based volunteering". Independent Sector. - World Volunteer Web, 16 August 2007: Gap-year 'voluntourists' told not to bother Linked 2013-08-09 - "The Biggest Problem with International Service & Voluntourism | Building a Better WorldBuilding a Better World". Criticalservicelearning.org. 2013-02-28. Retrieved 2013-09-17. - "Online Volunteering". UN Volunteers. Retrieved 2012-04-30. - "Virtual Volunteering". Service Leader. Retrieved 2012-04-30. - "Micro-Volunteering via Mobile Phones - Using Spare Time to Micro-Volunteer". - "Micro Volunteering - Changing The World In Just Your Pyjamas!". I-volunteer.org.uk. Retrieved 2013-09-17. - "Environmental Volunteer Work". PeaceCorps. Retrieved 2012-04-30. - "USGS Tsunami 2004 Summary". United States Geological Survey. - "Emergency Volunteering Coverage in NatGeo.". National Geographic. - "The Economy's Impact on Back to School". Great Schools. 2009-08-06. Retrieved 2009-11-20. - "Volunteer teaching effort can help students to learn better in schools". School Mental Health Project. Retrieved 2011-12-14. - "Mapping Success in Employee Volunteering - The Drivers of Effectiveness for Employee Volunteering and Giving Programs and Fortune 500 Performance (2009)". Boston College Center for Corporate Citizenship 2009. Retrieved 2010-04-21. - "Fortune 500's monetary donation programs for voluntary service". DoubletheDonation.com. Retrieved 2012-03-07. - "How companies benefit from EVP". VolunteerMatch.org. Retrieved 2010-04-21. - http://www.picketnews.com/archiveDetail.asp?cID=3&id=8327%7Cpublisher=Picket News - Bush Announces Faith-Based Initiative - ISBN reference for Volunteering Visions, Publisher: The Federation Press, Edited by: Joy Noble and Fiona Johnston, ISBN 1-86287-404-2 ISBN 978-1862874046 - "Aid, taxation, and development: analytical perspectives on aid effectiveness in Sub-Saharan Africa". World Bank. 1998-02-28. Retrieved 2007-07-12. - Xu, Y; Ngai, N. P. (2011). "Moral Resources and Political Capital: Theorizing the Relationship Between Voluntary Service Organizations and the Development of Civil Society in China". Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 40(2). pp. 247–269. Retrieved April 17, 2011. - Kant, I. (1998). Critique of pure reason (J. M. D. Meiklejohn, Trans.). Raleigh, NC: Alex Catalogue. - Adorno, T. (2000). Problems of moral philosophy (T. Schroder, Ed. & R. Livingstone, Trans.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. - Blau, P. M., & Duncan, O. D. (1967). The American occupational structure. New York: Wiley. - Xu, Y; Ngai, N. P. (2011). "Moral Resources and Political Capital: Theorizing the Relationship Between Voluntary Service Organizations and the Development of Civil Society in China". Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 40(2). p. 260. Retrieved April 17, 2011. - Xu, Y.; Ngai, N. P. (2011). "Moral Resources and Political Capital: Theorizing the Relationship Between Voluntary Service Organizations and the Development of Civil Society in China". Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 40(2). pp. 247–269. Retrieved April 17, 2011. - Bezruchka, S. (2000). Medical Tourism as Medical Harm to the Third World: Why? For Whom? Wilderness and Environmental Medicine, 11, 77-78. - Roberts, M. (2006). Duffle Bag Medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 1491-1492. - Pinto, A.D., & Upshur, R.E.G. (2009). Global Health Ethics for Students. Developing World Bioethics, 9, 1-10. - Geiser, Ch.; Okun, M. A.; Grano, C. (2014). "Who is motivated to volunteer? A latent profile analysis linking volunteer motivation to frequency of volunteering". Psychological Test and Assessment Modeling. 56(1). pp. 3–24. - Georgeou, Nichole, Neoliberalism, Development, and Aid Volunteering, New York: Routledge, 2012. ISBN 9780415809153 - Winfield, Mark. The Essential Volunteer Handbook. Friesen Press. ISBN 978-1-4602-1581-4. |Look up volunteering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.| |Wikisource has original text related to this article:| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Volunteering.| - Volunteering at DMOZ - Volunteerism and legislation: a Guidance Note Inter-Parliamentary Union, United Nations Volunteers, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2004

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GNS 101 Use of English (2 Units) The course is designed to equip students with listening, speaking and reading language skills which will enable them to comprehend their lectures with ease and accomplish their reading tasks. The course is task-based and student-oriented 1. Awareness Raising: To sensitize students on the need for the course by examining some errors in students’ scripts. To examine some differences between formal and informal English. 2. Listening Skill: To help students develop some note-taking skills and strategies. To help students anticipate the subject–matter of a lecture from the topic. To distinguish main from minor points. To follow a teacher’s train of thought using lexical and structural signals. To match verbal clues with pictures. 3. Speaking Skill: To minimize and eliminate first language interference. To help students pronounce vowel and consonant sounds correctly. To identify dark/silent letters. To enable students use stress and intonation appropriately. 4. Word Classes: To emphasize correct use of nouns, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and exclamations. To encourage correct agreement in grammatical structures. To point attention to common errors and locate the sources of such errors. 5. Punctuation Marks: To identify different kinds of punctuation marks. To facilitate the correct use of punctuation marks in writing. 6. Reading Skill: To develop fast reading in students. To enhance and improve comprehension for specific and main ideas; reference and critical interpretations. To facilitate vocabulary development. 7. Application of the above Skill: To study two prescribed texts (short prose). GNS 102 Introduction to Nigeria History (1 Unit) The course provides an overview of Nigeria’s contribution to world history and her relationship with other parts of the world. It focuses on the following: Sources of Nigerian history, Methodology of history; major landmarks in early Nigeria History (Nok, Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, etc). Emphasis is on the scientific and technological development of these early Nigerian societies. Students will also be exposed to pre-colonial history: Sudanese/Nigerian states; the Slave trade and its effects; colonial and post-colonial history of Nigeria. Attempts are made to relate the discussion to agriculture, with special reference to the introduction of cash crops, industrialization and urbanization processes. (1) Methodology of History (2) Sources of Nigerian History History of Non-Literate Societies Early Nigerian Cultures and Society Nok, Igbo-Ukwu, Ife, Benin, others. (3) Pre-colonial Societies (a) Sudanese Empires (b) Forest States (4) Nigeria’s Early Contact with the World The Trans-Saharan and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and their effects. (5) Scramble For Africa British interest in Nigeria The British conquest of Nigeria Colonial rule and its impact on Nigeria (6) Decolonization Process in Nigeria (a) Rise of Nationalism (b) Culture and Political dimension (c) Economic Dimension (7) Development in Nigeria after independence GNS 103 Introduction to Social Problems (2 Units) The course will present students with current perspectives on the nature and cause of contemporary social problems and possible ways of solving them. The approach is meant to help students to use their reasoning ability in a way that would help them to better understand the causes of our social problems; by so doing, students will be able to make decisions that will contribute to an improvement in the quality of life in Nigerian society. Since the sociological approach is not the only approach which offers useful insight about social problems, an eclectic approach will be adopted in this course. That is, in addition to a variety of sociological perspectives diverse views to social problems will be considered. Thus, where relevant, the course will rely on other social science disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, political science, economics and indeed some of the natural sciences. What is social problem? The sociological approach to the study of social problems. Problems inequality. Prejudice, discrimination and ethnicism/racism. Deviance (Collective behaviour and substance abuse). Problems of environment and energy. Population and Urbanisation. Education and Social Problems. Health and HIV/AIDS related issues. 200 LEVEL COURSES GNS 201 Writing and Literary Appreciation (2 Units) The course is designed to enable students write acceptable summaries, reports and essays with the aid of relevant reference works. It will also enable the students to have a generalized but clear awareness of the historical development of literature in the English Language in Nigeria and in Africa, the Caribbean, the United States of America and the British Isles. It will expose students to relevance and classification of literature and literary appreciation. 1. Evaluation of Common Errors in Students’ Writing: To bring out students’ errors and locate the sources of such errors. 2. Writing Skill: To help students organise their ideas and write good outline. To raise awareness of order in texts-coherence. To develop text with the appropriate use of transitional devices. To know different kinds of writing as applied to students’ disciplines and other situations. To raise awareness on the technicalities of different forms of letter writing To write formal and informal letters. 3. Bibliography and Citations in Academic Writing: To draw graphs, tables from descriptions. To write descriptions using graphs, tables and charts etc. To write bibliography and other references. 4. Literary Appreciation To know the historical development of literature across culture. To have a general awareness of literature. To know the relevance and classification of literature. To study literary terms. To appreciate the three genres of literature by studying a play, a poem and a novel. 5. Application of the various Acquired Skills: To write projects that will integrate the taught/acquired English Language skills. GNS 202 Government and Politics (1 Units) Examination of man in a political society: the nature and role of the state; political systems; ideologies of politics; political institutions; the evolution of the Nigerian State; the Nigerian political system; constitution-making in Nigeria, Nigeria and the international political system; problems of world politics. Man as apolitical animal; theories of the state. The evolution of the modern state. Varieties of political system and institutions. Ideologies of politics Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Pan Africanism etc. Colonialism and the Evolution of the Nigerian Politics, Structure and problems of the contemporary international political system. Politics in Africa. Nigeria in world politics. GNS 203: USE-OF-LIBRARY The objectives of the course are: (i) To make students aware of the role of the Library in their academic pursuit; (ii) To equip students with the knowledge of how library materials are organized; and (iii) To develop in students, skills of using library information resources (both print and non-print) Course Content and Synopsis 1. Brief history of libraries; the origin of library from Egyptian, Greece and Roman civilizations to the present day libraries. 2. Type of libraries: academic, national, public, special, private, school libraries and the differences between them. 3. Types of library materials: textbooks, reference materials, periodicals, documents, electronic resources e.t.c. 4. Organization of library resources: the library catalogue (Card catalogue, OPAC e.t.c) and how library materials are arranged according to subject class. 5. Using library resources: these include e-learning, e-materials, (data base resources, CD-ROM, On-line e.t.c.) 6. Library rules and regulations regarding loans, reservation of books, theft, mutilation, library infractions e.t.c. 7. Study skills: how to use books, journals and reference materials for research. 8. Copyright and its implication: what copyright is, Nigerian Copyright Commission, authorship, plagiarism, fair use, e.t.c. 9. Bibliographies and referencing: meaning and use of bibliographies, literature survey, compilation of bibliographies; citation methods; footnotes, references e.t.c. GNS 204 Logic and History of Science (2 Units) Introduction to the basic principles and techniques of distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning; evolution of science and technology; issues in the philosophy of science. Nature of arguments: Deductive and inductive arguments; Validity and soundness: Validity and truth. Elementary techniques of testing validity. Fallacies. The priori and the empirical Problems of Induction. Elements of probability. Elements of the history of science and technology. Observation, hypotheses, experiments and scientific explanation. Problems of scientific and technological development in Nigeria. Science and society. i. Postgraduate Diploma in Communication Studies PCS 601 Use of English (2 units) Basic course in written and spoken English. Brief review of the grammar and principles of English speech. Practice in spoken English. PCS 602 Developmental Writing Skills (2 units) Fundamental elements of punctuations. Americanism in English language, Colloquialism. Basic or General Reporting. Specialised Writing and Reporting, Basic News Writing, News Agencies. PCS 603 Basic Mass Communication Theories (2 units) The contemporary theories of Mass Communication - Individual Differences Theory, Social Categories Theory, Social Relations Theory, The Cultural Norms Theory, Theories of Media Violence, Catharsis Theory, Observation Learning Theory, Reconfirments Theory, Cultivation Theory. PCS 605 Introduction to Sociology (2 units) The scope and methods of Sociology. General Definition. Problems Hampering the study of Sociology as a Scientific Discipline. Human societies and culture. Characteristics and Functions of Culture. Basic but important concepts in Sociology. Social Organizations. Socialisation. Social Stratification and Social Problems and Issues in Modern Societies. PCS 607 Public Relations (2 units) What is Public Relations? Evolution of PR: The Nigeria. Experience. Corporate Public Relations. The Public Relations Process, Public Opinion, Propaganda, Persuasive Communication Techniques. Public Relations as Management Function. Corporate Publicity. Public Relations Periodicals. Production of House Organs. Ethics of Public Relation. PCS 608 Developmental Oral Communication Skills (2 units) Oral language as a form of communication. Relevant theoretical instructions are followed by practical exercises designed to improve the mechanics of oral communication. PCS 609 Conflict and Dispute Settlement (2 units) Theories of Conflicts. Machinery for dispute settlement – mediation, reconciliation, arbitration and industrial courts. PCS 617 Ethnics (2 units) Historical and contemporary theories of ethics. Intensive study of specialized topics in ethics e.g. the place of reason in ethics, ethical intuitionism, utilitarianism, the ethics of Aristotle, the ethics of medicine, and moral problems. Enforcement of professional ethics. The meeting point between Ethics and Journalism. PCS 619 Advertising (2 units) The origin of Advertising. Economics and Social Role of Advertising. Public attitudes in Advertising. Marketing Evolution. The Basic principles of marketing. Relevance of market concept to Advertising. Product life cycle. Marketing segmentation and evaluation. Reaching Target Segment. Organisation of Advertising. Control and Regulation of Advertising. ARD 611 Introductory Rural Sociology (2 units) Meaning of Rural Sociology. Concept of Rurality. Differences between rural and urban societies. Culture, Agents of Socialisation, Social Groups, Governance in Rural Communities, Social Stratification. Settlement Patterns in Rural Areas. Types of Migration. Contemporary Rural Societies in developing and developed countries. ARD 613 Social Theories and Social Change (3 units) Theories of Development, Social Development Theories. Types of Social Changes and Social Responses. Rural Development Approaches Indicators of Socio-economic Development. The Concept of Sustain-ability (ecological and economic dimensions, people related/social dimension. ARD 614 Gender Matters in Development Policy (3 units) Gender Inequality Issues. Gender and Poverty Levels. Measurement of Gender Empowerment Index. Measurement of Gender Development Index. Gender Empowerment and Development Indices in Nigeria. Gender-Related Policy Options in Human Development and Agrarian Programmes. Strategies for Implementing Gender-biased Programmes. ARD 615 Principles of Human Development (3 units) Facets of Human Development Gender Perspective in Human Development (Nigeria, Africa, and Global Status). Measurement of Human Development Index (HDI). Poverty as a human development problem; Perspectives of Poverty. Human Poverty and Income Poverty. Measurement of Human Poverty Index (HPI). Poverty Alleviation Policies. The Status of Human Development in Nigeria. Strategies for Enhancing Human Development Index (World Regional Models inclusive.) ARD 616 Research Methods & Measurement Techniques (3 units) Steps in Social Science Research. Defining Research Problem and its Guidelines. Developing Specific Objectives and Hypotheses Writing. Categories of Research Design. Concept of Variables. Sampling Techniques. Method of Data Collection. Roles of Related Literature in Research. Analysis and Interpretation of Data. Measurement and Evaluation. Levels of Measurement. Validity and Reliability. Types of Rating Scale. Test Construction and Item Analysis. Measurement of Socio-economic Status. Measurement of Innovation Adoption. Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. Likert Method of Scaling. Conversion of Descriptive Ratings to Standard Stores. ARD 618 Statistics for Social Sciences (3 units) Distinction between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Steps in Hypothesis Testing. Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Mode, and Median). Measures of Dispersion (Variance, Standard Deviation etc.). Measures of Association. (Correlation, Coefficient, Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance). Dependent and Independent Variables. Hypothesis Testing taking cognizance of one sample, two samples, dependent and non dependent cases. Chi-square. Analysis, Wilcoxon’s Test, t-test, Analysis of Variance, Regression Analysis. PCS 610 Seminar (3 units) A seminar paper to be presented by each student on a topic approved by the Institute. PCS 612 Practicum (2 units) Opportunities in putting research theories into visitation to media houses or relevant organizations. Students should experience visitations to media houses or relevant organizations on a three months attachment. PCS 614 Project (3 units) A project report to be written by the student on any topic approved by the Institute. The topic should be an outcome of the student’s practicum experience. ii. Masters in Communication Development COM 720 Gender and Genre (2 units) When writers choose one mode of discourse (and not another), they shape what can be included and what must be excluded. Before a word has been put on a page or an image on a screen, they have simultaneously created a bounded space for readers and opened a site of experimentation. Students in "Gender and Genre" will explore some implications of genre choices, with special attention given to the gender questions those choices raise. Further, it will look at how both implications and questions change over time. COM 721 Philosophy, Language and Communication (2 units) The nature of language and human communication. The role of language in the development of knowledge. The character of concepts and their role in the organisation of human experience. The problem of the objectivity of meaning and the possibility of inter-cultural translation of ideas. COM 722 Gender and Writing (2 units) This course will explore the connections between theories of gendered identity and ways of writing. In order to examine the effects of a gendered identity on the production of text, it will examine what the assumptions, gender theory, makes about identity production. In particular, it will look at theories of gendered identity from many different schools of thought - essentialism, psychoanalysis, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, poststructuralism, neo-Marxism, and cultural studies - and the resulting writing research which emerges from each theory. COM 723 Culture and Society (2 units) Culture, its meaning and significance. Cultural attributes and their dynamics: Ecology, Language, social, political and belief systems. Cultural development with special reference to human’s recent cultural history. West Africa as a case study.. COM 724 Business Communication (2 units) A study of various types of verbal and non-verbal messages in business setting, with an examination of the accompanying communication problems. Also consumer behaviour and practices will be analysed. COM 725 The Role of Communication in Conflict and Negotiation (2 units) This course examines the role of communication in managing conflict in various relationships: interpersonal, inter-organizational, and international. Special emphasis is given to how the application of communication processes like negotiation can influence outcomes. Current cases are studied to reveal how organizational leaders incorporate ethical decisions and strategic communication in conflict and change management. COM 726 Political Communication (2 units) Analysis and criticism of political discourse using theories and methods from the discipline of speech communication. COM 728 Arguments and Critical Thinking (2 units) Meaning and Definition. Types of discourse. The nature of arguments. Validity; techniques for evaluating of arguments. The distinction between inductive and deductive inferences. Illustrative arguments taken from typical texts in history, law reports, newspapers, etc. will be examined. COM 730 Ethics (2 units) A discussion of the nature of moral judgements. Problems concerning conflicts between moral judgements. Examination of some important ethical notions, e.g. moral objectivity, authority, punishment, freedom and moral responsibility. Philosophical discussion of issues in contemporary life, e.g. abortion, euthanasia, artificial insemination, suicide, capital punishment, war, nuclear weapons, polygamy, monogamy, etc.. COM 732 Social Conflict and Social Change (2 units) Strategies for producing, and consequences of change. Topics could include effects of change on the individual, the collection and use of data as strategies for the production of change; socio-technical intervention strategies (e.g. Ajaokuta, etc) conflict as a change strategy. COM 734 Advertisement (2 units) This course examines theories of advertisement and reviews advertisement's role in society. Students will gain increased familiarity with advertisement concepts, theories, methods and research findings; increased ability to apply theories and research generalizations to cases; increased ability to compare and evaluate approaches; increased sensitivity to problems of ethics in advertisement. COM 736 Language and Communication in Peace and Conflict Resolution (2 units) Language in the thinking processes and thought expression; uses and abuses of language as a means of communication in different socio-linguistic contexts; the Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis of the influence of language on the perception of reality; linguistic dimensions of ethnicity and features of power play between majority and minority language speakers; issues in identity, security and insecurity; language in legal arbitration and the administration of justice and conflicts within case studies of ethno linguistic conflicts and resolutions of language planning frameworks as in the former Soviet Union, India, South Africa, Switzerland etc. ARD 703 Measurement and Scaling Techniques (3 units) Meaning and scales of measurement. Factors influencing the choice of appropriate parametric tests. Principles of test construction-statistical concepts, item analysis, and types and measurements of reliability and validity. Techniques for attitude scale, construction methods of paired comparison, equal-appearing intervals, successive intervals, summated ratings, and scale-gram analysis. ARD 705 Rural Sociology (3 units) General Sociology Theory, Analysis of Rural Social Systems; Relation of the Individual to his Social Environment, Group Dynamics, Leadership Patterns; Social Change and Community Organisation; Special Topics in Rural Sociology. ARD 707 Social Statistics and Computer Science I&II (3 units) The courses aim at intimating students with advanced concepts and principles of statistical methods and their subsequent application in solving social science issues. The format of course will be in the shape of quizzes, assignments and group work, all of which count in the final course grading. ARD 708 Mass Communication Theories and Practice (3 units) This course examines a variety of communication theories, how they are constructed, tested and revised. Several theories are examined and critiqued (e.g., systems, discourse analysis) with reference to their theoretical traditions (e.g., hypo-deductive, phenomenological), and their respective orientations (e.g., epistemological, axiological). Connections between theory and research methods are explored, as well as the need for consistencies across theoretical and methodological approaches. ARD 717 Statistical Theory and Analysis (3 units) Sets and Probability, Random Variables and Probability Distributions, Mathematical Expectations, Sampling Theory, Estimation Theory, Tests Hypotheses and Significance, Regression and Correlation, and Analysis of Variance. COM 727 Seminar (1 unit) This is an oral presentation of the project proposal and literature review on the project topic before the investigation class critique. COM 738 Seminar (1 unit) This is an oral presentation of the research investigation and findings after the completion of the project. COM 729 Practicum in the Area of Specialization (3 units) Students would be attached to different communication outfits for practical experience in area of specialisation for three months. Students would be expected to receive sufficient practical training under strict professional conditions and supervision. Detailed report of the students’ activities and experiences during this period would be submitted by the students. COM 740 Masters Dissertation (6 units) A project report of not more than 15,000 words (excluding appendices) written by the student on any topic approved by the Institute. In addition to the above, the Department will work towards: a) running and coordinating short-term certificate associate and proficiency courses, seminars, conferences and workshops for staff and others in the immediate environment in Language and Communication Skill courses. b) providing expert advice and analysis on language and social issues for staff, students and the catchment areas. c) encouraging staff and students to write, especially in the area of creative writing. d) operating a language laboratory with writing and oral communication clinics. The writing clinic will focus on helping undergraduate and postgraduate students with writing skill in their courses, projects and dissertations. The oral communication clinic shall be responsible for organizing speech therapy for staff, students and others in the catchment areas. e) organising a quantitative reasoning and critical thinking lectures. f) providing and promoting awareness and training on citizenship and leadership issues, peace and conflict resolutions, and problems facing our communities and the nation at large. g) widening the academic experiences of students through drama presentations - the University Theatre Troupe shall be placed directly under the Centre. h) establishing a small scale museum of Natural History. i) organizing campus wide quiz and writing competitions.

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ORIGIN OF PROVINCE NAME: Derived from the Cree Indian word kisiskatchewanisipi, which means "swift-flowing river," and was first used to describe the Saskatchewan River. NICKNAME: Canada's Breadbasket (also: The Wheat Province). ENTERED CONFEDERATION: 1 September 1905. MOTTO: Multis e gentibus vires (From many peoples strength). Coat of Arms: In the center, the provincial shield of arms displays a red lion, which symbolizes loyalty to the British Crown, and (over a field of green) three gold wheat sheaves, which symbolize Saskatchewan's agriculture. Above the shield is a crest with a beaver holding a western red lily and carrying a royal crown on its back. Supporting the shield are a lion on the left and a deer on the right; both wear collars made of Prairie Indian beads. Beneath the shield the provincial motto appears on a scroll entwined with western red lilies. The red signifies the fires that once swept the prairies, green represents vegetation, and gold symbolizes ripening grain. FLAG: Horizontal bars of equal width with green above (for the northern forests) and yellow below (for the southern grain region). The provincial shield of arms appears in the upper quarter on the staff side and a western red lily lies in the half farthest from the staff. FLORAL EMBLEM: Western red lily (also known as the prairie lily). TARTAN: Saskatchewan Tartan (gold, brown, green, red, yellow, white, and black). PROVINCIAL BIRD: Prairie sharp-tailed grouse. TREE: White birch. TIME: 6 AM CST = noon GMT; 5 AM MST = noon GMT. Saskatchewan, almost rectangular in shape, is located between the two other prairie provinces, with Manitoba to the east and Alberta to the west. The Northwest Territories are to the north, and the US states of Montana and North Dakota are to the south. Saskatchewan covers some 251,700 square miles (651,900 square kilometers). It is the only province formed entirely of man-made borders. The northern part of Saskatchewan lies on the Canadian Shield geologic formation which stretches across much of Canada. As a result, there are numerous lakes (nearly 100,000), rivers, bogs, and rocky outcroppings. About one-eighth of the entire province is covered with water. The southern part of the province is relatively flat prairie, with occasional valleys created by erosion from the glacial era. The south is where most of the population lives. The highest point is at Cypress Hills, 4,566 feet (1,392 meters) above sea level. The province has three major river systems, which all empty into Hudson Bay: North and South Saskatchewan, Assiniboine, and Churchill. Saskatoon, the largest city, is divided by the South Saskatchewan River. Athabasca Provincial Park has sand dunes 100 feet (30 meters) high and semi-arid vegetation. Nowhere else in the world are dunes found so far north. The whole province enjoys a hot, dry summer. The town of Estevan in the southeast averages 2,540 hours of sunshine per year, more than any other city in Canada. In Regina, the normal daily temperature ranges from 0°F (-18°C) in January to 66°F (19°C) in July. Normal daily temperatures for Saskatoon are -2°F (-19°C) in January and 66°F (19°C) in July. The recorded high temperature in Saskatchewan of 113°F (45°C) was set on 5 July 1937 at Midale; the record low, -70°F (-56.7°C), was set on 1 February 1893 at Prince Albert. |Estimated 2003 population||994,800| |Population change, 1996–2001||-1.1%| |Percent Urban/Rural populations| |Foreign born population||5.0%| |Population by ethnicity| |North American Indian||102,285| |Lloydminster (in Alberta)||13,148| |Lloydminster (in Saskatchewan)||7,840| Saskatchewan's southern plains were once covered by native prairie grass. Grass fires started by nature would often sweep over the plains. Western wheat grass, snowberry, and silver sage are common to Grasslands National Park, located in the extreme south. To the north, several types of berries and wildflowers, Labrador tea, and feather moss are commonly found The prairie sharp-tailed grouse, one of the province's most common native game birds, is the official bird of Saskatchewan. Other common bird species include the Hungarian partridge, ruffed grouse, and spruce grouse. Bison, eagles, osprey, white pelicans, beaver, elk, moose, and wolves inhabit Prince Albert National Park. Golden eagles, pronghorn antelope, prairie rattlesnakes, sage grouse, prairie falcons, bobcats, and porcupines are found in Grasslands National Park. Endangered and threatened species include ferruginous hawks, short-horned lizards, and burrowing owls. Lake trout, walleye, northern pike, and Arctic grayling are among 68 fish species in the province. In 1997, the worst outbreak of avian botulism (a fatal bacterial disease among birds) in decades was reported at Saskatchewan's Old Wives Lake, where an estimated one million birds died (85 percent ducks). Solid waste generation amounted to 828,359 tons in 2000, or 1,788 pounds (811 kilograms) per person. Saskatchewan is actively participating in efforts to address climate change and greenhouse gas emissions. However, as of 2002, Saskatchewan did not support the Kyoto Protocol emissions target set by the Canadian government. Saskatchewan's 2001 population of 978,933 is about 3 percent of the national population. Saskatchewan's population density is the lowest among the four provinces of western Canada. As of 2001, 29 percent of all residents were under 19 years of age. The median age increased from 32.6 years in 1991 to 36.7 years in 2001. That was still younger than the national average of 37.6 years, however. Saskatoon had 196,816 residents, while Regina had 178,225 in 2001. Other large cities and their populations include Prince Albert, 34,752; Moose Jaw, 32,631; Lloydminster, 20,988; and North Battleford, 17,117. Saskatchewan is the only province where the number of people of British or French background is smaller than the number of people from other ethnic groups. Various European ethnic groups are found here, including British, German, Ukrainian, French, Norwegian, Polish, Dutch, Swedish, and Russian. Its Aboriginal (Native Peoples) population was 102,285 in 2001, or 10.6 percent of the total. Many other non-European peoples (Chinese, blacks, Indians and other southern Asians, and Filipinos) live in Saskatchewan as well. In 2001, 84.9 percent of all Saskatchewaners claimed English as their first language, 1.8 percent reported French, and 12.3 percent reported some other first language (1 percent had two or more native languages). Most Saskatchewaners are Christian. Close to half of the population, or 449,195 people, are Protestant. The leading Protestant denominations are represented, including United Church of Canada members, Lutherans, Anglicans, Pentecostals, Baptists, and Presbyterians. Catholics—31.7 percent of the population—number 305,390. About 1.5 percent of Saskatchewaners are Eastern Orthodox. Other faiths are also represented in smaller numbers, including Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, Sikhs, and Jews. About 151,455 Saskatchewaners report no religious affiliation. During the frontier era, waterways such as the Clearwater and Churchill Rivers became established fur-trade routes, as did the overland Carlton Trail. At 150,000 miles (250,000 kilometers), Saskatchewan today has more road surface than any other province. In 2003, registered road motor vehicles numbered 709,788. There were also 3,820 buses, 5,132 motorcycles and mopeds, and 110,843 trailers. Both Regina and Saskatoon have bus systems with more than 110 buses in each fleet. Saskatchewan currently has over 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) of railways under provincial jurisdiction. International airports are located at Regina and Saskatoon. Saskatchewan is referred to as one of Canada's Prairie Provinces because its southern geography consists of extensive plains. The first European explorers and trappers to visit Saskatchewan found established settlements of Aboriginal, or native, peoples. The Chipewyan Indians lived in the north, the nomadic Blackfoot roamed the eastern plains, and the Assiniboine inhabited the west. The territory of the Cree, who were long-time residents of the north, also extended southward to the plains. The earliest explorer to the region was England's Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay Company. Around 1690 he followed the Saskatchewan River to the southern plains of Saskatchewan, which was especially good fur-trapping country. Fur-trading companies and trading posts soon sprang up, becoming the foundation of many present-day settlements. For about 200 years, the Hudson's Bay Company owned and oversaw the vast Northwest Territories, including Saskatchewan. Because these regions were perfect for farming and colonizing, the Government of Canada purchased the Territories in 1870. The passage of the Dominion Lands Act in 1872 encouraged families known as homesteaders to acquire, live on, and cultivate tracts of Saskatchewan farmland. Another act was passed to help stimulate immigration, and the establishment of a new railway began bringing waves of settlers into these rich lands. As more and more Europeans arrived in the area, the Native people began to worry that they would be pushed out and lose control of their land, their language, and their political rights. When the Métis, people of mixed French and Indian heritage, approached the federal government with their concerns, they were told that they had no legal claim to the land. This led to a long conflict known as the North West Rebellion, during which the Métis fought hard for their native land. When it was all over, the Native peoples were forced to surrender to the Canadian government's forces. Many of the Métis ended up leaving their land and moving elsewhere. After the Métis uprising had been brought under control, immigration and settlement of the area expanded rapidly. When the Territories became too large to manage, they were reorganized. Saskatchewan was established as a province in 1905, with Regina as its capital. The early years of the 20th century were prosperous ones for the new province. Between 1885 and 1911, the population of the region grew from approximately 32,000 to 493,000. Furthermore, the price of wheat—the main crop grown by farmers on the plains—continued to climb during these years. After World War I (1914-1918), however, the people of Saskatchewan suddenly faced a bleak future. Wheat prices fell Over the course of the 1920s, grain prices recovered, and Canada as a whole experienced a period of rapid industrialization. Improvements to railways and roads boosted commerce. Automobiles, telephones, electrical appliances, and other consumer goods became widely available. As in the United States, consumer confidence led to the rapid expansion of credit and greater business opportunities. The Great Depression, a period of severe economic downturn that began in 1929, hit Saskatchewan and the other Prairie Provinces very hard. In addition to the falling grain prices of the 1920s, droughts and frequent crop failures devastated the economy of the province. Feeling that the federal government's grain policies did not meet their needs, Saskatchewan farmers began to look for a way to gain more control over the grain industry. As a result, they created a cooperative organization called the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool. The Pool allowed wheat to be sold directly to foreign importers; all profits were then divided among the Pool's members. By 1924, about 45,000 farmers were under contract to the Pool. As economic conditions in Saskatchewan worsened in the 1930s, social welfare programs in the area expanded rapidly. The provincial income in Saskatchewan decreased by 90% during the 1930s, and two-thirds of the province's population needed welfare assistance. These harsh economic conditions frequently resulted in protests and demonstrations by unemployed workers, the most famous being the Regina Riot. World War II (1939-1945) brought an end to the Depression, and in the 1940s consumer spending and immigration to Canada increased rapidly. Urbanization spread quickly with the passage of the National Housing Act, which made it easier for ordinary people to purchase their own homes. Unemployment insurance and other social welfare programs were also created following the war. In 1945, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), led by Tommy Douglas, became the first socialist government elected in North America. (Socialism is a political and economic system in which the means of production are owned and controlled by the government.) In 1949, the CCF was also responsible for the creation of the Saskatchewan Arts Board, the first publicly funded council of the arts in North America. Later, under the leadership of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent, old age pensions were increased (1951) and a national hospital insurance plan was introduced (1957). The recovery of the 1940s and 1950s saw the economy of Saskatchewan—once dependent solely on agriculture—branch out into the development of oil, uranium, potash, coal, and other minerals. All of Saskatchewan's industries demanded a plentiful water supply, but water availability in the southern part of the province was rather unpredictable. To address this problem, Lake Diefenbaker on the South Saskatchewan River was created in 1958 to act as a reservoir. The prosperity enjoyed by Saskatchewan farmers at this time was threatened in 1970, when grain sales fell drastically. Farmers faced hardships that reminded many of the difficult Depression years. Fortunately, recovery from this downturn began almost immediately, with an increase in sales and a rise in wheat and barley prices in 1971. The 1970s and 1980s brought other progress, particularly in the areas of culture and sports. The Saskatchewan Centre of the Arts opened in Regina in 1970, and the University of Regina was established there in 1974. In 1989, the city of Saskatoon hosted the Jeux Canada Games, and the Saskatchewan Roughriders won the Grey Cup for the second time. (They had also been victorious in 1966.) The late 1980s saw the emergence of Saskatoon as a major trading centre of western Canada. Its population in these years rose to surpass that of Regina. On 17 December 1992 Canada joined the United States and Mexico in signing the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which was built upon the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA, which was implemented in 1994, seeks to create a single market of 370 million people. Canada's unity has been threatened by the possibility of Québec's secession, or separation, from the rest of the country. Québec is a French-speaking area that places high value on the preservation of its French culture. The Meech Lake Accord (1987) and the Charlottetown Accord (1992) both proposed the recognition of Québec as a "distinct society" within the nation. The Canadian government had hoped that these accords would alleviate Québec's fears of cultural loss and discrimination while maintaining a unified Canada, but Québec's separation issue remains unresolved. In the early 2000s, Saskatchewan was taking steps to improve its educational system. It was also looking to improve health care, create jobs, and grow the economy. Also, steps were taken to promote a "green" Saskatchewan: breakthroughs in renewable energy sources, environmental technology, and energy conservation were geared to support an economy growing in harmony with the natural environment. The structure of the provincial government reflects that of the federal government. For example, the provincial premier, as the majority party leader of the legislature, functions much like the Canadian prime minister. Provincial legislators, like their federal counterparts in Parliament, are elected to represent a constitutional jurisdiction and pass legislation. They do so as members of the 58-seat Legislative Assembly. A provincial lieutenant-governor approves laws passed by the legislature, much like the Governor General at the federal level. There is no provincial equivalent, however, to the federal Senate. After Saskatchewan entered the confederation in 1905, political parties catered to the interests of farmers. The Liberal Party gained the majority of seats, eventually holding 91 percent of them in 1934. Soon, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) became more important, and often held the majority from 1944 to 1971. The most recent general election was held on 5 November 2003. The parties held the following number of seats in Saskatchewan's Legislative Assembly in 2003 (following the election): New Democratic Party, 30; Saskatchewan Party, 28; Liberal Party, 0. |1905–16||Thomas Walter Scott||Liberal| |1916–22||William Melville Martin||Liberal| |1922–26||Charles Avery Dunning||Liberal| |1926–29||James Garfield Gardiner||Liberal| |1929–34||James Milton Anderson||Conservative| |1934–35||James Garfield Gardiner||Liberal| |1935–44||William John Patterson||Liberal| |1944–61||Thomas Clement Douglas||CCF| |1961–64||Woodrow Stanley Lloyd||CCF| |1964–71||William Ross Thatcher||Liberal| |1971–82||Allan Emrys Blakeney||New Democratic| |1982–91||Donald Grant Devine||Conservative| |1991–01||Roy John Romanow||New Democratic| |2001–||Lorne Calvert||New Democratic| Saskatchewan's municipalities are classified as the following: rural municipalities, villages, resort villages, towns, and cities, as well as northern towns, northern villages, northern hamlets, and northern settlements. Villages must have at least 100 permanent residents and a tax base of C$200,000, while resort villages do not need permanent residents. Towns must have at least 500 permanent inhabitants. Cities are required to have a minimum population of 5,000. Saskatchewan has 9 cities, 33 municipalities, 4 rural municipalities, and 3 villages. The Canadian Constitution grants provincial jurisdiction over the administration of justice, and allows each province to organize its own court system and police forces. The federal government has exclusive domain over cases involving trade and commerce, banking, bankruptcy, and criminal law. The Federal Court of Canada has both trial and appellate divisions for federal cases. The nine-judge Supreme Court of Canada is an appellate court that determines the constitutionality of both federal and provincial statutes. The Tax Court of Canada hears appeals of taxpayers against assessments by Revenue Canada. The provincial court system consists of the Provincial Court, which hears criminal and civil cases, small claims, family and youth proceedings, and traffic violations; the Court of Queen's Bench, which hears serious civil and criminal cases, and some family law matters, including divorce; and the Court of Appeal, Saskatchewan's highest court, which hears certain appeals from the Provincial Court and the Court of Queen's Bench. In 2002, there were 27 homicides in Saskatchewan. That year, there were 1,812 violent crimes per 100,000 persons, and 5,678 property crimes per 100,000 persons. The Métis, people of mixed European and Aboriginal descent, were among the first settlers, many of them having migrated from Manitoba. A major wave of immigration began in 1899 and continued until 1929. By the early 1920s, over 20 percent of all Canadians lived in the Prairie provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta), up from just 8 percent in 1911. In 2001, 17.7 percent of the 47,825 immigrants living in Saskatchewan had come from the United Kingdom, and 12.3 percent came from the United States. About 13.8 percent came from Northern and Western European countries other than the United Kingdom (mostly from Germany). Some 13.6 percent came from Eastern Europe (mostly from Poland). About 9.6 percent came from Southeast Asia (mostly from the Philippines), and 8.7 percent from East Asia (mostly from China). In 2001, 1 percent of Saskatchewan's residents age 5 and older were living abroad. Some 11.5 percent were living elsewhere in Saskatchewan, while 4.7 percent were living in another province. Alberta is the leading province of origin for incoming internal migration and the leading province of destination for outward internal migration. During the early 20th century, with land available at token prices, agriculture gradually replaced the fur trade. Today, other prominent industries include mining, meat processing, electricity production, and petroleum refining. In 2002, the gross domestic product (GDP) totaled C$34.6 billion, or about 3 percent of the national total. In 2000, average weekly wages amounted to C$559.29. Average family income in the province was C$58,077 in 2000 for a family of five. In 2002, the total value of shipments by manufacturers was C$7.24 billion. By value of shipments, the leading areas of manufacturing in Saskatchewan included food, C$1.8 billion; machinery, C$662 million; chemicals and chemical products, C$562 million; forestry products, C$430 million; fabricated metals, C$416 million; and electrical equipment, C$208 million. In 2003, the labor force amounted to 510,300. The total number of employed persons was 483,900, and the number of unemployed persons was 26,400, for an unemployment rate of 5.2 percent. The hourly minimum wage as of January 2004 was C$6.65. The sectors with the largest numbers of employed persons in 2003 were trade, 79,700; health care and social services, 58,400; agriculture, 47,300; educational services, 40,200; accommodation and food services, 34,400; manufacturing, 29,600; public administration, 27,600; finance, insurance, and real estate and leasing, 26,800; construction, 22,600; transportation and warehousing, 22,200; other services, 22,100; information, culture, and recreation, 21,800; forestry, fishing, mining, and oil and gas, 19,100; professional, scientific, and technical services, 18,200; management, administrative, and other support, 11,300; and utilities, 4,500. About one-third of Saskatchewan's area consists of cultivated lands. In 1905, when Saskatchewan entered the Canadian confederation, agriculture was the only industry, and it centered on wheat farming. In 1907, the development of the Marquis strain of wheat (a fast-growing type that thrives in the short but intense growing season of the northern prairie) expanded farming and settlement in northern Saskatchewan. Today, Saskatchewan supplies over 25 percent of Canada's grain production, and crops include canola, rye, oats, barley, and flaxseeds, as well as wheat. Saskatoons (a berry) and strawberries are the top fruit crops produced. The top field-grown vegetable crops are sweet corn, cabbage, and green peas. In 2001, 773 farms were growing certified organic products. There were 298 farms with There were 50,598 farms operating in Saskatchewan in 2001. The total farm area that year was 64.9 million acres (26.3 million hectares), and 37.9 million acres (15.4 million hectares) were used for crops. Farm receipts in 2000 (excluding forest products sold) amounted to over C$5.89 billion. Farmers' operating expenses equaled C$5.02 billion. The average farmer was left with C$17,263 before interest payments and taxes. Saskatchewan is a major Canadian producer of cattle and hogs. As of 2001, the livestock population included 2.9 million head of cattle, 30,136 dairy cows, 1.1 million hogs, and 149,389 sheep. The poultry population in 2003 was over 1 million. There were 73 chicken producers, 24 turkey producers, and 67 egg producers. The total value of livestock receipts in 2003 was C$1.65 billion. Although commercial fishing is not a large contributor to the provincial economy, sport fishing on Saskatchewan's 94,000 lakes is very popular. Sport fishing is important to many local economies, especially in the northern parts of Saskatchewan. In 2000, the province had 130,076 residents actively engaged in sport fishing within Saskatchewan. Popular game fish for sport anglers include walleye, perch, trout, Arctic grayling, goldeye, burbot, whitefish, and sturgeon. About half of Saskatchewan is covered with forest. About 97 percent of the 71.2 million acres (28.8 million hectares) of forest land is provincial Crown land. Northern forests are Saskatchewan's most important renewable natural resource, with softwoods the focal point of forestry development. White birch, found primarily in the northern three-fourths of the province and long used by the Plains Indians to make birch bark canoes, is today used for lumber, plywood, veneer, and fuel. In 2000, the total timber harvest was 52,311 acres (21,169 hectares). The value of forestry product exports in 2002 was C$631.9 million, of which wood pulp made up 45 percent. The forestry industry directly employed 4,800 persons in 2002. Saskatchewan has nearly two-thirds of the world's recoverable potash reserves. Canada is the world's largest producer of potash, and Saskatchewan produces about 85 percent of the national output. Potash, which is used in fertilizers, is mined near Saskatoon, Regina, Esterhazy, and Rocanville. In 2003, the total value of mineral production was C$2.37 billion. Saskatchewan's uranium production was 10,294 tons in 2003, when it was valued at C$504.4 million. Other leading minerals for the province's mining industry include copper, sand and gravel, salt, and gold. Saskatchewan is Canada's second-highest oil-producing and third-highest natural gas-producing province. The province has Canada's largest reserves of heavy oil, in addition to light and medium crude deposits. Saskatchewan's 14,000 oil wells produce about 20 percent of Canada's annual oil output. Of Saskatchewan's total exported crude oil, some 65 percent goes to the United States. Crude oil from both Saskatchewan and Alberta is transported to market via the Interprovincial Pipe Line (IPL). The IPL originates in Edmonton and passes through Saskatchewan on its way to eastern Canada and the United States. In 2002, 1.4 million was invested in oil and gas exploration and development. The energy sector provides around 22,000 direct and indirect jobs in the province. SaskPower is Saskatchewan's major electricity supplier. As of 2003, 78 percent of Saskatchewan's energy needs were met by thermal sources, 21 percent by hydroelectricity, and 1 percent by other sources. The province is a net importer of electricity. In 2002, total merchandise exports amounted to C$11.3 billion and imports totaled C$4.1 billion. The United States was Saskatchewan's largest export market (62.1 percent of all exports) and the major import supplier (90 percent of all imports). Other major export markets are Japan, China, Algeria, and Mexico. Import suppliers include Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, and China. The fiscal year runs from 1 April to 31 March. For fiscal year 2002/03, total revenues were C$6.46 billion. Government expenditures were C$5.76 billion. The largest expenditure areas were health, education, interest on debt, social services, agriculture, and highways and transportation. In the 2002/03 fiscal year, provincial debt was estimated at C$11.45 billion. The government debt to gross domestic product ratio was 22.8 percent. As of 2003, the basic personal income tax rate was 45 percent. The retail sales tax was 6 percent. Major consumption taxes are levied on gasoline (C$0.15 per liter) and tobacco (C$32 per carton). The average family of four (two parents and two children) in 2003 earned C$76,544. Such a family paid C$36,772 in taxes. Corporate income tax rates in 2003 were as follows: small business rate, 6 percent; general business rate, 17 percent; and capital tax rate, 0.6–3.25 percent. In 2001, there were 12,275 live births in Saskatchewan, a 1.1 percent increase over 2000. Saskatchewan was one of only four provinces or territories that had an increase in the number of live births in 2001. There were 8,740 deaths that year, a 2.4 percent decrease from 2000. Life expectancy for men in 2001 was 76.4 years, and 82.3 years for women. Reported cases of selected diseases in 2002 included gonococcal infections, 560; giardiasis, 168; salmonellosis, 161; hepatitis B, 43; and campylobacteriosis, 254. Between November 1985 and June 2003, 407 residents had become infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Saskatchewan has over 130 hospitals and health centers. The Regina General Hospital is the largest health care facility in southern Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan had 379,680 households in 2001. The average household size was 2.5 persons. There were 288,075 households living in single-detached houses, 10,715 households living in apartments in buildings with five or more stories, 6,900 households living in mobile homes, and 73,990 households living in other dwellings, including row houses and apartments in buildings with fewer than five stories. In 2002, C$958.5 million was invested in residential housing construction. In 2000, Saskatchewan had 208,483 students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. That year, there were 11,473 teachers, for a student-teacher ratio of 16 to 1. There are two major universities in the province: the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, with an enrollment of 15,368 full-time students in October 2002; and the University of Regina, with about 12,000 full-and part-time students. The First Nations University of Canada (formerly the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College) is affiliated with the University of Regina. It is the first university-level institution in North America operated by and for Native North Americans. Enrollment at First Nations University of Canada has grown from 9 students in 1976 to about 1,200 in 2003–04. The Regina Symphony Orchestra is Canada's oldest symphony orchestra. Regina's Globe Theatre company is the city's oldest theater and performs in the old city hall downtown. Saskatoon also has a symphony orchestra and several theaters. Filmpool in Regina is an artist-run center for the promotion of independent film-making. There are also writers and artists' colonies, a storytelling festival, and many art galleries in the province. Per capita provincial spending on the arts in Saskatchewan in 2000/01 was C$71. The largest public libraries are Regina Public Library, with nine branches, and the Saskatoon Public Library, with seven branches. Seven regional systems—Chinook, Lakeland, Palliser, Parkland, Southeast, Wapiti, and Wheatland—provide public library services to other parts of the province. Regina has the Plains Historical Museum, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police Centennial Museum, the Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, and the Saskatchewan Science Centre. Saskatoon is the home of the Western Development Museum and the Ukrainian Museum of Canada. The Right Honourable Diefenbacker Canada Centre in Saskatoon maintains the collection of papers, letters, and memorabilia of the late prime minister John G. Diefenbacker. As of 2002, Saskatchewan had 28 AM and FM radio stations, and 50 television stations. The Regina metropolitan area has 7 local AM and 9 FM radio stations (including CBC French) and 4 broadcast television stations; Cable Regina offers Canadian and American cable stations. Daily newspapers include The Leader-Post (Regina), The Star Phoenix (Saskatoon), the Times-Herald (Moose Jaw), and the Daily Herald (Prince Albert). Named after Queen Victoria (Victoria Regina), the capital is the site of Wascana Centre, one of the world's largest urban parks. Regina also has Buffalo Days, a week-long provincial exposition and summer fair. Festivals in Saskatoon include Folkfest (an ethnic heritage event), Winter Festival, and the Northern Saskatchewan International Children's Festival. Authentic powwows at Indian reservations, although not tourist events as such, are a cultural highlight of Saskatchewan in the summer. Saskatchewan is home to two national parks and 26 provincial parks. There are more than 250 golf courses in Saskatchewan. Tourism is a C$1 billion-a-year industry in Saskatchewan, and more than 50,000 people are employed in tourism-related jobs. Professional sports teams in Saskatchewan include the Saskatoon Blades and the Regina Pats of the Western Major Hockey League. Saskatoon also was home of the Saskatchewan Storm of the World Basketball League until the league disbanded in 1992. Regina hosts the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). The Roughriders are the oldest professional football team in North America and were the CFL champions in 1966 and 1989. The University of Saskatchewan Huskie football team won the national championship in 1990. Popular recreational sports include baseball, football, soccer, and curling (a game imported from Scotland in which large rounded stones with attached handles are slid down an ice-covered playing area toward a circular target). Almighty Voice (1874–97) was a famous hero/outlaw and martyr who led a Cree Indian band resisting European settlement on the Saskatchewan prairie. T. C. "Tommy" Douglas (1904–86) was a famous political figure who led the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) to victory in the 1940s, thus establishing the first socialist government in North America. Gerhard Herzberg (1904–99), recipient of the 1971 Nobel Prize in chemistry, was a professor at the University of Saskatchewan from 1935 to 1945. Noted Saskatchewaners in entertainment include emcee and producer Art Linkletter (b.1912) and actor Leslie Nielsen (b.1926), and singer and song-writer Buffy Sainte-Marie (b.1941). Folk singer and songwriter Joni Mitchell (b.1943) grew up in Saskatoon. Distinguished Saskatchewan authors include novelists W. O. Mitchell (1914–98), Rudy Wiebe (b.1934), L. R. Wright (1939–2001), and short story writer Guy Vanderhaeghe (b.1951). Hockey legends from Saskatchewan include Eddie Shore (1902–85), Emile Francis (b.1926), Gordon "Gordie" Howe (b.1928), Glenn "Chico" Resch (b.1948), and Bryan Trottier (b.1956). Sandra Schmirler (1963–2000) led the curling team that won the first-ever Olympic gold medal in women's curling at the 1998 Olympics in Nagano, Japan. Caswell, Maryanne. Pioneer Girl: Maryanne Caswell. Plattsburgh, NY: Tundra Books, 2001. LeVert, Suzanne. Saskatchewan. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2001. Margoshes, Dave. Discover Canada: Saskatchewan. Toronto: Grolier, 1992. Mayell, Mark. Saskatchewan. San Diego: Lucent Books/Thomas Gale, 2003. Richardson, Gillian. Saskatchewan. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 1995. Canada Tourism Commission. Canada. http://www.canadatourism.com/ctx/app (accessed on March 20, 2004). Government of Saskatchewan. http://www.gov.sk.ca (accessed on March 20, 2004). Saskatchewan Agriculture, Food, and Rural Revitalization. http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca (accessed on March 20, 2004). Saskatchewan Tourism. http://www.sasktourism.com (accessed on March 20, 2004). Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english (accessed on March 20, 2004).

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Experiential Knowledge vs. Book/Classroom Knowledge From generation to generation the knowledge of language, religion, skills and survival methods has been passed on in the Sami culture. In describing the Sami ideas about knowledge, it is important to include the fact that they put a lot of importance on utility and things that were important on a day-to-day basis. Unlike the formal education in the West, classroom/book learning, which is theoretical, the Sami taught their young through experience. This type of learning is hands-on and very different than formal learning. Written documentation is a relatively new thing to the Sami. For millennia, the traditional knowledge was passed down orally. Storytelling and informal discussions are two examples of how knowledge was passed down. Unlike Western learning, which is primarily theoretical and taught in a classroom or learned from books, the Sami taught empirically, through experiential learning. The young student would join an older person, usually a parent, in doing different tasks. They would observe the older person, listen to what they were saying, ask questions and then proceed to try their own hand. These tasks could include anything from fishing and hunting ptarmigan, to picking cloudberries and sewing a gakti. In the arctic tundra and along the coast where the Sami lived, life was difficult and survival was of the utmost importance. Therefore, the traditional knowledge that was passed down from parent to child was primarily a series of recipes for survival. Young people learned from the life experience of older people who had in turn learned their knowledge from the generations that came before them. Observations were also an integral part of the Sami’s experiential learning. It was important for the young person to observe things for himself and to learn to think for himself. This fits in with the model, as the knowledge that was being passed down to the student was based on thousands of years of observation. The Sami’s close ties to nature were prevalent in every aspect of life. Their spirituality was based on a respect for everything found in nature, believing that everything had a spirit. Being one with nature also meant that they had no desire to destroy it. Instead they wished to live on earth and die without leaving a trace. The Sami’s livelihoods depended on gleaning the necessary resources from nature in order to live. In the old days they were a hunting and gathering people. In the 1600’s, the Sami in the tundra became reindeer herders. The knowledge needed to perpetuate this way of living would be difficult to learn if one wasn’t actually present to experience how it is done. While the western system of classroom/book learning leans on theoretical learning methods and places a value on how you fulfill the expectations put on you, the Sami way of learning is more of a truth, one that is tested on a day-to-day basis. When talking about Sami knowledge, it is first important to look at the essential nature of the language. Communication is survival. For instance, in Sapmi, language would be necessary in order to tell someone how not to freeze to death. Since the language deals with survival, most of the words are life affirming, which goes along with the ideas the Sami have about nature. Even the words possess spirits. The language is also usage-oriented. For example there are a multitude of words for such things as snow, reindeer, and landscapes, but there is only one word for something like a songbird, which is not as relevant to them in day-to-day life. The Sami view of aesthetics further illustrates this point. A Sami person would choose a field of lichen as being more beautiful than a field of flowers because a field of lichen would lend itself to being an ideal grazing ground for reindeer, while a field of flowers serves no useful purpose. Similarly, a female who is bigger and has more meat on her bones would be considered more desirable than a thinner female. The more robust woman would be able to better tolerate the cold. In one Sami word, you can express a detailed account of the weather conditions outside. An example of this would be the word joavgga, which means a deep snow, which lies undisturbed, that which is in shelter from the wind and doesn’t get blown away. Suffixes can be added to a root word to completely change the meaning of the word. For this reason, Sami is a very difficult language to learn. The Sami language is also very rich in description. Since much of the language embodies aspects of nature and the surrounding environment, it would be difficult merely to learn Sami in a classroom environment. Due to the language’s rich nature, it is better to learn it through use, experiencing the word through all the senses, as one does when learning a mother tongue. Similar to Sami, the words that are most important to be able to communicate when learning a mother tongue are words dealing with survival. Thirst, hunger, and pain are three examples of feelings experienced that are important to be able to communicate. As for the vocabulary dealing with the environment, it may be necessary to actually be in Sapmi to experience it. For example, while out on a trip hunting, the teacher could point to the ground ahead and say, “lavki” and demonstrate that lavki means that the ground ahead is slippery and to be careful because it’s difficult to get a good foothold. In this way the language is learned. As the student connects observations and experiences, the knowledge is verbalized, systemized, and committed to memory. Storytelling was a valuable way to transmit knowledge. The Western world for the most part has devalued storytelling, belittling it to fantasy or useless old wives’ tales. When storytelling, Sami parents or grandparents would be teaching the young person concepts while at the same time interweaving their own personal life experience into the story. Ethics and morals were also passed along in this way. When a skill is being taught, technical terms are used. In this way, the professional lingo is passed on to the student. The words and skills are linked. A similar idea to this in the West is when a person is apprenticing to learn a trade. For example, if a person were apprenticing to become a welder, they would learn about the tools and how to properly use them. They would learn the tricks of the trade from the more experienced craftsman and also pick up technical vocabulary along the way. This method of learning is very similar to the Sami way of learning and is one of the only places where the Western learning methods cross paths with the Sami methods. In The Salt Bin, Agnar ventures out on a fishing expedition with his uncle. His uncle promises to teach Agnar to fish in the big seas, where he has never fished before and hasn’t the knowledge of how to maneuver the large nets. In Sapmi, since the young student is out all the time, learning words and experiencing different things, they are able later to partake in the household discussions and to articulate their observations and opinions. Having this knowledge and being able to correctly articulate it, makes the opinions of young people valuable in conversation. Through conversing in these informal discussions, the young person is also improving their own vocabulary and terminology. Since learning the language entails such a deep understanding of it, it is considered to be an important part of the cultural identity of the Sami. In the 19th century when kids were taken away from their parents in order to be sent to boarding schools, an important part of their cultural identity was taken away from them. They were not allowed to speak Sami and were often punished if they disobeyed. Often teachers didn’t speak Sami and considered it to be dirty. The ridicule the Sami received about their speech made it seem disgraceful and many were ashamed of their language. In this atmosphere, even other Sami made fun of each other for their inabilities to learn the foreign language. This act of assimilation caused many Sami to lose their mother language altogether. While some were ashamed of their mother tongue, others reveled in the fact that they could speak in Sami to each other and not have the others know what they were saying. There has recently been a resurgence in Sami culture where more and more young people have the desire to again speak Sami. If people continue to speak Sami, the language will not die out. However for those whose first language is now Norwegian or Finnish, it will be difficult and will require a Sami teacher and most likely some experiential learning. The Sami’s oneness with nature also plays a huge part in their traditional knowledge. Their spirituality started as animism where everything in nature has a spirit and is respected. Certain stones were picked out as sieidi, stones that had a powerful spirit and were considered to be sacred. When an animal was killed for food, every part of its body was used and nothing was wasted. Even though it was accepted that one life form must die in order for another to live, the Sami would still have a ceremony after the killing, out of reverence for the animal’s spirit. Animals were killed out of necessity as opposed to the West, where animals are exploited and parts of animals are wasted. The old Sami religion was polytheistic, with gods taking the forms of things in nature like the sun, moon, water, and animals. This is in direct contrast to Christianity’s monotheistic beliefs. Unlike the western world, which feels that because of their intellect they are superior to other things in nature and can therefore destroy what they like, the Sami feel a oneness with nature and therefore would be reluctant to do anything to disturb the balance. They didn’t even disturb the earth by burying their dead. Rather, they feel that the earth has been lent to them for a short period of time and they would prefer to live peacefully on the earth, die, and leave no trace that they had ever been there. Unlike the mentality of Westerners who want to live forever and be memorialized after death, the Sami have had these life/death cycle ideas for thousands of years. The idea of ‘no beginning, no end’ enters the picture here because the Sami don’t feel like they are gone when they die. There is an afterworld called Saivo where the Sami go when they die. Saivo is much like life on earth, but better. There are large healthy reindeer herds and abundant cloudberry patches in Saivo. The vision of this afterworld is very different than Christianity’s ideas of heaven and hell. In addition to the humane treatment of animals, the Sami were also very humanitarian to each other. In Pathfinder, they talk about the air forming bonds between people. The Sami were peaceful and had a connectedness between them. Several families would live together in a siida. The lavvu or portable tepee can be thought of as the Sami University because it is here that many things take place and where much is learned. Children watched while adults did daily tasks, listened to stories and took part in conversations. Also, it was common for relatives or other members of the siida to take on the role of teacher to the young, particularly if there was something that they excelled in. Only the most critical knowledge was important to the Sami. They may not know every detail about a certain subject, but they do take into account the behavior that will be important to their livelihood. In Western classroom learning, a vast array of information is learned. This information is not directly imperative to their livelihoods, but is more a prescribed formula for what the board of education thinks students should learn, in order to be on par with everyone else. Everybody is learning the same set curricula. In elementary school, the basic subjects of reading, writing, and arithmetic are learned which further enables a student to go on to learning such subjects as history, science, literature, and geometry in secondary school. An extraneous amount of knowledge is learned in class. Students must complete tedious homework assignments and study hard in order to do well on tests. Some of the concepts that are learned are preparatory concepts for learning more advanced subjects, as a high level of education is valued. But with all that information that is packed in and then not ever used on a day-to-day basis, much is forgotten. A student that excels in the classroom may have a high intellect, but may not have many survival skills. The Sami have survival skills and livelihood techniques that have been passed down to them for thousands of years. Hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding are all forms of livelihoods that are learned through experiential methods. Observation is also a big part of learning in the Sami culture. At an early age, the Sami are encouraged to observe things for themselves and think on their own behalf, as well as learning things from their elders. Instinct and intuition are also assets that are considered valuable. Their spirituality and ties with nature probably heighten these senses. In the western world, people are taught not to trust their gut feelings. They are taught that it is better to think rationally and logically and rely on the ideas that they have learned in books. Rather than feeling that what is going on inside has importance, people are taught that all the rules that are enforced on us have more clout. Unfortunately, rules are often made by a select few people who are abusing their power in order to suppress peoples’ thoughts and feelings. Rather than to think for yourself, it is better in the West to conform and act like a herd of sheep. The increased intellectual knowledge often corresponds with depleted common sense. The lack of a strong relationship with nature has probably lessened the natural instinctual nature that humans are born with. Also the stress on intellectual knowledge has made us seem to be more separate from what we really are, just another animal. Also, the lack of spirituality or the following of strict organized religion has lessened the value of intuition. Paying attention to one’s intuition in the West would be considered superstitious or hocus pocus, since ‘rational logic’ tells us that it has no value. In the Sami culture, if one has an intuitive dream or a vision, it is probable that it will be taken into consideration, as any other piece of information learned would be. Perhaps this stems from the old religion, where noaidis went into shamanistic trances and could use the sacred drum to travel between worlds to observe other truths. It was even possible to communicate with those who had passed on, who were thought to be living in Saivo. Since these types of shamanistic journeys were known to the Sami, they were quite open-minded about things. They thought that anything was possible, while Westerners in comparison are quite close-minded. The Sami had ties to their ancestors, often feeling that their ancestors were a part of them, who they were, and that their ancient knowledge was a part of their own knowledge. There were also feelings among the Sami of genetic memory, where they felt like they possessed knowledge of something that they had never experienced or been told about. In the Western world, ancestral ties are often unknown or severed. With modern transportation, one can easily move to other countries and through things like name changes, ties can be easily lost. Since the young Sami were in constant contact with family members, familial ties were strong. Parents, grandparents, aunts, and uncles were all teachers and also people to converse with. Siblings were companions since they spent a lot of time together. A cloudberry trip for example would perhaps entail a father taking the kids out for a few days in the swamps. In The Cloudberry Trip by Jovnna-Ánde Vest, the father does just that. Once he is out of the house, he becomes jovial and talkative to the children. This behavior is unlike his usual sullen behavior at home. Throughout the expedition, he tells them an exciting story that his kids can’t get enough of. In the West, it is common for a person to separate from their family as soon as they are possibly able to make it on their own. In the Western school system, children start attending school around the age of four (if they go to nursery school, even earlier) and legally must attend school until around the age of sixteen. This is a minimum of 12 years where five days a week, the child is in a classroom environment for approximately 6-8 hours a day. Parents, needing to support their families, often work a typical 40 hour-a-week (or more) full-time job. This means that they spend a significant amount of time at work, away from the home. Often when a child gets home from school, the parents are still at work. Parents and children often can only share a few hours a day together. And after the stress and exhaustion of school and work, there is no guarantee that it will be quality time. Oftentimes daycares or babysitters are employed to care for the child. Usually these caretakers are of no relation and are essentially strangers. The television has also become a convenient babysitter. In Western culture, the nuclear family is most common. Because of modern technology and the commonness of moving long distances, away from the rest of the family, it’s common for extended families to see each other only a few times a year, if that. Ageism, incidentally also devaluing children’s opinions, devalues the elderly. Since elderly people are often considered burdensome, it is rare to see three generations in one household. Instead, the elderly are often sent to live in old folks’ homes, where the setting ranges from decent to very unhealthy in terms of living/social conditions. In the Sami culture, the elderly were highly respected and revered for their years of experience and vast knowledge. They lived with their children and their grandchildren and were very important in regards to the transmission of knowledge. They were often great storytellers, intertwining their own life experiences into their stories. Since they had lived for so many years, they could also tell the children about things from their childhood and about their parents and grandparents, thereby educating the children about history and giving them a sense of who their ancestors were as well. Also, with an extended family living together, there is more love given and children are less likely to have emotional problems. In a Western classroom where a child spends much of his day, there are often 20 students to one teacher. It would be almost impossible for the teacher to give each student any significant one-on-one time. Troubled children often slip through the cracks in school systems. The Sami didn’t believe in private property. They didn’t own the earth; therefore, they couldn’t own pieces of land. Land was used collectively. For example, an ideal spot for reindeer grazing would be shared by everybody’s reindeer. In the West, materialism runs rampant. People strive to own private property. For example, the “American Dream” includes owning your own house and your own car. These ideas of individualism lead to a lack of community and a lack of trust. An example would be the concept of trespassing. In Sapmi, it is common to just show up at a siida and be taken in by the people there. The Sami’s systems of direction and time are also different from the West’s. In the West, there are four directions: North, East, South, and West, with North and South corresponding to where the two Poles are. In Sapmi, the directions are completely different. North corresponds to the coastal regions and East is nuorta. The Sami concept of time is based on cycles. With the changes of season, things are done. Migration of reindeer, mating times, and the picking of cloudberries are all dependent on the time of the year. There are no finite units of time, such as weeks, months, or years. Things are done whenever it feels right to do them. For this reason, it would seem to an outsider that a Sami person is often late and therefore unreliable. In actuality, the Sami person is just doing things according to a more natural clock. The West’s linear version of time lends itself to the calendar, with weeks, months, and years. Furthermore the day can be separated into hours, minutes, and seconds. There are certain times of day when things are supposed to get done and things are often rushed. In Boarding School by Ellen Marie Vars, it mentions the fact that the children were supposed to eat at certain times of the day, even if they weren’t hungry. Between mealtimes, if a child were hungry, there was no food to be had. For Katja, the main character, a Sami girl, this seemed very unnatural. The yoik is an important part of the Sami culture. It is a type of music that is sometimes similar to poetry. Many of the traditional yoiks were just sounds, not words. The yoik is often given to others, whether it be a person, animal, or place. They are used to express feelings of joy, sorrow, anger, etc…and they are often started and finished spontaneously, thus not having a definite beginning or end. Traditionally, it was usually only vocal, with one or more people yoiking. The typical Western style of music follows a pattern with a definite beginning, middle, and end. Most songs are comprised of a singer, who sings words, and then one or more instruments accompanying them. The more modern yoiks by such artists as Mari Boine do contain lyrics, and a message. Issues such as the environment and the oppression of the Sami are vocalized in her music. Also, instruments and sound effects have been incorporated into modern yoiks. When going into a trance, the noiadi would yoik. At the time of missionaries and Christian oppression, the noiadis were burned, sacred drums were destroyed, and the yoik was forbidden as Christians believed them to be Satanic chants. Assimilation was another of the many difficult obstacles that the Sami had to suffer through and struggle to overcome. Denmark-Norway, Sweden-Finland and Russia all exploited the Sami by imposing unfair taxes on them. Then they formed boundaries between the nations that were impassible. The Sami way of life, being migratory during different seasons, was disturbed by this change. For hundreds of years, the reindeer herds had traveled between regions in order to get to ideal grazing and birthing spots. With this unexpected change, the Sami feared the threat of starvation. Efforts to make the Sami citizens of these countries were made. Norway was especially harsh in trying to assimilate the Sami into their own culture. One technique of forcing people to become citizens was to offer them government welfare. Boarding school was another way to assimilate the Sami. Young children were plucked from their families in order to start them in the Norwegianization process early. Speaking the Sami language was forbidden and often children were disciplined with a beating if they disobeyed. They were forced to speak only Norwegian, which at first, of course, they could not speak or understand. When they did learn to speak it, out of the need to communicate, at least during class, they were ridiculed because they could not pronounce certain letters and certain sounds. Even other Sami ridiculed each other. In Boarding School, Katja was ridiculed by other Sami kids because her family had not owned reindeer. She was even said to not be a real Sami, just poor trash. An environment like this, with its strict schedule, unfamiliar language and food, uncaring teachers, and constant fear of being ridiculed or beaten up, makes for a strong feeling of isolation. A loss of cultural identity is the outcome, developing from feelings of shame about one’s background and identity, and feelings of low self-worth. In Katja’s case, she resisted the assimilation, but as a result of the conditions at school, she became very bitter and violent herself. In self-defense, she became a fighter and others were intimidated by her. Teachers saw that she had become hardened, but they did not care enough to interfere. The boarding school experiences of many Sami were similar to Katja’s. The pain and shame from boarding schools left deep scars in many of the Sami. Children were sent to boarding schools until about the 1960’s. Since then, schools have been developed that teach in Sami. Many young people now speak both Sami and Norwegian. Biculturalism seems like the only real solution to the dilemma of the modern Sami lifestyle. In order to be able to live in the modern world, it seems that one must take part in Western systems. Money is now necessary in order to survive. In the old days, the Sami were primarily self-sufficient, trading with foreigners for resources that were unavailable in Sapmi. With the spread of technology, things like electricity and motorized vehicles were introduced to the Sami. Along with this technology comes the need to supply the resources that are necessary to generate the power. So natural resources must be exploited on a much larger level. Many Sami embrace new technology, believing that, by incorporating technology into their lives, they are getting the best of two worlds. For example the multimedia artist, Nils-Aslak Valkeapää, encourages incorporating modern technology into daily life, believing that a culture must either evolve or die out. The Sami struggle in modern times in trying to break through all the red tape. Bureaucracies make it difficult for the Sami to get the rights that they deserve, being that they are indigenous to the area and were there long before the nations formed. Issues such as protecting the environment and letting only Sami use certain water and land that they have depended on for food and not depleted for thousands of years are at the forefront. Sami schools and other Sami institutions now promote a strong sense of Sami identity. There are classes on the Sami language, in how to make duodji, and about the history of the Sami. It is difficult demanding rights in such a country as Norway, where many Sami are collecting welfare from the government. Being given welfare is almost worse than not getting anything because it makes the government seem caring and helpful, when really there is still a lot of underlying racism towards the Sami. Doling out welfare also gives the government the upper hand. The Sami are politically active when it comes to issues of the environment. Their protests against the damming of the Alta River is what first gave them the publicity it took to become a known politically active group. Since then, they have spoken out on their views in regard to respecting nature and protecting the environment and they have gained a voice. Relying on knowledge of survival methods for thousands of years means that the Sami would have a good idea of how to survive if suddenly there was a colder world climate. Environmental disasters that deal with modern technology, they would not be able to solve, however, being that they do not have knowledge in dealing with chemicals and such. One of the many injustices through which the Sami have suffered, was the devastating effects from Chernobyl. The reindeer meat in Southern Sapmi was found to be contaminated, so thousands upon thousands of reindeer had to be slaughtered. The Sami again faced the threat of starvation. In addition to speaking out about the environment, the Sami have also joined forces with other indigenous groups all over the world. They are an important influence and inspiration to such groups as the Native American Indians because through it all, the Sami have had many successes, especially compared to other indigenous cultures. The Sami speak out against racism, having had experienced so much of it, even though they are primarily light-skinned. They also speak about feminism. With the advent of Christianity, suddenly women were not revered as they once had been because Christianity considers the woman to be weak and inferior to her male counterpart. In many cases, especially because of the increase in alcoholism (a substance that was introduced to the Sami)in men, women are holding households together by themselves. Women have always played a strong role in the family and still do today. As the environment gets more and more damaged and resources are being depleted, it is hoped that the powerful nations of the world will start listening to the wisdom of indigenous groups. Over the past century alone, industrial countries such as the U.S. and those in Europe have irreversibly depleted much of the earth’s resources. As resources run out and the effects of such negligent behavior becomes apparent, it is hoped that Western countries will turn to the knowledge like the Sami have, to find alternative ways of living. Respecting nature and everything in it, including people, would be a nice change from the rat race that life has become in the West. In the U.S., for example, many people go to college for the main goal of getting a high-paying job. Money is what is valued in this society because it is money that buys things, and material wealth is equated with happiness. People care more about personal gain than they do about the environment or each other. Otherwise, how could one explain the disparity between all the homeless people in one of the wealthiest nations? Corporations are a huge factor in the Western demise. With no regards to nature, they pollute the air, water, and land, just to make a profit. They exploit people in other countries for the same reason, to make a profit. The connectedness between people is not there. Otherwise, how can one explain sweatshop conditions were people work for almost nothing in unsanitary, unsafe workplaces, just so Americans and Europeans can wear designer clothing and big corporations can get even richer? Also, if the Sami can survive through all the horrible obstacles that other people have put on them, and still maintain their peacefulness, it seems that logically countries should be able to refrain form going to war with each other over something like oil. As Western ways seep into such indigenous cultures as the Sami, concepts such as capitalism, materialism, private property, and individualism are sure to follow. It’s now necessary to have money in Sapmi and most people have become accustomed to the convenience of electricity and motorized vehicles. The present day Sami, especially the youth, seem to be developing footing in both Sami identity and modern Western identity. Hopefully, with their version of biculturalism, they will be able to maintain this compromise with a strong Sami identity and also be able to share their views and knowledge with the rest of the world. 1) Gaski, Harald. In the Shadow of the Midnight Sun: Contemporary Sami Prose and Poetry. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1997. 2) Gaski, Harald. Sami Culture in a New Era: The Norwegian Sami Experience. University of Washington Press, Seattle, 1997. 3) Helander, Elina and Kaarina Kailo. No Beginning, No End: The Sami Speak Up Canadian Circumpolar Institute, 1998. 4) Jenssen, Frank A. The Salt Bin, 1981. 5) Stien, Laila. Antiphony, 1997.

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Myers, J. & Beach, R. (2004). Constructing critical literacy practices through technology tools and inquiry. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education [Online serial], 4(3). Available: http://www.citejournal.org/vol4/iss3/languagearts/article1.cfm Constructing Critical Literacy Practices Through Technology Tools and Inquiry Pennsylvania State University University of Minnesota This article describes how students have made use of technology tools in several critical literacy activities that help to achieve the paramount goals of language and literacy education to enable students to develop critical consciousness and community agency through literacy. The technologies helped students define intertextual connections, pose questions about the basis for meaning, integrate multiple voices and perspectives, and adopt a collaborative inquiry stance. The technology tools include software programs for video editing, hyperlinked knowledge bases, and asynchronous virtual communication. Examples of technology projects are embedded as links in this article. Beliefs About Literacy, Technology, and Pedagogy In Inquiry-Based English Instruction (Beach & Myers, 2001) an English language arts curriculum is detailed in which students explore how words, objects, and symbols are used to enact literacy practices and discourses that construct multiple social worlds, each with its own valued identities, relationships, and activities. The book provides a framework for teachers and documents how students have made use of technology tools to conduct inquiries into issues related to their own lived peer, family, school, community, workplace, and virtual social worlds and the social worlds represented in literature and media. In this multimedia, multicultural world, teacher educators must prepare future teachers of literacy, language, culture, and citizenship to expand the forms of representation typical in the school classroom and to reframe the purpose of school on the critique and production of diverse representations of experience and knowledge (Gallego & Hollingsworth, 2000). As students learn to use technology tools to build representations of a social world’s characteristics, they generate reflective critical thought through their analysis and critique of the identities, relationships, and values constructed by the cultural practices and discourses in that social world. A social worlds curriculum focuses the study of language, literature, media, and culture on the central issue of how people construct meaning from experience. Meanings about the words people use, the objects we produce, and the activities in which we engage, are negotiated through social interaction with others in multiple, overlapping, and often contesting communities. Through our participation in these communities, or social worlds, we develop skills in using particular objects, or tools, or texts to accomplish the activities valued within these social worlds. In English language arts classrooms, these skills are often identified as reading, writing, speaking, listening, and viewing, with more specific subskills like summarizing, using transitions, intonation, note taking, and identifying propaganda techniques. In the study of literature, students focus on inferring elements of character, plot, theme, symbolism, and so on. Often these literacy skills are defined as cognitive abilities with which some students struggle because they lack ability or motivation. Students’ lack of motivation helps English educators to envision language arts skills as socially constructed literacy practices, or goal directed ways of using language and symbols valued within a social group to which the student hopes to belong. Although skills may readily transfer to other social contexts, the skills taught in the typical English classroom seem to many students to be valuable only within the specific context/discourse of school. When students and teachers begin to understand skills as socially developed over time in particular cultural groups, they can analyze how language and symbols shape their identities, relationships, and activities within particular social worlds. We (the authors) have found technology projects to be especially beneficial in supporting the development of language and symbol use within social worlds. These technology projects also support the realization that skills are socially negotiated ways of using symbols (not cognitive predispositions and limits) that enable all learners to extend different language actions into different contexts to develop new forms of negotiating meaning, belonging, and social activity within and across social worlds (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/socialworlds). Surrounding any classroom literacy project is a cultural practice that frames and directs individuals’ use of words, symbols, and objects to interpret and produce meaning. Words, symbols, and objects can be described as the tools through which individuals construct a social world with shared meanings for desired values, relationships, activities, and identities. Literature provides a wonderful example of just how this construction of a social world takes place. In teaching about character development, we have long focused on what a character thinks and says, on what others say about the character, and on what the author describes about the character. Words are the tools of constructing the meaning of a character’s identity, desires, and agendas. The character moves through many social interactions in a story that often creates some tension within a social world or between multiple social worlds. The character may be staunchly positioned in one world, caught between loyalties to several worlds, or challenged by others within an unraveling and uncontrollable social world. For example, the following excerpt from the novel, Bless Me, Ultima (Anaya, 1972), illustrates how Antonio moves within multiple, competing social worlds as he attempts to negotiate and construct his identity, relationships, and values: Then the golden carp swam by Cico and disappeared into the darkness of the pond. I felt my body trembling and I saw the bright golden form disappear. I knew I had witnessed a miraculous thing, the appearance of a pagan god, a thing as miraculous as the curing of my uncle Lucas. And I thought, the power of God failed where Ultima’s worked; and then a sudden illumination of beauty and understanding flashed through my mind. This is what I had expected God to do at my first holy communion! If God was witness to my beholding of the golden carp then I had sinned! I clasped my hands and was about to pray to the heavens when the waters of the pond exploded. (p. 114) As this story, and any story, develops and concludes, social worlds emerge, dissolve, retreat, overlap, and persevere, all through the symbolic meanings constructed through the words and objects used by the characters in particular social interactions or cultural practices. The worlds and its members are co-constructed dialectically through the symbols. The English language arts curriculum needs to reframe activity with texts around the development of literacy activities that highlight and critique these social, constructive, negotiated practice of using words, symbols, and objects to negotiate membership within and across multiple social worlds (Alvermann, 2002). Students of all ages and language experiences are able to inquire into how words, symbols, and objects are used by various groups within their lived communities to define valued identities, relationships, and activities. Likewise, texts such as literature, film, and mass media, offer represented social worlds that can be analyzed in terms of the identities, relationships, and activities promoted within the media text world. Through inquiries into both lived and represented social worlds, students can use many technology tools to produce their own representations that describe the identities and activities valued in a social world. In some cases, students can also explain how valued ends are constructed through the way words, symbols, and objects are used in As teachers of English, we have come to think about video authoring as an indispensable technology tool for interpreting any work of literature. We have emphasized so often the strong connection between reading and writing, how one supports the development of the other. Similarly, media authoring supports the development of critical media literacy. When students author multimedia products, like video, they begin to see the way commercially produced film and video manipulates image and sound in an attempt to persuade an audience. Students have authored video biographies, novel enactments, film trailers for novels, issue documentaries, and mass media critiques. Students often liken their projects to music videos, sharing comments like the following: The coolest part was the video. We really got to express our feelings on our topics. The least was the essay. I thought it was boring and not very fun. I learned a ton of technical stuff but I also learned to problem solve before looking for help. We wasted time and it affected us in the long run. I would have people do certain jobs. This project was really fun. It was almost like a vacation from English. (Teen Issues Project, 2/99; see http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/teenissues/) We find it interesting as English teachers who seek opportunities for our students to learn to express their ideas, that they found that a rich ability in authoring a video but did not consider it an English classroom activity because it was not restricted to the printed word. As educators, we firmly believe that hypermedia authoring develops significant critical literacy skills. However, as teachers we have noted one extremely difficult tension in our evaluation of students’ videos. The nature of the media itself relies on the implicit communication of ideas far more than the explicit communication of ideas characteristic of written essays. Thus, we often find ourselves in interpretive limbo, seeing some fascinating ideas in student videos and not knowing if they were intended critiques or messages. Likewise, we sometimes miss what we think students might have been communicating because we lack the intertextual background that the students take for granted in their peers because they share lived social worlds. Of course, we talk about these interpretive issues with students, because intention and audience are essential rhetorical issues in any act of representation and are part of the critical literacy practices of inquiry, questioning, and negotiating multiple perspectives. However, to evaluate video authoring intentions adequately, we require students to provide a written account of their process and product to help us most fully understand their rhetorical understandings. Students also write presentations to evaluate the larger rhetorical purposes for their videos in preparing them for display in classroom film festivals and award ceremonies. We have found that most all rubrics traditionally used to evaluate writing projects work equally well with evaluating students’ video projects. Over the past decade, we have worked with students from the age of 12 and older in the authoring of QuickTime videos using various software projects. The most expensive and powerful of these tools has been Adobe Premiere, while Avid Cinema, Strata Video Shop, or iMovie have shipped free of charge with computers or video input devices. With all of these tools, we have found the learning curve to be very short with students and long with teachers. Although teachers may struggle with many technical issues, teachers who have experienced success with the use of these tools in their classrooms have been willing to take the risk of not knowing as much about the use of the tool as the students and to learn from them. As in any learning situation, giving students responsibility for teaching teachers and peers can bolster their sense of agency and membership in the social world of school achievement. Video Editing Tools With Fahrenheit 451 Technology tools can be used to help students engage in critical inquiry about social worlds (Beach & Bruce, 2002; Jonassen, 2000; Myers & Beach, 2001; Myers, Hammett, & McKillop, 2000). These tools can be used to foster a collaborative inquiry stance and analysis of significant themes in and characteristics of the social worlds represented in literature. Tenth grade English teacher Peg Vlasak and her intern Andrea Acker built the study of Fahrenheit 451 around the students’ identification of central themes over the course of reading the book, then included a culminating project in which small groups created their own video interpretation of one of the book’s themes. Drawing from a reader response style of discussion over 2 weeks of reading, the students identified “thought control, censorship, utopia, individuality, and knowledge as power” as five main themes in the novel. While reading and discussing the novel, the students connected their responses to the novel with other texts from their life experience, such as music, movies, pictures, news, or other books. They took turns bringing in these media texts to play for the class and explaining how the meanings of the media and novel intersected. By juxtaposing various media texts to the quotations from the novel, the students established the critical literacy practices sought by the teachers. Playing a song or a movie clip created a meaningful connection between the literature and life. The meanings of the once separated media text and novel text became connected and generated new layers of meaning for each other. The discussion of connections and new meanings elicited multiple voices and perspectives in the class and raised new questions about the basis of interpretation from prior readings of the once separated text and media. What pushed this study of a novel beyond what many English teachers already do were the culminating video projects accomplished by the students over the final week of the unit. During this week the students worked in small groups of three or four each in the computer lab to author QuickTime videos using Macintosh computers and software called Avid Cinema. Either Macintosh or PC computers can support video editing software, and most recent computers with hard drives of at least 4 gigabytes have plenty of memory for video editing. Video editing hardware components are abundant now and can be easily added to computers at a cost of approximately $100. The short 2-3 minute videos brought together images, movie clips, music, quotes from the novel, voiceovers, and text to make a statement about one of the five main themes identified by the class over the past weeks. The teachers noted high levels of engagement and collaboration as students often paged back through the novel for ideas and negotiated how to organize the material of their video to make the greatest impact. We will examine the literacy practices constructed through this tool by drawing from the videos produced by three classes and published on the web at http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/fahrenheit. |Figure 1. Knowledge as Power – Period The critical literacy practice of defining intertextual connections forms the basis of play, creativity, and critique with this tool for deconstructing and reconstructing meaning. The students combined and juxtaposed multiple texts in ways that created new composite texts that interrogate the meanings of the original texts. The “knowledge as power” (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/fahrenheit/knowledgeaspower4.mov) video made by a small group of 10th graders in fourth period includes one segment in which soft piano music frames the image of a fireman’s silhouette, surrounded by flames, with a scrolling quote from the novel about the calmness with which the character lights her porch on fire in resistance. As shown in Figure 1, the textual word “contempt” is visualized by the image of flames and the calmness of the music prompts reflection on the act of self-destruction Likewise, in the “utopia” (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/fahrenheit/utopia8.mov) video authored by a small group in Period 8, a gospel voice singing “everybody is free” is used to replace the soundtrack for the “Wizard of Oz” scene of Dorothy and friends running through the field of flowers. This new juxtaposition redefines not only the pace and style of movement of the movie, but the sense of meaning about the characters’ goals as they run toward the Emerald City. |Figure 2. Utopia – Period Peppy acoustic guitar music by Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young begins the small group “utopia” (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/fahrenheit/aperfectworld7.mov) video from Period 7, as four definitions of the term utopia are timed to flash as text on a black screen. The spirit of the music makes the ideals of the juxtaposed definitions of utopia seem possible in life. The cheerful music continues as a student-drawn cartoon of a sunny day with faces cut from photos form heads on cartoon bodies that bounce happily into the video frame (Figure 2). This sequence illustrates how the careful use of transitions also supports the construction of a message by creating textual connections between sequential juxtapositions or links. The video continues with alternating text scrolling above or below images of smiling groups of people and the music changes over to a song from Rusted Root creating a very happy and optimistic utopian outlook. However, the scrolling text suddenly begins to question the kind of utopia one should desire. This problematic representation heightens with the text over the image of Hitler that gives the viewer the incomplete sentence “Hitler’s idea of a utopia was one in which . . .” After time for the viewer to reflect, a flying block transition into the next image of two people illustrates the text that scrolls to complete the thought: “everyone with blonde hair and blue eyes.” In this video format the viewer most often misses the fact that over the entire sequence of words and images the text itself does not construct a grammatically complete statement or question because the entire experience of image, sound, and text creates a complete thought by enacting the critical literacy practice of posing questions that interrogate the basis of meaning for words, images, and sounds. The students quickly learned how to pose questions and critiques about ideas like utopia by using these new intertextual grammars of multimedia video Figure 3. Knowledge as Power – Period The vast number of ways to juxtapose media texts in a QuickTime video makes it easy for authors to integrate multiple voices and perspectives. The best examples of this integration invite the viewer to inquire into a variety of possible meanings about the video’s central idea. Period 7’s small group video on “knowledge as power” (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/fahrenheit/knowledgeaspower7.mov) opens with a female vocalist repeatedly singing “sitting on top of the world” juxtaposed with words torn from magazines and newspapers: “Decide & Conquer,” with two frames of a cartoon featuring Garfield the cat sitting in front of a computer first in deep thought, then with a light bulb glowing in his thought balloon. A music transition to “you’re world champion now” accompanies a series of new images “ASK,” “THINK,” “LEARN,” and a scrolling quote from the novel about knowledge being lost for good if they die (Figure 3). With this initial series of events, the video quickly suggests that knowledge involves different forms of thinking and remembering, all with consequences for great power over others in the world. The video next introduces a perspective on power through a movie clip in which a man tries to impress ladies by quoting fancy words from books as his own ideas. As the man is exposed as a fraud, the message suggests that one should think on one’s own to have genuine power. Then, music and scrolling text introduce another perspective “POWER INVOLVES LAWS.” This is followed by a cartoon, a quote from Fahrenheit 451 that emphasizes the importance of books and a student speaking, “Communication is the key to love. Communication is the key to life. There must be over a thousand ways to communicate,” to generate even more perspectives on power through communication and reading. The video later presents additional perspective on power through several dissolve transitions of sports cards with scrolling text “Knowledge about your interests makes you powerful!” (Figure 4). |Figure 4. Knowledge as Power – Period It concludes with an overlay of all the text presented in the video and a group singing repeatedly, “looking back, looking back,” which could very well suggest even another perspective about power and knowledge being based in the activity Critically Examining Media Representations Through Media Collages Another example is of using technology tools to examine critically media representations of different aspects of social worlds (as advocated by Alvermann, Moon, & Hagood, 1999; Hammett & Barrell, 2002). Media representations found in television, newspapers, magazines, art, photography, film, music, MTV, etc., are the ways in which the media portrays particular groups, communities, experiences, ideas, or topics from a particular ideological perspective. Rather than simply reflecting or mirroring “reality,” media representations serve to “re-present” or actually to create a new reality (Hall, 1997). In studying ideas relevant to students’ lives by examining media representations along with the study of literary representations, students pose questions such as, “Where do these representations come from?” “Who produces these representations?” “Why are they producing these representations?” “How is complex understanding about life limited by these representations?” and “What is missing or who is silenced in these representations?” (Hall, 1997). Media representations also reflect various discourses, or ways of knowing or thinking that guide how a representation is made, communicated, and interpreted (Fairclough, 1995; Gee, 1996). These include discourses of gender, class, race, age, business, religion, science, law, technology, etc., that shape the possible identities of people as they use these discourses. The way words and symbols are used in these discourses position the speaker and others according to certain ideological orientations. Museums frequently represented colonized cultures in terms of the discourses of “Orientalism,” reflecting a Western imperialist ideological position (Said, 1978). Discourses of gender construct models of identity are related to idealized notions of what it means to be a male or female. Different racial or ethnic groups are represented both in terms of the images portrayed and the discourses of race constituting those representations. Central to the cultural construction of race is a discourse of whiteness as the desired norm, against which people of color are defined as “other” (Roediger, Rather than assume that students are passive dupes who readily accept these representations teachers can use technology tools to help students construct alternative representations that challenge various media representations (Radway, 2002; Tobin, 2001). Part of this entails assuming an active role in constructing their own alternative, counterrepresentations as is evident in Ad-Busters’ Magazine (http://www.adbusters.org/) that parodies ads. In doing so, students are taking the original, problematic representations and re-contextualizing those representations into their own critical framework or space. For example, the female adolescents use online zines as a tool to challenge and subvert sexist media representations (Knobel, 2002; Radway, 2002). Creating Media Collages Students may begin the critical thinking process by constructing media - Selecting a certain group, world, topic, issue, or phenomenon and then finding different representations of this topic/phenomenon in magazines, television, newspapers, literature, Web sites. - Noting patterns in these representations in terms of similarities in portrayals/images, instances of stereotyping, or essentializing categories. - Noting value assumptions in terms of who has power, who solves problems, how problems are solved, and who is best served by solving the problem. - Defining the intended audiences for these representations: What appeals are made to what audiences? Whose beliefs or values are being reinforced or validated? How are certain products linked to certain representations for - Defining what is missing or left out of the representation: What complexities or variations are masked over? What is included and what is - Considering the larger discourses (gender, class, race, or age) and institutional forces shaping these representations. In a recent media studies methods course taught by Beach, small groups of teachers selected a topic: gender, class, race, age, love, home, family, and body weight. They then cut out images from popular magazines that represented these different topics. Next they attached these images to poster-size sticky notes and shared their critiques with the class. The group dealing with representations of race noted that whiteness was the presumed norm—that people of color were shown only in limited roles as athletes or celebrities. The group dealing with representations of class noted that class was represented primarily by images of consumer goods functioning as upper-middle or middle-class status markers. The group dealing with love noted that most of their images related to sexuality; there were few, if any, images associated with romantic love. Using Hypermedia Productions to Critique Media Through constructing and critiquing the representations in these media collages, students can also construct hypermedia productions that critique media representations. For example, a high school student named Stephanie created a Quicktime video containing a montage of images from magazines that portrayed how the media represents ways in which participation in sports is shown as marking one’s identity in a peer group or community (http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12/socialworlds/stephanie.mov). As she explained, For my final project I used the computer and scanned in pictures and added music to it. The social world I was portraying was sports teams while linking it to the social world of friends. In my final project I chose all the images from magazines for a purpose. I went through tons of magazines before I found them.…When you play on a sports team one thing you should expect is for people to cheer for you and give you team spirit at your games. The very first image of the fans in the crowd was chosen because not only do you become friends with your team but you become friends with the fans as well. Everyone’s dream and desire is to win their game they are playing. One of my pictures fitted this thought. This picture was of a baseball player sitting on the shoulders of his teammates because he won the game. (Beach & Myers, 2001, p. Technology can also be used as a tool for engaging in critical inquiry about community issues and representations of those issues. A group of preservice English teachers worked with middle-school students involved in study of a St. Paul neighborhood. Teachers and students communicated with each other on a WebCT bulletin board, in which they described activities related to the project, communication that can create ongoing dialogues about issues (Doering & Beach, 2002). Groups of students focused on studying a range of issues associated with particular aspects of an urban neighborhood: architecture, community development, community history, parks and recreation, business development, segregation, entertainment opportunities, employment opportunities, housing, public safety, restaurants, pollution, and recycling. Both teachers and students formulated perceptions of issues based on background reading of texts and Web sites, discussed issues common to urban neighborhoods, defined questions related to these issues, engaged in interviews with neighborhood people, and took digital photos and field notes. Based on the data, teachers and students then analyzed neighborhood people’s ability to address particular issues and how those issues are represented in the media. For example, the group focusing on crime examined the ways in which local television news often represented this and other St. Paul urban neighborhoods as crime ridden. A central focus of these projects was the use of digital photography to document and display the nature of the problems facing community members. For example, students and teachers employed photos to document the range of available housing, from dilapidated to upscale, gentrified housing that local residents could no longer afford. The teachers and students used these photos for presentations of a poster-session in the school gym open to students and community members. Teachers developed hypermedia presentations in consultations with their students and created Web-based presentations about specific issues. Integrating Hypermedia Inquiry Projects Into English Teacher Our hope in this article was to illuminate how various technology tools can support critical literacy practices with the entire range of text and media and to describe some curricular activities for adding inquiry projects that make use of technology tools to the traditional print based English classroom. Additional inquiry frameworks for technology projects can be explored at http://www.ed.psu.edu/k-12; additional links related to critical inquiry can be found at http://www.inquiry.uiuc.edu/. We encourage teachers to learn how to integrate these new technology tools for representing life worlds into the study of ideas and issues represented through text. Teacher educators must also include hypermedia projects in their teacher preparation courses if there is any hope of bringing the field of English education in line with the multimedia lives of citizens. Not only are these tools for making and sharing meaning pervasive among today’s youth, when the media texts they produce are brought into juxtaposition with print texts, both forms of representation are brought into a critical space in which meaning can be better negotiated as they seek to make sense of and construct shared value for life experience. Alvermann, D. (Ed.). (2002). New literacies and digital technologies: A focus on adolescent learners. New York: Peter Lang. Alvermann, D., Moon, J., & Hagood, M. (1999). Popular culture in the classroom: Teaching and researching critical media literacy. Newark, DE: International Reading Association Anya, R. (1972). Bless me, Ultima. New York: Warner Books, Inc. Beach, R., & Bruce, B. (2002). Critical inquiry and literacy tools. In D. Alvermann (Ed.), New literacies and digital technologies: A focus on adolescent learners. New York: Peter Lang. Beach, R. & Myers, J. (2001). Inquiry-based English instruction: Engaging students in life and literature. New York: Teachers College Doering, A., & Beach, R. (2002). Preservice English teachers acquiring literacy practices through technology tools. Language Learning & Technology (6)3, 127-145. Retrieved November 2, 2004, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num3/doering/ Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Arnold. Gallego, M., & Hollingsworth, S. (Eds.). (2000). What counts as literacy: Challenging the school standard. New York: Teachers College Gee, J. (1996). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis. Hall, S., Ed. (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hammett, R., & Barrell, B. (Eds.). (2002). Digital expressions: Media literacy and English language arts. Calgary, Alberta: Detselig Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools: Engaging critical thinking. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. Knobel, M. (2002). Cut, paste, publish: The production and consumption of zines. In D. Alvermann (Ed.), New literacies and digital technologies: A focus on adolescent learners. New York: Peter Lang. Myers, J., & Beach, R. (2001). Hypermedia authoring as critical literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44(6), 538-546. Myers, J., Hammett, R., & McKillop, A. M. (2000). Connecting, exploring, and exposing the self in hypermedia projects. In M. Gallego & S. Hollingsworth (Eds.), What counts as literacy: Challenging the school standard (pp. 85-105). New York: Teachers College Press. Radway, J. (2002). Girls, reading, and narrative gleaning. In M. Green, J. Strange, & T. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 183-204). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Roediger, D. (2002). Colored white: Transcending the racial past. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Peguin. Tobin, J. (2001). “Good guys don’t wear hats:” Children talk about the media. New York: Teachers College Press. Pennsylvania State University University of Minnesota

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The Shoshone (also spelled Shoshoni) are a Native American tribe with three large divisions: the Northern, the Western and the Eastern. The Northern are concentrated in eastern Idaho, western Wyoming, and north-eastern Utah. The Eastern lived in Wyoming, northern Colorado and Montana. Conflict with the Blackfoot, Crow, Lakota, Cheyennes, and Arapahos pushed them south and westward after about 1750. The Western ranged from central Idaho, northwestern Utah, central Nevada, and in California about Death Valley and Panamint Valley. This group is sometimes called the Panamint. The Idaho groups of Western Shoshone were called Tukuaduka (sheep eaters), while the Nevada/Utah groups were called the Gosiute (Goshute) or Toi Ticutta (cattail eaters). The estimated population of Northern and Western Shoshone was 4,500 in 1845. 3,650 Northern Shoshone and 1,201 Western Shoshone were counted in 1937 by the United States Office of Indian Affairs. Possibly the most famous member of the Shoshone tribe was Sacagawea who accompanied the Corps of Discovery with Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in their exploration of the Western United States. The success of their expedition was due in no small part to the willing support of Sacagawea, who remains one of the most famous Native American women in history, and is a fine example of peaceful inter-cultural cooperation. Unfortunately, despite her cooperation and the good faith efforts of Shoshone leaders such as Washakie to enter into peaceful agreements with the white Europeans, the massive influx of settlers and travelers through their lands disrupted and forever changed the Shoshone way of life. Today, Shoshone live on reservations and strive to preserve and pass on their traditional culture to further generations and at the same time engage in contemporary ventures. The Europeans encountered hundreds of native tribes occupying vast territories of this mineral-rich country, and they quickly recognized the potential wealth to be gained by tapping into the natural resources of the land. After the opening of the American West by the Lewis and Clark expedition, the success of which was due in no small part to the involvement of Sacagawea the Shoshone woman who became their guide and translator, the Shoshone way of life would never be the same. The Shoshone had no idea that their freedom and way of life was about to become yoked and extinguished. After they signed a treaty on August 7, 1855 in good faith, the US Government refused to ratify it. They claimed that it was because Garland Hunt, who was the Indian Agent, had overstepped his authority in offering the Shoshone Indians the treaty. Before the ink had dried on the peace treaty of 1863, the white man had already begun to inhabit Shoshone lands, and the authorities did nothing to stop the influx of the invasion. The Northern Shoshone fought conflicts with settlers in Idaho in the 1860s which included the Bear River Massacre. They fought with the U.S. Army in the 1876 Battle of the Rosebud against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne, and again in 1878 in the Bannock War. Disheartening as it was, the Shoshone realized that they could never defeat all of the white men. Most fought bravely and were slaughtered, while some became resigned to being dishonorably treated and accepted reservation life. They were granted a small plot of land after Nevada officially became a recognized state, an area which was thousands of miles less than they were accustomed to roaming. Sacagawea was a Shoshone woman who accompanied the Corps of Discovery led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark in their exploration of the Western United States, traveling thousands of miles from North Dakota to the Pacific Ocean. Sacagawea was born to the Agaidika ("Salmon Eater") tribe of Shoshone near what is now Lemhi County, Idaho, but in 1800, when she was about 11 or 12, she was kidnapped by a group of Hidatsa in a battle. She was taken to their village near the present Washburn, North Dakota, where she grew up culturally affiliated with this tribe. At the age of about fifteen, Sacagawea had been taken as a wife by Toussaint Charbonneau, a French trapper living in the Hidatsa village. Sacagawea was pregnant with her first child when the Corps of Discovery arrived near the Hidatsa villages to spend the winter of 1804-1805. Lewis and Clark agreed to hire Charbonneau as an interpreter when they discovered his wife spoke the Shoshone language, as they knew they would need the help of the Shoshone tribes at the headwaters of the Missouri River. Carrying an infant child, she maintained her translating duties, while simultaneously leading the expedition through the Northwest to the Pacific Coast. The expedition left Fort Mandan and headed up the Missouri River in pirogues, which had to be poled and sometimes pulled from the riverbanks. On May 14, 1805, Sacagawea rescued items that had fallen out of a capsized boat, including the journals and records that Lewis and Clark were keeping. The corps commanders, who praised her quick action on this occasion, would name the Sacagawea River in her honor on May 20. By August 1805 the corps had located a Shoshone tribe and was attempting to trade for horses to cross the Rocky Mountains. Sacagawea was brought in to translate, and it was discovered the tribe's chief was her brother Cameahwait. Clark's journal recorded the reunion: August 17 Saturday 1805 The Interpreter & Squar who were before me at Some distance danced for joyful sight, and She make signs to me that they were her nation […] the meeting of those people was effecting, particular between Sah cah gar we ah and an Indian woman, who had been taken prisoner at the same time with her and who, had afterwards escaped from the Minnetares [Hidatsa] and rejoined her nation. A statue of Sacagawea and baby Pomp appears on the grounds of the North Dakota State Capitol, and a replica of it represents North Dakota in the National Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol. Washakie was a renowned warrior who first appears in 1840 in the written record of the American fur trapper, Osborne Russell. Much about Washakie's early life remains unknown, although several family traditions suggest similar origins. He was born to a Flathead (Salish) father and Lemhi Shoshone mother, two tribal groups that were frequent hunting and trading partners. After his father was killed, he may have become the adopted son of the band leader of a Shoshone or Bannock and Shoshone band, but for the next two-and-one-half decades (c. 1815-1840) he learned the traditions and the ways of a warrior that were typical of any Shoshone youth of that period. Although the name by which he would be widely known has been translated in various ways, it apparently dealt with his tactics in battle. One story describes how Washakie devised a large rattle by placing stones in an inflated and dried balloon of buffalo hide which he tied on a stick. He carried the device into battle to frighten enemy horses, earning the name "The Rattle," or "Gourd Rattle." Another translation of "Washakie" is "Shoots-on-the-Run." In 1851, at the urging of trapper Jim Bridger, Washakie led a band of Shoshones to the council meetings of the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Essentially from that time until his death, he was considered the head of the Eastern Shoshones by the representatives of the United States government. Perhaps he realized that the expansion of whites into Shoshone country was inevitable, but in 1863 and again in 1868, he signed treaties with the U.S. at Fort Bridger. The 1863 Treaty of Fort Bridger established a generic Shoshone country, whose borders extended eastward to the crest of the Wind River Mountains, south to the Uintah Mountains of Utah, and on the northern side, to the crest of the Bitterroots. The western border was left undefined, but was understood to include most of the Snake River basin as far as the Oregon border. This treaty included a number of Shoshone and Bannock Indian bands besides that of Washkie. The 1868 Treaty of Fort Bridger proved more significant, for it established the Shoshone and Bannock Indian Agency located in west-central Wyoming. Moreover, this was land selected by Washakie and his headmen of the Eastern Shoshones. The initial reservation included about three million acres (12,000 km²) in Wyoming's Wind River country for his people. Although an 1872 land cession reduced the size by 800,000 acres, this valley remains the home of the Eastern Shoshones today. Washaki was also determined that Native Americans should be educated, and he gave land to Welsh clergyman John Roberts to establish a boarding school where Shoshone girls learned traditional crafts and language. Washakie's prowess in battle, his efforts for peace, and his commitment to his people's welfare made him one of the most respected leaders in Native American history. In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named "Shoshone Mike" killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada. A posse was formed, and on Feb 26, 1911, they caught up with the band, and eight of them were killed, along with one member of the posse, Ed Hogle. Three children and a woman who survived the battle were captured. The remains of some of the members of the band were repatriated from the Smithsonian Institution to the Fort Hall Idaho Shoshone-Bannock Tribe in 1994. In 1982, the Western Shoshone, who also invited "unrepresented tribes," made a declaration of sovereignty and began issuing its own passports as the Western Shoshone National Council. Newe is the Shoshone language word which means "The People." The tag "Shoshone" was coined by the Euro-American hunters and traders in the 1830s or early 1840s. The name stuck and many contemporary Newe refer to themselves as Shoshone. However, the number of people who speak Shoshone has been steadily dwindling over the last few decades, so there are only a few hundred people who speak the language fluently today, although a few thousand know it to one degree or another. Shoshone is the northernmost member of the large Uto-Aztecan language family, which includes over thirty languages whose speakers originally inhabited a vast territory stretching from the Salmon River in central Idaho down into northern and central Mexico. Shoshone belongs to the Numic subbranch of Uto-Aztecan. The word Numic comes from the cognate word in all Numic languages for "Person." The Shoshone were largely farmers and hunters. They have a culture rich in family values and tradition, and parents and grandparents bestow the oral history of their ancestors to their children. As with most other Native American groups, the Shoshone have ritual dances to express their gratitude to the earth for planting the seeds in the autumn, and the harvest in the spring. The Shoshone lived in extended family groups in which cousins, grandparents, aunts and uncles and in-laws all banded together. They migrated through valleys and areas large enough to sustain their encampments with hunting and gathering resources. At certain times during the year such as harvest time, many tribes would join together to sing and dance, although there was no central organization throughout the Shoshone nation. Each of the Shoshone villages managed its own affairs internally, by tribal council, governed by village elders and generally a head chieftain. Varying in size and shape, the larger villages were generally fortified well to protect against an enemy attack, and they had populations up to and over 1,000, and spanned from one to ten acres (40,000 m²). They practiced agriculture and produced crops such as wheat, squash, corn, pumpkins, and barley. The typical village had 50 to 400 people organized in tipis. Villages were abandoned every few decades as the nearby forest grew thin and so they would migrate into more fertile areas. Storytelling is a popular part of entertainment in many Native American societies. This stood also true for the Shoshone. Stories would recount their origins and would retell the deeds of heroes long gone. There are also many Shoshone legends about sacred animals including possums, raccoons, turtles, birds, chipmunks, and wolves. In Shoshone beliefs, the archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. Shamans would receive visions in their dreams and lead the people to different areas on the map, dwelling where the spirit beings told them to. A vast collection of myths defines the relationships between man and nature and plants and animals. Man depended on the blessings of the gods, who in turn depended on prayers and ceremonies. In Shoshone mythology, the Coyote brought them to the lands of the Great Basin. Two Shoshone women gave Coyote a basket by two native women coated with pine pitch to make it waterproof. Coyote was supposed to carry this basket to the Great Basin, and was warned against opening the lid. However, his curious nature overcame him, and when he opened the lid, some of the beings inside jumped out and ran away, which is how they say their ancestors came to dwell in the land of the Great Basin. Shoshone hold the wolf in great respect, as the creator god. The coyote, however, as a trickster was avoided. Shoshone tales tell of Coyote's resentment against Wolf. In one tale, Coyote tried to trick Wolf, who had the power to bring the dead back to life. Coyote told Wolf that he should not bring the dead back to life because there would be no more room on the earth for everyone, expecting this to cause the Shoshone to hate Wolf. However, the trick was reversed, as Coyote's son died and Wolf did not revive him. The Shoshone people say that was how death came to their lands, and the experience of sorrow when someone dies. They continue to admire Wolf's power and wisdom, despite this. Today, many of the Shoshone tribes are still waiting to become formally recognized by the federal government, along with over 200 other Native American tribes. One of the most notable Shoshones is a gentleman by the name of Ronald "Snake" Edmo, a Shoshone poet, and linguistic anthropologist. He carries the oral tradition of his people with him and travels the country enlightening modern Americans about the vast culture of the Shoshone people. Contemporary Shoshone live on a number of reservations. Following are some examples. Wind River Reservation Wind River Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation shared by the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes of Native Americans in the central western portion of the U.S. state of Wyoming. It is the seventh-largest Indian reservation in the United States, encompassing a land area of 8,995.733 km² (3,473.272 sq mi). The 2000 census reported a population of 23,250 inhabitants. The largest town is Riverton. Headquarters are at Fort Washakie. Also home to the Wind River Casino (Northern Arapahoe) and Shoshone Rose Casino (Eastern Shoshone), which are the only casinos in Wyoming. Duck Valley Indian Reservation Duck Valley Indian Reservation was established as a homeland for members of both the Shoshone and Paiute tribes. It lies on the state line between Idaho and Nevada in the western United States. Archaeological record attests to the use of these areas for over 15,000 years. These people had villages along the Snake, Bruneau, Owyhee, Boise, Payette, Salmon and Weiser Rivers and their major tributary streams in southwest Idaho. Fishing, hunting, and gathering provided the basis for our ceremonial, subsistence, and economic livelihood. Salmon was the single most important resource. Ely Shoshone Indian Reservation Ely Shoshone Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation for the Shoshone people of Nevada, in and near the south side of the city of Ely, in south-central White Pine County. In 2005 it had a population of around 500, a textile business, and its own court system. Goshute and Skull Valley Indian Reservations The Goshutes, a Shoshonean people, maintained a territory in the Great Basin extending from the Great Salt Lake to the Steptoe Range in Nevada, and south to Simpson Springs. The tribe once numbered 20,000. Only 500 remain. The name Goshute derived either from a leader named Goship or from Gutsipupiutsi, a Shoshonean word for Desert People. Prior to contact, the Goshutes wintered in the Deep Creek Valley in dug out houses built of willow poles and earth. In the spring and summer they gathered wild onions, carrots and potatoes, and hunted small game in the mountains. The Confederated Tribes of the Goshute Reservation are composed of Goshute, Paiute and Bannock. The reservation lies on both sides of the Nevada-Utah border, in White Pine County in Nevada, and in Juab County and Tooele County in Utah. It has a land area of 459.517 km² (177.42 sq mi) and a resident population of 105 persons was counted in the 2000 census. Located about half-way between the Goshute Reservation and Salt Lake City, Utah is the Skull Valley Band of Goshute. The tribe consists of about 125 people, of whom 31 live on an 18,000 acre (73.004 km²) reservation in Utah. The Dugway Proving Grounds lies just south of Skull Valley. To the east is a nerve gas storage facility and to the north is the Magnesium Corporation plant which has had severe environmental problems. The reservation was a proposed location for an 820 acre (3 km²) dry cask storage facility for the storage of 40,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel. Only 120 acres are for the actual facility, and the rest of the land is a buffer area. After more than eight years after application, this facility was licensed by the NRC. Reno-Sparks Indian Colony The Reno-Sparks Indian Colony is an urban Native American Tribe comprised of members with Washoe, Paiute and Shoshone heritage. The Tribe has a colony in central Reno, Nevada and a reservation in Hungry Valley, which is about 15 miles north of Reno. The colony started out as a neighborhood in Reno where Native Americans who worked in local businesses and ranches lived. Under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 these people formed a tribal government. The Tribe was later granted land in Hungry Valley for a reservation. Fort Hall Indian Reservation The Fort Hall Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation of the Shoshoni and Bannock people in the U.S. state of Idaho. It is located in southeastern Idaho on the Snake River Plain north of Pocatello, and comprises 2,110.514 km² (814.874 sq mi) of land area in four counties: Bingham, Power, Bannock, and Caribou counties. Founded in 1863, it is named for Fort Hall, a trading post that was an important stop along the Oregon Trail and California Trail in the middle nineteenth century. The ruins of the fort are located on the reservation. The community of Fort Hall, along Interstate 15, is the largest population center on the reservation. The total population of the reservation was 5,762 at the 2000 census. The reservation was established by an agreement between the United States and the Shoshone and Bannock tribes in the wake of the Bear River Massacre, in which the United States Army under Colonel Patrick Edward Connor slaughtered over 200 Native Americans in present-day southeastern Idaho. The massacre was the culmination of a long struggle between the Shoshoni and U.S settlers, which included numerous attacks by both sides. The Shoshoni, led by Chief Pocatello, were motivated to attack emigrant parties in part because of the despoliation of natural resources in the region by the increasing tide of settlers. The Mormons, led by Brigham Young, had subsequently pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Shoshoni, but the arrival of the U.S. Army into the Utah Territory in 1858 led to a full-scale conflict between the U.S. and the Shoshoni. Connor led his troops from Fort Douglas in January 1863 in order to "chastise" the Shoshoni. Pocatello was able to receive advance warning of Connor's advance and led his people out of harm's way. He subsequently sued for peace and agreed to relocate his people to the newly-established reservation along the Snake River. The U.S. government agreed to supply the Shoshoni annually with 5,000 dollars in goods. The reservation, located on the open plains, was not especially amenable to agriculture, and the U.S. government did not always fulfill its obligation of payment of goods. In the years following their relocation, the Shoshoni suffered from disease and hunger. Hoping to relieve his people's suffering, Pocatello led them to a missionary farm in the Utah Territory to receive mass baptism and conversion to Mormonism. Although the Shoshoni received baptism, the local population of settlers agitated for their removal. In response, the U.S. Army forced the Shoshoni back onto the reservation. The main agriculture on the Ft. Hall Indian Reservation today is the cultivation of wheat and potatoes. The reservation has recently become the site of a casino, The Fort Hall Casino, operated by the Shoshone-Bannock tribes along Interstate 15, exit 80, north of Pocatello. - ↑ Henry E. Stamm, IV, People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshones, 1825-1900. (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0806131757), 23-40. - ↑ Stamm, 1999 - ↑ Washakie Architect of the Capitol Retrieved November 11, 2007. - ↑ Washakie Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved November 11, 2007. - ↑ Native Americans in Early Nevada Taken in part from :Helen Dunn, Indians of Nevada. (Nevada Department of Education)-, 1973) And in part from the Nevada Department of Cultural Affairs Web Page. Retrieved November 20, 2007. - ↑ The Officer Down Memorial page Policeman Edward Hogle Retrieved November 20, 2007. - ↑ Inventory and Assessment of Native American Human Remains from the Western Great Basin, Nevada Sector, in the National Museum of Natural History Region: Great Basin Associated Cultures: Bannock, Paiute, Shoshone, Washoe. 1992. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved November 20, 2007. - ↑ Western Shoshone History Wells Band of Western Shoshone Retrieved December 11, 2007. - Crum, Steven J. 1994. Road On Which We Came: A History Of The Western Shoshone. University of Utah Press. ISBN 0874804345 - Ditchfield, Christin. 2004. The Shoshone: True Books. Chicago: Children's Press CT. ISBN 9780516246437 - Edmo, Ronald. 2002. "Snake" in Spirit Rider: A Collection of Contemporary Poetry in the Shoshoni Language. Idaho State University Press. ISBN 9780937834671 - Smith, Anne. 1998. Shoshone Tales. University Of Utah Press. ISBN 9780874805703 - Sonneborn, Liz. 2006. The Shoshones' Native American Histories. Lerner Publications. ISBN 9780822528494 - Stamm, Henry E. IV. 1999. People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshones, 1825-1900. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806131757 - Waldman, Carl. 2006. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. Checkmark Books. ISBN 9780816062744 All links Retrieved November 12, 2007. - Northern Shoshoni Treaties - Ely Shoshone - Goshute Indians - Reno-Sparks Indian Colony - Te-Moak Tribe of the Western Shoshone Indians of Nevada - Timbisha Tribe of the Western Shoshone Nation - U.S. Treaty with the Western Shoshone 1863, Ruby Valley - Western Shoshone Defense Project - Western Shoshone history - The History of the Eastern Shoshone Tribe - Shoshoni Indians - Fort Hall Reservation and Off-Reservation Trust Land, Idaho United States Census Bureau New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: - Shoshone (Jan 27, 2007) history - Fort_Hall_Indian_Reservation (Jan 27, 2007) history - Washakie (Jan 27, 2007) history Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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By: Susan Friedman Digital storytelling for dual language learners; deep diving on a virtual Titanic; and more innovative uses of technology for early learning. Computers, tablets, smartphones, apps, and other digital tools are part of our everyday lives. When used appropriately, technology can help children explore their world, express and make sense of what they know, and interact with other children. Technology tools can also assist families as they support their children’s at-home learning. So, how can early childhood educators choose appropriate technology tools to enhance and support children’s learning? NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center created the position statement, Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8 as a guide for early childhood educators as they make decisions about how and when to incorporate technology into their programs. In a recent NAEYC survey, educators were asked about their use of the technology position statement. Respondents describe referring to the joint position statement as they plan university courses, develop curriculum, explain developmentally appropriate uses of technology to other teachers, administration, and families, and make decisions about when to incorporate technology into their own classrooms. Teachers also asked for more examples of developmentally appropriate uses of technology in early childhood settings. Following are three examples of educators integrating technology into their work with young children in ways that are developmentally appropriate. We hope you will share the technology position statement and these examples with colleagues. Then let us know how you are using the technology position statement and integrating technology tools into your work with young children. Three examples of technology that supports early learning: A 5-year-old child fascinated with the Titanic is given a book and interactive CD-ROM with a large screen desktop computer. The transmedia materials allow him to explore and express his interests, and develop his small motor and social skills. Parent educators in Maine integrate iPads into a curriculum that provides parents of migrant preschoolers with early literacy and math activities to help their children get ready for school. Also to read and share: Adapted from an online Author Q&A with Heather Biggar Tomlinson, contributing author of Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Focus on Preschoolers. Q: What are some general guidelines we can follow as we think about DAP? A: There’s not one answer to the question - is something developmentally appropriate or not. It depends on the child’s personality, abilities, culture, and family, as well as the purpose of activities and the context of the class. Keeping in mind the five guidelines for effective teaching the following could be the starting point for a teacher checklist, to be adapted for specific programs and children: 1. Did I know everything I needed to know about each child today? Did I notice each child’s mood, apparent health, and general sense of well-being and engagement? 2. Have I checked in with each child’s family lately, either through drop-off conversations, written notes, or emails, to provide updates and receive updates? Are there any cultural issues I should address with a particular family, such asking about upcoming holidays or activities? 3. Did I feel like I had a good relationship with each child today? Did I show warmth and appreciation for each child’s presence and efforts today? Did I acknowledge their comments and behaviors in positive ways? 4. Is there any child I need to have special time with or help in any unique way tomorrow, based on my observations, other teachers’ observations, child comments, or parent updates? 5. Do I know the objectives for children’s learning for today/this week/this unit? ___ For physical development (fine motor and gross motor) ___ For social and emotional development ___ For approaches to learning, including enthusiasm, attention, persistence, and flexibility ___ For advances in knowledge content and mastery of concepts 6. Do the objectives for today/this week build on what we did previously? Do I need to make any connections for the children? 7. Does the classroom environment match the objectives? Does it look cheerful, tidy, and interesting for the children? Do I need to change any of the materials, centers, or wall displays to keep things fresh? 8. Have I been using a wide range of teaching strategies this week, including: ___ modeling problem solving ___ sharing my thought processes out loud ___ encouraging children and acknowledging good work ___ providing new information such as facts and new vocabulary ___ demonstrating correct ways to do something and giving direct instruction ___ giving specific feedback on areas for improvement ___ giving assistance and asking questions to advance each child’s level ___ adjusting the level of challenge (simplifying or adding complexity) to meet each child’s level 9. Have I been using various learning formats, including: ___ large groups (whole class together) ___ small groups ___ play/learning centers and outdoor time when the child can do what he/she wants ___ daily routines (taking advantage of arrivals and departures, snack times, transitions) 10. Have I thoughtfully considered based on children's level of engagement whether to move on or allow more time on this unit/theme/skill? Am I sure the amount of time allotted is sufficient for every child? 11. Have I taken stock of each child’s progress and mastery related to the objectives? 12. Have I made records of each child’s progress through notes from observations, interviews, and conversation; photos; and/or portfolios? 13. Have I observed the child in different contexts and settings? 14. Have I asked the family for information in relevant areas? 15. Have I checked in with other teachers/aides about each child’s well-being and success toward their goals? 16. Have I considered whether language and/or home culture is influencing children’s performance in each area? Do I need to reassess any child in any area or get help from someone else to accurately understand any child’s performance and well-being? 17. Do I need to adjust the teaching plans based on what I know from the assessments? 18. Is there any aspect of my schedule, environment, plans, materials, or interactions with children, parents, or colleagues that I feel stuck on or unsure about? Is there any child I’m worried about for any reason? Have I asked for help yet (from supervisors, colleagues, family members, specialists, or online communities)? 19. Do I feel like I made a positive difference in someone’s life today? Did I smile, laugh, and enjoy the day? 20. If not, what one step can I take to make things better tomorrow? What would you add to this list? By: Kyle Snow, Ph.D. While early educators continue to be concerned about threats to play in early childhood, (see Crisis in the Kindergarten, for example) there is growing evidence that play is not a distraction from children’s learning, and may actually be a catalyst for it. This argument is not new – it was made in the book A Mandate for Playful Learning, among others. A recent piece in the Atlantic, “5-year-olds Can Learn Calculus", sounds like a further push-down of academics into early childhood. But it is less about increased academic pressure in early childhood and more a summary of the ways play supports children’s learning of mathematics. The article considers how play can be used to support children’s understanding of patterns and geometry – areas of mathematics that may sound intimidating, but are engaging for young children. The relationship between play and mathematics development was also the theme of a recent blog by Doug Clements and Julie Sarama, “Play, Mathematics, and False Dichotomies,” posted as part of a National Institute for Early Education Research forum “Reflections on Play.” Drs. Clements and Sarama argue that academic learning and play are not incompatible – that it is not an either/or choice for teachers of young children – but are mutually reinforcing. While the argument that play and learning is a false dichotomy has been made before (including this blog post by NAEYC), Clements and Sarama underscore the need to move past the “pernicious false dichotomy that harms the children.” They argue that “Combining free play with intentional teaching, and promoting play with mathematical objects and mathematical ideas is pedagogically powerful.” This approach to integrating play and mathematics is not new – it is incorporated into the NAEYC position statement on early childhood mathematics, and part of holistic views of early childhood mathematics education (The brief Mathematics Education for Young Children:What It is and How to Promote It and National Academies book Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood provide good overviews of the holistic approach to early mathematics). Still, research, like the study by Lee and Ginsburg, Early Childhood Teachers' Misconceptions About Mathematics Education for Young Children in the United States shows that teachers of young children may struggle with how to effectively teach mathematics. Clements and Sarama give several examples of how teachers can use young children’s play with math in this post, as well as a blog specifically for teachers. More ideas for supporting young children in developing math skills can be found in The Young Child and Mathematics and Supporting Early Math Learning for Infants and Toddlers. NAEYC Math Resources: Here are the four strategies: 1. First, align quality and access by addressing the inequities that are a result of historical distinctions between child care and early education.The growth in publicly funded pre-kindergarten programs is enormously important, but these programs will only partially support seamless experiences for children as long as serious gaps in quality and access remain for infants, toddlers, 3-year-olds, and children in before and after school care. Financing mechanisms must simultaneously address family needs for child care and family support and children’s needs for high quality learning experiences. 2. Second, address the different expectations for professional preparation, professional development, and compensation across settings and sectors. Children deserve skilled teachers and caregivers regardless of how their program is funded—whether child care, Head Start, state preK or school funding formula. We recommend the NAEYC Early Childhood Professional Preparation Standards as a unifying framework. These evidence-based standards specify what all those working with young children birth through age 8 should know and be able to do. They start with a focus on child development, within the context of culture and community, and address family engagement, effective curriculum, intentional teaching, appropriate assessment and professionalism. The same standards apply across associate, baccalaureate and advanced degrees. When NAEYC implements these standards through accreditation, practicum experience is required in two of the three age groups—infant/toddler, preschool, and kindergarten/primary, critical to promoting a seamless continuum. A common knowledge base is critically important, but children will not experience seamlessness without ensuring compensation parity for those with comparable responsibilities across settings. Until we have seamless opportunities for professional preparation and career advancement across the birth to 8 continuum, we cannot expect seamlessness for children. 3. Third, integrate early care and education practice with Kindergarten through third grade practice. Educational quality and outcomes would improve substantially if elementary teachers incorporated the best of preschool’s practices (for example, attention to the whole child; integrated, meaningful learning; and parent engagement) and if preschool teachers made more use of elementary school practices that are equally valuable, such as robust content and attention to learning progressions in curriculum and teaching. 4. Finally, and perhaps most important, ensure that teachers and administrators across the birth to 8 continuum reflect the diversity of children they serve and have the knowledge, skills, and abilities to help all children achieve their full potential. TYC contributor Laura Colker answered this question in an online Q&A* about the value of creating a construction focused learning center in a primary classroom, and how to explain its importance to an administrator. The key to approaching an administrator who may question how Legos, blocks, and other building materials fit into the curriculum is providing clear examples of the ways a construction learning center can inspire and enhance academic learning. To do this, focus on the clear link between construction and STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math) learning. It is generally agreed that to be competitive in our global economy children need to develop learning and skills in science, technology,engineering, and mathematics. Building with blocks, Legos, and other building materials can connect to STEM learning in many ways. *Adapted from a January 2013 Q&A with Laura Colker on Learning Centers. By: Kyle Snow and Peter Pizzolongo In late January 2014, researchers at the University of Virginia released a working paper with the provocative title “Is Kindergarten the New First Grade?" The paper amplifies concerns provided by other reports like “Crisis in the Kindergarten” and “What Happened to Kindergarten?” Critically, this paper uses data to describe changes in kindergarten that took place during the early years of No Child Left Behind (NCLB). This report compares kindergarten teacher responses to surveys conducted in 1998 and 2006. The analyses validate what we have been hearing for a while now - that academic content and focus has become more prominent in kindergarten. The amount of time spent in literacy activities has dramatically increased over time, with a more modest increase in mathematics and drop in time spent on the arts and physical education. In addition, teachers in 2006 report spending more time on activities that were only briefly taught, or not yet introduced, in kindergarten in 1998. In this study, approaches to instruction are captured using a couple of broad indicators – the percentage of classrooms that use 3 or more hours per day of large group, teacher-led instruction, and the percentage of classrooms that provide children 1 or more hours per day of child-directed activities. They report that nearly one-third (29 percent) of kindergarten classrooms spend 3 or more hours per day in teacher-directed, large group activities, and less than half (43 percent in the report) of classrooms provide child-directed activity one or more hours per day. These findings lead the authors to conclude that “today’s kindergarten classrooms focus on more advanced academic content, are more literacy-focused, and rely more heavily on teacher-directed whole group instruction.“ Other findings they report about physical education and use of standardized assessment, suggest kindergartners in 2006 have less PE and more testing than 1st graders in 1998. So, they conclude, “kindergarten in 2006 looks quite distinct from both kindergarten and first grade classrooms in the late nineties.” What can we learn from these findings? What is clear is that the academic content, and approaches to delivering that content, changed in dramatic ways between 1998 and 2006. What should we take away from these findings? Academic content should be welcome in kindergarten but how it is delivered should be examined Time spent on academic content, and even time spent on increasingly challenging academic content should not automatically be seen as a threat to kindergarten. Children learn from birth, so kindergarten should provide children with opportunities and supports appropriate for where they are. Early childhood education has always embraced the (academic and social and emotional) content that young children need to learn. Kindergartners (and all young children!) can learn academic content that is appropriate to where they are developmentally. However, large group, teacher directed instruction is not the only way for children to learn academic content. Hands-on investigative activities and small group instruction need to be a bigger part of how children take in academic content. Our expectations for young learners are built from many years of research and theory, as well as teachers’ knowledge of each child’s prior learning. As more children participate in early educational programs, it is not surprising that they come to kindergarten with different learning and developmental needs than when children did not regularly participate in such programs. Maintaining Developmentally Appropriate Practice Seeing a focus on academic content tells us what children are being taught, but it does not dictate how children should be taught. Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) provides the best frame for how to teach young children. Young children learn best when taught using a variety of learning formats, including large and small group work, as well as instruction and play. Some content can be introduced to the whole group of children during a circle time or class meeting. Children can further investigate the content and learn it more deeply via small group experiences in which they play an active role in the investigation, through exploratory play alone and with other children, through one-on-one activities with a teacher, during routines such as setting a table for snack. Some content can be memorized for current and later use (e.g., the names of the letters of the alphabet and their sounds, the numerals that represent numbers). Even here, singing and moving to songs that emphasize letter sounds or involve counting may be more effective than a worksheet or rote activity. The goal is to provide a variety of learning opportunities, not to become reliant on a single approach. There is plenty of room within DAP to include academic content in kindergarten (See NAEYC’s latest book on DAP and kindergarten). Social and emotional skills are important, but are they built into the classroom? It is important to note that while teachers’ ratings of the importance of academic skills increased from 1998 to 2006, at both times they rated social and regulatory skills as being more critical for school readiness. This view is increasingly being voiced by educators and researchers alike. Unfortunately, the time teachers spend on building these skills is not captured by the data in this report. If the increased focus on literacy and math is partially driven by standards, then should social and emotional skills be written in to K-12 standards like they are in preschool standards? Experts from the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning conducted a review of state standards in 2013. They found that 49 states have specific standards for social and emotional development in preschool, while only 3 have specific standards in K-12). While many state K-12 standards include some standards for social and emotional learning within content areas, the report warns, “when [social and emotional learning] standards are integrated into other standards they are often scattered and lacking in comprehensiveness. Typically they are not systematically and developmentally sequenced across grade levels.” The findings from this most recent analysis of data from the early Childhood Longitudinal studies may be the first to quantify changes in kindergarten over the past decade. But these data provide only a broad picture of the differences, and do not provide ready explanation for them. But understanding ways that kindergarten changed under NCLB is critical as states move to implement the Common Core State Standards. As critics have noted, the Common Core focuses only on English Language Arts and Mathematics, two areas that saw increased focus under NCLB. As a result, without concerted effort, the trends reported here are likely to become more, rather than less, pronounced, further driving kindergarten away from early childhood. NAEYC’s report on Common Core provides a framework for connecting Common Core to children’s development and ensuring high quality educational experiences for all children. NAEYC’s report on Kindergarten and Common Core outlines considerations to connect common core to better quality and more equitable kindergarten experiences for all children. Helpful DAP Resources DAP: Focus on Kindergartners (NAEYC book) 5 Guidelines for Effective Teaching (infographic) 10 Suggested Teaching Strategies (infographic) By: Susan Friedman Television, smart phones, tablets, video games - As children spend more time using screen media, what do parents think their children are learning? A national survey of more than 1500 parents of children ages 2-10, conducted by the Joanne Ganz Cooney Center, asked parents about how much their children learned from educational media. The resulting report, Learning at home: families’ educational media use in America was released on January 24, 2014 and offers many insights. Here are some highlights from the study: - More than half of the parents surveyed (57%) believe their children have “learned a lot” from educational media - The use of educational media drops at age four, just when screen time goes up - Two to four year olds spend more time each day with educational media than any other age group - Parents report that on average, their children spend 42 minutes a day with educational TV, compared to 5 minutes with educational content on mobile devices/computers and 3 minutes with educational video games - Parents reported their children learned more from educational content on TV than from mobile devices - Children are reading an average of 40 minutes a day, including 29 minutes with print, 8 minutes on computers, and 5 minutes using e-platforms - Parents don’t believe their children learn as much about science from educational media as they do about other subjects - Many parents observed that their children extend what they learned from educational media beyond the screen by asking questions, engaging in imaginative play, and wanting to do projects related to something they learned Upon the study’s release the Joan Ganz Cooney Center gathered a group of educators, researchers, and those involved in children’s educational media to discuss the study. Some highlights from the discussion: - Parents may not feel as confident evaluating the educational value of content offered on mobile apps as they do evaluating the educational content TV - Parents need more information about what is educational and how to evaluate the educational value apps and other new media Educational media developers could think of ways to to address the needs of the children in low-income households in particular around the vocabulary gap - For some low-income families, mobile devices are a lifeline to many essential services, and this may impact how children use educational media on those devices - Not all children have the same level of access to educational media To read the report and see video of researchers and educators discussing the findings, visit the Joan Ganz Cooney Center website. How do you talk to families about their children's media use? 1. You sing the “clean-up song” when cleaning at home. 2. You recite from Don’t Let the Pigeon Drive the Bus! and Pete the Cat when conversation lags at a dinner party. 3. You chant "Ten Little Monkeys Jumping on the Bed" to yourself while walking down the street. 4. You hand the person in front of you at the DMV a tissue when she sneezes. 5. All the chairs in your house look really big to you. 6. You use the term "phonemic awareness" in your day-to-day conversations. 7. You explain to parents in the park how much their kids are learning when they dig in the dirt. 8. You tell a dad in the grocery store, who waits patiently as his son counts all the apples, how he's supporting his son's learning. 9. You are used to the fact that the children think the classroom is where you live. 10. You can find 20 ways to use empty yogurt containers as learning materials. 11. You can count a group of toddlers in 5 seconds. 12. You wash your hands at least 30 times a day 13. You can explain why the boys in your class are allowed to play with the dolls if they choose. 14. You know that a child who drew two random lines has a whole story to tell when you ask, "Tell me about your drawing." And you write it down. 15. You print more pictures of the young children in your class than your own family. 16. You wonder how dinosaurs, crayons, and Legos end up in your laundry every week. 17. You growl (or make a face) when called a babysitter. 18. You’ve actually eaten what you’ve baked as a class, no matter the preparation, ingredients, or outcome. 19. You know that when children draw, paint, make art - it's about the process and not the product. 20. You deserve a Nobel Peace Prize for the arguments you’ve mediated and tantrums you’ve redirected. 21. You can explain the toddler biting stage to the families of the child who bit AND the child who was bitten. 22. You can turn a simple nature walk or trip to the grocery store into an action-packed learning adventure…..and connect it to early learning standards. 23. You know that even though your paycheck does not reflect the work that you do, you go to bed at night knowing that you are shaping the world and wake up every morning with your superhero cape. Thanks for all that you do! Add your own ideas to the list by posting below! It is with great sadness that we say goodbye to Polly Greenberg (1932–2013), former editor of NAEYC’s journal Young Children and author and editor of NAEYC books about early childhood education, children’s character, and social justice. Throughout her 15 years as an NAEYC editor, Polly contributed to the cause of progressive social change through promoting educators’ understanding of the role of early childhood education, family, and community—in the home, in early childhood settings, and in the early primary grades. Polly described her special interest as “the art, mechanics, and interdisciplinary science of achieving through childrearing and education – social change toward a truer democracy- one in which more people might experience fairly comfortable and somewhat fulfilling lives.” We share with you Polly’s editor’s notes from “Let's Learn From an Inspiring Person! A Conversation With Vera B. Williams, Award Winning Author and Illustrator” published in the November 2000 issue of Young Children: In this era of "drown them in books" many of you have often heard me voice my opinion that it isn't just books in which children must be immersed if early literacy and love of writing and reading are to result; it's good books with good art. One way to find the best books is to buy (and get from your library) award-winning books. You'll find that some authors win one award after another - for one book after another. These are the outstanding authors and artists whose work you may want to watch for. Vera B. Williams is among them, right up amongst the stars of contemporary literature for young children. Quite likely you've run into a few of her beautiful, brilliantly colorful books - perhaps her first book, A Chair for My Mother. Almost always Vera both tells and illustrates her wonderful tales, tales full of everyday people of various sages and ethnicities, doing everyday things that are very meaningful to them, and with lots of affection, extended family, and a lovely childlike zest for life. - Polly Greenberg NAEYC will honor Polly’s memory in a column, In Memoriam, in the March 2014 issue of Young Children. Happy New Year from NAEYC! What will inspire your work with young children this year? We reviewed some of our web posts from this past year and found these ideas and inspirations. Make sure to share your own inspirations with us below. 1. Classroom Stories That Celebrate Teachers and Children 2. Support for Strong Start for America's Children Children’s early learning experiences set the course for success in school and life. We were inspired by how many of our members and readers participated in the Strong Start campaign. Thanks to you all! If you haven’t participated yet you still can. 3. The New DAP Focus Series These age specific DAP books offer ideas for Developmentally Appropriate Practice for each age and stage. If you’re new to DAP this online DAP primer explains DAP and offers links to many resources to help you in your teaching. 4. Ten Things to Say instead of “Good Job” Wow! So many readers shared this article on social media so we know it really resonated. Recognize children's achievements and encourage their learning with these ten alternatives to saying "good job" from TYC. 5. Integrating STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Early childhood teachers are preparing children to be critical thinkers by integrating Science, Technology, Engineering and Math learning in thoughtful ways. The opening session of the 2013 annual conference showed how the arts can be integrated into STEM learning. This excerpt from Spotlight on Young Children: Exploring Science shows science learning in action at the water table. And a new survey gathers information on how teachers are using the Technology and Young Children position statement in their work. 6. New Research on Dual Language Learners This blog post updated us on the growing body of research which shows many benefits to growing up learning and thinking in two languages and offers ways early childhood teachers can support the dual language learners in their programs. A Young Children article offers more ideas for supporting the literacy development of dual language learners. 7. The 10 NAEYC Programs Standards Did you know that there are over 6500 childcare programs accredited by NAEYC serving more than 1 million children? NAEYC accredited programs follow the 10 Program Standards. Read about them here. 8. Ten Things Every Parent Should Know about Play Here’s another post that our readers shared widely on social media. Through play children learn and develop cognitive skills – like math and problem solving in a pretend grocery store and so much more. 9. Teachers Who Do Their Own Research! An infant teacher writes in her journal as part of her self-reflection; another teacher explores how 2-year-olds make theories about physical and chemical changes taking place during cooking. These teachers ask and explore deep questions as they teach and then write about their own teacher research. 10. NAEYC Members We are so proud and inspired by the many diverse and wonderful ways NAEYC members promote quality early childhood education in the work they do. Read about our members and share your story with us. Not a member? Learn about the many benefits of joining the NAEYC community. Share what inspires you below!

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Eastern New Mexico University Writing is an essential part in children’s educational foundation. A plethora of research has been conducted on the sequence of narrative development, but no examination has shown the most effective planning strategies for developing competent written narratives in elementary children. As stated by Kaderavek and Sulzby (2000), narrative ability is an important predictor of school success for school-aged children. Troia and Graham (2002) reported that there is little in current research below the third grade level in the area of writing. Literacy development begins long before children are in kindergarten; the lack of research on writing before the third grade is astonishing. McGregor (2000) stated that literacy skills, specifically writing, are prerequisite skills that feed into the complex process of reading. If writing and the process of planning for writing are neglected, it follows that reading proficiency may subsequently be affected. Teachers, parents, speech-language pathologists, and many others are increasingly involved and concerned with the development of children’s written language skills. More and more interest has been focused on the expansion of writing skills as the connection between writing proficiency and reading is quite close (ASHA, 2010). To further the development of writing skills, a strategic writing plan is needed in order to manage the composing process (De La Paz & Graham, 2002). Children who struggle with the process of writing employ a different, less sophisticated approach to composing (De La Paz & Graham, 2002). This less sophisticated approach minimizes the role of planning and operates largely without meta-cognitive control (De La Paz & Graham, 2002). In today’s era of increasing information, teachers and parents alike recognize the need for more proficient writers and readers. This becomes particularly pertinent when viewed in light of the current standardized testing requirements for better writing skills (Moss, 2010). There is considerable concern that the majority of adolescents do not develop the competence in writing they need to be successful in school, the workplace, or their personal lives (Graham & Perin, 2007). It is obvious that writing skills are directly related to reading proficiency (ASHA, 2010), but the connection between specific planning techniques and improvement in writing is not clear. Writing narratives is a difficult process for many children. This study was conducted to determine whether specific planning techniques (e.g., planning web, what-why-how chart, and four square writing strategies) will improve children’s narrative writing abilities. The planning strategies used for this research have been employed in many classrooms for teaching writing. Saddler, Moran, Graham, and Harris (2004) indicated that planning for narrative writing significantly ameliorates writing difficulties, and, improves the narrative composition. Planning is a necessary component when writing any narrative. A child does not automatically know how to plan properly to produce a cohesive narrative; he or she must be taught. As mentioned previously, adolescents who do not learn to write well are at a disadvantage (ASHA, 2010). In school, weaker writers are less likely than their more skilled classmates to use writing to support and extend learning in content classrooms. Their grades are likely to suffer, especially in classes where writing is the primary means for assessing progress (Graham, 2006). Their chances of attending college are reduced, because universities increasingly use writing to evaluate applicants’ qualifications. To accomplish a well-thought out and compiled narrative, planning for writing is a crucial component of learning narratives that must be taught and practiced in a curricular context. The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of specific planning techniques on narrative writing of children in first and second grades. A secondary goal of this research is to determine which planning strategy (e.g., planning web, what-why-how chart, four square writing) resulted in the most improvement. This research is necessary to determine if specific planning techniques will have increased and more meaningful success in developing written narratives. Gain scores will be assessed according to pre- and post-test data to determine if significant gain is noted when various planning techniques are used in writing. If there is a significant correlation between a certain planning strategy and improved written narratives, then teachers, parents, speech-language pathologists, and others should integrate this planning style in the teaching of narrative writing. The potential contribution of this research would be that teachers and speech-language pathologists would be able to use a specific planning strategy to teach literacy, particularly narrative writing with measureable success noted in student compositions. This study will address: • The impact of specific types of planning strategies on narrative writing in first and second grade compositions • The efficacy of specific planning strategies on student narratives Kaderavek and Sulzby (2000) reported that narrative writing abilities progress from a very young age. Writing, in general, is a complex process that combines both language and literacy skills which develop over a period of time. Children who are aware of the process of writing from an early age, are more apt to develop a better understand of the writing process, including planning (Bangert-Drown, Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004). Reading and Writing Writing is a process that is closely correlated to reading abilities, comprehension abilities, and many more concepts. According to Agate (2005), a relationship exists between children’s abilities to write effectively and have a successful academic career. The more effectively a student is able to compose a written narrative, the more success the student will have in multiple areas of their education (Agate, 2005). Writing and Academic Success Writing abilities and the development of writing abilities has been shown to affect student proficiency in school settings. This subsequently affects a student’s future academics and career opportunities. Many children in early elementary grades begin learning the writing process, but are unaware of the strong prediction that proficiency in writing has on their future (Applebee, 2000). If a child is taught the process of writing at an early age, he or she is less likely to have a difficult time with writing in the future (Couzign & Rijlaarsdam, 2005). According to Graham and Harris (2005), children who do not read and write proficiently have a greater chance for future academic difficulties. Nagin (2003) stated that children who had better writing abilities and compositions showed an increase in language skills, articulation skills, and meta-cognitive abilities. Children who are able to compile well-written narratives are better able to fulfill academic requirements. Many literacy skills are interrelated, so improvement in one area should have an effect on other areas as well (ASHA, 2010). If children are able to compose a well planned written narrative, it is likely that they will be able to successfully achieve the expectations of their parents and teachers. Pritchard and Honeycutt (2006) noted a relationship between explaining the writing process (including planning) and improved narrative writing. If children are explicitly taught the process of planning a narrative, then improvement in their writing of that narrative should be noticeable. Hooper, Roberts, Nelson, Zeisel, and Fannin (2010) conducted a study to determine what preschool predictors lead to better narrative writing later; however, it has not been studied if a specific planning technique will improve narrative writing. Hooper et al., (2010) studied the relationship of preschool predictors and narrative writing. This research involved measuring preschool predictors at Time (t1) and correlating this research with narrative writing at Time (t2). Results of this study showed that core language abilities, pre-reading skills, and maternal education assessed at kindergarten entry was a critical predictor of later narrative writing skills. Olinghouse (2007) examined the student-level and instruction-level predictors of narrative writing. Student predictors included measures of reading, handwriting, spelling, IQ, grammatical understanding, and gender. Instructional predictors focused on the amount of time allocated to teaching basic writing and planning skills. Significant predictors of narrative writing abilities were found to be gender, IQ, and advanced planning ability. Ellis and Yuan (2003) studied the relationship between the quality of narrative writing and the type of planning completed. Three types of planning were assessed. These included pre-task planning (planning before writing), unpressured on-line planning (planning while writing), and no planning. The study concluded that pre-task planning resulted in greater fluency and syntactic variety, but on-line planning resulted in greater grammatical complexity. When students did not plan, this caused the need to formulate, execute, and monitor under pressure, with negative consequences for the fluency, complexity, and accuracy of narrative writing seen. Corden (2007) investigated the explicit instruction of literary devices during designated literacy sessions. The children were to be reflective authors, able to draft (plan) and redraft writing in response to feedback. Result of this year long study suggested that planning and discussing writing with students had a positive impact on the quality of children’s narrative writing. In a study by Lane, Harris, Graham, Weisenbach, Brindle, and Morphy (2008), writing and planning were examined for correlative relationships. Results of this research revealed lasting improvements in story completeness, length, and quality. This indicates that planning in narrative writing is crucial to the quality of the piece. Dekemel (2003) investigated narrative development in children, and discernible patterns of acquisition. Most children are capable of producing an adult narrative by 6 to 7 years of age, while narrative form and content continue to be refined throughout later childhood and adolescence. The oral form of a narrative develops fairly early at approximately 27 months of age (Applebee, 2000); however, the written form of a narrative develops a little later. The written form of a narrative typically begins to develop by age six and continues through adolescence (Applebee, 2000). Conclusions given by Peterson (2009) showed that “when” information in narrative compositions was rare at first, and “where” information was more common at all ages. This study concluded that very young children can produce narratives in a no scaffolding (unaided) context to adults unfamiliar with their experiences. Habermas, Ehlert-Lerche, and Silveira (2009) studied life narratives of an eight, twelve, sixteen, and twenty year old to determine how well-formed the written narratives would be at each age. By age 12, narratives began in the past, ended in the present, and followed a chronological order. In late adolescence and early adulthood, more elaborate narratives with retrospective evaluations of life and outlooks into the future were added. Numerous studies document specific variable impact on narrative writing abilities (Nagin, 2003 Olinghouse, 2007, Ellis & Yuan, 2003). Many of the studies agree that, as children’s age increases, narrative writing competence should increase concurrently. Other studies indicate that the earlier the exposure to the process of writing a narrative (including the planning stage), the better the outcome for writing abilities (ASHA, 2010, Graham & Perkin, 2007, De la Paz, 2002). As previously stated, narrative writing skills not only improve academic areas, but also future academics, career opportunities, and overall life activities. Writing is such an integral part of activities of daily living that adults need to be aware of the potential positive effects of exposing children to the writing process, and teaching young children to become better writers. Children who are poor writers, as stated previously, will have a more difficult time in reading, career opportunities, and academic problems. Narrative writing during first and second grade is critical to a child’s success for the rest of their academic career (Kaderavek and Sulzby, 2000). If a child is unaware or unable to complete the planning stage of the writing process, then proficient writing could potentially fall through the cracks. When a child is unable to compile a well-written narrative, their entire academic career is at risk for present and future problems. Many different methods exist to facilitate the development of proficient narrative writing in children. Some teachers use daily journal writing. Others give a prompt for the children to write about. Lynch, Broek, Kremer, Kendeou, White, and Lorch (2008) analyzed narratives of children ages four through nine to determine the most appropriate way to develop narratives in children. The study concluded that the younger the children were exposed to the writing process (i.e., planning, drafting, finalizing), the more proficient their narratives were. No matter what type of instruction, as long as the instruction included development of the writing process during the time of narrative development in children, improvement in written narratives could be seen. The first and second grade children were included in this study to see if planning improved narrative writing, and if so, which type of planning strategy resulted in the most improvement in narrative composition. The present study is being conducted to see if specific planning techniques will have an impact on narrative writing proficiency. The study will determine the efficacy of specific planning strategies by measuring gain scores after a thirteen week writing intervention using specific planning strategies. Gain scores will further be used to determine which planning strategy helped to improve writing narratives the most. If there is significant gain scores in a particular technique, this study will show that incorporation of that specific planning strategy may be an effective way to teach and develop narrative abilities in classroom situations. Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams to improve the way they address issues and solve problems. This study was an alternating treatments design with action research in a quantitative small group. When determining exactly what type of experimental design should be utilized, it was necessary to determine how the groups would be established. The groups were non-randomized, pre- and post-tested with treatment to the experimental group; therefore, a nonequivalent control-group design was used for this study. A nonequivalent control group design (NEGD) is the most frequently used design in social research with pretest-posttest non-randomization. It is likely that the groups are not equivalent according to Trochim (2006). The independent variable, the treatment, was the exposure to the three different writing planning strategies. The dependent variable, the difference, was the difference in scores between pre- and post-test data. The participants involved in this study were first and second grade students from an elementary school in Clovis, New Mexico using convenience sampling. According to Castillo (2009), convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. The sample size included 45 children in first and second grades. Subject matching was not utilized in this study. The criterion for selection of participants was largely their age. The participant must fall between the grades of first and second. Parental variables were not a factor, since the sample was from public school classrooms. The researcher ensured that the teachers who were introducing the new techniques to their classrooms understood the techniques, how to implement them, implemented them the exact same way each time, offered the same help to each child, and never sent the writing samples to the home setting. The materials needed to complete this study included 3-four square writing, 3-planning web, and 3-what-why-how worksheets for each child throughout the study. These were necessary in order to allow the children to plan their narratives without the teachers having the responsibility of copying the worksheets each week. In addition, two rubrics for each child (i.e., six point rubric and S-Map for Oral and Written Narratives) were used to score the children’s pre-test and post-test narratives. Before the study was performed, the participants parents were contacted and given a child consent form. This consent form stated that they agreed to help the researcher and understood that they did not have to participate in the study, and were allowed to discontinue the study at any time. Participants were asked to sign the consent form and return it before the study began. Once all of the consent forms were signed and collected, the study began. This study paid close attention to the correlation between planning and written narratives. The focus of the researcher was to identify if a specific planning technique would improve written narratives. The study was conducted for a total of thirteen weeks in order to return to baseline after each intervention when writing narratives in first and second grade. The first week, a pre-test of each student’s narrative was taken. For three consecutive weeks, a new narrative planning technique was utilized in the first and second grade classrooms when writing narratives. After the third week of intervention, the study returned to baseline. This schedule of intervention was utilized with the same three techniques being introduced, practiced, and mastered each time. Finally, each participant’s final narrative was post-tested immediately following the last return to baseline. Each narrative was then rated according to a six point rubric, as well as an S-Map for Oral and Written Narratives Rubric. When scoring the participants, two rubrics were used to score each narrative, as stated previously. Consideration for dialect in scoring was accounted for because all of the participants were from the same region and spoke English as their primary language, so this was not an area of concern for the study. Inter-observer reliability is the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon (Trochim, 2006). Calculations of the percent of agreement between the raters were ascertained to maintain reliability throughout the study. Scoring procedures included administering the pre-test narrative and the post-test narrative to each first and second grade class on the same day. Any variation to the administration of the pre-test and post-test were not adequate unless it was performed with each participant in each class. When designing this study, it became apparent that many confounding variables needed to be accounted for. The first confounding variable was absentees. If a child or children were absent from school on a pre-test, instruction day, or post-test, this may have hindered their ability to perform well on the narrative assessment or gain instruction. If the child missed a regular pre-test/ instruction/ post-test day about a specific planning strategy, then the teacher instructed the child the day they returned to school in order for the child to have the instruction necessary to complete the study and keep the results uniform. The second confounding variable was children’s different learning styles. The teachers employed instructional strategies in their everyday teaching that enabled every child to learn in the best possible way (i.e., kinesthetic, visual, auditory, written, etc.). Third, maturation did not affect the study because it was completed over a period of 13 weeks which was not an extended period of time. Next, the teachers employed motivational strategies in their everyday teaching that helped to motivate the children in completing the study to the best of their abilities (i.e., verbal praise, stickers, redirection, etc.). Holidays did not have a significant effect on the study because the amount of time spent on teaching and writing the narratives throughout the week was considerable (5 to 7 ½ hours per week). Any time that was lost during a holiday or break could be easily made up in the scheduled 1 ½ hour literacy block every day. Finally, weather was not be a concern during this study because all of the children were from the same school and area, and experienced the same type of weather and climate. When conducting an experimental study, multiple variables are involved including statistics. Inferential statistics used in this study were a Two Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and a Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference Test (Tukey’s HSD). An ANOVA was used to compare the amount of between group variance with the amount of within group variance, and to determine pre- and post-test improvements. To determine exactly where the difference occurred in the data, a Tukey’s HSD was performed. The research was conducted to determine whether the implementation of specific writing strategies improved the narrative writing of first and second grade students. Furthermore, this study intended to find whether one writing strategy improved writing more than the others, if specific writing strategies improved girls writing more than boys, and if one grade made greater gains than the other. The statistical results of improved overall narrative writing of first and second grade students were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA. The alpha level was set at .01 with a critical value of 6.99. Results of the two-way ANOVA reveal an F statistic of 40.82 which shows a significant difference between pre-test and post-test data. This indicates that specific writing strategies used in first and second grades may improve their writing significantly. When considering whether one writing strategy improved narrative writing more than another strategy, a Tukey’s HSD was used. The alpha level at was set at .01 with a critical value of 1.23. Results of the Tukey’s HSD revealed no statistical significance between treatments. This indicates that the 3 writing strategies (4-square, planning web, and what-why-how) may not differ in the amount of improvement they provide. The most improvement appeared to be with the what-why-how strategy, but this could not be proven due to the sequencing effect. All of the treatments worked equally well. Improvement between boys and girls was analyzed using the Tukey’s HSD, as well as improvement between first and second grade students. With the alpha set at .01 and a critical value of 1.23, results showed no statistical significance. The treatment affected first and second grade boys and girls equally with no significant difference between the groups. The variance of this study revealed a statistic of .93 which means that 93% of the variability in the data is accounted for by the differences between treatments. Results of the study showed that teaching specific writing strategies to first and second grade students improved their narrative writing skills significantly. The different writing strategies (4-square, planning web, what-why-how) taught did not vary significantly in the amount of improvement they offered, nor was the amount of variance between boys and girls or first and second grade significantly different. The amount of improvement between each of the three strategies could not be proven statistically significant due to the sequencing of treatment; therefore, each strategy worked equally well with boys and girls, as well as first and second grade. Although significant gains were made during this study, a limitation was apparent. A sequencing effect influenced the amount of gain seen between each of the planning strategies. The presentation order of the strategies was implemented to ensure continuity and stability for the first and second grade students. The sequencing effect hindered the ability to determine which strategy helped to improve writing the most; however, a linear sequence was in the best interest of their learning, and was the most responsible choice for the children. This study demonstrates how speech-language pathologists can be involved in the education of children in the general population indirectly, and have a significant impact on their learning. Typically, the thought is that the only way a speech-language pathologist can make a difference in children’s lives is to directly instruct them on different strategies and techniques. When looking at the results of this study, it is apparent that simply informing and instructing teachers on the implementation of evidence-based practice strategies can have just as much if not a greater impact on student’s learning. Teachers, principles, and school officials can be informed of the significance in the teaching of specific writing strategies on children’s writing abilities. The results of this study prove that direct instruction of writing techniques to children can lead to great gains in narrative writing. When these professionals are informed and instructed on how to implement these practices in the schools and classrooms, narrative writing abilities of children will considerably increase. This study showed significant difference in student’s pre- and post-test writing abilities; however, the researcher was unable to determine which strategy helped to improve writing the most due to the sequencing effect. A suggestion for further research includes implementing one writing strategy at a time to determine the amount of gain that each strategy has on narrative writing. Determining which strategy has the most effect on narrative writing will give speech-language pathologists and teachers the ability to use one writing strategy consistently to enhance children’s writing abilities. Conclusions indicate that when specific writing strategies are implemented in first and second grade classrooms, great gains in narrative writing ability can be expected. Speech-language pathologists and teachers can work together to assure greater student success. When speech-language pathologists collaborate with elementary school teachers in the implementation of writing strategies, children’s writing abilities can be significantly improved. I would like to express my gratitude to the two elementary school teachers who graciously participated in this study, Cynthia Millender and Marilyn Odom. Their cooperation in implementing the writing strategies, and instructing their children made this study possible. Furthermore, I would like to thank the children who wrote so wonderfully, and the parents for allowing their children to participate. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. Suzanne Swift for all of her advice and hard work throughout this process. My research would not have been as successful without her knowledge and abilities. Agate, L. (2005). Investigation of primary grade writing instruction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. American Speech-Language Hearing Association. (2010). Reading and Writing. Retrieved from: http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/Literacy.htm. Applebee, A. (2000). Alternative models of writing development. Perspectives on writing: Research, theory, and practice. Newark: International Reading Association. Bangert-Drowns, R., Hurley, M., & Wilkinson, B. (2004). The effects of school-based writing-to learn interventions on academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Review of educational research, 74, 29-58. Castillo, J. (2009). Convenience sampling applied to research. Retrieved from: http://www.experiment-resources.com/convenience-sampling.html. Corden, R. (2007). Developing reading-writing connections: The impact of explicit instruction of literary devices on the quality of children’s narrative writing . Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 21(3), 269-289. Couzign, M. & Rijlaarsdam, G. (2005). Learning to write instructive texts by reader observation and written feedback. Effective learning and teaching of writing: A handbook of writing in education. New York: Kluwer Academic. DeKemel, K. (2003). Intervention in Language Arts: A practical guide for speech-language pathologists. Philadelphia: Elsevier. De La Paz, S. & Graham, S. (2002). Explicitly teaching strategies, skills, and knowledge: Writing instruction in middle school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 291-304. Ellis, & Yuan, (2003). The effects of pre-task planning and on-line planning on fluency, complexity and accuracy in L2 monologic oral production. Applied Linguististics, 24(1), 1-27. Graham, S. (2006). Writing: Handbook of education psychology. Mahwah:Erlbaum. Graham, S. & Harris, K. (2005). Writing better. Baltimore: Brookes. Graham, S. & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Habermas, T., Ehlert-Lerche, S., & Silveira, C. (2009). The development of the temporal macrostructure of life narratives across adolescence: Beginnings, linear narrative form, and endings. Journal of Personality, 77(2), 527-560. Hooper, S., Roberts, J., Nelson, L., Zeisel, S., & Fannin, D. (2010). Preschool predictors of narrative writing skills in elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(1), 1-12. Kaderavek, J. & Sulzby, E. (2000). Narrative Production by children with and without specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 34-49. Lane, K., Harris, K., Graham, S., Weisenbach, J., Brindle, M., & Morphy, P. (2008). The effects of self-regulated strategy development on the writing performance of second grade students. Journal of Special Education, 41(4), 234-253. Lynch, J., van den Broek, P., Kremer, K., Kendeou, P., White, M., & Lorch, E. (2008). The development of narrative comprehension in its relation to other early reading skills. Reading Psychology, 29, 327-365. McGregor, K. (2000). The development and enhancement of narrative skills in a preschool classroom. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9, 55-71. Moss, B. (2004). Teaching expository text structures through information trade book retellings. The reading teacher, 57. Nagin, C. (2003). Because writing matters: Improving student writing in our schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Olinghouse, N. (2007). Student and instruction level predictors of narrative writing in third grade students. Journal of Humanities, Social Sciences, and Law, 21(1), 3-26. Peterson, M. (2009). Narrative writing in adolescence. Linguistic Society of America, 85(3), 234 241. Pritchard, R. & Honeycutt, J. (2006). Process writing: Handbook of writing research. New York: Guilford. Saddler, B., Moran, S., Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2004). Preventing writing difficulties: The effects of planning strategy instruction on the writing performance of struggling writers. Journal of Special Education, 12(1), 3-17. Troia, G. & Graham, S. (2002). The effectiveness of a highly explicit, teacher-directed strategy instruction routine:Changing the writing performance of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 290-305. Trochim, W. (2006). The Nonequivalent Groups Design. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/quasnegd.php. Trochim, W. (2006). The T-Test. 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From Poetry Wiki The Odyssey (Greek: Ὀδύσσεια, Odusseia) is one of the two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to the poet Homer. The poem is commonly dated circa 800 to 600 BC. The poem is, in part, a sequel to Homer's Iliad and mainly concerns the events that befall the Greek hero Odysseus in his long journeys after the fall of Troy and when he at last returns to his native land of Ithaca. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten year Trojan War. During this twenty-year absence, his son Telemachus and his wife Penelope must deal with a group of unruly suitors who have moved into Odysseus' home to compete for Penelope's hand in marriage, since most have assumed that Odysseus has died. The poem is a fundamental text in the Western canon and continues to be read in both Homeric Greek and translations around the world. While today's version of The Odyssey is usually a printed text, the original poem was an oral composition sung by a trained bard, in an amalgamated Ancient Greek dialect, using a regular metrical pattern called dactylic hexameter. Each of the 12,110 hexameter lines of the original Greek consists of six feet; each foot is a dactyl or a spondee. Among the most impressive elements of the text are its strikingly modern non-linear plot, and the fact that events are shown to depend as much on the choices made by women and serfs as on the actions of fighting men. In the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. Character of Odysseus - Main article: Odysseus. Odysseus' main heroic trait is his mētis, or "cunning intelligence"; he is often described as the "Peer of Zeus in Counsel". This intelligence is most often manifested by Odysseus' use of disguise and deceptive speech. His disguises take forms both physical (altering his appearance) and verbal, such as telling the Cyclops Polyphemus that his name is "Nobody" (Ουτις), then escaping after blinding Polyphemus (When queried by other cyclops about why he is screaming, Polyphemus replies that "Nobody" is hurting him). The Odyssey begins in medias res, meaning that the action begins in the middle of the plot, and that prior events are described through flashbacks or storytelling. In the first episodes we trace Telemachus' efforts to assert control of the household, and then, at Athene's advice, to search for news of his long-lost father. Then the scene shifts: Odysseus has been a captive of the beautiful nymph Calypso, with whom he has spent 7 of his 10 lost years. Released by the intercession of his patroness Athena, he departs, but his raft is destroyed by his divine enemy Poseidon, who is angry because Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus. When Odysseus washes up on Scherie, home to the Phaeacians, he is assisted by the young Nausicaa and is treated hospitably. In return he satisfies the Phaeacians' curiosity, telling them - and us - of all his adventures since departing from Troy. This renowned, extended "flashback" leads Odysseus back to where he stands, his tale told. The shipbuilding Phaeacians finally loan him a ship to return to Ithaca, where he is aided by the swineherd Eumaeus, meets Telemachus, regains his household, kills the suitors, and is reunited with his faithful wife Penelope. In nearly all modern editions and translations the Odyssey (like the Iliad) is divided into 24 books. This division is handy but it is not original; it was developed by Alexandrian editors of the 3rd century BC. Aside from this, the first four books, focusing on Telemachus, are sometimes known as the "Telemachy". Within Odysseus's narrative, the section describing his meeting with the spirits of the dead is known as the "Nekuia". The last 550 lines of the Odyssey, corresponding to book 24, are believed by many scholars to have been added by a slightly later poet. For more about varying views on the origin, authorship and unity of the poem see Homeric scholarship. Outline of the plot Telemachus, Odysseus’s son, was a baby when Odysseus set out for Troy. At the point where the Odyssey begins, ten years after the Trojan War ended, Telemachus is about twenty and is sharing his missing father’s house on the island of Ithaca with his mother Penelope and with a crowd of boisterous young men, "the Suitors", whose aim is to persuade Penelope to accept her husband’s disappearance as final and to marry one of them. The goddess Athene (who is Odysseus’s protector) discusses his fate with Zeus, king of the gods, at a moment when Odysseus's enemy, the sea-god Poseidon, is absent from Mount Olympus. Then, disguised as a male stranger, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality; they observe the Suitors dining rowdily, and the singer Phemius performing a narrative poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius's theme, the "Return from Troy" because it reminds her of her missing husband, but Telemachus rebuts her objections. Next morning Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca and demands a ship and crew. Accompanied by Athene (now disguised as Telemachus’s friend Mentor) he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos. From there Telemachus rides overland to Sparta, where he finds Menelaus and Helen, now reconciled. He is told that they returned to Greece after a long voyage by way of Egypt; there, on the magical island of Pharos, Menelaos encountered the old sea-god Proteus, who told him that Odysseus is a captive of the mysterious goddess Calypso. Incidentally Telemachus learns the fate of Menelaus’s brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and leader of the Greeks at Troy, murdered on his return home by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Meanwhile Odysseus, after wanderings about which we are still to learn, has spent seven years in captivity on the goddess Calypso’s distant island. She is now persuaded by the messenger god Hermes to release him. Odysseus builds a raft. It is wrecked (the sea-god Poseidon is his enemy) but he swims ashore on the island of Scherie, where, naked and exhausted, he falls asleep. Next morning, awakened by the laughter of girls, he sees the young Nausicaa, who has gone to the seashore with her maids to wash clothes. He appeals to her for help. She encourages him to seek the hospitality of her parents Arete and Alcinous. Odysseus is welcomed and is not at first asked for his name. He remains several days with Alcinous, takes part in an athletic competition, and hears the blind singer Demodocus perform two narrative poems. The first is an otherwise obscure incident of the Trojan War, the "Quarrel of Odysseus and Achilles"; the second is the amusing tale of a love affair between two Olympian gods, Ares and Aphrodite. Finally Odysseus asks Demodocus to return to the Trojan War theme and tell of the Wooden Horse, a stratagem in which Odysseus had played a leading role. Unable to hide his emotion as he relives this episode, Odysseus at last reveals his identity. He then begins to tell the amazing story of his return from Troy. - After a piratical raid on Ismarus in the land of the Cicones, he and his twelve ships were driven off course by storms. They visited the lazy Lotus-Eaters and were captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus, escaping by blinding him with a wooden stake. They stayed with Aeolus the master of the winds; he gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home, had not the sailors foolishly opened the bag while Odysseus slept. All the winds flew out and the resulting storm drove the ships back the way they had come. - After pleading in vain with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embarked and encountered the cannibal Laestrygones. Odysseus’s own ship was the only one to escape. He sailed on and visited the witch-goddess Circe, whose magic potions turned most of his sailors into swine. Odysseus was given by the god Hermes an antidote to Circe's potion, a drug called moly. He persuaded Circe to release his men, and himself slept with her. They stayed on Circe’s island for a year. Then, guided by her instructions, they crossed the Ocean and reached a harbour at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrificed to the dead and summoned the spirit of the old prophet Teiresias to advise him. Here Odysseus learned for the first time news of his own household, threatened by the greed of the suitors. Here, too, he met the spirits of famous women and famous men; notably he encountered the spirit of Agamemnon, of whose murder he now learned. - Returning to Circe’s island, they were advised by her on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirted the land of the Sirens, passed between the many-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis, and landed on the island of Thrinacia. There Odysseus’s men – ignoring the warnings of Teiresias and Circe – hunted down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios. This sacrilege was punished by a shipwreck in which all but Odysseus himself were drowned. He was washed ashore on the island of Calypso, where she kept him as her lover, and he had only now escaped. Having listened with rapt attention to his story, the Phaeacians, who are skilled mariners, agree to help Odysseus on his way home. They deliver him at night, while he is fast asleep, to a hidden harbour on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus. Odysseus now plays the part of a wandering beggar in order to learn how things stand in his household. After dinner he tells the farm labourers a fictitious tale of himself: he was born in Crete, had led a party of Cretans to fight alongside other Greeks in the Trojan War, and had then spent seven years at the court of the king of Egypt; finally he had been shipwrecked in Thesprotia and crossed from there to Ithaca. Meanwhile Telemachus, whom we left at Sparta, sails home, evading an ambush set by the suitors. He disembarks on the coast of Ithaca and makes for Eumaeus’s hut. Father and son meet; Odysseus identifies himself to Telemachus (but still not to Eumaeus) and they determine that the suitors must be killed. Telemachus gets home first. Accompanied by Eumaeus, Odysseus now returns to his own house, still disguised as a beggar. He experiences the suitors’ rowdy behaviour and plans their death. He meets Penelope: he tests her intentions with an invented story of his birth in Crete, where, he says, he once met Odysseus. Closely questioned, he adds that he had recently been in Thesprotia and had learned something there of Odysseus’s recent wanderings. Odysseus’s identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia, when he undresses for a bath and reveals an old thigh wound; he swears her to secrecy. Next day, at Athene’s prompting, Penelope manoeuvres the suitors into competing for her hand with an archery competition using Odysseus’s bow. He takes part in the competition himself; he alone is strong enough to string the bow and therefore wins. Immediately he turns his arrows on the suitors, and all are killed. Odysseus and Telemachus kill (by hanging) twelve of their household maids, who had slept with the suitors; they mutilate and kill the goatherd Melanthius, who had favoured them. Now at last Odysseus identifies himself to Penelope. She is hesitant, but accepts him when he correctly describes to her the bed he built for her when they married. Next day he and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laertes, who likewise accepts his identity only when Odysseus correctly describes the orchard that Laertes once gave him. The citizens of Ithaca have followed Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. Their leader points out that Odysseus has now caused the deaths of two generations of the men of Ithaca – his sailors, not one of whom survived, and the suitors, whom he has now executed. The goddess Athene intervenes and persuades both sides to give up the vendetta. The geography of the Odyssey The journey of Telemachus to Pylos and Sparta raises no geographical problems. Incidental mentions of Troy and its neighbourhood, Phoenicia, Egypt and Crete hint at geographical knowledge equal to, or perhaps slightly ahead of, that of the poet who narrated the Iliad story. The geographical description of Ithaca and its neighbours seems confused and has given rise to much scholarly argument, beginning in ancient times. Odysseus's Ithaca is usually identified with the island traditionally called Thiaki and now officially renamed Ithake, but some scholars have argued that Odysseus's Ithaca is actually Leucas, and others identify it with the whole or part of Cephalonia. For further information on these debates see Homer's Ithaca. The geography of the tale that Odysseus told to the Phaeacians (and the location of the Phaeacians' own island of Scherie) pose quite different problems. Scholars both ancient and modern are divided as to whether or not any of the places visited by Odysseus (after Ismarus) were real. Eratosthenes, the third century BC Alexandrian geographer, ridiculed attempts to identify them, saying "you will find the scene of the wanderings of Odysseus when you find the cobbler who sewed up the bag of winds." Similarly, the modern Greek Homerist Ioannis Kakridis championed the view that the Odyssey is a work of poetry and not a travel log; it is useless to try to locate the places mentioned in Odysseus's narrative on the map. We cannot confuse the narrative of Odyssey with history unless we believe in the existence of gods, giants and monsters. One might indeed ask what real locations inspired these imaginary places, but it has to be borne in mind that geography is not the main concern either of Odysseus (as narrator) or of the poet. By contrast, those who argue for real locations point to the high degree of realism in the poem generally, for example in the description of sailing; but even among these scholars there is endless dispute over actual identifications. The most common view, treated as fact or probable fact in some reference works, sees Odysseus driven far off course into the western Mediterranean, with most of his landfalls taking place between north Africa, Sardinia, Italy and Sicily but without any very coherent route from one to the next. The following identifications are commonly made: - The island of Calypso, referred to in the Odyssey as Ogygia, is associated locally with Gozo, which is part of the Maltese archipelago. - The Lotus Eaters are located in Tunisia, or elsewhere on the north African coast, on the basis that this would be the expected landfall for a sailing vessel blown off course at Cape Malea. - The island of the Cyclopes was in ancient times commonly thought to be Sicily. - Aeolus is traditionally placed north of Sicily in the Aeolian Islands (hence their name). - The Laestrygones are sometimes placed in Sardinia. - The home of Circe was believed by many in ancient times to be at or near Circeii on the coast of Latium (central Italy). Others placed Circe on an island at the western end of the Mediterranean, because: - The crossing of Ocean, which followed Odysseus's first visit to Circe, is often understood as an excursion beyond the Pillars of Hercules into the Atlantic Ocean. Odysseus's brief visit to the Underworld, with its three rivers Acheron, Phlegethon and Cocytus, is not usually looked for on the real map of the world (but see below). - Scylla and Charybdis are traditionally located on either side of the Straits of Messina. - A connection between Thrinacia, the island home of Helios' cattle, and Sicily was already made in Antiquity; the poetic name of Sicily in later Greek literature was Trinacria. - The kingdom of the Phaeacians on the island of Scherie, described as a recent colony established "far from barley-eating men", has traditionally been identified with some confidence as Corcyra (Corfu). Not all reconstructions are based purely on readings in the classics: Tim Severin sailed a replica Greek sailing vessel (originally built for his attempt to retrace the steps of Jason and the Argonauts) along the 'natural' route from Troy to Ithaca, following the sailing directions that could be teased out of Homer. Along the way he found locations at the natural turning and dislocation points which fit the pattern much more closely than the usual identifications above. However, he also came to the conclusion that the sequence of adventures from Circe onwards derived from a separate voyage to the sequence that ended with the Laestrygones, possibly derived from the stories of the Argonauts. He placed many of the later episodes on the northwest Greek coast, where there is a real river Acheron. Along the way he found on the map Cape Skilla and other names that implied strong mythological links to the Odyssey. His adventure is recounted in The Ulysses Voyage: Sea Search for the Odyssey. Near Eastern influences Scholars have seen strong influences from Near Eastern mythology and literature in the Odyssey. Martin West has noted substantial parallels between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Odyssey. Both Odysseus and Gilgamesh are known for travelling to the ends of the earth, and on their journeys go to the land of the dead. On his voyage to the underworld Odysseus follows instructions given to him by Circe, a goddess who is the daughter of the sun-god Helios. Her island, Aiaia, is located at the edges of the world, and seems to have close associations with the sun. Like Odysseus,Gilgamesh gets directions on how to reach the land of the dead from a divine helper: in this case she is the goddess Siduri, who, like Circe, dwells by the sea at the ends of the earth. Her home is also associated with the sun: Gilgamesh reaches Siduri's house by passing through a tunnel underneath Mt. Mashu, the high mountain from which the sun comes into the sky. West argues that the similarity of Odysseus' and Gilgamesh's journeys to the edges of the earth are the result of the influence of the Gilgamesh epic upon the Odyssey. - The contemporary play Highway Ulysses by Rinde Eckert tells the story of the journey of a Vietnam veteran travelling to his son, meeting modern day characters akin to characters or monsters in the Odyssey (including the Sirens and Cyclops). - "Telemachus Clay" by Lewis John Carlino is a contemporary play about the travels of a young man, Telemachus, in search of the father he never knew in the big city as he meets many strange characters along the way. - The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to the American state of Washington in the years after the Spanish-American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two. - Some of the tales of Sindbad the Sailor from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) were taken from Homer's Odyssey. - A modern novel inspired by the Odyssey is James Joyce's Ulysses (1922). - Nikos Kazantzakis wrote The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel, a 33,333 line epic poem which continues Odysseus' journeys past the point of his arrival in Ithaca. - Andrew Lang and H. Rider Haggard collaborated on The World's Desire in which Odysseus and Helen meet in Egypt at the time of the Exodus. - "The Odyssey", a made for TV movie from 2001 made by Hallmark Entertainment and directed by Andrei Konchalovsky is a slightly abbreiviated version of the tale which encompasses Homer's epic. It stars Armand Assante, Greta Scacchi, Isabella Rossellini and Vanessa Williams. - The movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? has the basic plot of The Odyssey; Joel and Ethan Coen admit to basing the movie loosely on the Odyssey (and explicitly reference it in the opening credits) but insist that they haven't read it. - R.A. Lafferty retold the story in a science fiction setting in his novel Space Chantey. Another science fiction retelling of the Odyssey is R L Fanthorpe's novel Negative Minus, in which all the names are spelled backwards (for example "Suessydo", "Ecric" and "Acahti"). - Progressive metal group Symphony X based a 24-minute epic track The Odyssey on the story in their 2002 album, The Odyssey. - The animated cartoon Ulysses 31 featured a science-fiction tale of a hero trying to get back to his wife Penelope. - The first half of Virgil's Aeneid parallels the Odyssey in structure. - Ulysses, a poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson, and also The Lotos-Eaters. - Tank Girl: Odyssey borrows freely and irreverently from Homer and from James Joyce's Ulysses, casting targets in the contemporary media as the trials the heroine must overcome to get back to her mutant kangaroo boyfriend. - Odyssey: A Stage Version, 1993 play, divided into two acts (respectively broken up into 14 and 6 scenes) written by Derek Walcott and originally performed by the Royal Shakespeare Company. - The 1997 novel Cold Mountain by Charles Frazier, about a confederate war deserter returning home, is based on The Odyssey - In Jean-Luc Godard's film Le Mépris (Contempt) (1963) German film director Fritz Lang plays himself trying to direct a film adaptation of Homer's Odyssey. - In Dante's Divine Comedy ("Inferno XXVI"), Odysseus is punished as a fraudulent advisor in Hell, talking about the Hubris of his last voyage (over the edge). (Yet this story is not taken from Homer's Odyssey.) - Odds Bodkin has published a retelling of the Odyssey, featuring vocal storytelling and musical accompaniment, entitled "The Odyssey." This work includes most of the plot of Homer's "Odyssey," and is narrated from Odysseus' point of view. - The Penelopiad by Margaret Atwood retells the story from the point of view of Penelope. - The Desmond Hume storyline on Lost may be based partly on The Odyssey; Desmond goes on a "race around the world" in order to win back his honor and marry his girlfriend Penelope. - The main character of Hayao Miyazaki's movie Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind is named after the princess in the Odyssey. - The short story The Ulyssey by uruguayan writer Rodrigo Tisnés, tells in a humoristic way, the frustrated attempt of two friends both named Ulysses in Eastern Holidays, to travel from Montevideo in Uruguay to Florianopolis in Brazil. - ↑ The dog Argos dies autik' idont' Odusea eeikosto eniauto ("seeing Odysseus again in the twentieth year"), Odyssey 17.327; cf. also 2.174-6, 23.102, 23.171. - ↑ This device is imitated by later authors of literary epics, e.g. Virgil in the Aeneid. - ↑ This theme once existed in the form of a written epic, Nostoi, now lost. - ↑ Outline originally based on Template:Harvard reference pp. xx-xxiv. - ↑ Setting aside the geographical knowledge shown in the Catalogue of Ships and Trojan Battle Order, which are extremely detailed and precise, but may have a different history from the remainder of the Iliad narrative. - ↑ For Robert Bittlestone's recent work, identifying the Paliki peninsula with Homer's Ithaca, see Odysseus Unbound. - ↑ Ελληνική Μυθολογία, vol. 5: The Trojan War (1986) Ekdotike Athenon, Athens. Kakridis compares the effort to locate Circe's island to locating the castle of Bluebeard or the hut of the seven dwarves. - ↑ The Greek geographer Strabo noted that "Homer was not ignorant about the ebb and flow of Okeanos": Strabo, Geography, 1.7.8. - ↑ Theophile Cailleux, Pays Atlantiques décrits par Homère, 1879, Maisonneuve & Cie, Paris - ↑ West, Martin. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. (Oxford 1997) 402-417. - Greek Myth: the Odyssey - The Meaning of Tradition in Homer's Odyssey by Marcel Bas. Views The Odyssey from the perspective of Indo-european tradition and religion. - Homer's Odyssey resources on the Web by Jorn Barger. Provides links to the original and various public domain translations. - John Jackson - Homer: Odyssey © Oxford Univ. Press 1902, parsing and English definitions by John Jackson © 2006 Free eBook for Palm Handheld - George Chapman, 1616 (couplets) - Alexander Pope, 1713 (couplets); Project Gutenberg edition; - William Cowper, 1791 (blank verse) - Samuel Henry Butcher and Andrew Lang, Project Gutenberg edition; - William Cullen Bryant, 1871 (blank verse) - William Morris, 1887 - Samuel Butler, 1898 (prose), Project Gutenberg edition; - English Text Samuel Butler, 1898 (prose) - A. T. Murray (revised by George E. Dimock), 1919; Loeb Classical Library (ISBN 0-674-99561-9) - T.E. Shaw (T.E. Lawrence), 1932 - W. H. D. Rouse, 1937 - E. V. Rieu, 1945 - Richmond Lattimore, 1965 (ISBN 0-06-093195-7) - Robert Fitzgerald, 1963 (ISBN 0-679-72813-9) - Walter Shewring, 1980 (ISBN 0-19-283375-8), Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics) - Allen Mandlebaum, 1990 - Robert Fagles, 1996 (ISBN 0-14-026886-3); an unabridged audio recording by Ian McKellen is also available (ISBN 0-14-086430-X). - Stanley Lombardo, 2000 (ISBN 0-87220-484-7) has what is considered by some to be the best combination of faithfulness to the original Greek and a more vernacular style. An audio CD recording read by the translator is also available (ISBN 1-930972-06-7). 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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Cynthia H. Roberts It is my intention to show that students of poor neighborhoods, if given the chance and opportunity to write, have a tremendous amount to say and they are very anxious to speak through poetry. These students will be given the opportunity to let go and be creative. - 1. To encourage self-analysis, especially of one’s own pattern of thinking and rationalizing. - 2. To develop an awareness of pride in the many contributions made by Afro-American poets. - 3. To gain an appreciation for poetry. - 4. To be able to express orally and in written form their feelings and emotions. - 5. To increase reading comprehension and vocabulary building. - 6. To enhance students’ oral language and social skills through group work. - 7. To help students feel a sense of pride, promote learning, social growth and to help build self-esteem. This unit will cover an eight to ten week period. Classes will meet twice weekly for a total of 48 minutes each class. I. INTRODUCTION—I will introduce and discuss poetry in depth. Students will understand that poetry is age old and in its varied forms has always been the way that mankind has given expression to something more than ideas. Like music, its rhythms and cadences are universal in their emotional appeal. II. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES/SIGNIFICANT EVENTS Biographical sketches of poets will be presented to students. Students will be exposed to the historical events taking place in each poet’s career. These events include the Harlem Renaissance and the Post-Depression. IV. POETRY TERMINOLOGY I will familiarize students with terms used in the poem selections. Students will define and discuss the terms found in the unit. Students will then cite examples in selected poems by poets. V. POETRY READING Students will read each selected poem by a poet, memorizing whenever possible, and looking closely at the theme of the poem. VI. POETRY CREATIONS The final activity for this unit will deal with creative writing. Students will be asked to use any theme or style to create several poems on his/her own life. The lesson plan in the unit will detail specific suggestions. Poetry universalizes experience. It has the power to make an event seem to be happening to us although it may have occurred many years ago to people we don’t know. In this way, it opens up to every one an experience originally enjoyed by only a few. The poet sees and feels a situation in away that enables him to express it for our better understanding and enjoyment. After introducing students to poetry, the students will then proceed to studying selected Afro-American poetry in depth utilizing a format such as learning biographical and historical information about the poet (exploring the lives of each of these writers), listening to selected poems read by the teacher, using choral speaking, learning new vocabulary words, discussion of poetry terminology, answering questions relating to the understanding of poetry, and writing creatively in response to the poetry selections. I will use selected poems from exceptional writers. These include: PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR These writers and their works were chosen for diversities in their theme, styles, and the historical perspectives. The poems I will use are influenced by art as by life. These authors write for an audience as well as out of experience. Students will have the opportunity to analyze the following poems for their reflection of Afro-American problems. These include: “Mother To Son”, “I, Too”, and “Salvation” by Langston Hughes. “Incident”, “Yet Do I Marvel” and “Tableau” by Countee Cullen. “Nikki Rosa”, “Mothers”, and “My House”, by Nikki Giovanni. “The Tropics in New York”, by Claude McKay. “Golden Slippers”, and “A Black Man Talks of Reaping”, by Arna Bontemps. “Sympathy” and “We Wear The Mask”, by Paul Laurence Dunbar. “We Real Cool”, by Gwendolyn Brooks. Students will look closely at the works of the Afro-American poets and how they perceive the world around them. Such topics as the following will be analyzed and discussed: oppression, feelings of grief, sadness, motherhood, relationships, families, and injustices. Students will get to know these gifted individuals. Each of them proved that one person can make a difference. These individuals make a difference by the part each played in awakening America to the many contributions they made. The biographical sketches given only provide students with a small amount of information on the author. I plan to emphasize through discussion and group oral reports, the many contributions each poet made to America. Students will learn in many ways these authors are individuals are just like they are. They had childhoods, families, goals, and dreams. Sometimes, they had to overcome disappointments. These poets, help us to understand ourselves and the world around us. They make us laugh, or cry and sometimes think. Often, their works inspire social change. Detailed treatment will be given to several poems. For this purpose, I plan to use choral speaking with students. Choral Speaking has many advantages: Each poem in this section is an experience—it was for the poet who wrote it and it can be for the reader who participates in it. It has a meaning for the poet; the author combines story and idea or mood and impressions. - 1. It will help to develop good clear speech. - 2. It develops a love for poetry. - 3. It is a form of artistic expression in which all students can join. - 4. It offers for greater variety than possible through solo speaking.1 A poem always “means” something, but not all poems have the same kinds of “meaning”. |LANGSTON HUGHES2||NIKKI GIOVANNI4| |“Mother To Son”||“Nikki Rosa”| |COUNTEE CULLEN3||CLAUDE McKAY5| |“Incident”||“The Tropics in New York”| |ARNA BONTEMPS6||PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR7| |“A Black Man Talks of Reaping”||“We Wear The Mask”| “We Real Cool” An appreciation of poetry is deepened and broaden by an acquaintance with it.9 In working with students, I’ve come to realize that students especially black students, have little to no knowledge about the Renaissance and how this period has anything to do with their Cultural background. I will in some detail, cite events that have occurred in History. The word Renaissance means rebirth and resurgence of art, music, and culture. There was a charge that occurred between artist and intellectuals. There was a demand for equality. This was the beginning of the Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance began around 1918 and lasted until about 1933. Although it was short lived, it changed the face of black America forever. During this time, it features some of the biggest names in writing, literature, as well as other related fields. During the Harlem Renaissance, for the first time black writers suddenly began to appear and assert the values of the black culture. There was a group of black writers who formed a group in Harlem, so they could meet and share their problems and they analyzed their works together. For the first time, blacks had attained freedom to be themselves. They had the freedom to write. By the 1900’s many blacks became professionals. There were scientist, poets, artist, and musicians. There was a desire to promote and defend the talents of blacks. Afro-Americans did flourish in their writings. The following individuals were among the poets of that period who were considered skillful in competition with other writers. Writers such as Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, Arna Bontemps and Langston Hughes established themselves as exceptional writers of this period. In the Post-Depression of the 30’s, the economic problems hit blacks the hardest. During this time, writers became concerned about the survival rather than expression. These writers found themselves getting their subject matter from the South and throughout the United States. Their subject matter was about suffering, frustration suffered by poor blacks, and humiliation of extreme poverty. Gwendolyn Brooks was among the poets during this time. The following terminology will be presented to students in this unit. The strategy for presenting this section to students will have continuity and structure. Before students begin studying actual poem selections, they will be introduced to these terms listed below: After having been introduced to the above terminology, students will be asked to give examples of each term. Students will be provided with cite examples to help with the distinction of each term. - 1. MOOD—the state of feeling created by a poem, story, or play, such as sentimental or a bitter mood. Students will be given examples of each. - 2. LYRIC—a poem that has the form and musical quality of a song in which the poet expresses an intense personal feeling. - 3. METAPHOR—a figure of speech in which two things are identified with each other. - 4. IMAGE—any word, or group of words, that appeals to the senses creates pictures in the mind. - 5. ALLITERATION—the repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words in a line of verse. - 6. THEME—the central thought or idea in a poem. - 7. TONE—the feeling conveyed by a writer’s attitude toward his subject and reveal through his style and choice of words. - 8. REFRAIN—a line or stanza repeated at intervals in a poem. It is my wish that the authors and their works I have chosen, will help students to understand the world better by sharpening their senses and by making them more sensitive to life around them. The following information will be presented to students in more detail. Students will be presented with a biographical sketch of each poet, and events which took place during their lives. Brooks is not just a poet, she is also a novelist. In 1953, she published Maud Martha, a novel about growing up. Brooks rise to fame has been marked by a series of awards and honors. Brooks’ poetry and novel are a source of human truths. Gwendolyn Brooks is to some extent a forerunner of the modern black poets. She deals openly with disillusionment and rejection of the white society, pride of the blacks and appreciation for the poor of the ghetto. In 1985, Gwendolyn Brooks was named Poetry Consultant to the library of Congress. She was the first black woman to hold this post. When considering the creative output of Gwendolyn Brooks, it is easy to forget that she wrote in the context of a full and active personal life. The works of Gwendolyn Brooks suggest a mastery of form, language and theme. Students reading poems such as “We Real Cool” and “Children of The Poor” know that this is a person who can identify with their sounds, those of pain and laughter, broken hearts and yesterday’s garbage. There is a bond between the reader and Brooks, one with deep roots. “We Real Cool”, is a poem that illustrates repetition, rhyme, consonance and alliteration. This poem will serve as an excellent model for imitation in creating personal poems. Students will be using the appropriate adjectives and nouns.10 COUNTEE CULLEN (1903-1946), was born in New York, the son of a Methodist minister, published his first book of poems when he was twenty-two. He was educated at New York University and Harvard University and where he received the Master of Arts Degree. He worked as an editor, teacher, and contributor to many periodicals, including Crisis, the magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people. He spent the last eleven years of his life teaching French in high school. Countee Cullen was another significant poet of the Harlem Renaissance. His poetry deals with the black search for identity and the meaning of race. Countee Cullen poems “Yet Do I Marvel” and “Tableau”, were chosen for the mood and tone as well as the poetic devices utilized in each.11 ARNA BONTEMPS (1902-1973), was born in Alexandria, Louisiana. When he was four years old the family moved to California where he was educated. After graduating form college, he went to New York to teach. There he formed a close friendship with Langston Hughes and came to know other negro artists of his own generation. Under a grant from the Julius Rosenwald Fund, he visited Haiti and gathered material for several books, among the Pope and Fifina: Children of Haiti, which he and Langston Hughes wrote for children. Arna Bontemps is the author of several novels for adults, for children, in addition to Popp and Fifina, he has written You Can’t Pet a Possum and Sad-Faced Boy. Bontemps’ work spans a half century from the Harlem Renaissance to the 1970’s. His works included: novels, children’s books, poetry, biographies, short stories and anthologies. Bontemps’ poetry is included in almost all of black anthologies and is included in his collection of Personals. Golden Slippers, and “A Black Man Talks of Reaping” will be used in this unit. Golden Slippers, is an excellent anthology for young people. Bontemps’ poems are concerned with the injustices suffered by blacks in the past. 12 NIKKI GIOVANNI (1943- ), was born in Knoxville, Tennessee in 1943. She attended Fisk University where she majored in History and graduated in 1967. She is currently teaching creative writing at Rutgers University. Black judgement collection of her poems, appeared in 1968. She also writes short stories and essays, and is an editor of Black Dialogue magazine. I have chosen, “Nikki Rosa”, “Mothers”, and “My House”, to emphasize more personal themes such as physical characteristics, emotional needs, a desire to move forward, and appreciation of others, and relationships.13 LANGSTON HUGHES (1902-1967), was born in Missouri. He was a leader of the Harlem Renaissance, but continued to write later than most of the others of this period. He wrote poetry, short stories, essays and edited many collections of black literature. Regardless of form, the subject for most of Hughes’ poetry centers around the black struggle for political power and economic well-being within the American framework of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. Hughes poems are about things that high school students are concerned with, such as dreams, romance, family and jobs. I have chosen the following poems by Langston Hughes for study, “I, Too, Sing America” “Mother To Son”, and “Salvation”. Hughes’ poems deals with prejudice, simile, repetition, rhymes and imagery. 14 PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR (1872-1906), was born in Dayton, Ohio, in 1872. He was the first black poet who became well known throughout the United States. Dunbar started writing poems at the age of 6. He was the only black in his high school class, but his teachers saw his talent. They encouraged him to write poems. He could not afford to go to college. Newspapers would not hire him because of his race. So, Dunbar worked as an elevator operator and wrote poems in his spare time. Dunbar paid $125 to have a book of his poems printed. He sold copies to passengers on his elevator. Some of them helped him to bring out a second book. A famous white writer, William Dean Howells, saw the book and praised it in his magazine. Soon Dunbar’s work became known throughout the country. Besides his poems, he wrote songs, novels, and short stories. He traveled the country, giving reading from his work. Dunbar’s work is easily understood by high school students because his poems demonstrate good poetic techniques. I have chosen for study, “We Wear The Mask”, and “Sympathy”. These two poems illustrate Dunbar’s use of rhyme, imagery, simile, metaphor and repetition in his expression of emotions related to the oppressed black. “We Wear The Mask”, tells of the reality of being black behind smiling masks, in spite of their feelings of grief, sadness and oppression. The poem “Sympathy”, compares the plight of the blacks to that of caged bird who longs to be set free. 15 CONCEPT TO RECALL FACTS ABOUT AFRO-AMERICAN POETS. OBJECTIVE TO INCREASE READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY BUILDING. PAUL LAURENCE DUNBAR (1872-1906), was the first black poet who became well known throughout the United States. Born in Dayton, Ohio, in 1872, Dunbar started writing poems at age 6. He was the only black in his high school class, but his teachers saw his talent. They encouraged him to write poems. He could not afford to go to college. newspaper would not hire him because of his race. So, Dunbar worked as an elevator operator and wrote poems in his spare time. Dunbar paid $125 to have a book of his poems printed. He sold copies to passengers on his elevator. Some of them helped him to bring out a second book. A famous white writer, William Dean Howells, saw the book and praised it in his magazine. Soon Dunbar’s work became known throughout the country. Besides his poems, he wrote songs, novels, and short stories. He traveled the country, giving readings from his work. Dunbar’s life was tragically short. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 33. Today, one of the largest high schools in Dayton, Ohio, is named after him. Here is one of Dunbar’s poems. - We Wear The Mask - We wear the mask that grins and lies, - It hides our cheek and shades our - eyes,—etc . . . 16 Vocabulary guile—deceit, cunning myriad—many subtleties—hidden meanings - _____ 1. Dunbar began writing poems - ____a. at age six. - ____b. in high school. - ____c. after he worked as an elevator operator. - _____ 2. Dunbar’s first book of poems - ____a. brought him nationwide fame. - ____b. was paid for by Dunbar himself. - ____c. never sold any copies. - _____ 3. Dunbar was helped by a - ____a. White writer. - ____b. Wealthy woman. - ____c. Black doctor. CONCEPT REVIEW POETRY TERMS. OBJECTIVES TO INCREASE VOCABULARY BUILDING. Students will choose each correct answer and write the word in the space provided. |1. rhyme||6. lyrics| |2. metaphor||7. theme| |3. imagery||8. alliteration| |4. tone||9. refrain| - 1. _____ a line or stanza repeated at intervals in a poem. - 2 _____ the feeling conveyed by a writer’s attitude toward his subject and reveal through his style and choice of words. - 3._____ the central thought or idea in a poem. - 4. _____ the repetition of a consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words in a line of verse. - 5. _____any word, or group of words, that appeals to the senses created pictures in the mind. - 6. _____ a figure of speech in which two things are identified with each other. - 7. _____ a poem that has the form and musical quality of a song in which the poet expresses an intense personal feeling. - 8. _____ the state of feeling created by a poem, story, or play, such as sentimental or a bitter mood. OBJECTIVE Students will read and interpret poetry. Group Size: Five students to a group. Time required: 48 minutes (one class period) MATERIALS Copy of Poem, “I, TOO” by Langston Hughes - ____Question form - 1. What is the poem saying? - 2. What emotions are the poet expressing? - 3. What do you think and/or feel about what he’s saying? - 4. What are three key words in the poem? (Defend your answer) - 1. The teacher will read the poem out loud to the class. The students are told to discuss the questions in their group, come to agreement, and write down their answers to hand in. They will also share their answers with the rest of the class. - 2. Students will be told to work together in answering the four questions and give any further instructions. They are to turn in one set of answers for the group, which reflects the group consensus. Their signature on the paper indicates that they agree with and understand the group answers and the reason for them. The teacher monitors the groups, occasionally checking to see if a student can explain answers already agreed upon. Students will be told that one group member is to be selected as observer and will use an observation sheet to monitor the group. by Langston Hughes I, too, sing American. - 1. What is the poem saying? - 2. What are the emotions expressed by the poem? - 3. What do you think/feel about what the poem says? - 4. What are the three key words in the poem? (Be able to defend your choice) - 1. Bontemps, Arna, ed., American Negro Poetry. (New York: Hilland Wang, 1974) pp. 204-296. - 2. Ibid. p. 208. - 3. Ibid. p. 209. - 4. Ibid. p. 210. - 5. Ibid. p. 211. - 6. Ibid. p. 212. - 7. Ibid. p. 213. - 8. Ibid. p. 294. - 9. Marianne Borgardt, Black Biographies. (Englewood, New Jersey: Globe Publishing Co. 1989) pp. 17-34. - 10. Ibid. p. 20. - 11. Ibid. p. 22. - 12. Marianne Borgardt, Blacks in American History.(Englewood, New Jersey: Globe Book Company 1989) pp. 2-4. - 13. Ibid. p. 6. - 14. Ibid. p. 7-8. - 15. Ibid. p. 9. - 16. Richard Corbin, Currents in Poetry,(New York: MacMillian Publishing Co., 1974) pp. 76-108. An anthology of modern poems by negro Americans. Adoff, Arnold, All The Colors of the Race. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Books, 1982. Giovanni, Nikki, Spin A Soft Black Song. New York: Hill and Wang, 1971. Hughes, Langston, Don’t You Turn Back. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1969. Scholes, Robert. Elements of Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969. A valuable book for discussing poetic techniques and commenting on various poems. Wallace, Robert. Writing Poems. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 2nd edition, 1987. The book contains some stimulating techniques to help students write poetry. - 1. Angelou, Maya, I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings. New York: Random House, 1969. - Autobiography of a young black girl growing up in the rural South and then California. - 2. Angelou, Maya, Now Sheba Sings. New York: Dial Books, 1987. - Illustrated book of poetry dealing with the theme, black women, their beauty, strength, and dignity. - 3. Bontemps, Arna, ed., American Negro Poetry. New York: Hilland Wang, 1974. - Anthology of poetry by black poets. - 4. Hughes, Langston. Selected Poems. New York: Random House, 1959. - Selection of poems chosen by Hughes from his earlier volumes as well as later works, dealing with the many facets of the black experiences. - 5. Jordan, June. Soulscript. New York: Doubleday, 1970. - Selection of poetry by black writers, which includes a section written by young students. - 6. Scholes, Robert. Elements of Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969. - A valuable book for discussing poetic techniques and commenting on various poems. - 7. Wallace, Robert. Writing Poems. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 2nd edition, 1987. - This book contains some stimulating techniques to help students write poetry. Contents of 1991 Volume IV | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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Homer (Greek Όμηρος, Homeros) was a legendary early Greek poet traditionally credited with the composition of the epic poems the Iliad (Ἰλιάς) and the Odyssey (Ὀδύσσεια). Throughout antiquity and subsequent history, Homer's influence on literature has been unequalled, and the Homeric epics are among the oldest surviving writings in any language. Scholars debate whether the epics are works of a single author or multiple authors, and the dating of both the compositions and the events they describe remain in doubt. Homer is tentatively located in the Greek archaic period, c. 750 B.C.E. The poems portray events surrounding the shadowy Trojan War, likely a fusion of various military exploits by Mycenaean Greeks of the Bronze Age, predating Homer by some four centuries. The Greeks believed that Homer was a blind rhapsode, or professional singer, and the poems were passed on for decades by oral tradition before being committed to writing. From the first recorded appearance of the Iliad and the Odyssey, they assume a status apart from other literature, classics upon which Greeks developed their canon of literary texts, values, and exceptionalism. All epic poetry in Western literature ultimately derives from Homer. Homer's great poems remained foundational works of art, not religious scripture, for later classical Greeks. Virtue and honor are central preoccupations of the epics. Honor is "perhaps the most reiterated cultural and moral value in Ancient Greece," says classical scholar Richard Hooker, and means "achieving, morally and otherwise, your greatest potential as a human being." The Greek turn toward drama, science, architecture, and humanistic philosophy rather than religious speculations may be traceable to Homer's emphasis on human values, as well as his unflattering portrayal of the gods, buffeted by all-too-human weaknesses. We know almost nothing of Homer's life; and, surprisingly, the writers of antiquity knew little more. No record of Homer's life, real or pretended, ever existed. Herodotus (2.53) maintains that Hesiod and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time, consequently not much before 850 B.C.E. From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though widely varied, generally fall within the tenth and eleventh centuries B.C.E., but none of these claims is grounded in historical fact. Other than a putative date of birth, the only thing that authors of antiquity agree upon is that Homer was blind, and that he probably lived in the Greek isles of the Mediterranean. Beyond this, nothing of Homer's life is known or even hinted at in his own writings. Due to this dearth of information, for nearly a hundred years scholars have begun to question whether Homer ever really existed. Through textual research it has become clear that the Iliad and Odyssey underwent a process of standardization and refinement from older material beginning in the eighth century B.C.E. An important role in this standardization appears to have been played by the Athenian tyrant Hipparchus, who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the Panathenaic festival. Many classicists hold that this reform must have involved the production of a canonical written text, and that the name "Homer" was later somehow attached to this amalgamation. Other scholars, however, maintain their belief in the reality of an actual Homer. So little is known or even guessed of his actual life, that a common joke has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name." The classical scholar Richmond Lattimore, author of well regarded poetic translations to English of both epics, once wrote a paper entitled "Homer: Who Was She?" Samuel Butler (1835-1902) was more specific, theorizing a young Sicilian woman as author of the Odyssey (but not the Iliad), an idea further speculated on by Robert Graves in his novel Homer's Daughter. In Greek his name is Homēros, which is Greek for "hostage." This has led to the development of a theory that his name was extracted from the name of a society of poets called the Homeridae, which literally means "sons of hostages," as in descendants of prisoners of war. As these men were not sent to war because their loyalty on the battlefield was suspect, they were entrusted with remembering Greece's stock of epic poetry in the times before literacy came to the ancient world. Most Classicists would agree that, whether there was ever such a composer as "Homer" or not, the Homeric poems are the product of an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (aoidoi). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the Iliad and Odyssey shows that the poems consist of regular, repeating phrases; even entire verses repeat. It has hence been speculated that the Iliad and Odyssey could have been oral-formulaic poems, composed on the spot by the poet using a collection of memorized traditional verses and phases. Milman Parry and Albert Lord pointed out that an oral tradition to compose a poem of the length and complexity of the Iliad is not as far-fetched as it might seem; in a paper on the subject, Parry and Lord make reference to the recent discovery of an oral culture living in remote parts of contemporary Yugoslavia, where poet-rhapsodes compose on-the-spot epics using formulas remarkably similar to those found in Homer. Many poems that were ascribed to Homer in antiquity are now known to be spurious. Other poems of Homer, which probably once existed, have been lost. Of what survives, only the epic Iliad and Odyssey are considered to be authoritatively Homeric works. The two poems are closely related in style and language as well as content. Both poems are concerned with the Trojan War and its aftermath, and both involve the actions of epic heroes, such as Achilles and Odysseus, who are more like the gods of mythological stories than the three-dimensional characters of contemporary fiction. The most prominent characteristics of Homer's poetic style were probably best captured by the nineteenth century poet Matthew Arnold. "The translator of Homer," he writes, "should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author: that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble." (On translating Homer, 9). In contrast to the other canonical epic poets Virgil, Dante, and Milton, Homer's poetry is characterized by plainspoken language and straightforward, rapidly moving narrative. The rapidity of Homer is probably a result of his use of dactylic hexameter, a meter which tends to sound hurried to most listeners (it has often been called the "hoofbeat" meter, in contrast to the iamb's "heartbeat.") Homer's plainness is probably an attribute of his time; as an oral poet, Homer could not afford to confuse himself or his audience with convoluted metaphors and digressions. As a result his epics sound much like the work of a master story-teller. Homer's "nobility,” as Arnold calls it, is probably the most difficult aspect of his poetry for contemporary readers to digest. Simply put, there are no moral dilemmas in Homer. The heroes of the epics often do things that today we would find horrifying; but there is never any doubt in their minds (or, for all we can discern, the author's mind) that what they are doing is eminently right. The Iliad narrates several weeks of action during the tenth and final year of the Trojan War, concentrating on the wrath of Achilles. It begins with the dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon, and ends with the funeral rites of Hector. Neither the background and early years of the war (Paris' abduction of Helen from King Menelaus), nor its end (the death of Achilles), are directly narrated in the Iliad. The Iliad and the Odyssey are part of a larger cycle of epic poems of varying lengths and authors; only fragments survive of the other poems, however. Of the many themes in the Iliad, perhaps the most important is the idea of what constitutes the hero in ancient Greek culture. Achilles is forced to make a choice between living a long life or dying young on the battlefield. In his culture, the latter would have been a better choice because death in battle leads to honor and glory, the most important values of the day—even more important than right and wrong. Part of what makes the Iliad interesting as a literary work is the way that Achilles, especially in Book 9, both embraces concepts of honor and glory and also simultaneously rejects them. Plot and themes In the midst of the war, Apollo sends a plague against the Greeks, who had captured the daughter of the priest, Chryses, and given her as a prize to Agamemnon. He is compelled to restore her to her father. To assuage his pride, Agamemnon takes Briseis, whom the Athenians had given to Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, as a reward for his efforts. Following the advice of his mother, Thetis, Achilles withdraws from battle in revenge. As a result the allied Achaean (Greek) armies nearly lose the war. In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince, Hector, son of King Priam. As a husband and father, Hector fights to defend his city and his family. When Hector kills Patroclus, Achilles' dearest friend (and possibly his lover), Achilles rejoins the fight to seek revenge, slaying Hector. Later, King Priam comes to Achilles disguised as a beggar to ransom back his son's body. Priam's love for his son moves Achilles to pity. The poem concludes with Hector's funeral. The poem is a poignant depiction of the tragedy and agony of family and friendship destroyed by battle. The first word of the Greek poem is "Μηνιν" ("mēnin," meaning "wrath"); the main subject of the poem is the wrath of Achilles; the second word is "aeide," meaning "sing"; ancient Greek poetry is sung; the third word is "thea," meaning "goddess"; the goddess here being the "Mousa" or "muse"; a literal translation of the first line would read "Wrath, sing goddess, of Peleus' son Achilles" or more intelligibly "Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus' son Achilles." - Book 1: Ten years into the war, Achilles and Agamemnon quarrel over a slave girl, Achilles withdraws from the war in anger - Book 2: Odysseus motivates the Greeks to keep fighting; Catalogue of Ships, Catalogue of Trojans and Allies - Book 3: Paris (mythology) challenges Menelaus to single combat - Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins - Book 5: Diomedes has an aristea and wounds Aphrodite and Ares - Book 6: Glaucus and Diomedes greet during a truce - Book 7: Hector battles Ajax - Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle - Book 9: Agamemnon retreats: his overtures to Achilles are spurned - Book 10: Diomedes and Odysseus go on a spy mission - Book 11: Paris wounds Diomedes, and Achilles sends Patroclus on a mission - Book 12: The Greeks retreat to their camp and are besieged by the Trojans - Book 13: Poseidon motivates the Greeks - Book 14: Hera helps Poseidon assist the Greeks - Book 15: Zeus stops Poseidon from interfering - Book 16: Patroclus borrows Achilles' armor, enters battle, kills Sarpedon and then is killed by Hector - Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armor of Patroclus - Book 18: Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus and receives a new suit of armor - Book 19: Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon and enters battle - Book 20: The gods join the battle; Achilles tries to kill Aeneas - Book 21: Achilles fights with the river Scamander and encounters Hector in front of the Trojan gates - Book 22: Achilles kills Hector and drags his body back to the Greek camp - Book 23: Funeral games for Patroclus - Book 24: Achilles lets Priam have Hector's body back, and he is burned on a pyre The Odyssey (Greek: Οδύσσεια, Odússeia) is the second of the two great epic poems ascribed to Homer. The 11,300 line poem follows Odysseus, king of Ithaca, on his voyage home after a heroic turn in the Trojan War. It also tells the story of Odysseus' wife, Penelope, who struggles to remain faithful, and his son Telemachus, who sets out to find his father. In contrast to the Iliad, with its extended sequences of battle and violence, all three are ultimately successful by means of their cleverness, and the support of the goddess, Athena. This cleverness is most often manifested by Odysseus' use of disguise and, later, recognition. His disguises take forms both physical alteration and verbal deception. The Odyssey consists of 24 books, beginning, as do many ancient epics, in medias res, or in the middle of the action, with prior events described through flashbacks or storytelling. The first four books, known as the Telemachiad, trace Telemachus' efforts to maintain control of the palace in the face of suitors to his mother's hand in marriage. Failing that, Athena encourages him to find his father. In book 5, Odysseus nears the end of his journey, a not entirely unwilling captive of the beautiful nymph, Calypso, with whom he's spent seven of his ten lost years. Released from her wiles by the intercession of his patroness, Athena, and her father Zeus, he departs. His raft is destroyed by his nemesis, Poseidon, who is angry because Odysseus blinded his son, the Cyclops, Polyphemus. When Odysseus washes up on Scheria, home to the Phaeacians, the naked stranger is treated with traditional Greek hospitality even before he reveals his name. Odysseus satisfies the Phaeacians' curiosity, recounting for them—and for us—all his adventures on his trip home since from Troy. This renowned, extended "flashback" leads him back to where he stands, his tale told. The shipbuilding Phaeacians finally loan him a ship to return to Ithaca, where, home at last, he regains his throne, reunites with his son, metes out justice to the suitors, and reunites with his faithful wife, Penelope. - Book 1: The gods agree that Odysseus has been marooned too long and deserves to be returned home. Athena sets out to help him, and on the way visits Telemachus. - Book 2: Penelope's suitors mock Telemachus. With Athena's help, he sets out for Pylos for news of his father. - Book 3: Telemachus converses with the sage Nestor, who suggests that he seek out Menalaus, who was also stranded after the war. - Book 4: Menelaus tells while he was stranded in Egypt he learned that Odysseus was marooned on the isle of Calypso. - Book 5: At the command of Zeus, Calypso lets Odysseus go free; Poseidon creates a terrible storm to thwart him. - Book 6: Odysseus washes ashore and is found by Nausicaa, princess of the Phaeacians. - Book 7: The king invites Odysseus to a banquet at the palace, and promises to help him so long as his guests are suitably entertained. - Book 8: During the banquet, Odysseus cannot hold back his sadness and begins to weep. The king implores him to tell the guests his name and where he comes from. - Book 9: Odysseus introduces himself as a hero, and begins a long flashback beginning with he and his men's capture by the Cyclops. - Book 10: Odysseus' men are attacked by giants after misguiding the ship. The survivors are captured by the sorceress Circe and turned into swine. - Book 11: Odysseus frees his men and escapes; they visit the underworld, to seek the advice of the dead prophet Tiresias. - Book 12: Odysseus' ship passes by the Sirens and the sea-monsters Scylla and Charybdis; the ship lands on the Island of Apollo, and Odysseus' men sacrifice the god's sacred cattle; Zeus kills all of them except Odysseus, who washes ashore on the isle of Calypso. - Book 13: The king, in awe, orders a ship for Odysseus to be taken home at once; Athena, in disguise, guides him there. - Book 14: Eumaeus, a kindly swineherd, is the first to meet Odysseus, although he does not recognize him. - Book 15: Athena warns Telemachus of the suitors' ambush; meanwhile, Odysseus listens to Eumaeus tell the story of his life. - Book 16: Evading the suitors' ambush, Telemachus is led by Athena to the farmstead of Eumaeus to reunite with his father. - Book 17: Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus returns to his home and begs food from the suitors, who berate and abuse him. - Book 18: Irus, a real beggar and lackey for the suitors, arrives and eggs Odysseus into a fistfight; Odysseus wins easily. - Book 19: Odysseus has a long talk with Penelope but does not reveal his identity; Penelope has a maid of the house wash Odysseus feet, and she recognizes him by a scar on his leg; Odysseus implores her to be silent until he has finished his plot for revenge. - Book 20: Odysseus asks Zeus for a sign and receives it; a wandering prophet visits the suitors and warns them of their imminent doom. - Book 21: Penelope appears before the suitors and challenges them to string the bow of Odysseus; all of them fail, until the bow is passed to Odysseus. - Book 22: Telemachus, Eumaeus, and another faithful herdsman join Odysseus fully armed, and together they slay the suitors with bow and arrow. - Book 23: Odysseus purges the blood-drenched mansion with fire; the suitors' kinfolk learn what has happened. - Book 24: Odysseus visits his father, King Laertes, working like a peasant at a vineyard; the suitors' kin gather around them and call for Odysseus to fight to the death; Laertes, Odysseus, and Telemachus meet the challenge, but before fighting can begin Athena stops everything and commands them all to live in peace. Historicity of the Iliad and Odyssey Another significant question regards the possible historical basis of the events that take place in Homer's poems. The commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey written in the Hellenistic period began exploring the textual inconsistencies of the poems. Modern classicists have continued the tradition. The excavations of Heinrich Schliemann in the late nineteenth century began to convince scholars that there was a historical basis for the Trojan War. Research (pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord) into oral epics in Serbo-Croatian and Turkic languages began to convince scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until someone bothered to write them down. The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris and others, convinced scholars of a linguistic continuity between thirteenth century B.C.E. Mycenaean writings and the poems attributed to Homer. It is probable, therefore, that the story of the Trojan War as reflected in the Homeric poems derives from a tradition of epic poetry founded on a war that actually took place. However, it is important not to underestimate the creative and transforming power of demands of poetry and the subsequent tradition: for instance, Achilles, the most important character of the Iliad, is associated with Thessaly. He has likely a poetic invention, added to a story in which the attackers of Troy were from the Peloponnese. - ↑ Richard Hooker, "Bureaucrats and Barbarians: Minoans, Myceneans, and the Greek Dark Ages," , online textbook resource, Washington State Univ.. retrieved September 20, 2007 (texts in Homeric Greek) - Demetrius Chalcondylas editio princeps, Florence, 1488 - the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517) - Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807) - Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836) - Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858) - La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig) - Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907) - W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902) - Merry and Ridciell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886) - Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901) - Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). - D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad = 3rd edition, Odyssey = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0198145284, ISBN 0198145292, ISBN 0198145314, ISBN 0198145322, ISBN 0198145349 - H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094584 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094592 - M. L. West 1998-2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714319, ISBN 3598714351 - P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714327 - Ilias in Wikisource - Odyssee in Wikisource - Alexander Pope (1688–1744) - Samuel Butler (1835–1902) - The Iliad, W.J. Black (1942) ASIN B0007HYRDM; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IQ2 Free eBook at Project Gutenberg - The Odyssey, W.J. Black (1944) ASIN B0007HYREQ ASIN B000BSH1OE; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IPS; IndyPublish.com (2001) ISBN 1404322388 Free eBook at Project Gutenberg Retrieved September 16, 2008. - Andrew Lang (1844–1912) - Richmond Lattimore (1906–1984) - Martin Hammond - Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985) - W.H.D. Rouse, The Odyssey. Signet Classics (1999) ISBN 0451527364 - Robert Fagles (b. 1933) - Stanley Lombardo General works on Homer - Fowler, Robert (ed.). 2004. The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521012465 - Morris, I. and B. Powell. 1997. A New Companion to Homer. Leiden. ISBN 9004099891 - Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. 1962. A Companion to Homer. London. ISBN 0333071131 Influential readings and interpretations - Auerbach, E. 1953. Mimesis, Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 069111336X - Edwards, M. W. 1987. Homer, Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore. ISBN 0801833299 - Fenik, B. 1974. Studies in the Odyssey, Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30). - de Jong, I. J. F. 1987. Narrators and Focalizers, Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1853996580 - Nagy, G. 1979. The Best of the Achaeans. Baltimore. ISBN 0801860156 - Jones, P. V. (ed.). 2003. Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations. London. ISBN 1853996572 - Kirk, G. S. (gen. ed.) 1985-1993. The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes). Cambridge. ISBN 0521281717, ISBN 0521281725, ISBN 0521281733, ISBN 0521281741, ISBN 0521312086, ISBN 0521312094 - Latacz, J. (gen. ed.). 2002-, Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913) (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598743076, ISBN 3598743041 - Postlethwaite, N. (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore. Exeter. ISBN 0859896846 - Willcock, M. W. (ed.). 1976, A Companion to the Iliad. Chicago. ISBN 0226898555 - Heubeck, A. (gen. ed.). 1990-1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian). Oxford. ISBN 0198147473, ISBN 0198721447, ISBN 0198149530 - Jones, P. (ed.). 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore. Bristol. ISBN 1853990388 - de Jong, I. J. F. (ed.). 2001. A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0521468442 Trends in Homeric scholarship - A. Heubeck 1974, Die homerische Frage, Darmstadt. ISBN 3534038649 - R. Merkelbach 1969, Untersuchungen zur Odyssee (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3406032427 - D. Page 1955, The Homeric Odyssey, Oxford. - U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, Die Ilias und Homer, Berlin. - F.A. Wolf 1795, Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0691102473 - M.E. Clark 1986, "Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review," Classical World 79.6: 379-94. - J. Griffin 1977, "The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer," Journal of Hellenic Studies 97: 39-53. - J.T. Kakridis 1949, Homeric Researches, London. ISBN 0824077571 - W. Kullmann 1960, Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis), Wiesbaden. ISBN 3515002359 Homer and oral tradition - E. Bakker 1997, Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse, Ithaca NY. ISBN 0801432952 - J.M. Foley 1999, Homer's Traditional Art, University Park PA. ISBN 0271018704 - G.S. Kirk 1976, Homer and the Oral Tradition, Cambridge. ISBN 0521213096 - A.B. Lord 1960, The Singer of Tales, Cambridge MA. ISBN 0674002830 - M. Parry 1971, The Making of Homeric Verse, Oxford. ISBN 019520560X Dating the Homeric poems - R. Janko 1982, Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns, Cambridge. ISBN 0521238692 All links retrieved March 5, 2014. - The Homer Pages. Collection of Homer-related links. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. 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THE EMERGENCE OF AFRO-TEJANO SOCIETY DURING THE SPANISH COLONIAL PERIOD IN TEXAS, 1528-1700 Dr. Douglas Richmond University of Texas at Arlington Before the first Africans arrived in Texas, one must consider the possibility that they appeared here before 1528. In many American history classes, the discovery of the New World is limited to a few European voyages, particularly those of Christopher Columbus. It is a relatively new endeavor to explore pre-Columbian expeditions from other parts of the world. At times, prejudice has caused many to ignore Africa. Either the people were supposedly too backward to have come up with the idea on their own, or they simply lacked the technological knowledge to navigate the seas. Thus many traditional historians have assumed that there were simply no means within Africa to explore the Americas. However, the research is far from complete as the diffusion of Africans to the New World still requires the work of more scholars to be firmly established. This can be accomplished once the knowledge of possible African journeys to the New World becomes more widespread. This trend will, hopefully, attract more future and current researchers to find more evidence as well as provide additional interpretations. There are several examples which demonstrate the fact that a transatlantic voyage may not have been a difficult task if one is coming from Africa. The image that usually comes up in one's mind when thinking of Africans sailing are of little canoes barely large enough for two people to fit in. This is contrasted with the supposedly enormous vessels that many people imagine Columbus and his fleet utilized. First of all, it must be noted that Columbus' vessels themselves were actually about the size of most African vessels, and could rarely hold more than 30 crewmen. When that is understood, one can easily notice that the ships he used were relatively the same size as many of the African vessels. Sailing and ship construction in the Sahara extends back to perhaps twenty thousand years, as indicated in wall paintings found in caves. The images portray ancient ships with sails and masts that plied the Sahara when it was filled with water. Commercial contacts between West Africa and Egypt may have stimulated the idea to trade with the Americans. West Africans were also using compasses and astronomical calculations for desert travel. Surely these skills would have been used for voyages into the Atlantic. Both ancient and medieval African boats have been reconstructed and tested on the Atlantic sea routes to America and have crossed successfully. In 1969, Thor Heyerdahl’s expeditions from Safi, on Morroco’s Atlanta coast, came within a few days of reaching Barbados using the same papyrus boats as Africans. There is no question that Africans occupied the Island of Bioko and the Canary Islands long before European penetration of the African coastal waters. A Portuguese encounter with groups of African vessels in the Fifteenth Century demonstrates the development of African seafaring abilities. The Portuguese explorer Alvise da Cadamosto described a group of about 17 large boats carrying a total of 150 men bearing down on them. Cadamosto and a group of his sailors had launched their on-board canoes to further explore the Gambia River in Senegal. Their 1455 account states: “They numbered seventeen of considerable size. Checking their course and lifting up their oars, their crew lay gazing… We estimated on examination that there might be about one hundred and fifty at the most; they appeared very well built, exceedingly black, and all clothed in white cotton shirts; some of them wore small white caps on their heads, very like the German style, except that on each side they had a white wing with a feather in the middle of the cap, as though to distinguish the fighting men.…” This example indicates African vessels holding a large number of sailors as well as warriors within ships that were also capable of carrying a sizeable amount of cargo. Several African tribes specialized in producing vessels that were needed in a high volume trading area. Pre-colonial West African nations generally did not feel forced to import much from across the Sahara because they had plenty of resources within their borders, such as gold, ivory, salt, slaves, and copper. Africans along the Atlantic coast exploited a diversity of food plants and raised cattle as well as goats. Such wealth meant that risking dangerous trans-Saharan journeys did not hold much interest for most West Africans. Thus the Arabs ultimately dominated that avenue of commerce because their camels were better suited to do so on a regular basis. But these products eventually attracted the Portuguese, who became the initial colonizers of West Africa, followed by other Europeans. One must realize that a trans-Atlantic trek from the west coast of Africa probably would have presented no more of a hazard or risk to voyagers than a trans-Saharan venture. And the most tempting aspect about the prospect was that there was hitherto no competition there, which is why the Iberians took to the Atlantic. In about 1310, Abubakari II, legendary ruler of the Mali Empire, would seize the opportunity. The only written record of his voyage to the Americas is taken from Al-Umari's Masalik, his record of the sultan of Egypt Ibn Amir Hajib's conversation with Mansa Gongo Musa, Abubakari's successor: "I asked the Sultan Musa," Ibn Amir Hajib said, "how it was that power came into his hands." "We are," he told me, "from a house that transmits power by heritage. The ruler who preceded me would not believe that it was impossible to discover the limits of the neighboring sea; he wanted to find out and persisted in his plan. He had two hundred ships equipped and filled with men, and others in the same number filled them with gold, water, and supplied in sufficient quantity to last for years. He told those who commanded them: "return only when you have reached the extremity of the ocean, or when you have exhausted your food and water." They went away; their absence was long before any of them returned. Finally, a sole ship reappeared. We asked the captain about their adventures. "Prince," he replied, "we sailed for a long time, up to the moment when we encountered in mid-ocean something like a river with a violent current. My ship was last. The others sailed on, and gradually as each one entered this place, they disappeared and did not come back. We did not know what had happened to them. As for me, I returned to where I was and did not enter that current. But the emperor did not want to believe him. He equipped two thousand vessels, a thousand for himself and the men who accompanied him, and a thousand for water and supplies. He conferred power on me and left with his companions on the ocean. This was the last time I saw him and the others, and remained absolute master of the Large fleets were not uncommon for West African nations in the coastal region since they dealt extensively with river trading in such commercial centers as Timbuktu, Dejenne, Gao, and Aoudaghast. Aside from the uncertainty of finding lands across the Atlantic, there was only moderate hesitation in taking to the open seas. Columbus encountered locals in Santo Domingo (present day Haiti) mentioning the arrival of blacks from Africa. Wind and ocean currents flowing toward the Americas would have favored such an undertaking. One scholar noted that: “When we look at the map and note the distance between the Guinea Coast of Africa, which the Mandingos inhabited, and the nearest point on the South American continent – Cape St. Rogue, Brazil -- there is considerably less distance than the distance between Europe and North America and also less than the distance traversed by Columbus on his first voyage, there appears little reason why venturesome Negro traders should not have crossed the Atlantic.” Although the case for Africans crossing the Atlantic before Columbus is based largely upon conjecture, is there any evidence of Africans in Texas before 1528? According to a Harvard University anthropologist writing in the 1930s, skulls that he analyzed in the Pecos River Valley at San Miguel County which date back to pre-Hispanic years, resemble closely the crania of Africans with a Hamitic background. The Pueblo Indian site where professor E.A. Hooten examined skeletal remains was the largest village of its time and occupied longer than any other southwestern site. Hooten concluded that this finding signified that "in the earlier strata of the American population, there was some degree of Negro or Negroid admixture…" The diffusion theory for an early African voyage or migration is further suggested by the presence of Late Archaic period Pecos River paintings that depict boats. Africans could have migrated through Asia to the southwest because it is fairly well established that a significant migration of Africans undoubtedly took place. Recent DNA testing indicates that humans evolved from Africa 200,000 years ago and then spread to Europe and Asia. The DNA record seems to reinforce fossil evidence. Diffusion scholars maintain that the first migrations of black Australoids to America took place 25,000 years ago followed by Asiatic blacks 15,000 years ago. Runoko Rashidi asserts that Afro-Asiatics penetrated North America and founded the Clovis and Folsom fluted point tool industry in New Mexico, which dates back 11,000 or 11,500 years ago. Another scholar claimed that Australoid skulls have been found on the Texas Gulf Coast. Aside from skulls and other bone fragments, what sort of African colonies may have existed in Texas before the arrival of the Spaniards? The Washitaw (or Ouachita-Mu'urs) seemed to have clearly established themselves in the Mississippi Valley in an area that once covered nearly a million square miles. Their name comes from the Washita River, which flows along northwest Texas to the Red River. Part of this mound building culture included east Texas. Today the Washitaw area only covers about 70,000 acres. They now consider themselves related to the Xi peoples of West Africa. African pipes have been connected to mound building remains in the Mississippi Valley, although the specific rationale for building the mounds remains a mystery. Whether the Washitaw migrated from the north along with other mound builders as early as 3,000 B.C., or migrated from Africa, there is no doubt that Mexican cultures influenced the Texas Washitaw. Mound building societies as far north as Ohio utilized clay figurines strikingly similar to Meso-American Olmec art. The pottery at Point Pleasant, Ohio, site closely resembles the Olmec cities of La Venta and Corral along the Gulf of Mexico. South of the Olmec culture, the great Mexican city of Teotihuacan sent its merchants to Texas by 700 a.d. Early conclusions about mound builders indicated that their temples in the Gulf Coast areas of the present United States had a pyramidal structure with theocratic governments similar to the Olmecs and Teotihuacan. Diffusion scholars and Washitaw activists assert that a biological connection between Olmecs and Washitaws nurtured an African relationship. There is no doubt that Mexican ties existed to the southeast as well as the southwest before the arrival of the Spaniards, but what can be made of contacts between the Olmecs and Africa? Of course, the best evidence for African contributions to the development of Olmec culture are the massive African featured statues that have been found at various sites beginning with the Tres Zapotes excavation in 1858. The broad lips on these figures, as well as their kinked, coiled, and braided hair, seem to indicate an African influence. Moreover, the Gulf of Mexico is the end point of currents that sweep over from Africa and have not changed for 3,000 years. In addition, a Polish professor found skulls and skeletons that he judged to be African in terms of their origin. Although the possibility of African voyages or migrations arriving in Texas before the Hispanic explorers remains tantalizing, it is certain that Africans reached Texas after Spaniards brought them into central Mexico. Undoubtedly, the first African in Texas was Esteban (or Estevanico), who set foot near present-day Galveston on November 6, 1528, when a storm washed the ill-fated Pánfilo de Narváez expedition into the Gulf of Mexico. Born in Azamor, Morocco, Esteban served as the personal servant of Andrés Dorantes de Carranza. Because of his skill in languages as well as an ability to communicate with his hands, Esteban became the interpreter for what resulted in a small band led by the immortal Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. Esteban was probably a Malinke because the Spaniards imported Malinke slaves at that time. Esteban was also an experienced sailor and "adept in natural sciences." This is because his homeland became Mali, which had the Niger, Gambia, and Senegal Rivers empty into the Atlantic. Indigenous societies in Texas confirmed the arrival of Esteban near El Paso to a Spanish expedition on its way to New Mexico in 1583. Of course, the arrival of Africans into Texas is connected in Mexico, which included Texas as part of its domain. The first Africans in Mexico arrived from Cuba in 1519 with Hernán Cortés and Pánfilo de Narváez. Cortes had six Africans in his band which defeated the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II in 1528. Because Mexico's indigenous population declined rapidly due to Spanish epidemics for which the Indians had no immunity, the Spaniards imported tens of thousands of African slaves into Mexico. By the end of the sixteenth century, Mexico probably had more Africans than any other European colony in the New World. Although the Catholic Church often defended the indigenous population, they rarely espoused the same fervor to defend Africans. But the Spanish allowed Africans to obtain their freedom through purchase or by means of wills from appreciative owners. Free blacks, however, had to pay special taxes and could not become priests, and Africans sank to the bottom of the social order. Blatant discrimination in Central Mexico motivated many Africans to move to the north, where the social structure was less strict and people of color could own land and enter most occupations. Spanish colonization of Northern Mexico increased the activities of Africans in Texas. Esteban died in 1539 while attempting to enter a Zuni pueblo as part of the Fray Marcos de Niza attempt to find the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola. Several African retainers formed part of the Fray Marcos excursion. Esteban, however, marked a trail that the ambitious Francisco Coronado would eventually utilize one year later during his significant expedition throughout the southwest that eventually reached present day Kansas. Other Africans accompanied Coronado when he pushed into west Texas. While Coronado advanced into west Texas, the remnants of Hernando de Soto's expedition reached east Texas. A wealthy member of the nobility, as well as a veteran of campaigns in Cuba, de Soto began searching for the fabled city of Cibola on May 18, 1539, when he sailed for Florida. Mainly searching for plunder, de Soto's column cut a bloody swath through the southeast before suffering a devastating defeat near Mobile, Alabama. During the spring of 1542, de Soto became the first European to encounter the Mississippi and moved into the mouth of the Red River. Finally, de Soto died of fever in May 1542. Luis de Moscoso succeeded de Soto as head of the campaign and crossed again into Texas. De Soto's expedition contained an unspecified number of Africans, three of whom ran away and lived for a dozen years among Indians. More Africans and mulattoes passed through El Paso when Juan de Oñate's group departed from Santa Barbara, Mexico, on January 26, 1598. A strictly administered roll call of the colonists that intended to settle New Mexico included three African female slaves, one mulatto slave, and several other mulatto servants. Oñate's personal assistant was also an African. They, along with the other members of the expedition, celebrated the first Thanksgiving in the Americas when they feasted on fish and fowl and cool water from the Rio Grande. They also celebrated mass and performed the first play on what is now Texas The arrival of René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle at Matagorda Bay on New Year's Day, 1685, eventually involved active participation by various Africans and mulattoes. La Salle was the greatest French explorer of his time. More than twenty years before he wound up in Texas, he had explored the Great Lakes region and much of the upper Midwest. In 1682, he led an expedition down the Mississippi River to its mouth and claimed its watershed for the king of France. Although many scholars believe that La Salle simply missed his target by landing in Texas instead of the Mississippi delta, La Salle may have schemed with Diego de Peñalosa to establish a French colony at the mouth of the Rio Grande in order to capture Spanish mines in northern Mexico. While governor of New Mexico, Peñalosa sent out an alleged expedition to Texas on March 6, 1662, that lists no blacks or mulattoes. But Peñalosa declared that all the mulattoes in America were "so bitterly opposed to Spanish rule ‘that they would welcome his proposed invasion by French filibusters to overthrow the Hispanic order in the southwest. Peñalosa, who got into trouble with The Inquisition and became branded as a liar after he betrayed Spain, never joined La Salle in Texas. Meanwhile, La Salle's fortunes began to decline although he managed to establish Fort St. Louis at Garcitas Creek in present- day Victoria County. But most of the colonists did not know how to survive in the brutal coastal bend wilderness. Some died from rattlesnake bites, others were taken by smallpox and even more were killed by Indians. Within one year of his launch date from France, La Salle had lost all but one of his four ships. When Spanish officials received news of the French incursion, a frantic search to find La Salle's ill-fated expedition ensued. Before long, a mulatto slave from St. Augustine, who had fled his master and joined a Dutch pirate ship, entered the scene. The mulatto claimed that the pirates cruised along the Texas coast where they found La Salle's settlement. The mulatto and his fellow pirates stayed at Matagorda for six days until Spanish forces captured him and took him back to St. Augustine where the mulatto issued his startling statements. Another mulatto, Martincho, who received orders to enter Texas in order to reinforce Spanish forces searching for the La Salle colony, never arrived. Martincho was appointed by Juan Bautista Escarza, commander of the Vizcaya presidio in Coahuila, to command a force of ten soldiers that would depart from Saltillo to augment the Alonso de León expedition which was searching for Fort St. Louis. But during a dispute about attending a christening event in Saltillo, the alcalde imprisoned Martincho's men. To put it mildly, Martincho took issue with the alcalde's decision and attacked him with his sword, cutting off an arm and battering his skull. The detained soldiers eventually obtained their release and made it to de León's camp on April 30, 1689. But they arrived with Martincho, who was shot in the Saltillo plaza on March 21, 1689, on orders of the The first African to set foot in the Nacogdoches area was a black bugler who accompanied Domingo de Terán to east Texas in 1691. Convinced that French ambitions in Louisiana might lead to additional attempts to colonize Texas, the Spaniards appointed de Terán as governor. De Terán immediately entered Texas with a mandate to establish a permanent colony. His subsequent explorations became a nightmare amid freezing conditions. As the weather became bitterly cold, and his African bugler became one of many who deserted the expedition, Terán spent a day searching for this young man before giving up. A year later, the 1692 Diego de Vargas force included an Angolan as they passed through El Paso to reconquer New Mexico. Under the leadership of Popé, a medicine man from San Juan, New Mexico, various Pueblo communities revolted on August 10, 1680, and forced the Spanish settlers to retreat into El Paso. Sebastian Rodríguez Brito, an African member of the successful attempt to restore Hispanic rule over New Mexico, was one of the 40 Spanish soldiers that departed from El Paso in August 1692. What can be said of cultural and social landmarks that these Africans, although few in number, were able to set down? Unquestionable evidence exists for the survival of African art, storytelling and music in Texas, as well as the rest of the New World. Veracruz was the Mexican port of entry for virtually all Africans who came to Texas. From there they brought the son musical tradition of Hispanic and African concepts molded together in Cuba. This developed into the son jaracho musical genre, famous for its irreverent, secular and mocking attitude toward death. Fandangos appeared in Seventeenth Century Mexico after its adoption from the African tradition of bailongo, an occasion to eat drink, and dance. Rhythmic footwork became the foundation of these dances, done with unlimited verses. All these dances were accompanied by pounding on a marimba, which is a percussion instrument of African origin, usually constructed from plywood or cedar planks. Each of these dances soon spread into Texas. Towns and eating habits in Texas also had African origins. Menudo actually derives from the Mondongo tradition of eating the innards of animals, particularly cattle. Mondongo is a village in Zaire and the entrails that owners would not eat but gave to slaves eventually became known as chitterlings in Texas. And the infamous Mexican verb chingar (screw) is a Bantu word brought over by slaves from Angola. As the Spanish colonial era progressed, Africans received better treatment in terms of lighter punishment, opportunities for military service, intermarriage, and even the right to hold public office. Indeed, the Hispanic period featured land grants given to blacks as well as Indians which the Texas Republic later nullified. Thus the earliest years of Spanish rule from 1528 to 1700 indicates that people of African origin made a modest but eventually substantial contribution to the development of The diffusion model elaborated by Van Sertima remains as a very interesting thesis concerning the exploration of the Americas by Africans. In recent years, the Alfred Crosby explanation that the American hemisphere became peopled by Asians crossing over the Bering Sea has become increasingly challenged by other scholars. Although the diffusionist concept is still disputed by traditional researchers for the lack of credible evidence, it seems to be gaining acceptance among newer scholars. After the initial explorations and expeditions from 1528 to 1700, African society expanded and consolidated itself in Texas. Subsequent Hispanic explorers encountered Africans at the mouth of the Rio Grande who had been shipwrecked during the twilight of the Seventeenth Century. By 1755, Jose de Escandón had begun the settlement of the lower Rio Grande Valley with the aid of eleven African slaves. Mulattoes became part of the group that actually founded San Antonio before the arrival of the more celebrated Canary Islanders. The emergence of free blacks resulted from miscegenation between black male slaves and free women of all ethnic backgrounds. During the colonial period, blacks, Indians, and mixed bloods met in household settings which enabled them to marry. One of the primary needs that Africans provided in Texas was military service. Many borderland garrisons experienced difficulty in recruiting replacements. Spanish authorities did not hesitate to enlist mulattoes and blacks to garrison the Texas presidios. Free blacks and mulattoes thus experienced greater social status which minimized the normal restrictions placed on them. This, of course, resulted in a military tradition that increased during the Nineteenth Century in the form of the Buffalo As the colonial era in Texas consolidated itself, blatant discrimination in central Mexico motivated many Africans to relocate to Texas where the social structure was less strict and people of color could own land and enter most occupations. The Spanish era of Texas featured land grants to blacks as well as Indians. Later the Republic of Texas nullified these awards as part of its repressive legislation against blacks. Not surprising, only a few free Afro-Tejanos supported the Texas revolt in 1835 because of the tolerance and increasingly enlightened tone of Hispanic rule. The remnants of the early period of African influence upon Texas are barely visible. Most of them are intangibles such as subtle influences upon music, food, and religion. Researchers will continue to find more data in the future. Scholars, however, do not have the exclusive monopoly on the creation of new knowledge. In May 2008, a struggle to retain the remains of an older Houston neighborhood resulted in the revelation of older brick streets constructed with a cross pattern traced back to |Texas Black History Preservation Project Documenting the Complete African American Experience in Texas -- "Know your history, know yourself"

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LOCATION: Ethiopia; Kenya; Somalia POPULATION: 28 million LANGUAGE: Afaan Oromoo RELIGION: Original Oromo religion (Waaqa); Islam; Christianity 1 • INTRODUCTION Although Oromos have their own unique culture, history, language, and civilization, they are culturally related to Afars, Somalis, Sidamas, Agaws, Bilens, Bejas, Kunamas, and other groups. In the past, Oromos had an egalitarian social system known as gada. Their military organization made them one of the strongest ethnic groups in the Horn of Africa between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries. Gada was a form of constitutional government and also a social system. Political leaders were elected by the men of the community every eight years. Corrupt or dictatorial leaders would be removed from power through buqisu (recall) before the official end of their term. Oromo women had a parallel institution known as siqqee. This institution promoted gender equality in Oromo society. Gada closely connected the social and political structures. Male Oromos were organized according to age and generation for both social and political activities. The gada government was based on democratic principles. The abba boku was an elected "chairman" who presided over the chaffee (assembly) and proclaimed the laws. The abba dula (defense minister) was a government leader who directed the army. A council known as shanee or salgee and retired gada officials also helped the abba boku to run the government. All gada officials were elected for eight years. The main qualifications for election included bravery, knowledge, honesty, demonstrated ability, and courage. The gada government worked on local, regional, and central levels. The political philosophy of the gada system was embodied in three main principles: terms of eight years, balanced opposition between parties, and power sharing between higher and lower levels. These checks and balances were created to prevent misuse of power. The goverment's independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches also were a way of balancing power. Some elements of gada are still practiced in southern Oromia. The gada system was the basis of Oromo culture and civilization. It helped Oromos maintain democratic political, economic, social, and religious institutions for many centuries. The gada political system and military organization enabled Oromos defend themselves against enemies who were competing with them for land, water, and power. Today, Oromos are engaged in a national liberation movement. Under the leadership of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) they work to achieve self-determination. Most Oromos support this liberation organization and its army, the Oromo Liberation Army. There are many Oromo organizations in North America, Europe, and Africa that support the Oromo national movement. Oromos are struggling for the opportunity to rule themselves and reinvent an Oromian state that will reflect the gada system. 2 • LOCATION Oromos call their nation and country Oromia. They have been living in the Horn of Africa for all of their known history. They are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa, with a population estimated at 28 million people in the mid-1990s. Oromia is located mainly within Ethiopia and covers an area of about 232,000 square miles (600,000 square kilometers). The 3.5 million-year-old fossilized human skeleton known as "Lucy" (or "Chaltu" in Oromo) was found by archaeologists in Oromia. Present-day Oromos also live in Kenya and Somalia. In the late nineteenth century, Oromos were colonized and mainly joined with- Ethiopia. They lost their independent institutional and cultural development. Great Britain, France, and Italy supported the Ethiopian colonization of Oromos. Oromia is considered the richest region of the Horn of Africa because of its agricultural and natural resources. It is considered by many to be the "breadbasket" of the Horn. Farm products, including barley, wheat, sorghum, xafi (a grain), maize, coffee, oil seeds, chat (a stimulant leaf), oranges, and cattle are raised in abundance in Oromia. Oromia is also rich in gold, silver, platinum, marble, uranium, nickel, natural gas, and other mineral resources. It has several large and small rivers used for agriculture and for producing hydroelectric power. 3 • LANGUAGE The Oromo language is called Afaan Oromoo. Afaan Oromoo has more than thirty million speakers. Ethnic groups such as the Sidama, Berta, Adare, Annuak, Koma, Kulo, Kaficho, and Guraghe speak the Oromo language in addition to their own languages. Afaan Oromoo is the third most widely spoken language in Africa, after Arabic and Hausa. It is the second most widely spoken indigenous language in Africa south of the Sahara. In spite of attempts by Ethiopian regimes to destroy the Afaan Oromoo language, it has continued to exist and flourish in rural areas. Until recently, Oromos were denied the right to develop their language, literature, and alphabet. For almost a century, it was a crime to write in this language. With the rise of the Oromo national movement, Oromo scholars adopted Latin script (the alphabet used for English and most other European languages) in the early 1970s. The OLF adopted this alphabet and began to teach reading and writing in Afaan Oromoo. 4 • FOLKLORE Oromos believe that Waaqa Tokkicha (the one God) created the world, including them. They call this supreme being Waaqa Guuracha (the Black God). Most Oromos still believe that it was this God who created heaven and earth and other living and non-living things. Waaqa also created ayaana (spiritual connection), through which he connects himself to his creatures. The Oromo story of creation starts with the element of water, since it was the only element that existed before other elements. Oromos believed that Waaqa created the sky and earth from water. He also created dry land out of water, and bakkalcha (a star) to provide light. With the rise of bakkalcha, ayaana (spiritual connection) emerged. With this star, sunlight also appeared. The movement of this sunlight created day and night. Using the light of bakkalcha, Waaqa created all other stars, animals, plants, and other creatures that live on the land, in air, and in water. When an Oromo dies, he or she will become spirit. Some Oromos still believe in the existence of ancestors' spirits. They attempt to contact them through ceremonies. These ancestral spirits appear to relatives in the form of flying animals. Original Oromo religion does not believe in hell and heaven. If a person commits a sin by disturbing the balance of nature or mis-treating others, the society imposes punishment while the person is alive. Oromo heroes and heroines are the people who have done something important for the community. Thinkers who invented the gada system, raagas (prophets), and military leaders, for example, are considered heroes and heroines. Today, those who have contributed to the Oromo national movement are considered heroes and heroines. 5 • RELIGION Oromos recognize the existence of a supreme being or Creator that they call Waaqa. They have three major religions: original Oromo religion (Waaqa), Islam, and Christianity. The original religion sees the human, spiritual, and physical worlds as interconnected, with their existence and functions ruled by Waaqa. Through each person's ayaana (spiritual connection), Waaqa acts in the person's life. Three Oromo concepts explain the organization and connection of human, spiritual, and physical worlds: ayaana, uuma (nature), and saffu (the ethical and moral code). Uuma includes everything created by Waaqa, including ayaana. Saffu is a moral and ethical code that Oromos use to tell bad from good and wrong from right. The Oromo religious institution, or qallu , is the center of the Oromo religion. Qallu leaders traditionally played important religious roles in Oromo society. The Ethiopian colonizers tried to ban the Oromo system of thought by eliminating Oromo cultural experts such as the raagas (Oromo prophets), the ayaantus (time reckoners), and oral historians. Today, Islam and Christianity are the major religions in Oromo society. In some Oromo regions, Eastern Orthodox Christianity was introduced by the Ethiopian colonizers. In other areas, Oromos accepted Protestant Christianity in order to resist Orthodox Christianity. Some Oromos accepted Islam in order to resist Ethiopian control and Orthodox Christianity. Islam was imposed on other Oromos by Turkish and Egyptian colonizers. However, some Oromos have continued to practice their original religion. Both Christianity and Islam in Ethiopia have been greatly influenced by Oromo religion. 6 • MAJOR HOLIDAYS The Oromo celebrate ceremonial rites of passage known as ireecha or buuta , as well as Islamic and Christian holidays. The Oromos have also begun celebrating an Oromo national day to remember their heroines and heroes who have sacrificed their lives trying to free their people from Ethiopian rule. 7 • RITES OF PASSAGE Since children are seen as having great value, most Oromo families are large. The birth of a child is celebrated because each newborn child will some day become a worker. Marriage is celebrated since it is the time when boys and girls enter adulthood. Death is marked as an important event; it brings members of the community together to say goodbye. Traditionally Oromos had five gada (grades) or parties. The names of these grades varied from place to place. In one area, these grades were dabalee (ages one to eight), rogge (ages eight to sixteen), follee (ages sixteen to twenty-four), qondaala (ages twenty-four to thirty-two), and dorri (ages thirty-two to forty). There were rites of passages when males passed from one gada to another. These rites of passages were called ireecha or buuta. Between the ages of one and eight, Oromo male children did not participate in politics and had little responsibility. When they were between eight and sixteen years old, they were not yet allowed to take full responsibility and marry. Between ages sixteen and twenty-four, they took on the responsibilities of hard work. They learned about war tactics, politics, law and management, culture and history, and hunting big animals. When young men were between twenty-four and thirty-two years of age, they served as soldiers and prepared to take over the responsibilities of leadership, in peace and war. Men thirty-two to forty years old had important roles. They shared their knowledge with the qondaala group and carried out their leadership responsibilities. Nowadays, those who can afford it send their children to school. These children complete their teenage years in school. Children and teenagers participate in agriculture and other activities needed for survival. Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-four, young Oromos marry and start the lifecycle of adulthood. 8 • RELATIONSHIPS Oromos are friendly people, and they express their feelings openly. Oromos greet one another by shaking hands; they talk to one another warmly. Asahama? (How are you?) , Fayaadha? (Are you healthy?), and Matinkee atam? (Is your family well?) are common greeting phrases or questions. The other person answers, Ani fayaadha (I am fine), Matinkos nagadha (My family is o.k.), and Ati fayaadha? (What about you, are you fine?). When Oromos visit other families, they are provided with something to drink or eat. It is expected that visitors will eat or drink what is offered. People can drop by and visit friends or relatives without letting them know ahead of time. Dating is an important step for a boy and a girl. Usually a young boy begins by expressing his love for a girl whom he wants to date. When a girl agrees that she loves him, too, they start dating. Premarital sex is not accepted, but kissing and dancing are acceptable. Parents are not usually told about a dating relationship. Dating may or may not lead to marriage. Having girlfriends and boyfriends gains young people social status and respect from others. 9 • LIVING CONDITIONS Since Oromos are colonial subjects, their natural resources are extracted mainly by wealthy and powerful Ethiopians and their supporters. Most Oromos are rural people who lack basic services such as electricity, clean water, adequate housing, reliable transportation, clinics, and hospitals. Electricity that is produced by Oromian rivers is used mainly by Amhara and Tigrayans. Hunger is a problem among the Oromo and many attribute it to exploitation by the Ethiopian government. Since Oromos have been denied education by a successive series of Ethiopian regimes, the Oromo middle class is very small. The living conditions of this class, however, are better than those of most Oromos. Members of this class mainly live in cities and towns. Because of the military conflict between the Oromo Liberation Front army and the Ethiopian government army, Oromo peasants are constantly threatened, murdered, or imprisoned by the government. The Ethiopian government takes their property, claiming that the Oromo are hiding guerrilla fighters. Because of poverty, war, lack of modern farming methods, lack of education, and exploitation, the living standard of the Oromo people is very low. They live in overcrowded dwellings, which often house large extended families. Oromos use human labor and animals such as donkeys and horses for transportation in rural areas. They use cars, wagons, buses, and trucks for transportation in cities and towns. 10 • FAMILY LIFE The basic unit of a household is the patrilineal (male-headed) extended family. Neighborhoods and communities are important social networks connected to the extended family. A man, as head of the family, has authority over his wife (or wives) and unmarried sons and daughters. The typical Oromo man has one wife. But because of religious conversion to Islam and other cultural influences, some Oromo men marry more than one wife (a practice known as polygyny). Divorce is discouraged in Oromo society. Oromo women have begun to resist polygyny. Because of patriarchy and sexism, Oromo women are treated as inferior to men and have little power. Oromo women live under triple oppression: class, gender, and ethnic/racial oppression. Before colonization, Oromo women had an institution known as siqqee to help them oppose male domination and oppression. Although there are Oromo women fighters and military leaders in the liberation struggle, the status of Oromo women has not changed. 11 • CLOTHING Some Oromo men wear woya (toga-like robes), and some women wear wandabiti (skirts). Others wear leather garments or animal skin robes, and some women wear qollo and sadetta (women's cloth made of cotton). Modern garments from around the world are also worn. In cash-producing areas and cities, Oromos wear modern Western-style clothes. Oromos have clothes designated for special days. They call the clothes that they wear on holidays or other important days kitii and the clothes that they wear on working days lago. 12 • FOOD The main foods of Oromos are animal products including foon (meat), anan (milk), badu (cheese), dhadha (butter), and cereals that are eaten as marqa (porridge) and bideena (bread). Oromos drink coffee, dhadhi (honey wine), and faarso (beer). Some Oromos chew chat (a stimulant leaf). The special dish of Oromos is itoo (made with meat or chicken, spices, hot pepper, and other ingredients) and bideena bread (made from xafi or millet). Sometimes mariqa or qincee (made from barley) is eaten for breakfast. Ancootee (a food made from the roots of certain plants) is a special food in some parts of western Oromia. All members of the family eat together. Members of the family sit on stools, eat off wooden platters or dishes, use wooden spoons for liquids, and use washed hands to pick up solid foods. The majority of Oromos eat twice a day, in the morning and at night. Muslim Oromos do not eat pork for religious reasons. 13 • EDUCATION Literacy (the ability to read and write) is very low among Oromos, probably less than 5 percent of the group. Oromos depend mainly on family and community education to transmit knowledge to the younger generation. Older family and community members have a responsibility to teach children about Oromo culture, history, tradition, and values. When children go to colonial schools, the Oromo oral historians and cultural experts make sure that these children also learn about Oromo society. Although their numbers are very limited, there are three kinds of schools in Oromia: missionary, madarasa (Islamic), and government schools. Islamic schools teach classes through the sixth grade, and the other schools go through grade twelve. Oromos do not have control over these schools. Oromo culture and values are constantly attacked in them. Despite all these problems, Oromo parents have very high expectations for education. If they can afford it, they do not hesitate to send their children to school. 14 • CULTURAL HERITAGE Oromos respect their elders and value social responsibility, helping others, bravery, and hard work. Knowledge of history and culture is admired. Oromos can count their family trees through ten generations or more. These values are expressed in geerarsa or mirisa (singing), storytelling, poems, and proverbs. Geerarsa is used to praise good behavior and discourage inappropriate behavior. Oromo cultural heritage is expressed through mirisa, weedu, and different cultural activities. There are different kinds of weedu, such as weedu fuudha (a marriage song), weedu lola (a war song), and weedu hoji (a work song). Oromo women have their own song, called helee, that they use to express their love for their country, children, and husbands. Young boys invite girls to marriage ceremonies by singing hurmiso. Men do dhichisa (a dance to celebrate the marriage ceremony) and women do shagayoo (singing and dancing) during marriage ceremonies. There are prayer songs called shubisu and deedisu. 15 • EMPLOYMENT Oromos are mainly farmers and pastoralists (herders). Young educated Oromos move to cities to look for jobs. There are also a small number of merchants in Oromo society, as well as weavers, goldsmiths, potters, and woodworkers. 16 • SPORTS Hunting and practicing military skills were important sports in Oromia before it was colonized. Oromo men used to hunt large animals as a test of manhood. They used hides, ivory, and horns in their arts and crafts. Hunting was seen as training for warfare for young Oromos. It helped them learn how to handle their weapons and prepare themselves for difficult conditions. Popular sports among children and young adults in Oromo society include gugssa (horseback riding), qillee (field hockey), darboo (throwing spears), waldhaansso (wrestling), utaalu (jumping), and swimming. Oromo society has produced athletes who have competed and won in international sports events. In 1956, Wami Biratu, an Oromo soldier serving in the Ethiopian colonial army, was the first Oromo athlete to participate in the Olympic Games. He became a source of inspiration for other Oromo athletes. Ababa Biqila, another Oromo soldier, won the 1960 Rome Olympic Marathon and set a new world record, running barefoot. Another Oromo soldier, Mamo Wolde, became the 1968 Olympic Marathon champion. Other Oromo soldiers have succeeded in international competitions as well. In 1988, Ababa Makonnen (Ababa Biqila's nephew) won the Tokyo Marathon, and Wadajo Bulti and Kabada Balcha came in second and third. Daraje Nadhi and Kalacha Mataferia won first and second place, respectively, in the World Cup marathon in 1989. In 1992, Daraartu Tullu (1969–), an Oromo woman, won the gold medal for her victory in the 10,000-meter race in the Barcelona Olympic Games. In 1996, another Oromo woman, Fatuma Roba, became a women's marathon gold medalist. She was the first from Africa to win this kind of race, and she was the fastest marathon runner in the world. The successes of these Oromo athletes demonstrate the rich cultural heritage of athletic ability in Oromo society. The victories of these athletes went to Ethiopia. 17 • RECREATION Oromos gather and enjoy themselves during ceremonies such as weddings, holidays, and harvest festivals. At these events they eat, drink, sing, dance, and talk together. Jumping, running, swimming, wrestling, and other sports activities are recreation for boys and young adults. Oromo adults like to sit and chat during weekends, after work, and on holidays. 18 • CRAFTS AND HOBBIES There are Oromos who specialize in making musical instruments such as the kirar (five-stringed bowl-lyre), masanqo (one-stringed fiddle), and drums. Iron tools such as swords, spears, hoes, axes, and knives have been important for farming, fighting, and hunting. There is a long tradition of woodworking in this society. Carpenters make such objects as platters, stools, spades, tables, plows, bows and arrows, wooden forks, and honey barrels. Goldwork has been practiced in some parts of Oromia. Goldsmiths specialize in making earrings, necklaces, and other gold objects. There are Oromos who specialize in making other utensils from horn, pottery, and leather. Mugs, spoons, and containers for honey wine are made from horn. Basins, dishes, water jars, and vessels are made from pottery. Various kinds of bags to hold milk are made from leather. 19 • SOCIAL PROBLEMS Oromo's human rights and civil rights have been violated by one Ethiopian government after another. Oromos do not have control over their lives, lands, other properties, or country. They do not have a voice in the government, and they are not allowed to support independent Oromo political organizations. Oromos have been threatened, murdered, or imprisoned for sympathizing with the Oromo national movement, especially the OLF (Oromo Liberation Front). Oromos are not treated according to the rule of law. Today thousands of Oromos are kept in secret concentration camps and jails just for being Oromo. Some Oromo activists or suspected activists are killed by Ethiopian soldiers. Their bodies are thrown into the streets to terrorize the Oromo people and to prevent them from supporting the Oromo national movement. Human rights organizations such as Africa Watch, the Oromia Support Group, and Amnesty International have witnessed many contracts aimed at reducing human rights abuses. 20 • BIBLIOGRAPHY Abebe, Daniel. Ethiopia in Pictures. Minneapoli, Minn.s: Lerner Publications Co., 1988. Fradin, D. Ethiopia. Chicago: Children's Press, 1988. Gerster, Georg. Churches in Stone: Early Christian Art in Ethiopia. New York: Phaidon, 1970. Internet Africa Ltd. Ethiopia. [Online] Available http://www.africanet.com/africanet/country/ethiopia/ , 1998. World Travel Guide, Ethiopia. [Online] Available http://www.wtgonline.com/country/et/gen.html , 1998.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article Totem poles are monumental sculptures carved on poles, posts, or pillars with symbols or figures made from large trees, mostly western red cedar, by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest coast of North America. The word totem is derived from the Algonquian (most likely Ojibwe) word odoodem [oˈtuːtɛm], "his kinship group". Totem poles are not religious objects, but they do communicate important aspects of native culture. Carvings of animals and other characters typically represent characters or events in a story. The carvings may symbolize or commemorate cultural beliefs that recount familiar legends, clan lineages, or notable events. The poles may also serve as functional architectural features, welcome signs for village visitors, mortuary vessels for the remains of deceased ancestors, or as a means to publicly ridicule someone. Given the complexity and symbolic meanings of totem pole carvings, their placement and importance lies in the observer's knowledge and connection to the meanings of the figures. Totem pole carvings were likely preceded by a long history of decorative carving, with stylistic features borrowed from smaller prototypes. Eighteenth-century explorers documented the existence of decorated interior and exterior house posts prior to 1800; however, due to the lack of efficient carving tools, sufficient wealth, and leisure time to devote to the craft, the monumental poles placed in front of native homes along the Pacific Northwest coast probably did not appear in large numbers until the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century. Trade and settlement initially led to the growth of totem pole carving, but governmental policies and practices of acculturation and assimilation sharply reduced totem pole production by the end of nineteenth century. Renewed interest from tourists, collectors, and scholars in the 1880s and 1890s helped document and collect the remaining totem poles, but nearly all totem pole making had ceased by 1901. Twentieth-century revivals of the craft, additional research, and continued support from the public have helped establish new interest in this regional artistic tradition. Totem poles serve as important illustrations of family lineage and the cultural heritage of native peoples who live in the islands and coastal areas of North America's Pacific Northwest, especially British Columbia, Canada, and coastal areas of Washington and southeastern Alaska in the United States. Makers of these poles include the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl), Bella Coola, and Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka). Totem poles are typically carved from the highly rot-resistant trunks of Thuja plicata trees (popularly known as giant cedar or western red cedar), which eventually decay in the moist, rainy climate of the coastal Pacific Northwest. Because of the region's climate and the nature of the materials used to make the poles, few examples carved before 1900 remain. Noteworthy examples, some dating as far back as 1880, include those at the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria and the Museum of Anthropology at UBC in Vancouver. Totem poles are the largest, but not the only objects that coastal Pacific Northwest natives use to depict family legends, animals, people, or historical events. The freestanding poles seen by the region's first European explorers were likely preceded by a long history of decorative carving. Stylistic features of these poles were borrowed from smaller prototypes, or from the interior support posts of house beams. Although eighteenth-century accounts of European explorers traveling along the coast indicate that decorated interior and exterior house posts existed prior to 1800, the posts were smaller and fewer in number than in subsequent decades. Prior to the nineteenth century, the lack of efficient carving tools, along with sufficient wealth and leisure time to devote to the craft, delayed the development of elaborately carved, freestanding poles. Before iron and steel arrived in the area, natives used crude tools made of stone, shells, or beaver teeth for carving. The process was slow and laborious; axes were unknown. By the late eighteenth century, the use of metal cutting tools enabled more complex carvings and increased production of totem poles. The tall monumental poles appearing in front of native homes in coastal villages probably did not appear until after the beginning of the nineteenth century. The scholar Eddie Malin has proposed that totem poles progressed from house posts, funerary containers, and memorial markers into symbols of clan and family wealth and prestige. He argues that the Haida people of the islands of Haida Gwaii originated carving of the poles, and that the practice spread outward to the Tsimshian and Tlingit, and then down the coast to the tribes of British Columbia and northern Washington. Malin's theory is supported by the photographic documentation of the Pacific Northwest coast's cultural history and the more sophisticated designs of the Haida poles. Regional stylistic differences among the poles can be attributed to the application of existing regional artistic styles to a new medium. Earlier theories, such as those of mid-twentieth-century anthropologist Marius Barbeau, who considered the poles a post-contact phenomenon enabled by the introduction of metal tools, are refuted by evidence of the Pacific Northwest's long history of native carving traditions and evaluation of early explorers' and navigators' documents created in the 1790s, which predate the use of iron tools. These early accounts describe and illustrate the existence, although an uncommon appearance, of carved poles and timber homes along the coast of the Pacific Northwest. By the early nineteenth century, widespread importation of iron and steel tools from Great Britain, the United States, and elsewhere led to easier and more rapid production of carved wooden goods, including poles. Scholars have not determined if iron tools were introduced by traders, or whether Alaska Natives produced iron tools from drift iron recovered from shipwrecks, but the presence of trading vessels and exploration ships simplified the acquisition of iron tools, the use of which most likely would have enhanced totem pole construction. In the nineteenth century, American and European trade and settlement initially led to the growth of totem pole carving, but United States and Canadian policies and practices of acculturation and assimilation caused a decline in the development of Alaska Native and First Nations cultures and their crafts, and sharply reduced totem pole production by the end of the century. Between 1830 and 1880, the maritime fur trade, mining, and fisheries gave rise to an accumulation of wealth among the coastal peoples. Much of it was spent and distributed in lavish potlatch celebrations, frequently associated with the construction and erection of totem poles. The monumental poles commissioned by wealthy family leaders to represent their social status and the importance of their families and clans. In the 1880s and 1890s, tourists, collectors, scientists and naturalist interested in native culture collected and photographed totem poles and other artifacts, many of which were put on display at expositions such as the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the 1893 World's Columbia Exposition in Chicago, Illinois. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some Christian missionaries discouraged the natives' traditional practices, including creation of totem poles, and urged converts to cease production and destroy existing poles. Nearly all totem=pole-making had ceased by 1901. Carving of monumental and mortuary poles continued in some native villages as late as 1905; however, as native sites were abandoned, the poles and timber homes were left to decay and vandalism. Beginning in the late 1930s, a combination of cultural, linguistic, and artistic revivals, along with scholarly interest and the continuing fascination and support of an educated and empathetic public, led to a renewal and extension of this artistic tradition. In 1938 the United States Forest Service began a program to reconstruct and preserve the old poles, salvaging about 200, roughly one-third of those known to be standing at the end of the nineteenth century. With renewed interest in native arts and traditions in the 1960s and 1970s, freshly carved totem poles were erected up and down the coast, while related artistic production was introduced in many new and traditional media, ranging from tourist trinkets to masterful works in wood, stone, blown and etched glass, and other traditional and non-traditional media. Today, a number of successful native artists carve totem poles on commission, usually taking the opportunity to educate apprentices in the demanding art of traditional carving and joinery. Modern poles are almost always executed in traditional styles; however, some artists have included modern subject matter or used nontraditional styles. A commission for a modern pole ranges in the tens of thousands of dollars and usually requires from six to twelve months to complete. Because the time spent on carving after an initial design is may take a year to complete, the commission essentially functions as the artist's primary means of income during the period. Totem poles symbolize characters and events of a myth or relate the experiences of known ancestors or living people. Some of these characters may appear as stylistic representations of objects in nature, while others are more realistically carved. Pole carvings may include animals, birds, fish, plants, insects, and humans, or they may represent supernatural beings such as the thunderbird. Some symbolize animals that than can transform themselves into another form, so they appear as combinations of animals or part animal-part human forms. Consistent use of a specific character over time, with some slight variations in carving style, helped develop similarities among these shared symbols that allowed people to recognized one from another. For example, the raven is symbolized by a long, straight beak, while the eagle's beak is curved, and a beaver is depicted with two large front teeth, a piece of wood held in his front paws, and a paddle-shaped tail. The meanings of the designs on totem poles are as varied as the cultures that make them. While totem poles are not religious objects, they do communicate important aspects of native culture and are artistic as well as cultural objects. Some poles celebrate cultural beliefs that may recount familiar legends, clan lineages, or notable events, while others are mostly artistic. Animals and other characters carved on the pole are typically used as symbols to represent characters or events in a story; however, some may reference the moiety of the pole’s owner, or simply fill up empty space on the pole. The carved figures interlock, one above the other, to create the pole, which may rise to a height of sixty feet or more. Smaller carvings may be positioned in vacant spaces, or they may be tucked inside the ears or hang out of the mouths of the pole’s larger characters. While the intended purpose varies, pole carvings symbolize or commemorate historic persons, represent shamanic powers, or provide objects of public ridicule. "Some of the figures on the poles constitute symbolic reminders of quarrels, murders, debts, and other unpleasant occurrences about which the Native Americans prefer to remain silent... The most widely known tales, like those of the exploits of Raven and of Kats who married the bear woman, are familiar to almost every native of the area. Carvings which symbolize these tales are sufficiently conventionalized to be readily recognizable even by persons whose lineage did not recount them as their own legendary history." Totem poles were never objects of worship, but very early European explorers thought they were. However, later explorers such as Jean-François de La Pérouse noted that the poles were never treated reverently. Their purposed seemed only to generate allusions or illustrate stories, and the poles were usually left to rot in place when people abandoned a village. Their association with idol worship was an idea from local nineteenth-centuryChristian missionaries, who considered their association with shamansim as an occult practice. The vertical order of images is widely believed to be a significant representation of importance, an idea that became so pervasive it entered into common parlance with the phrase "low man on the totem pole". This phrase, indicative of the most common belief of ordering importance, suggests the higher figures on the pole are more important or prestigious. A counterargument frequently heard is that the figures are arranged in reverse hierarchy, with the most important representations on the bottom, at eye level with the viewer to heighten his significance. There are no restrictions on vertical order; many poles have significant figures on the top, others on the bottom, and some in the middle. Other poles have no vertical arrangement, consisting of a lone figure atop an undecorated column. Given the complexity and symbolic meanings of carvings totem poles, their placement and subsequent importance lies in the observer's knowledge and connection to the meanings of the pole's figures. Asserting that one figure, story, or history has more importance over another because of its placement on a pole may reflect the observer's own cultural perceptions of hierarchy rather than the actual significance of the figures. For example, sometimes a prestigious family crest is placed at the bottom in support of the remainder of the crests or carvings above it. Placement at the bottom of the pole increases a carving's prominence because totem pole logs are thicker towards the base, contributing to the increase in the bottom figure's size, and its position brings the lower figure closer to the people, increasing their interaction with it. Haida doorways, often embedded in the bottoms of house-frontal poles, were kept deliberately small. To enter, guests and members of the household would need to bow in respect to the family crest on the pole. In contrast, the tops of Haida poles often feature a family's moiety crest. Because the Haidas come from one of two moieties and identify themselves as the descendants of an eagle or a raven-associated family, this association and the appearance of an eagle or raven carving at the top if the family's pole could either signify its relevance as the first, or highest, level of family identity and societal structure, or its lesser importance as one of the most common and least exclusive crests. There are six basic types of totem poles: house frontal poles, interior house posts, mortuary poles, memorial poles, welcome poles, and the ridicule or shame pole. This type of pole, usually 20 to 30 feet tall is the most decorative. Its carvings tell the story of the family or clan who own them. These poles are also known as heraldic, crest, or family poles. Poles of this type are placed outside the clan house of the most important village leaders. Often, watchman figures are carved at the top of the pole to protect the pole owner’s family and the village. Another type of house frontal pole is the entrance or doorway pole, which is attached to the center front of the home and includes an oval-shaped opening through the base that serves as the entrance to the clan house. These interior poles, typically 8 to 10 feet in height, are usually shorter than exterior poles. The interior posts support the roof beam of a clan house and include a large notch at the top, where the beam can rest. A clan house may have two to four or more house posts, depending on the native group who built it. Carvings on these poles, like those of the house frontal poles, are often used as a storytelling device for children and help tell the story of the owners' family history. The rarest type of totem pole is a mortuary structure that incorporates grave boxes with carved supporting poles or includes a recessed back to hold the grave box. It is among the tallest, reaching 50 to 60 feet in height, and most prominent pole. The Haida and Tlingit people erect mortuary poles at the death of important individuals in the community. These poles may have a single figure carved at the top, which may depict the clan's crest, but carvings usually cover its entire length. Ashes or body of the deceased person is placed in the upper portion of the pole. This type of pole, which usually stands in front of a clan house, is erected about a year after a person has died. The clan chief’s memorial pole may be raised at the center of the village. The pole's purpose is to honor the deceased person and identify the relative who is taking over as his successor within the clan and the community. Traditionally, the memorial pole has one carved figure at the top, but an additional figure may also be added at the bottom of the pole. Memorial poles may also commemorate and event. For example, several memorial totem poles were erected by the Tlingits in honor of Abraham Lincoln, one of which was relocated to Saxman, Alaska, in 1938. The Lincoln pole at Saxman commemorates the end of hostilities between two rival Tlingit clans and symbolizes the hope for peace and prosperity following the American occupation of the Alaskan territory. The story begins in 1868, when the United States government built a customs house and fort on Tongass Island andleft the U.S revenue cutter Lincoln to patrol the area. After American solders at the fort and aboard the Lincoln provided protection to the Tongass group against its rival, the Kagwantans, the Tongass group commissioned the Lincoln pole to commemorate the event. Carved by the Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) and Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka) people, these poles include a large carvings of human figures, some as tall as 40 feet. Welcome poles are placed at the edge of a stream or saltwater beach to welcome guests to the community, or possibly to intimidate strangers. Poles used for public ridicule are usually called shame poles, and were created to embarrass individuals or groups for their unpaid debts or when they did something wrong. The poles are often placed in prominent locations and removed after the debt is paid or the wrong is corrected. Shame pole carvings represent the person being shamed. One famous shame pole is the Seward pole at the Saxman Totem Park in Saxman, Alaska. It was created to shame former U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward for not reciprocating the courtesy or generosity of his Tlingit hosts following a potlatch given in his honor. The intent of this pole is indicated by the figure's red-painted nose and ears to symbolized Seward's stinginess. Another example of the shame pole is the Three Frogs pole on Chief Shakes Island, at Wrangell, Alaska. This pole was erected by Chief Shakes to shame the Kiks.ádi clan into repaying a debt incurred for the support of three Kiks.ádi women who were allegedly cohabiting with three slave in Shakes's household. When the Kiks.ádi leaders refused to pay support for the women, Shakes commissioned a pole with carvings of three frogs, which represented the crest of the Kiks.ádi clan. It is not known if the debt was ever repaid. The pole stands next to the Chief Shakes Tribal House in Wrangell. The pole's unique crossbar shape has become popularly associated with the town of Wrangell, and continues to be used as part of the Wrangell Sentinel newspaper's masthead. In 1942, the U.S. Forest Service commissioned a pole to commemorate Alexander Baranof, the Russian governor and Russian American Company manager, as a civilian works project. The pole's original intent was to commemorate a peace treaty between the Russians and Tlingits that the governor helped broker in 1805. George Benson, a Sitka carver and craftsman, created the original design. The completed version originally stood in Totem Square in downtown Sitka, Alaska. When Benson and other Sitka carvers were not available to do the work, the U.S. Forest Service had CCC workers carve the pole in Wrangell, Alaska. Because Sitka and Wrangell native groups were rivals, it has been argued that the Wrangell carvers may have altered Benson's original design. For unknown reasons, the Wrangell carvers depicted the Baranov figure without clothes. Following a Sitka Tribe of Alaska-sponsored removal ceremony, the pole was lowered due to safety concerns on October 20, 2010, using funds from the Alaska Dept. of Health and Social Services. The Sitka Sentinel reported that while standing, it was "said to be the most photographed totem [pole] in Alaska". On March 24, 2007, a shame pole was erected in Cordova, Alaska, that includes the inverted and distorted face of former Exxon CEO Lee Raymond. The pole represents the unpaid debt on $5 million in punitive damages that a federal court in Anchorage, Alaska, determined Exxon owes for its role in causing the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound. Some poles from the Pacific Northwest have been moved to other locations for display out of their original context. In 1903 Alaska’s district governor, John Green Brady, collected fifteen Tlingit and Haida totem poles for public displays from villages in southeastern Alaska. At the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (the world's fair held in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1904), fourteen of them were initially installed outside the Alaska pavilion at the fair; the other one, which had broken in transit, was repaired and installed at the fair's Esquimau Village. Thirteen poles these poles were returned to Alaska, where they were eventually installed in the Sitka National Historical Park. The other two poles were sold; one pole from the Alaska pavilion went the Milwaukee Public Museum and the pole from the Esquimau Village was sold and then given to industrialist David M. Parry, who installed it on his estate in what became known as the Golden Hill neighborhood of Indianapolis, Indiana. Although the remains of the original pole at Golden Hill no longer exist, a replica was raised on April 13, 1996, on the front lawn of The Eiteljorg Museum of American Indians and Western Art in Indianapolis. Approximately two years later, the replica was moved inside the museum, and in 2005, it was installed in a new atrium after completion of a museum expansion project. Another example occurred in 1938, when the U.S. Forest Service began a totem pole restoration program in Alaska. Poles used in the Civilian Conservation Corps-created totem parks of southeast Alaska were removed from their original places as funerary and crest poles to be copied or repaired and then placed in parks based on English and French garden designs to demystify their meaning for tourists. In Britain, at the side of Virginia Water Lake, in the south of Windsor Great Park, there is a 100-foot (30 m) tall Canadian totem pole that was given to Queen Elizabeth II to commemorate the centenary of British Columbia. In Seattle, Washington, a Tlingit funerary totem pole was raised in Pioneer Square in 1899, after being taken from an Alaskan village. In addition, the totem pole collections in Vancouver's Stanley Park, Victoria's Thunderbird Park, and the Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia were removed from their original locations around British Columbia. After the tree to be used for the totem pole is selected, it is cut down and moved to the carving site, where the bark and outer layer of wood (sapwood) is removed. Next, the side of the tree to be carved is chosen and the back half of the tree is removed. The center of the log is hollowed out to make it lighter and to keep it from cracking. Early tools used to carve totem poles were made of stone, shell, or bone, but beginning in the late 1700s, the use of iron tools made the carving work faster and easier. In the early days, the basic design for figures may have been painted on the wood to guide the carvers, but today's carvers use paper patterns as outlines for their designs. Carvers use chain saws to make the rough shapes and cuts, while adzes and chisels are used to chop the wood. Carvers use knives and other woodworking tools to add the finer details. When the carving is complete, paint is added to enhance specific details of the figures. Raising a totem pole is rarely done using modern methods, even for poles installed in modern settings. Most artists use a traditional method followed by a pole-raising ceremony. The traditional method calls for a deep trench to be dug. One end of the pole is placed at the bottom of the trench; the other end is supported at an upward angle by a wooden scaffold. Hundreds of strong men haul the pole upright into its footing, while others steady the pole from side ropes and brace it with cross beams. Once the pole is upright, the trench is filled with rocks and dirt. After the raising is completed, the carver, the carver's assistants, and others invited to attend the event perform a celebratory dance next to the pole. A community potlatch celebration typically follows the pole raising to commemorate the event. Totem poles are typically not well maintained after their installation and the potlatch celebration. The poles usually last from 60 to 80 years; only a few have stood longer than 75 years, and even fewer have reached 100 years of age. Once the wood rots so badly that the pole begins to lean and pose a threat to passersby, it is either destroyed or pushed over and removed. Older poles typically fall over during the winter storms that batter the coast. The owners of a collapsed pole may commission a new one to replace it. Views about the lack of maintenance vary among individuals, but it is generally believed that the deterioration of the pole represents the natural process of decay and death that occur with all living things, and attempts to prevent this are seen as somehow denying or ignoring the nature of the world. This belief has not prevented people from occasionally renewing the paint on poles or performing further restorations, mostly because the expense of a new pole is not feasible for the owner. Also, owners of poles who are not familiar with cultural traditions may see upkeep as a necessary investment for property, and ignore the philosophical implications. Each culture typically has complex rules and customs regarding designs represented on poles. The designs are generally considered the property of a particular clan or family group, and this ownership may not be transferred to the owner of a pole. As such, pictures, paintings, and other copies of the designs are often seen as an infringement of the ownership rights of a certain family or cultural group. Many Native artists, Native organizations and Native governments note that ownership of the artistic designs represented on a pole should be respected as private property to the same extent as the pole. They ask that public display and sale of pictures and other representations of totem pole designs be cleared with the owners of the pole and the cultural group or tribal government associated with the pole's designs. Because totem poles, in general, are not the exclusive cultural property of a single culture, the designs are not easily protected. The appropriation of coastal Pacific Northwest culture by the art and tourist trinket market has resulted in production of cheap imitations of totem poles executed with little or no knowledge of their complex stylistic conventions. These include imitations made by other First Nations and Native American peoples in Canada and southwestern United States. Proliferation of "totem junk" has diluted public interest and respect for the artistic skill and cultural knowledge required to produce a pole. In the early 1990s, the Haisla First Nation of the Pacific Northwest began a lengthy struggle to repatriate a sacred totem from Sweden's Museum of Ethnography. Their successful efforts were documented in Gil Cardinal's National Film Board of Canada documentary, Totem: The Return of the G'psgolox Pole. The title of "The World's Tallest Totem Pole" is or has at one time been claimed by several coastal towns of North America's Pacific Northwest. Disputes over which is genuinely the tallest depends on factors such the number of logs used in construction or the affiliation of the carver. Competitions to make the tallest pole remain prevalent, although it is becoming more difficult to procure trees of sufficient height. The tallest poles include: The thickest totem pole ever carved to date is in Duncan, British Columbia. Carved by Richard Hunt in 1988 in the Kwakwaka'wakw style, and measuring over 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter, it represents Cedar Man transforming into his human form. Notable collections of totem poles on display include these sites: Poles similar to totem poles are also found elsewhere in the world. Due to their similarities, they are often described as totem poles. Notable cultures with examples of totem pole-like objects are the indigenous people of Jilin, northeast China; the Koreans; and the Māori, an indigenous people of New Zealand. The Ainu people of Japan created poles with Ainu motifs after admiring the totem poles crafted by the indigenous people of North America. Mundha is a one-piece decorative wooden pillar that a Madia Gond bridegroom in India carves after he is engaged. The pillar is kept in front of the community dormitory (ghotul) during his marriage ceremony. The Madia Gond are residents of Bhamragad Taluka, of Gadchiroli District, of Maharashtra, India. |Wikimedia Commons has media related to Totem poles.|

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An occupational culture is a means for coping with the vicissitudes or uncertainties arising routinely in the course of doing a job. An occupational culture is a reduced, selective, and task-based version of culture that includes history and traditions, etiquette and routines, rules, principles, and practices that serve to buffer practitioners from contacts with the public. A kind of lens on the world, it highlights some aspects of the social and physical environment and omits or minimizes others. It generates stories, lore, and legends. The sources of the occupational culture are the repeated, routinized tasks incumbent on the members, a technology that is variously direct or indirect in its effects (mediated by the organizational structure within which the occupation is done), and the reflexive aspects of talking about these doings. In this sense, an occupational culture reflects not only what is done and how it should (and should not) be done but also idealizations of the work. An occupational culture is a context within which emotions are regulated and attuned to work routines. As Waddington (1998, 292-93) writes perceptively, the police culture is ”… an expression of common values, attitudes, and beliefs within a police context.” A political economy of emotions, or a distribution of emotions consistent with power, stratification, and control, complements characteristic value configurations and interactional patterns. These, in turn, are a reflection of the fit between the differential exposure of practitioners to work-based contingencies. This creates segments within the occupation. Clearly, uniformed officers face different contingencies than do detectives, and supervisors differ in their experience from top management. Career success is based in part on skills, in part on politics and networks, as well as on reorganizing and reassembling one’s emotional equipment. The emotional tone of an officer on the street may not suit for the demands of top command. Conversely, failure and status deficits may create a shadow world of invalidated role performers, those who are seen to have achieved their positions by political means. In this drama of work, of course, patterns of rise and fall, of failure, redemption, and renewal are seen. In recent years, these minidramas often surround key figures in sexual miscues, harassment, and discrimination by age, gender, or ethnicity. Such minitragedies, as in any occupation, mark its outer boundaries and provide warning signs and cautionary tales. Policing is politics by other means. Ironically, as Hughes (1958) points out, an occupational mandate consists of setting aside functions others may not do as well as designating those that the occupation may or must do. As the guardians of order, they are ”dirty workers,” who must do what others may not: enabled to violate the law, they must act violently and intrusively, shoot, maim, and kill. They are also required to rationalize or justify the necessary. Perhaps because it is inherently political in function and origins, policing manifests a turgid and resilient occupational culture. This culture resides within a police organization constituted by several occupations and specialties. Police officers and others police, while police organizations are the accountable means by which this is accomplished. The occupational culture in the literature often is depicted as that of one segment, the uniformed patrol, while the police organization includes and employs civilians (about 25% of the employees of local police organizations), janitors, cooks, consultants, lawyers and researchers, and other short-term employees. It is also entangled in intraorganizational relations as well as local politics. However, the uniformed police occupational culture shadows and dominates the several occupational groups within the organization, and its values are variously subscribed to by the several occupational groups working within the organization. Structural Features of American Police Organizations That Divide and Unify the Occupation The police occupational culture is shaped by five structural features of police organizations. The first is the inspectorial strategy of policing, which deploys a large number of low-ranking officers who are ecologically dispersed to monitor and track citizens in the environment and make complex, difficult decisions, usually alone, with minimal supervision and/or review. The second is the localistic, common-level entry and apprenticeship training pattern of police. In the United States, most officers serve their entire careers in one organization, and only top command officers join as a result of lateral mobility. Officers above superintendent are mobile in the United Kingdom. The third feature is that the police organization is both fact rich and information poor. The police mission, to penetrate and control problematic environments, leads them to overemphasize secrecy and deception as means of achieving organizational ends. Police information consists of collections of scraps of unintegrated data, quasi-secret and secret intelligence files, an amalgam of outdated context-specific information, and a layered archaeology of knowledge. Although secrecy is not the highest value among officers, it is safe to say that the conditions under which information is shared (rarely) are carefully observed. The fourth structural feature is that risk (positive and negative consequences of high uncertainty) is associated with policing. These features turn officers inward, away from the public, and laterally to their colleagues for support. The features vary empirically from force to force, and the salience of one or the other may vary by local political context. The task-role complex of the job differentiates the police and serves to highlight variations within the occupational culture. The core tasks and routines are uncertain and unpredictable. Officers share assumptions about the nature of the work (risky, exciting, worthwhile, ”clinical” in nature) and operate in an environment perceived or created by such work routines and codified definitions of relevant tasks. In urban policing, the cynosure of ”the job” is ”working the streets,” patrol response to radio calls. Boredom, risk, and excitement oscillate unpredictably. The technology, unrefined people-processing recipes, that is, judgments of officers working with little direct guidance, pattern work, and a rigid rank structure officially organizes authority. Policing is realized within a bureaucratic, rule-oriented, hierarchical structure of command and control on the one hand and a loose confederation of colleagues on the other. The interaction of these factors, tasks, environment, technology, and structure produces characteristic attitudes and an ideology, a set of explanatory beliefs rationalizing the work and its contingencies. The operation of these factors stratifies and differentiates the organization and partitions officers’ experience. Other structural factors unify police. These include the ideal of shared fate or of occupational unity, an experiential base (all served as officers initially), task dependency (officers rely on each other to accomplish joint tasks), and shared, mutually discrediting secrets. There is also an abiding ideology or mythology about policing that concerns the mandate, the legal and societal obligations, and the role as it is represented in public rhetoric, or ”presentational strategies” (Manning 1997). These unifying factors stand in some tension with the differentiating factors. It should be further emphasized that the values produced are also points of ambivalence and counterpoint and do not form a single integrated whole. Unfortunately, detective work, specialized squads such SWAT teams, and staff functions such as internal affairs are omitted in the descriptive catalogs of the police occupational culture (Reiner 2000; Crank 1998). An Overview of Studies of the Occupational Culture The academic view of the police occupational subculture is disproportionately influenced by a handful of studies of American or English uniformed patrol officers serving in large urban areas, and it has been reified by text topic treatments. Although rich ethnographic treatments of policing exist (Banton 1964; Holdaway 1983; Bittner 1990; Rubinstein 1972; Van Maanen 1974; and Simon 1991), the police are often flattened, desiccated, and displayed like insects pinned on a display board. Acute observers have noted the differentiation and segmentalization of policing using role types (Terrill, Paoline, and Manning 2003; Reiner 1992, 130-33), the conceptions of external publics (Reiner 1992,117-21), the distinctive misleading binary subcultures such as a ”street cop culture” and a “management culture” (Punch 1983), and the conflicts within forces based on ethnicity and gender (Foster 2004). Value variations based in part on task differentiation also exist within departments (Jermeir et al. 1991). Other social forces, especially technology, management training, the law, and pressures to produce such as traffic ticket quotas and case clearances in detective work, also impact policing. Some recent work has worked toward a generalized model of the occupational culture (Klinger 2002; Paoline 2003). Janet Chan’s work (1997) is the most theoretically informed of present work. She takes a complex Bourdieu-influenced perspective, arguing that policing is organized around various forms of knowledge and practice shaped continuously by a habitus or way of being and doing. Waddington (1998) has made the most important distinction in the study of the occupational culture in recent years, noting that the oral culture (see also Shearing and Ericson 1992) and the behavior of officers differs. His review points out the fallacy of generalizations based on talk rather than observation. Three important changes have taken place in the past twenty years in policing. They suggest both the strength of the occupational culture and its roots. The first is the impact of new information technologies. Technology, especially information technology (IT), has eroded authority and altered police workloads. Although technology has absorbed and transformed some work tasks (such as immediate supervision), ”middle managers” have grown in number and importance in policing. (Due in part to the effects of massive hiring between 1968 and 1975, these officers are now nearing retirement.) Ironically, spawned by paperwork and supervisory duties, these positions, sergeant, inspector, lieutenant, and superintendent, are threatened by the introduction of computer-based formal record-keeping systems. These developments suggest the existence of a management cadre or segment within the occupational culture. It has emerged between the lower participants and senior command officers. It also suggests that in the future a division across ranks will be between those who are computer facile and those who are not. The second is the impact of female and minority officers. While their attitudes seem to fit closely with their colleagues on survey, closer studies (Morash and Haar 1991) suggest that modes of relating and coping and the stresses faced by female officers differ from males and that this may emerge as a cross-cutting segment unified not by rank but by shared sentiments. It already tightly shapes who interacts with whom and why (Haar 1990). Finally, the rising educational levels within policing and the growth of suburban departments means that tensions arise between the educated officers and the others, that bias and prejudice exist, and that opportunities for promotion may be compromised not only by union rules but by prejudice against educated officers. The most powerful and systematic research, based on observation, interviews, and surveys done in England in the wake of the McPherson report on the investigation of the murder of Stephen Lawrence, shows that racial/ethnic bias remains very strong and virulent, that it affects promotion and rewards at every level of the force, and that the traditional themes of masculinity, violence, crime fighting, and danger remain thematic and not attributed to people of color and women. Segmentation of the Nondetective Occupational Culture A segment is a group of people loosely bound by interaction patterns. In policing, the limits on interaction are tightly drawn around rank, although some interaction occurs laterally via sponsorship of proteges and political ties based on religion, union membership, past links in the academy, and so on. The dominant values of the occupational culture, taken as a whole, are espoused throughout but are most salient in the lower segment, where they find a functional, task-relevant home. The occupational values cohere around the most sacred notion of the occupation: one must display, enact, and maintain them before authority. This is often connected to other general beliefs such as loyalty, honor, patriotism, and duty. Independence, autonomy, authority, and uncertainty are key values of the police occupational culture. Each of these four values has its opposite: dependence, collective obligations, powerlessness, and certainty. They are in effect paired and dynamic oppositions that take meaning from each other. Kai Erikson (1976, 83) argues that ”… people think or feel different things in the service of an overall pattern of coordination. In the same sense that people contribute different skills and abilities to the organization of work, so they contribute different temperaments and outlooks to the organization of sensibility.” The occupational culture in some ways is a configuration of sentiments and values, core and counterpoint, that are more or less salient from time to time (Shearing and Ericson 1992). The values are also linked to the structural factors noted above that sustain their reality. The dependence pair is linked to the control mission or mandate of policing, the autonomy pair is linked to the fixed character of the organization’s normal functioning, the authority pair is linked to adversarial encounters, and the final pair, certainty, is animated by the appearance of risk. Their dynamic relationship surfaces primarily in crises in which the veneer of authority is shattered, the public performance is threatened or collapses, or the officer is embarrassed or fails to fill role requirements. In these situations, the officer reflects, and draws on the occupational perspective for support and clarification. The residual of these encounters and their ambiguous outcomes is the basis for the narrative or storytelling that reinforces and renews the culture. The culture rises and falls in salience and does not remain a lens through which the world is always viewed. The ”lower participant” segment is composed of officers and sergeants. Sergeants, like foremen in factories, interact in both segments and are occasionally caught between them. Organized in narrative form, the values connect in the following way. The uniformed officer works in an uncertain environment in which choice, action, and decision are emphasized, in which the veneer of objectively guided decision making is essential, and in which an often tenuous authority frequently must be asserted with strangers in public. The officer is routinely dependent on fellow officers and the public to maintain a credible performance of authoritative assertions and action, yet the occupation emphasizes autonomy. While dependent, the officer must act authoritatively and without full knowledge of the facts or the consequences of potential actions. An underlying premise is that a neutral emotional tone is to be maintained, and the body, its posture, gestures, shape, and performance, are to be ready. Working class culture, from which most police are recruited, supplies the most frequently noted emblems, or symbols, that collapse attitudes and practices into valuations of action characterizing policing. Thus, emphases upon individual control of situations, toughness, machismo, hedonism, deprecation of paperwork and abstraction, concrete language, and description are working class values. Officers ”at the coal face” or ”in the trenches” appear to exchange a degree of organizational autonomy to maintain a working class style. There are other visible signs of membership in this segment. Patrol officers, for example, unlike ranks above sergeants and including sergeants in some departments, may acquire overtime for court appearances, work rotating shifts, and wear a uniform and receive a uniform allowance, unless assigned to staff or detective work temporarily. Lower participants generally emphasize dependence, autonomy, authority, and uncertainty. The latent function of these emphases is to suppress the equally powerful potential, evidence that suggests that police officers are often dependent upon and obligated to others, powerless, or are least relatively powerless, and quite clear and certain about the contours of their work. The four value themes for the lower participants can be clustered into two metathemes: (l) ”the job,” an index of the interrelated themes of (job) dependency and autonomy, and (2) ”real police work,” an index combining authority and uncertainty in relationships with the public. The Middle Management Segment This segment is composed of officers in the ranks sergeant, lieutenant, inspector, chief inspector, and superintendent, or their equivalents. Stereotypically, their style portends an authoritative presence. They are in effect bureaucrats with guns. They walk, talk, and react as managers and persons whose authority rests on their verbosity, good humor, and ability to communicate in writing and verbally. Bodily skill is rarely required of managers. Officers in this segment perform their roles variously, depending on their orientation toward promotion, economic gain, or organizational change. They have achieved a desired rank, and some hope for promotion or transfer (into a detective or specialized unit, for example). Technological developments make management skill a likely consideration for promotion, for example, attending night school for an MBA rather than seeking a law degree. Like other ”white collar” workers, they are a middle mass with shared tenuous mutual identification, although they may have a separate union. This segment is likely to be riven with cliques (upwardly oriented groups) and cabals (groups resistant to change) and linked by interaction networks with other officers. Organizational politics, both of careers and of the top command, is a keen interest and concern of middle managers. Computer-assisted dispatch, management information systems, computer-based records, and crime analysis applications have altered their workloads (although not necessarily increased them). Symbolically located between command and other officers, they must adapt to organizational realities. They rarely earn overtime and work shifts if not assigned to staff positions. They generally wear uniforms, usually without the jacket since they work ”inside,” and are provided with a uniform allowance. Their claims for occupational prestige are aligned either up or down: toward administrative officers or those on the street. Middle management officers emphasize independence and collective obligations to form the metatheme (3) ”politics” (of the job or the occupation, oriented partially to internal and partially to external audiences), while the twin themes of authority and certainty (the need to control contingencies through supervision) are clustered as a metatheme (4) ”management.” The Top Command Segment The top command segment is composed of officers above the rank of superintendent (or commander), including chief and deputy chief(s). Their style is less obviously working class, and their speech and manner often emulates those they admire in the business world. They have options in dress—full or partial uniform, business suit, or casual wear—and some have adopted the term ”CEO,” mimicking business practice, and talk about ”… changing the way we do business.” They are oriented in a somewhat dualistic fashion, since they must seek the loyalty of the lower participants as well as city ”fathers.” They curry favor with officers on the street as well as external audiences, including political elites, elected officials, and worthy citizens’ groups (Reiner 1991). Much of their work is ”fire fighting,” managing various kinds of crises. In theory, they make ”policy” decisions, or at least consider issues enduring beyond the end of a shift or day’s work. The administrative cadre is dependent on the goodwill and discretion of officers, because ”working the streets” produces most of the scandals and political incidents. The values of the lower participants remain surprisingly salient: They function as a ground against which the figure of commitment to the perks, rewards, and intrinsic satisfactions of command are seen. Some think of themselves as ”good police officers,” and emphasize their ”street smarts,” ”toughness,” or past crime fighting successes, rather than their administrative skills, wisdom as ”people managers,” or educational achievements. Command officers’ views of policing are reflexive, because they are obligated to manage the consequences of decisions made by others. They must ”read off” these value themes and metathemes to understand and interpret police work. Command officers emphasize that they manage the dependence and autonomy issues that lower participants label ”the job” and middle managers call ”office politics.” Top administrative officers also emphasize the ”politics” and ”management” themes of middle management. The refracted value tensions of lower participants and managers are an element of the command segment’s work. One metatheme (5) is called ”managing the job.” They see their work bearing external responsibility, being accountable, while being dependent on lower participants. The second meta-theme, (6) ”policing as politics,” glosses command responsibility. Command officers emphasize ”management” rather than ”the job” and view police management as paperwork and coping with and managing the lower participants’ subculture. Uncertainty reappears, although administrators’ uncertainty focuses on their authority in the context of dependence upon the discretion (in both senses of the word) and competence of the lower participants. Finally, it appears that they combine two metathemes of other segments into a single megatheme, combining the meta-themes ”management” and ”politics” into one that might be called ”policing as democratic politics.” This formulation glosses their interest in sustaining and amplifying the political power and independence of the police in the criminal justice system and dramatizes and displays the role of police in both the local and occasionally the national political system. Policing as democratic politics implies sensitivity to the encumbrances and political implications of policing. The three segments within policing are indicated by values and value emphases that connote potential division within and across segments. The culture both divides and integrates the occupation, depending on the situation and the issue. These segments and value emphases signal a structural potential for conflict in the police organization. Conflict may arise not only from intrasegment variations in value emphases but from intersegment differences in the meaning of the work and modes of resolving differences. The police occupational culture is not unique. It reflects the social values of Anglo American societies such as individualism, material success, bias against various others (minorities, people of color, women), and preference for the company of others like themselves. It is particularly shaped by local politics, situational pressures, and media dramatizations. On the other hand, police respond day by day to the untoward, the dirty, ugly, and violent and in general come when they are called. The emotional tone of policing as a practice, the laconic, somewhat distant view, when combined with the humor and stories, are sentiments that reveal basic humanity.

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Skip to navigation Skip to main content October 2003, Volume 9, Number 4 Farm Labor in the 1930s During the 1930s, some 1.3 million Americans from the Midwest and southwest migrated to California, which had a population of 5.7 million in 1930s. The arrival of Okies and Arkies set the stage for physical and ideological conflicts over how to deal with seasonal farm labor and produced literature that resonates decades later, as students read and watch "The Grapes of Wrath" and farmers and advocates continue to argue over how to obtain and treat seasonal farm workers. Carey McWilliams once said that farm labor in California has "been lost sight of and rediscovered time and again." (quoted in Loftis, p191) Three recent books make important contributions to our understanding of farm labor issues in the 1930s. Interestingly, two of the three are not about farm workers: instead, they focus on the people who interpreted the California farm labor story of the 1930s. Loftis has written a detailed and well documented 14-chapter book about the major figures who led efforts to publicize the plight of farm workers in the 1930s, the writers and photographers who interpreted the farm workers' story for the American public. She begins with the role of prominent Communists in the 1933 cotton strike, a four-week strike in October 1933 that involved 12,000 to 18,000 workers. Workers refused to pick the 1933 crop for the $0.60 per hundred pounds offered by growers, since the growers' prices had been raised by federal programs aimed at helping agriculture. Growers immediately evicted strikers from grower-owned labor camps, a tactic that backfired as striking workers moved into tent camps organized by the Cannery and Agricultural Workers Industrial Union, reinforcing the strike's effectiveness. California newspapers alternated between ignoring the strike or printing the growers' side until several strikers were killed by growers at a Pixley, California rally. The reporters and photographers who rushed to cover the strike generally reported that it was growers, not strikers, who were breaking labor and other laws. A politically ambitious federal relief official, George Creel, used a three-member arbitration panel appointed by the governor to force growers and workers to accept a compromise $0.75 per hundred pound piece rate, less than the $1 demanded by strikers, but 25 percent more than growers offered. Most cotton pickers were Mexicans and Mexican-Americans, but UC-Berkeley economists Paul Taylor and Clark Kerr selected a migrant from Texas and Oklahoma, Bill Hamett, to be the workers' representative in the final negotiations. Hamett remained a farm worker, but was blacklisted from jobs in the Pixley area. Loftis interviewed Paul Taylor and Clark Kerr, both of whom grew up on family farms. Taylor believed in the agricultural job ladder, meaning that farm workers could become family farmers, and he encountered resistance at UC-Berkeley for his attacks on a California agribusiness that depended on seasonal farm workers who had little chance of becoming farmers. Kerr, UC president in the 1960s, spent several months in the San Joaquin Valley documenting migrant conditions for Taylor in 1933-34. A subsequent Taylor student, Stuart Jamieson, wrote the definitive history of farm worker unions between 1900 and 1950, as well as documenting the activities of the Associated Farmers, created in 1934 to prevent farm worker unionization. Loftis emphasizes that John Steinbeck wanted to become a writer in the 1930s and interacted with artists and communists in Carmel. Steinbeck had a rare ability to fictionalize real situations, such as his account of a Watsonville apple harvesters' strike in the 1936 novel, "In Dubious Battle." Steinbeck worked summers on Sprekel Company farms in the Salinas Valley where he grew up, but always considered himself different from other farm workers. Carey McWilliams was a corporate lawyer and aspiring writer in Los Angeles who was drawn into farm labor issues by his interactions with left-leaning Los Angeles writers, who were taking an interest in the plight of the oppressed during the Depression. McWilliams knew Upton Sinclair (author of The Jungle), who ran for governor in 1934 with an End Poverty in California program (he lost) that included turning large farms into cooperatives, as well as literary critic Edmund Wilson. In the summer of 1934, there was a general strike in San Francisco called by the International Longshoremen's Association to obtain a union-run hiring hall to allocate work on the docks, and San Francisco newspapers falsely quoted the CAIWU leaders who led the 1933 strikes to say that farm workers would go on strike in support of the ILA, and that the fields would become battlefields in the struggle to bring communism to California. These statements, printed at the behest of farm employers, led to the arrest of 14 CAIWU leaders in Sacramento in July 1934 for vagrancy. By the time the trial of CAIWU leaders began in January 1935, the charges against them had been changed to criminal syndicalism, or instigating violence. The Associated Farmers provided the prosecutors with evidence, and six CAIWU leaders were convicted and sentenced to prison after a four-month trial in April 1935. The actions and treatment of the CAIWU inspired some writers and poets organized under the Western Writers Workshop to prepare the US for the massive increase in federal expenditures for social purposes under the New Deal, under the theory that not doing so could lead to Communism (p106). Loftis reviews state and local policies to cope with the arrival of Americans from other parts of the US in California during the 1930s. In Fall 1931, migrants were arriving in the state at the rate of 1,200 to 1,500 a day, an annual rate of almost 500,000 (p109). As the in-migration continued, studies concluded that migrants followed networks, and these networks were oriented to rail lines. One of those involved in the studies of migrant networks was lawyer Melvin Belli, who as a participant-observer was arrested for vagrancy on many occasions in 1933. State and local actions aimed to keep needy migrants out of the state. The vagrancy laws of 1933 and 1937, under which many migrants were arrested and sometimes "lent" to farmers to work off their fines, were finally repealed in 1941 as unconstitutional (Edwards vs California). Similarly, the Los Angeles police operated 16 checkpoints on the California-Arizona border to turn back migrants "with no visible means of support" in February-March 1936 until the checkpoints were ruled unconstitutional. (Loftis, p126). If government could not keep people out of the state, what could it do to provide assistance to needy residents? Instead of the "pioneer tradition" of giving the poor food and sending them on their way, reformers wanted a system of shelters that provided food, medical care, and counseling/training in exchange for one to three hours of work or community service (p111). However, these transient camps were not yet established when, in 1934, the Dust Bowl in the Midwest began sending migrants to California, the migration documented by Dorthea Lange. In 1935, Paul Taylor hired Lange to accompany him to study migrants, and Taylor credited Lange's photographs of migrant conditions in the privately created "Hoovervilles" with persuading government to begin, in the summer of 1935, to build the first two of what would become a chain of government-funded migrant labor camps in Marysville and Arvin. Lange and Taylor divorced their spouses, and married in December 1935. Lange's most famous picture, "Migrant Mother," taken in March 1936 near Nipomo, Calif, was the stark symbol of a woman trapped in poverty during the Great Depression. The woman was Florence Owens Thompson, a migrant from Oklahoma. In 1998, the U.S. Postal Service used the Lange photo in the Celebrate the Century series on a 32-cent stamp entitled "America Survives the Depression." Economist Paul Taylor and lawyer Carey McWilliams were the dominant farm labor researchers/advocates of the 1930s, while photographer Dorthea Lange and writer John Steinbeck turned the story of the great migration to California into enduring parts of American culture. Taylor grew up on a family farm in the Midwest, and wanted to redistribute land and create a family farming system in California. Taylor recognized that many of the migrants arriving in California would need help to make the transition from the non-irrigated cotton and grain farming of the Midwest to irrigated fruit and vegetable farming in California, and he urged the formation of camps and co-ops that would train Okies and Arkies in the vagaries of California agriculture. Carey McWilliams made his first extended trip through the Central Valley in 1935 with writer Herbert Klein, and their observations were published later that year in the Pacific Weekly in a series of articles entitled "Factories in the Fields" (p142). McWilliams argued that government was providing extensive benefits to farmers--water subsidies and price supports--and very little to farm workers, and urged government to do more for migrants. McWilliams went on to head California's Commission of Immigration and Housing between 1939 and 1942, where he increased inspections of grower-owned labor camps; the Commission had been established in response to the Wheatland hops riots of 1913. McWilliams also changed the wage-relief formula that was used to stop relief for migrants who refused to accept farm jobs at prevailing piece rate wages, effectively forcing some growers to increase piece rates. Growers labeled McWilliams "California's number one agricultural pest, worse than the pear blight or boll weevil." (p169) The 16 permanent and nine mobile labor camps funded by the Farm Security Administration proved vital to the writing of farm labor literature in the 1930s. White English-speaking migrants (Blacks and Mexicans were often excluded from the camps) were readily accessible to outsiders, and camp managers such as Tom Collins in Arvin (later called Weedpatch and now the Sunset Labor Camp) often made their notes available to writers such as John Steinbeck, who used them in character development. (p146-48) Steinbeck was recruited by the liberal San Francisco News to publicize the benefits of the fledgling government-run camps, and his first visit was to the Arvin camp. While there, local farmers threatened to disrupt the regular Saturday night dance--if they had succeeded, a precedent may have been established for local law enforcement to invalidate the authority of federal camp managers, who were far more sympathetic to migrants. Steinbeck, then 36, used this and other incidents from Arvin in "The Grapes of Wrath," the novel that opens with the Joad family being pushed off their farm in Sallisaw in eastern Oklahoma, and follows the family west for 1,200 miles on Route 66 through Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to California. The Dust Bowl migrants captured the imagination of many Americans in part because readers could easily identify with them, and think, "there but for the grace of God go I." While Steinbeck, Taylor and McWilliams documented the plight of migrants in little-read leftist magazines and papers, Frank J. Taylor presented the growers point of view in the mainstream press. Taylor emphasized that some growers, including the 4,000-acre Tagus Ranch, offered free or low -cost housing as well as on-farm schools and stores for workers. Reformers such as McWilliams thought on-farm housing and services were feudalistic, with workers afraid to leave the ranch, or even consider other jobs, for fear of losing their housing. Growers sponsored monographs entitled "Plums of Plenty" and "Grapes of Gladness." Taylor emphasized that growers established the San Joaquin Agricultural Labor Bureau to set standard piece rate wages so that workers would not "jump from job to job in the middle of the grape, peach, fig or cotton picking." (p160) Taylor also raised an issue that reformers did not discuss: California between 1935 and 1941 had "the most generous local and state relief program in the US" (p164), which may have helped attract migrants to the state. The Grapes of Wrath was published in April 1940, and President Roosevelt was quoted as reacting after reading it that "something must be done and done soon" to help California farm workers. (p174) Many schools and libraries banned The Grapes of Wrath, and Oklahoma Congressman Lyle Boren denounced it as "a lie, a black, infernal creation of a twisted, distorted mind." Steinbeck won the Pulitzer Prize and the Nobel Prize for literature in 1962. In 1939-40, two Congressional committees with opposing agendas held hearings in California. The US Senate's LaFollette Committee was guided by McWilliams, among others, to examine the power and anti-union activities of growers in 28 days of hearings, with over 400 witnesses. The US House Committee on Un-American Activities, on the other hand, focused on the communists who backed farm-worker protests. Loftis concluded that Taylor and McWilliams were motivated by the injustices of a farm labor system they believed badly needed change and that the "chief impact of their writing was its...connection with the events of the time it appeared," that is, its impact has lessened over time. Lange and Steinbeck, on the other hand, "gave history a human face;" both are far better known sixty years later than the social scientists with whom they worked. (p192) Shindo's six-chapter book aims to debunk myths about the 1930s by showing how four American icons used the Dust Bowl migration to California to further their wider aims. He notes that only a third of the Dust Bowl migrants were farmers in the Midwest who became farm workers in California--other estimates put the farm workers among the Okies even lower, at 150,000 to 200,000 of 1.3 million migrants to the state. He argues that photographer Dorthea Lange, author John Steinbeck, director John Ford, and singer Woodie Guthrie used the plight of the migrants to urge changes in California's rural economy, to either accept a system of factory farms, and regulate the farm labor market as nonfarm labor markets were being regulated, or to break up big California farms and give land to the workers. Shindo argues that the plight of the small Midwestern farmers who lost their land to banks in the 1930s and migrated to California was "communicated" to Americans by people with agendas that included using the plight of the Okies and Arkies to fundamentally restructure the US economy and political system. They were very successful: Shindo concluded that "the role of the Dust Bowl migrant as the representative American victim has completely displaced the Dust Bowl migrant of historical circumstance. " (p216) Two institutions played key roles in Dust Bowl migration: government-funded migrant camps and federal funds for artists and writers. Many of the camp managers and federally funded researchers agreed on the need for fundamental agricultural and economic reforms, but the Okies and Arkies often did not, since they were more likely to want to become small farmers than to become union members, and as likely to break strikes than to honor picket lines. There was little housing in rural areas for the migrants arriving in California. Federal government camps were seen by reformers as the places in which migrants could be turned into "class-conscious agricultural laborer(s)." The migrants, on the other hand, were trying to avoid permanent employment as wage laborers "by saving enough to become small farmers in their own right." (p22) Dust Bowl migrants did not fit neatly into either the farmer or reformer boxes, and Shindo concludes that "The disparity between the 'plain folk Americanism' of the migrants and the dominant California outlooks of 'business conservatism' and 'urban liberalism' further alienated the migrants." (p34) Shindo reviews the life and work of Dorthea Lange, who grew up near New York City and was a portrait photographer in San Francisco. During the Depression in 1932, she was standing outside her studio and took a picture of men waiting in a bread line. UCB economist Paul Taylor saw the photograph, hired her as a photographer for his study of California agriculture, and married her in 1935. They collaborated on several projects that, Shindo argues, aimed to convince opinion leaders that migrants were victims who needed government support. Their 1939 book concluded, according to Shindo, that "the Dust Bowl migration [was] the result of the battle between man and machine...the power of large landholders and giant corporations is represented by the tractor, while the hard-working tenant farmers and sharecroppers become refugees in their own country." (p38). Taylor said that migratory farm labor was "an unwitting instrument in the breakdown of the traditional American ideal of the family farm [because] it slips through stable and often rich communities, of which it is never an accepted part. It offers a breeding ground of social unrest. ... It lends itself readily to the development of a form of agriculture which is not a way of life, but an industry." Describing the peak 250,000 migrants who harvested wheat from Texas to Canada in the first 25 years of the 20th century by riding the rails, Taylor noted that "The major portion of the harvest in each State was performed by men who migrated only within the State." However, many of the migrant harvesters became members of the Industrial Workers of the World or Wobblies, and migrants without an IWW red card were sometimes prevented from riding the rails. Taylor saw the combines that replaced migrants during the 1920s as a way to reduce the appeal of radicals in rural communities. Taylor quoted an Oklahoma Commissioner of Labor in the early 1930s who said that "an oversupply of labor in any locality is almost as disastrous as a shortage and more so as far as the community in general is concerned." (Taylor, 1937) The J. Paul Getty Museum purchased a print of the "Migrant Mother," photograph for $244,500 at Sotheby's auction house in October 1998, and the photo became a US postage stamp. Shindo notes that Lange, who was returning from a month-long photo trip and had only six shots left, did not talk to Florence Owens Thompson, the woman in the picture, or to other pea pickers in the camp. According to the now adult girls in the picture, the Thompson family was from the San Joaquin Valley, not the Midwest, and the reason they became farm workers was because their father died of an asthma attack, forcing the family to go on the road in search of farm work. The family stopped migrating in the 1940s, when Thompson found work in a state hospital in Modesto. Shindo reviews John Steinbeck's 1939 novel, "The Grapes of Wrath." Steinbeck, born in Salinas to a father who was a high-level county employee, went to but did not graduate from Stanford, and was greatly influenced by biological theories in which the whole was greater than the sum of its parts. The 1936 novel, "In Dubious Battle," shows how apple pickers striking for higher wages become something more than dissatisfied workers. The Grapes of Wrath, written between May and October 1938, borrows much, according to Shindo, from notes provided to Steinbeck by the manager of a federal farm labor camp near Arvin. The Joad family was forced off their Oklahoma farm, drove to California with all their belongings, enduring hardship along the way, and pulled into a "Hooverville" or federal migrant camp, which provided clean housing and democracy. However, there was no work available locally, so the Joad family moved on, breaking a strike at a peach farm. Vigilantes attack them, Jim Casy is killed, Tom Joad must go into hiding, and the family slides down hill, living an abandoned rail car where Rose of Sharon delivers a stillborn baby. In his 1962 Nobel acceptance speech Steinbeck said that a writer must believe in "the perfectibility of man." Steinbeck's farm labor writings can thus be considered pleas for reform: alleviate the misery of migrants and teach them democracy and how to live correctly in government-run camps, and stabilize the labor force needed by large California growers. According to Shindo, the purpose of The Grapes of Wrath was to teach "a middle class, progressive audience its role in the shaping of American society," that is, they should answer the Joads' question of why there are not more government-run labor camps by demanding that the government build them (p69). John Ford was the director who made "The Grapes of Wrath" into a movie in 1940, starring Henry Fonda and Jane Darwell. Ford was especially well known for making films about the myths of the American frontier, showing "the world--its good side through its bad." (p154) Ford said he was attracted to the challenge of making a film that would show the Joad "family going out and trying to find their way in the world." (p160) The Joad family endures hardships on the road to California, finds happiness in the government-run camp, and then unites with other Okies against the very low piece rates paid to peach pickers at the Keene Ranch. Tom, wanted for killing a vigilante, leaves the family, and Ma Joad says that "we're the people" and will survive, as the Joads truck joins a parade of other trucks going on the road in search of farm work. Woodie Guthrie, the singer and song writer who turned folk songs into a vehicle to express the Okies' concerns to themselves and other Americans, was born into a relatively well-off Oklahoma family, and lived in a frontier oil-boom town. He left his wife and baby in Oklahoma and traveled to California, where he had a radio show that appealed to Midwestern migrants who wound up in Los Angeles. In 1938, he traveled through California, seeing first hand the conditions of Okies and Arkies, and writing songs that accused greedy bankers and agribusiness of taking advantage of "ordinary folks." In 1940, Guthrie moved to New York City, where he achieved his fame as an interpreter of the Okie experience for Americans. Always flirting with Communism, he began to write the Woody Sez column for People's World, which he described as "a Hillbilly's Eye-View of the hole (sic) Migratious Labor movement from the South to the Pacific Coast." (p176). Guthrie during this period wrote his best-known song, "This Land is Your Land," which ended, "this land was made for you and me." Shindo contrasts Steinbeck's belief that the Okies had to become modern to effectuate reform with Guthrie's use of traditional values in support of change. (p186) Shindo next turns to the uses of American culture, quoting Frederick Jackson Turner that the frontier, with new land to settle, led to an American social development marked by fluidity, new opportunities and, in the west, reminders of connections with "savage nature." (p196) California in the 1930s had government-run labor camps filled with Americans who had experienced considerable hardships, and government-funded researchers went from camp to camp collecting stories and songs. Shindo argues that, in several cases, government funds offered outsiders a chance to collect "their version" of the Okie experience, so that, the "Songs of the Okies" broadcast in New York City over three weeks were structured to reflect the reform goals of their producers, such as the hardships of the migration west, the goal of owning a small farm, and the clash of traditional values and the realities of California agribusiness. Shindo's book raises questions at two levels: what are the facts, and how have those facts been assimilated into American history. Shindo argues that reformers wanted to use the plight of the migrants to further their own causes, or to educate Okies in government-run camps. Most analyses concluded that farm worker strikes were protests over low wages, especially the failure of farmers to raise wages as their own prices rose because of government farm programs. But conservatives in California argued that, given the often radical leadership of unions attempting to organize farm workers, farm worker unions risked revolution in the state, and thus farm worker strikes needed to be crushed. Labor historians often distinguish between types of farm workers but lump all farmers together as distant entities out to exploit workers. Historian Vaught argues that turn-of-the-century "horticulturists" saw themselves as producing unique crops while building healthy and prosperous communities. Over time, Vaught shows how labor relations, market imperatives, and changing political conditions undermined the growers' horticultural ideal in four central and northern California agricultural communities. Loftis, Anne. 1998. Witnesses to the Struggle: Imaging the 1930s California Labor Movement. University of Nevada Press. http://www.nevada.edu/press/

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John Horse, a Black Seminole warrior who led hundreds in an escape from American bondage in 1837, re-ignited resistance to US Imperialism in 19th century Florida., a photo by Pan-African News Wire File Photos on Flickr. The myth of Columbus By Stephanie Adohi on November 21, 2012 Reprinted From Workers World Based on a talk entitled “On the 520th anniversary of the landing of Columbus: What his legacy means for Indigenous Peoples today” given to a Workers World forum in New York City on Oct. 12. The speaker is a long-time member of WW and is of Cherokee, Huron, and Muskogee descent. Sisters and brothers, comrades and friends, Why is there a “holiday” for Columbus? On Oct. 12, 1995, WBAI-FM in New York interviewed progressive Italian-American historian, Jennifer Guglielmo, who stated that Columbus Day was promoted by backers of Italy’s fascist dictator, Benito Mussolini. Italian-American working-class socialists and anarchists fought those fascists in the streets before and during World War II. Nonetheless, Columbus Day became a federal holiday in 1937. In 1492, Spain was able to complete the Reconquista. The royal couple, Isabella and Ferdinand, had made war to expel “the Moors,” northwestern African Muslims who had ruled much of the Iberian peninsula for almost eight centuries. The newly united Spanish crown wanted new riches, trade and colonies. The conquistadors sailed on their orders, bankrolled by the king and queen. Christopher Columbus was apparently no Italian. His name was actually Cristóbol Colón. He was a Spanish pirate. The Spanish Queen Isabella would have executed him had she known. There is no evidence he was ever in Genoa, the city he claimed as his city of birth. He read and he wrote a lot. Of his many papers none were written in the dialect spoken in Genoa. He landed in the Caribbean. He assessed the ready welcome of his friendly hosts. He decided to attack, kill and take power. There are stories of him cutting the arms off of Taíno men to feed to his war dogs. He wrote to the queen immediately to convince her of the idea of making them slaves. He invented the slave trade there: “They would make good servants. … They are fit to be ordered about and made to work … [and] with fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.” Most of the slaves Columbus sent to Spain died quickly, and after a few years, Ferdinand and Isabella sent an investigator, Bobadilla, who arrived in Santo Domingo to find men jailed, lined up for hanging as rebels. He ordered Columbus arrested. Columbus’ personal cook Espinoza put the chains on him. Once the first reports came from Pizarro in Peru and from Cortés in Mexico about the gold and silver that could be plundered, and the slavery, a steady stream of conquistadors moved out from Spain, all bankrolled by the monarchs. The conquistadors included Cristóbol Colón, Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro, Juan de Oñate, Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Hernando de Soto and others. From their contemporary descriptions we can characterize them as a lumpen sort of completely out-of-control mercenary force. They were motivated by arrogance, religious superiority and greed. They used the Requerimiento, a three-paragraph announcement from the Spanish monarch and the Church in Rome. It demanded people submit to these conquistadors as representatives of the Spanish crown, or else knives and guns would be used. The Requerimiento was an excuse for murder, rape, torture and robbery on a level never before seen: enslavement of whole Indigenous nations, many or most worked to death in gold and silver mines, all in the name of the Spanish monarchs and the Catholic Church. True legacy of the conquistadores It’s not possible to touch on all of the crimes of all the conquistadors tonight. But it is important to know which ones are most hated still, which ones did the most damage. Isabella wanted riches and she got wealth beyond all imagining. So did everyone with Francisco Pizarro, butcher of the Incas. Writers describe the Incas in different ways, sometimes as an empire and other times as a socialist or communist society. It is known that Incan civilization grew from ancient farming communities that held the land in common. Incans were observed distributing stored supplies from public warehouses to the sick, elderly, poor, widows, disabled and anyone in need, according to Ronald Wright in “Stolen Continents.” The ruins at Huánuco include 500 such warehouses, measuring over one million cubic feet. The Incas were highly skilled working with gold, silver and platinum. They used much bronze. There was no source of iron available. They were the world’s finest weavers. They domesticated llamas and alpacas as pack animals, and for wool and meat. They were astute recordkeepers. They made their records using intricate woven fringes of knotted string, called quipus, and they kept their archives in storehouses. They had advanced base-ten mathematics with zeros and place notation. They had 14,000 miles of paved roads through the Andes Mountains (often stepped for the pack animals). Cusco had a population of 50,000-100,000 and there were many smaller cities and towns. Pizarro, described by those who knew him as ruthless and devious, tricked the Incas, who had underestimated him based on reports the invaders were lazy robbers. Pizarro and his men attacked and killed 10,000 in an hour and a half. The Incas at court were unarmed for they lacked fear of these men, but they still fought to the last, even as Pizarro’s fighters cut off their hands. Pizarro took Atahualpa, the Incan leader, hostage. Atahualpa offered the Spanish a room full of gold and two of silver as ransom. Llamas carried gold back from stripped temples and palaces for months. The outside walls of Cusco’s main temple alone held one and a half tons of gold plates. The entire ransom came to seven tons of gold and 13 of silver, all of it in the form of artwork and jewelry. The total value has been estimated at $280 million, based on $1,749 an ounce. No king in Europe had ever seen or even heard of anything like this. The conquistadors melted it all down. It took a month at a quarter ton a day. Pizarro killed Atahualpa anyway. And the Spaniards went on a rampage of plunder for more. In some buildings they found 20-foot planks of silver. They took jewels off mummies. They killed so many people and llamas that the irrigation canals and other public works fell to decay and the llamas were almost exterminated. Spain and Portugal signed a treaty in 1494 to divide up Africa and the Western Hemisphere. This document gave Portugal part of Brazil and everything to its east. Some $129 million in gold was shipped to Spain every year. This valuable trans-Atlantic traffic became a target for English, Dutch and French pirates. The British pirate Francis Drake captured $172 million in Spanish gold. Spain used the gold for a series of wars against France and the Turks, and then in the war against Protestantism. By the time the Spanish Armada, a fleet of warships, was sunk by the British in 1588, the Spanish monarchs had spent the entire fortune, though their programs of colonization and missionaries continued long afterward. The huge amounts of gold that were stolen did not just fund wars and more conquest expeditions, they changed Europe. The European bourgeoisie, still subordinate to the nobility, had its role in outfitting all of the wars. Huge quantitative change led to qualitative change in the power of the enterprising bourgeoisie and directly led to the rise of capitalism. And colonialism exploded in size and scope in utterly immense robberies of previously unknown rapaciousness. Conquistadors in the American Southwest Coronado, known for wandering all over the North American Southwest in search of the seven cities of gold and Quivira, attacked, occupied and burned several pueblos. Less than a third of the original pueblos still exist today. They extended all the way into the Texas Panhandle. If you ever are in Albuquerque and drive through Bernalillo, there are two ruins just west of town which are among those that Coronado personally burnt down. Oñate, known for working thousands of people to their death in the gold and silver mines of Zacatecas, left Mexico to take over New Mexico. He is hated in New Mexico to this day. He attacked Acoma Pueblo in 1599 when it rose against the settlers. Oñate’s men killed 800 children, women and men. Oñate ordered every man over 25 to have a foot cut off and sentenced each to 25 years slavery. Every female and male between 12 and 25 years of age got 25 years of slavery. And 60 young girls were sent to service priests in Mexico, never to return. There were rebellions against Spain and the conquistadors. The biggest rebellion in the Andes/Peru was led by Túpac Amaru II. There are records of the Incas melting gold and pouring it down captured conquistadors’ throats. The second biggest rebellion was in New Mexico in 1680. Some say it was the Spanish fear of snakes and dolls that led them to burn 1,000-year-old kachina dolls of the pueblos. Others say it was the beating of Popay, who did lead the pueblos in revolt. The Indigenous people burnt out the Spanish and kicked them out for 12 years. Pedro de Alvarado worked thousands to death in Guatemala in the mines, and hanged any local leaders who tried to protect the people. He enslaved so many, the price of an Indian slave fell to 1/20th the price in Mexico. Hernando de Soto was Pizarro’s lieutenant. He had grown up killing Indians in Panama in his teens, and killing Indians in Nicaragua in his 20s. His part of Atahualpa’s ransom made him a millionaire in gold. He wanted Florida and got the grand bankroll to do so in Spain. He paid for 600 soldiers, 200 horses, numbers of African and Mexican slaves, war dogs, and several hundred swine (these were war pigs, they actually flushed ambushes and rooted out fields). De Soto’s expedition left Florida north to the Smokies or Blue Ridge Mountains, then across the Mississippi to Arkansas. From town to town to city they went, following the roads and paths, stealing food, burning storehouses, fields and towns, kidnapping local Indigenous people for enslavement and burning them alive if they made trouble. De Soto cut their hands off if they didn’t lead him to gold. He abducted the woman ruler of the city of Talomeco in the state of Cofitachiqui (no one today knows if it was Creek or Tsalagi) and killed her for her pearl necklace. The de Soto party recorded events. They saw cities and towns newly abandoned because smallpox was already spreading from Spanish incursions. They were the first and last outsiders to ever see the living Mississippian culture, today called the moundbuilders. Smallpox and the other seven disease vectors living in the guts of de Soto’s unleashed war pigs gone feral, spread disease everywhere through the entire Mississippi Basin and tributary rivers system. De Soto attacked the original city of Mabile and abducted the leader, a woman. A huge battle was fought and Mabile burnt down. The city of Mobile, Ala., is named after it. The Mississippian culture fell directly as a result of de Soto’s pigs and diseases. The mounds that remain were actually great earthen pyramids, showing the influence of the Mayans and others. The Mississippian culture depended on corn. They had miles and miles of corn crops. Maize corn was the first-ever selectively bred food grain in the world. Its scientific history is still being debated, as it is so very different from teosinte, its ancestor. Somehow, Indigenous gardeners had changed it from a thumb-sized nearly inedible seed pod to the many varieties of maize corn being grown in many parts of this hemisphere in 1492. Maize corn was being raised up and down the East Coast, all over the Mississippi River valley, the Southwest and more. Some 10,000 years ago, in the Chilca Canyon of Peru, the potato was domesticated and cropped. The word used in Spanish, “papas,” is the Incan word. By 1491, thousands of varieties were in existence, with varieties developed for every altitude going down from the high peaks to the valleys. So we have agriculture developing in the Western Hemisphere in the same time frame as Mesopotamia. The Incans preserved great masses of their papas crops by mashing and freeze drying, which gave them a food store good for ten years in case of a drought. They did all that with wooden tools too. The stories that Native people saw and smelled these unwashed armed men and thought they were gods is disproven over and over by contradictory accounts. Incas thoroughly investigated the strange men, but made the mistake of underestimating them in their disgust for their personal behavior and filth. In 1502, Colón accidentally encountered a large seagoing canoe the length of a galley off of Honduras. It was a Mayan crew, and they ordered the Spaniards to get out of the way. It took the conquistadors till 1511 to figure out that the Mayans were 120 miles west. At the first big battle in 1517, Fernando Hernández was crushed by the Mayans at Champotón. By 1519, they began to enslave Africans and bring them to Cuba, where subsequent Spanish excursions into this hemisphere now used some African slaves. There is a link in all of this with the fight against the racist use of “savage” in anti-Muslim posters on Metropolitan Transit Authority public transport in New York City. This and the word “primitive” have been used endlessly without question for 520 years against the Indigenous people of the world. The words ‘savage’ and ‘primitive’ Colonialism is savage. Capitalism is savage. Imperialism is savage. And there are other words to use in place of “primitive” in economic and political discussion — “pre-class society,” “early accumulation of capital,” “original communism” — when discussing humanity. Imagine the continual effect on the consciousness of the use of these two words over the last 200 years. People see it in literature and accept it. People of color see it and resent it. Our youth are affected negatively and so are our social relations with people outside our communities. The truth is that the term “hunter-gatherer” is generally wrong in the same regard. It might be accurate for that period when people around the world were surviving the Ice Ages, but not since then. It’s another way of saying “primitive.” All of humanity is adaptable and creative in learning to use the resources available in a given environment. These societies were gardening. At some time after the last Ice Age in Asia, and later in Europe, domestication of livestock animals developed. Great varieties of plant foods were being developed in the Western Hemisphere. In 1491, what was actually going on across Great Turtle Island (North America), and in the Land of the Condor (South America), was a whole hell of a lot of gardening, growing of crops, even in the forests. Over one half of all the food crops in the world by numbers of species and by volume and weight are Indigenous to this hemisphere, and were all domesticated by Indigenous people, from popcorn to pumpkins. Tomatoes, squashes, beans, maize corn, berries, various nuts, potatoes, chocolate, pumpkins, pineapples, cassava, various palm oils, avocados, papaya, quinoa, amaranth, acai — too many others to name them all here — and all the chiles taken around the world by the Spaniards and mistakenly named “peppers” by Columbus himself. What is primitive about the cultivation of so many diverse food crops? What is primitive about the Mayan and Incan development of the concept of zero? Or of the science of astronomy developed by all the ancient peoples of the world? Between 3200 and 2500 BCE, large-scale public buildings were erected in at least seven places on the Peruvian coast. The only other urban center then was Sumer on the Tigris-Euphrates. And then there is the fact that across this continent, people from small villages to cities lived communally. There were 500 nations in what is now the United States alone and most of them still had a matrilineal structure. There is nothing primitive about a society which is so equal and free yet completely functional on the basis of no classes at all. Native American women today often use the term matrilineal because it does not imply any hierarchy. There are so many highly different and complex traditions of music, storytelling, dance and theater and art forms to be found in our history as well, and some still surviving. In Amazonia’s forests, where people today can walk and pick fruit to eat, scientists tell us these are old orchards. There were 138 crops grown in Amazonia, half of them trees, lots of palm oils, pineapples, papayas, cassava or manioc, calabash, acai and more. There are also huge tracts of artificially built-up soil. The Amazon basin has acidic red soil, bad for growing. By an unknown process, people who lived there created two types of very dark nutritious — terra preta — soil for their crops; they used charcoal, pottery and probably animal and fish remains, which provided all the needed nutrients for plants (phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, charcoal and organic matter). “The Amazon was being terraformed before 1492,” wrote Charles Mann in his book, “1491. ” Conservative estimates put the extent at a few thousand square miles at 0.1 to 0.3 percent of the Basin, which is about equal to the size of the cropped area the Mayans had. Others estimate up to 10 percent, which would be the size of France. In original communism or communalism, the family is healthy and vibrant. It is called the extended family. This form provides all the support needed for the individual, for the children. Everyone knows they belong. Unrelated people are adopted in. There is no isolation of the self, no alienation from society, as seen today to the detriment of many youth. By contrast, the nuclear family is just a little piece of that extended family, cut off and lacking support. The clash of cultures began with the invasion of the Spanish conquistadors. It continued with the later European invasions — the English and the French, the Russians on the West Coast. Yet the cultural clash had many positive effects on the settlers, some of which enabled them to survive here. These include: • The adoption of nearly all of our Indigenous food crops. • The gender equality of the women was not understood or accepted by the Europeans, who had been living under feudalism for hundreds of years. The National Women’s History Project states that many early women’s rights leaders were inspired by what they call the Seneca’s “matriarchal society.” • Ben Franklin noted the impact of the Iroquois Law of Peace on the U.S. Constitution. • Bathing was a daily practice. The British and French are often noted as amazed as many of them had never had a bath. • Many ideas in fashion too numerous to even go into. The role of smallpox and communicable disease Up until 1492, there was very little contact between the hemispheres. No one here had any immunity to all the European and Asian diseases. These are diseases that jumped species from domesticated animals or rats. Half the Aztecs, the Incas and the Mayas died before the fighting when these societies were overthrown. It was more severe than the Black Death was in Europe and it killed leaders, advisers, generals and elders. Cortés lost the first assault on Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital. Then smallpox spread for 60 days, leaving everyone too sick to even move. When it began to diminish, Cortés had returned. Disease traveled out from everywhere the Spanish and later invading forces landed, and traveled to every corner of the hemisphere. It is now estimated that in 1491 some 112 million people lived in this hemisphere. The Mexican plateau alone held 25.2 million people, based on colonial records. The diseases of smallpox, flu, measles and others killed 80 to 100 million people in 100 years. It works out to 20 percent of the world’s population at that time, which by United Nations figures was 500 million in 1600. The work done by progressive scientists in the 1950s and 1960s to achieve this realistic figure is still under attack by racists in their fields. In 1542, Bartolomé de las Casas [friar and Spanish historian] described “a beehive of people” and “the greater part of the entire human race in these countries.” By 1562, he estimated there had been 40 million deaths due to disease. By 1600, some 20 waves of pestilence had swept the two continents. Less than one in ten survived. About 90 million died. That would be about the equivalent of a billion deaths today. By the time the English and the French arrived in this hemisphere, the waves of smallpox epidemics had left numerous villages of the dead, which the settlers found here on the Atlantic seacoast and across the lands. Sometimes they moved into the empty villages, as the Pilgrims did. Decimated Indigenous nations at that point faced waves of settlers anxious and mean with greed to steal the land and create wealth. The perspective of the settlers and their view of the land, the environment itself, was totally alien to the Indigenous peoples. The settlers saw it as something to be used and abused to make money, as opposed to being stewarded, cared for, to encourage the wealth of variety of resources available previously. The Indigenous nations fought back, but fighting came long after the waves of death had shifted the balance of forces to the invaders. In 1776, most of the fighting was not against the British. Over 100 Cherokee villages were razed to the ground and all the crops destroyed, so that the settlers could steal huge tracts of territory in Virginia and the South. The whole Cherokee nation was refuged and went into the mountains with only the shirts on their backs in the winter. Do you know that Tecumseh and a white general are currently honored with stamps in Canada in tribute to Tecumseh’s saving Canada from a U.S. takeover? As all of us know, Marx and Engels were very excited to read the work of Lewis Henry Morgan, who was the first to write of the matrilineal societies and the extended families, based on the Haudenosaunee. But most do not know how he met Tonawanda Seneca Ely Parker when they both worked as bookshop clerks. Morgan learned everything he knew from Parker, who later was General Ulysses Grant’s right-hand man, the military secretary who took the surrender at Appomattox in the U. S. Civil War. In the 19th century, the U. S. declared it was “manifest destiny” to take the West. The Trail of Tears, the California Gold Rush, the Plains Wars — all these wars and atrocities lead up to the U. S. becoming imperialist when it finally took on Spain in 1898, seizing Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines. In 1891, Congress passed the Dawes Act to break up the communally owned lands of the reservations, and mandated individual ownership, in plots small enough to leave a lot of land open for the Sooners [settlers who seized “unassigned lands” in the Midwest], plots too small to be viable for communal use. Ironically, only the pueblos were protected, given legal status by the Spanish land grants. The 1898 Curtis Act dissolved tribal governments and courts. There are many undocumented Indigenous people, including full bloods in Oklahoma, who are unable to be members of their nations now as their ancestors had refused to get on the rolls. Later, their families did not get the allotments of land. The resistance continues During World War I, when Eugene Debs was in jail under the Palmer Raids, the biggest rebellion against the fratricidal imperialist war this side of the Atlantic was in Oklahoma. It was called the Green Corn Rebellion. In 1917, Indigenous, Black and white farmers and workers fought and were suppressed by the National Guard. Today, capitalist society portrays all Indigenous people as either completely exterminated — and their supposed attire free to be used as Halloween costumes — or only noted if a person fits the popular stereotype from Hollywood. There are so many local struggles we never hear about. There are 500 nations, each with its own history. This is still Indian land. The struggle continues. This is the significance of Day of Mourning. If you have never gone to Day of Mourning, get on the bus and come this year! You will hear from Leonard Peltier, who sends his support from prison in Florida. You will hear about struggles across Great Turtle Island and how Indigenous people view the current U. S. wars. We salute Osceola, leader of the Seminole nation, the Creek nation that adopted runaway slaves in Florida and who never surrendered. We look to the Green Corn Rebellion for our inspiration in the struggle. We salute the United American Indians of New England, whose slogan is: “We are not vanishing, we are not conquered, we are as strong as ever. ” Day of Mourning We are building for the 2012 Day of Mourning starting tonight, and this meeting will also be a fundraiser for the New York bus. I was able to get some books donated to raise money for the bus, from East Bay, California, poet John Curl, specifically, “Columbus in the Bay of Pigs,” about the nightmare for the Taíno people following the landing of the first conquistadors in what is now Cuba, based on the records kept of those expeditions. This pamphlet was published in 1992 in the San Francisco Bay Area in support of the struggle against the Columbus holiday. Please get a copy and make a donation toward the bus for Day of Mourning. My professor, Betty Parent, one of the first professors of Ethnic Studies in the U.S., and one of the founding faculty for San Francisco State American Indian Studies, traveled with other Alaskan Athabascan language speakers to Soviet Siberia. They found their “distant cousins” there, other Athabascan language speakers. All had materials, books, and college in their own language. We never had that here. Since the struggle for Ethnic Studies began, more authors are also in print today representing the oppressed nations, including Indigenous authors. We do know more now than we did 30 years ago about what happened. Also, there are many progressive scientists and social scientists, contemporaries of or following in the popular shoes of Carl Sagan and Howard Zinn, who have brought new information and resulting new analyses to public view. For instance, the Siriono people in Bolivia, mistakenly seen as paleolithic holdouts by Allen Holmberg in “Nomads of the Longbow,” were actually the remnants of their nation, who fled a 95-percent die-off from smallpox, flu and enforced enslavement to white cattle ranchers. That was the reason they were impoverished in the forest. We are dialectical materialists. We welcome the new information, and we make our own analyses as well. And we take it further.

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Classical Drama and Society SECTION 4: ROMAN DRAMA Chapter 14: Roman Comedy, Part 1 (Plautus) I. Introduction: Early Roman Literary Drama (derived from the Greeks) The turning point in Roman drama came in 240 BCE, when a Greek-speaking slave living in Rome, Livius Andronicus, translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. As it turned out, this was a watershed experience that inaugurated the Romans into a century-long fascination with Hellenic culture. In more ways than one, that moment in history constitutes the inception of Latin literature. But who was this Livius Andronicus and why were his adaptations of Greek literature so significant in the evolution of Roman civilization? A freed slave, we are told, Livius Andronicus served in the house of the Livii, a noble family of Rome, from whom he took his name. As such, he probably came to Rome when he was still a child and, no doubt, grew up bilingual, putting him in an excellent position to bridge Greek and Latin civilization. Besides The Odyssey, his adaptations included several Greek tragedies, mostly from originals by Sophocles and Euripides (Ajax, Andromeda, Danae, Tereus), and also comedies adapted from unknown sources (Gladiolus, Ludius). It's a fair question to ask why he did not write his own original works—indeed, the same could be posed for every Roman playwright whose works survive—and the answer must be that he considered it wasted effort to till a field when the world doled out free grain. In other words, why make a play when you can steal one? It was an age when copyright did not yet exist and it was considered neither illegal nor immoral, or even inadvisable, to adapt another's work. A more compelling question concerning the originality of Roman drama revolves around why the Roman public sought out Greek drama so avidly. The answer to that riddle lies, no doubt, in the nature of Greek drama itself. The complex but coherent plots of Greek tragedy and comedy had no parallel in this age. For much the same reason, the cinema of a few nations today commands most of the world's attention and, like Greek drama in antiquity, has attracted a large viewership outside its native land. But plays written for the amusement of Athenians did not necessarily carry over to other countries and cultures wholesale. Filled as Greek comedies were with local references and all sorts of Hellenisms, many of them proved incomprehensible, and occasionally reprehensible, to other peoples. Thus, these plays had to undergo more than translation to make them workable in other venues. They required adaptation, sometimes quite a bit, and in the process Roman playwrights re-conceived Greek drama, whether they intended to or not—odds are, they did—creating along the way some of the most effective multicultural efforts ever produced on the stage. That Roman Comedy has survived across time to our day is really no surprise, then. It was, by definition and from the very outset, a multicultural form of drama designed to blend different social contexts, in a way the Greek originals on which it was based were not. Thus, Plautus' work has appeared on the modern Broadway stage—for instance, A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, a musical adapted from his plays—where Menander's comedies for all their subtle virtues, brilliant characterization and prescient humanity never have. An increasing demand for drama after 240 BCE opened the way for new opportunities to present drama in Rome. Livius Andronicus had premiered his work at the central Roman festival, the Ludi Romani ("the Roman games"), but soon other festivals joined the theatre fray: the ludi Plebeii ("the Plebeians' games"), the ludi Apolinares (those in honor of Apollo), the ludi Megalenses (in honor of the Asian goddess Cybele), and others. The funerals of important Romans also offered opportunities for Rome's best families to make a show of public benefaction in the form of sponsoring free entertainment for all. Thus, many doors in and around the city opened to drama, encouraging prospective playwright-adapters. Among the first and most successful of those early Latin dramatists was Gnaeus Naevius whose career spanned several decades (ca. 235-204 BCE). A native Roman and a citizen, he adapted Greek tragedies, mostly Euripides' (Hector, Iphigenia, The Trojan Horse), and also comedies, especially Menander's (Kolax), blending with great skill Hellenic and native Italian elements to suit his audience's taste. If not the originator of Roman drama, he was, without doubt, its first major star. Naevius is also remembered for several bold developments, for instance, having his "Greek" characters make obvious references to current Italian life, even using the stage at times as a soapbox for airing the playwright's views on contemporary politics and society. Short of a parabasis—but not by much!—these moments earned him many important enemies and later sources recall his entanglements with powerful Romans, one of which encounters is said to have landed him in jail. Unfortunately, very little of his work survives so we cannot judge any of this for ourselves, but in terms of theatre history, it is clear that Naevius played an important role in accelerating the "Romanization" of Greek drama, a path that would eventually lead Roman literature to new and original heights. While others composed and produced comedies in this incipient phase of "literary drama"—among them the important early Roman poet Ennius—they all pale by comparison to the first truly great theatrical voice from Rome, Plautus, who is pre-eminent in many ways: he is the earliest Roman dramatist whose work survives whole; he is, in fact, the earliest Roman author in any genre who has a work preserved entire; and he is the first known professional playwright in Western Civilization. That is, he's the first theatre practitioner we know of whose next play and next meal were intimately connected, what would become an enduring tradition carried on by the likes of Shakespeare, Molière and O'Neill. His "professional" status shows in his sturdy, practicable comedy, drama which has clearly been tested and proven on the Roman stage and, from there, virtually every type of performance space imaginable. Indeed, it takes a real gift to make Plautus' comedy not work on the stage. II. Plautus (ca. 254-184 BCE) The full name, or so we are told, of the Roman playwright popularly known as Plautus is Titus Maccius Plautus, but there is much to make us suspect this was not his real name. For one, his own plays never refer to him by this three-word name, only parts of it: Titus Maccius, Maccus, or just Plautus. For another, this sort of tripartite name was a way of denoting Roman aristocrats, wherein each part of the name designated particular information—the first name (praenomen) was the name given a nobleman within his immediate family, the second name (nomen) denoted his gens or the larger family group he belonged to, and the third (cognomen) his clan or branch within that gens—but it is highly unlikely Plautus was born into the upper classes, at least, to judge from his dramas and what little we are told about his life. (note) Why, then, does he come down to us with such a noble-sounding name? The names themselves are odd—there is, for instance, no known Maccius clan of the Plautus family—instead, all three appear to be jokes mocking this complex, aristocratic nomenclature. To wit, Titus is slang in Latin for "penis," Maccius can be translated as "son of Maccus (the clown of Atellan farce)" and Plautus has a number of possible associations, most likely of which is "flat-footed" referring to a type of mime actor. Thus, the name says in Roman terms, "Titus belonging to the Flatfoot clan of the Maccus family" or, expressed in modern equivalents, "Dick Bozo Tapdancer." Thus, it seems safe to say this was not the playwright's birth-name but a stage name made up for comic purposes. And it conforms with other data ascertainable about Plautus from his drama: his taste for puns and broad comedy, his love of song and dance, his mockery of the upper classes and his strong ties to Atellan farce—he may even have been trained as a performer in that genre. Even if this humorous designation does not stem from Plautus himself, someone who knew his work intimately must have concocted it, which makes it as good as true. What little else we are told about Plautus' life is probably later fabrication. That he was supposedly a freed slave who lost several fortunes and had to work in the mills is, no doubt, biographical detail invented out of his own comedies where slaves often win and lose large sums of money and fear the threat of being sent to labor camps. This fiction closely resembles the false information we receive about Euripides—that his home life was as troubled as that of his characters—just another tabloid tale abstracted at some later date from the playwright's drama in the absence of valid historical data. About the only fact we can be certain of concerning Plautus as a person is that he was a highly successful, comic playwright in late third-century and early second-century Rome. And because, as noted above, Plautus is also the first Roman author belonging to any genre whose work survives entire, he is a valuable source of not just theatre history, but also the linguistic and cultural history of Rome. This sort of primogeniture, no doubt, played a large role in the later preservation of his comedy which grammarians valued for its use of peculiar and archaic Latin vocabulary, just as much as Roman audiences loved Plautus' rollicking, lively humor. In this respect as well as his earthy humor, he resembles Aristophanes more than Menander or any of the New Comedy poets whose plays he hammered into Latin. A. Plautine Comedy Plautus' comedies revolve mostly around daily life and average people, superficially the stuff of Greek New Comedy as opposed to the politically oriented Old Comedy of the Classical Age or the spoofs of tragedy popular in post-classical Middle Comedy. Plautus, however, generates humor in a different way from Menandrean comedy. Often extreme personality types set in outlandish situations, Plautine characters as a group recall Aristophanes' creations more than Menander's. Indeed, devious pimps, mercenary prostitutes, lustful young men, lustful old men, tortured mothers and torturing wives and, most of all, crafty slaves who delight in deception populate Plautus' plays. This feast of broad stock types is a far cry from Menander's subtly shaded characters, and in a way, Plautus's comedy rewinds the evolutionary clock and returns Menander's characters to the caricatures from which they arose. Lest, however, this be seen as some sort of step backwards toward more "primitive" comedy, he did it all to excellent effect. Plautus's sense of comic timing, exactly how far to take a joke or run a scene, is unsurpassed in Western drama, even by Shakespeare, all of which presupposes a shrewd understanding of his audience's needs, intelligence and the reason they are sitting in the theatre at all. As a result, Plautus' plays may not always be great art, nor do they strive at every moment to educate or improve the audience or advance the technology of theatre, but Plautus' comedies are invariably and without exception entertaining. To the extent, then, that effective comic drama entails art or education or technological advancement, Plautus can be all those things, so long as the final product works on stage and people will pay to see it. The fact is, his comedies continue to be performed with great success today—they were among the first ancient plays produced on stage in the Renaissance, the dawn of the modern age—and even such crusty curmudgeons as the Christian fathers saw worth in his drama. St. Jerome, in particular, seems to have been quite fond of Plautus, at least to judge from how often he quotes Plautine comedy, all of which attests to this playwright's astute and practical assessment of what a general viewership seeks from comic drama: wit and diversion, spiced with sage observation of human life. Indeed, what audiences really want is a paradox, a stark enigma Plautus understood as well as anyone ever has. While many viewers announce in public that they want to learn from plays or see goodness and morality triumph, all too often what they actually pay for are flashy, vapid, sensual, amoral spectacles. At the same time, if there is nothing to be gained intellectually or esthetically from a play, their attention quickly turns to fresher, slicker, more novel nonsense and they tend not to come back a second time or send those friends of theirs who own wallets. Plautus' drama shows that he understood this conundrum quite well, and his finest talent is, no doubt, his ability to walk the fine line between fine art and a fine time. This raises, then, a question that lies at the very heart of studies in Roman Comedy: how did Plautus create theatre so effective in such a place and time? While his cultural situation may look like a disadvantage—especially in comparison to the erudite and drama-mad society that for centuries packed the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens—there is much to say that Plautus' Rome was actually a fertile field for his art. The absence, for instance, of a commanding native tradition of theatre in late third-century Rome gave him carte blanche to create plays in a manner that suited his talent. He could follow his instincts and write with a freedom Menander never had nor even Euripides, a parrhesia ("freedom of speech") , in fact, no Greek playwright had ever had, at least not since Aeschylus' day. Furthermore, he had an eager audience ready to explore the stage and vast dramatic wealth to draw upon. Far from a poor "niche" for theatre, when seen this way, the Roman world of Plautus' day had everything going for it. He could pull what he wanted from Atellan farce, with which he was clearly familiar, to judge from his stage-name. What's more, he could siphon off ideas at will from the great, untapped reservoir of Greek comic drama. Thus, from one perspective, his plays represent an inspired blend of native Italian drama and Hellenistic comedy, the product of lathering a bawdy slapstick tone over the well-oiled machinery of Menandrean plots. To have seen and utilized the opportunities for making effective comedy in such a situation, that is surely Plautus' finest stroke of genius. B. The Question of Greek Originals Another question at the heart of Plautine studies is one that has predominated scholarship for well over a century. In what way and to what extent did Plautus adapt the works of Greek New Comedy, often called "Greek originals"? That is, in adapting Menander or any Greek playwright, how—and how much—did he change the language, tone and plot of his model? This question has long been a matter of speculation, because the loss of almost all Hellenistic drama has left theatre historians with no Greek originals by which to make comparison. While that situation has not changed much of late—even if we now have slightly better insight into the situation (see below, Bacchides)—a few things are clear about the changes he made as he re-sculpted Greek drama for the Roman theatre. For instance, Plautus' comedies are essentially "musicals" inasmuch as they have songs, discernable from the type of meter in which the text is disposed. That is, where Greek New Comedies typically quarantine lyric passages off in embolima (the musical interludes separating acts), Plautus' characters regularly burst into song—and perhaps also dance—during the course of the drama. As one scholar has noted, he turned "Menandrean Pygmalions into Roman My Fair Ladys." Thus, Plautus romanized his Greek originals to that extent at least. An important corollary here is the question of which Greek author's work underlies which of Plautus' plays. No doubt, the methods he used in adapting Greek originals were bound in some way to—or to some extent must have varied in accordance with—the mode and style of the particular model he was adapting. In other words, a quiet Menandrean original surely called for a different method of adaptation from that required by a Middle Comedy send-up of myth or a Diphilean "knockabout" farce. That makes knowing who the original authors are central in assessing Plautus' craftsmanship and place in theatre history. And we know who some of the authors of these "Greek originals" are. For just under half of Plautus' surviving plays, they are named in the Roman text or can be deduced from quotations outside the play, and as far as we can tell, all of them turn out to be playwrights of Greek New Comedy, none from the preceding periods of Middle or Old Comedy. (note) To be precise, Plautus based four of his plays on Menander (Aulularia, Bacchides, Cistellaria, Stichus), two on Diphilus (Casina, Rudens), and two on Philemon (Mercator, Trinummus). (note). Moreover, the different natures of these Romanized re-creations of Hellenistic drama confirm the supposition that Plautus did, indeed, have to modulate his method of adaptation to suit the varying styles of Greek comic playwrights. All in all, the situation recalls the works of Shakespeare who also "borrowed" plots from others' work, nor are the reasons that both he and his Roman forebears did not forge entirely new works hard to understand. For one, they could—the Greek plays were there for the taking—so, following in Livius Andronicus' footsteps, Plautus opted to adapt Greek originals rather than construct his own plays from whole cloth. Moreover, the long, complex but coherent plots of New Comedy, a much more difficult thing to fabricate than is often assumed, must have been quite attractive for both playwright and audience in the day. Some support for this notion is found in the term saturae ("medleys"; singular satura), which was used after the inception of the literary drama (ca. 240 BCE) to refer to the older, native Italian forms of entertainment, the Atellan farce and phlyax plays of the days before the invasion of Hellenic arts. The designation satura argues that the coherent but complex nature of the Greek plots struck later Romans as the major difference between Greek drama and the more episodic, indigenous Roman fare. That is, the scenes in Greek comedy were clearly "linked," while those of early Roman drama looked more like a "medley" of disjointed actions, à la Old Comedy perhaps. All in all, why Plautus adapted Greek comedy is really not the question but how, and about that little of substance can be said as long as we do not have access to the Greek originals that lie behind Plautus' plays. In other words, we can go only so far without having more Menander to compare to the Plautus we can see for ourselves and from that assess how the Roman used his Greek prototypes. Unfortunately, however, those Hellenistic originals have for the most part been lost—that is, until recently. To our great good luck, that situation changed for the better in the 1960's, when a Greek papyrus emerged from the sands of Egypt, badly damaged but with a hundred lines or so of Menander's Dis Exapaton ("The Double-Deceiver"), the Greek original of Plautus' Bacchides ("Two Bacchises"). While far from Menander's entire play, the Dis Exapaton fragment, as it has come to be called, still sheds new and important light on how Plautus adapted his Greek models. Indeed, for the first time in the modern age, we can survey several scenes and see what Plautus was looking at when he wrote the script of one of his plays. This allows us to measure to some extent whether or not his work was primarily Roman or Greek. And the answer to that question is . . . "Yes!" That is, "It is and it isn't." For one, Plautus is clearly following Menander's plot—if he were not, how could we even know that a patchy, gap-ridden text torn out of the middle of a Menandrean play constitutes a piece of the Greek original on which Plautus based his Bacchides?—but the Roman is also moving very freely about within the general parameters defined by Menander's comedy. For instance, at the same time that Plautus translates some of Menander's dialogue almost verbatim and even retains the Greek name of one of Menander's characters (Lydos/Lydus), he also removes a pair of scenes which do not interest him—two rather dry, father-son tête-à-têtes typical of Menander's ethical approach to comedy—in other words, not funny scenes and, more important to Plautus' way of thinking, not even potentially funny scenes. In sum, the Roman can be a literal translator or a free adapter, as suits his mood and mode and muse. Side-by-side analysis of comparable speeches from the plays shows well the nature of Plautus' adaptable style of adaptation. In the Greek play, a young man named Sostratos has uncovered what he thinks is a secret love affair between his girlfriend Chrysis and his best friend Moschos. In a fit of impulsive anger at their purported infidelity, he has returned to his father the money their slave Syros swindled from the old man so that Sostratos could give it to Chrysis. But the discovery of her purported liaison with Moschos has rattled Sostratos terribly and, not knowing whom to trust—or blame!—he soliloquizes: And now I think I'll go see my fine-and-noble Lover-girl, and happily, too, since I'm empty-handed, So let her sweet-talk me, in hopes of getting it—"On the spot!" That's what she's saying to herself—what I've got, the money: (imitating Chrysis) "I know he's got it, heavens above, such a gentleman! No one more so! He deserves me a girl like me." She's certainly shown herself, by her profit margin, That she's the sort I used to think she was. Poor fellow— Moschos, I mean. I feel sorry for him. And I'm mad at him, But he's not the one I blame for what's happened, This reckless behavior. She is, the come-on queen Of all time—that's her. Here is the equivalent soliloquy delivered by Sostratos' counterpart in Plautus who renamed the character Mnesilochus. The situation in the Roman play is also slightly different. It comes at a point where Mnesilochus has not yet given the money swindled by his slave Chrysalus, the counterpart of Menander's Syros, back to his father. It is quite unclear which of them I should believe is Unfriendlier, my friend or my girlfriend Bacchis. She chose him over me? Let her have him. Perfect! Well, she did it, by god, and I'll tell you who'll pay for it, too—me! (note) For, as any god in heaven is my witness, There'll never be another woman that I—love as much as her. That's right. I'll show her! She won't say she got the last laugh on me! I'll go home right now and give her a piece of my—father's property. Yes, that's what I'll give her. My revenge will be so complete. I'll tell you who will end up begging—my father, that's who! But am I really thinking in my right mind, I who go on this way about what's going to happen here? I'm in love, god knows, I know, who doesn't know? But before she ever gets a feather richer At my expense—a fiber of a feather filament!— I'd rather go begging from beggars! She won't laugh at me, by god, not in this life. I've decided to give my father back the money, all of it. So, she can coax and wheedle me empty-handed, broke, When it makes no difference what she says, Like talking tales to a dead man at his tomb. In general, the Dis Exapaton fragment shows what many had long suspected, that Plautus' comedies made for livelier, more humorous and robust comic drama than their Greek models, especially Menander's. At the same time, however, the Plautine situation is less realistic than its parallel Menandrean milieu, with characters more exaggerated in their responses to the stage action and everything just generally less "logical." Clearly, making each individual moment in the play work as comedy mattered more to the Roman than the accumulation of situations carefully laid out across the smooth convolutions of a well-crafted plot, Menander's most outstanding characteristic as a playwright. All in all, this is exactly what one would expect of Plautus, a translator-cum-adapter whose principal concern is the word and the joke, and who never devised nor took pride in the superstructure of a play. But it's important to stress that this doesn't make Plautus' efforts misguided or in any way a lesser art than Menander's, the way scholars often saw the situation a century or so ago. The two playwrights simply wrote from different outlooks on life, for different types of theatre and, most important, to a different community of viewers. Neither is intrinsically better than the other; rather, both are well-suited to their own worlds. And it is to our great fortune that both are at work in Roman Comedy, because with Menander's genius at plot and character development informing Plautus' mastery of comic timing and language, the two amount to one supreme dramatist, the Gilbert-and-Sullivan of antiquity and, without doubt, one of the best and most intriguing pair of stage collaborators never to have met! But unlike a Rodgers and Hammerstein, if Plautus' and Menander's lives had not been separated by a century, it seems improbable they would ever have actually collaborated! With styles so different, born of worlds so far apart, it is unlikely they could have suffered each other's presence long enough to finish one scene together, much less an entire play. Yet rising above their personal differences and cultural discrepancies, their collective effort, though it comes down to us under only Plautus' name, is, in fact, a bridge between civilizations that represents the early stages of an even grander partnership, Greco-Roman culture. The multiculturalism inherent in their drama is a model for the excellence that this sort of international synergy can produce. |Terms, Places, People and Things to Know Livius Andronicus (240 BCE) Dis Exapaton (Sostratos) This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.

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“Writing began around 3200 b.c. “The earliest uses of writing were list-making and account-keeping. In 450 b.c., Bacchylides wrote, "One author pilfers the best of another and calls it tradition." In the second century b.c., Terence said, "There's nothing to say that hasn't been said before." “Storytelling can be traced back to Hindu sacred writings, known as the Vedas, from around 1400 b.c. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, c. 800 b.c., are epics told in verse, not novels, but nonetheless stories. “The aphorism is one of the earliest literary formsthe residue of complex thoughts filtered down to a single metaphor. By the second millennium b.c., in Sumer, aphorisms appeared together in anthologies, collections of sayings that were copied for noblemen, priests, and kings. These lists were then catalogued by theme: "Honesty," "Friendship," "Death." When read together, these collections of sayings could be said to make a general argument on their common themes, or at least shed some light somewhere, or maybe simply obsess about a topic until a little dent has been made in the huge idea they all pondered. "Love." Via editing and collage, the form germinated into longer, more complex, more sustained, and more sophisticated essayings. The Hebrew wisdom of Ecclesiastes is essentially a collection of aphorisms, as are Confucius's religious musings and Heraclitus's fragments. These extended aphorisms eventually crossed the border into essay: the diaries of Sei Shônagon, Anne Bradstreet's letters, Kafka's notebooks, Pound's criticism. The earliest manuscript of the Old Testament dates to 150 b.c. Parts of the Bible incorporate "real things" into the text. The laws that have come to make up Mosaic Law, for instance, were undoubtedly real laws before they became canonical. There are bits of song and folk poetry scattered throughout the Old Testament that seem to have had a life independent of scripture. The Samson stories were probably folktales that the Judges storyteller worked into his thesis. It is out of the madness of God, in the Old Testament, that there emerges what we, now, would recognize as the "real;" his perceived insanity is its very precondition. “The New Testament renders, sometimes artistically and often from competing points of view, events that supposedly really happened. The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John were written 40 to 110 years after the events in question. In his preface to The History of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides acknowledges that he "found it impossible to remember the exact wording of speeches. Hence I have made each orator speak as, in my opinion, he would have done in the circumstances, but keeping as close as I could to the train of thought that guided his actual speech." “Plutarch sometimes bulleted his essays with as many as a hundred numbered sections, eschewing narrative completely and simply listing. His essay "Sayings by Spartan Women" itemizes quotations from unknown Spartan mothers, wives, daughters, and widows on a variety of topics without any transitional exposition or interpretation, or any suggestion whatsoever as to how we might read the text or even, for that matter, why. “In antiquity, the most common Latin term for the essay was experior, meaning "to try, test, experience, prove." The etymology of fiction is from fingere (participle fictum), meaning "to shape, fashion, form, or mold." Any verbal account is a fashioning and shaping of events. “Ancient novels were either fantastic—Lucian's The Golden Ass tells of a man who turns into a donkey and back into a man—or implausible romantic adventures, such as Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe. “St. Augustine's Confessions, written in the fourth century, tells his life through the prism of his newfound faith, reflecting on his sins, begging forgiveness from God. For centuries, the memoir was, by definition, apologia pro vita sua: prayerful entreaty and inventory of sins. (During the Renaissance, a hybrid memoir—with a more nuanced relation to the divine—emerged: Montaigne's Essays, Pascal's Pensées, Rousseau's Confessions. Memoir wasn't anymore necessarily what one should know but what one could know. With the posthumous publication in 1908 of Nietzsche's Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is, God was gone for good.) “The Tale of Genji: an eleventh-century Japanese text about court life. “In the thirteenth century, French troubadours wrote prose poems about thwarted love. “In seventeenth-century France, Madeleine de Scudéry (in Artamène) and Madame de La Fayette (in La Princesse de Clèves) wrote about the romantic intrigues of aristocrats. “Before the Industrial Revolution, culture was mostly local; niches were geographic. The economy was agrarian, which distributed populations as broadly as the land. Distance divided people, giving rise to regional accents, and the lack of rapid transportation limited the mixing of cultures and the propagation of ideas and trends. There was a reason the church was the main cultural unifier in Western Europe: it had the best distribution network and the most mass-produced item—the Bible. “When they were published, the books that now form the canon of Western literature (the Iliad, the Bible) were understood to be true accounts of actual events. In 1572, when Montaigne set himself the task of naming the "new" brand of writing he was doing in his journals—which later became his books—he came upon the Middle French word essai, meaning "trial," "attempt," "experiment." (All of life is an experiment. I love fools' experiments; I'm always making them.) Many of the most important writers in the Renaissance—Montaigne; Francis Bacon, who imported the essay into English; John Donne, whose sermons mattered much more than his poems—were writers of nonfiction. So secure was the preference for truth that Sir Philip Sidney had to fight, in Defence of Poesie (published after his death in 1595), for the right to "lie" in literature at all. “In his retirement, walking the streets of Bordeaux, Montaigne wore a pewter medallion inscribed with the words Que sais-je? ("What do I know?")—thereby forming and backforming a tradition: Lucretius to La Rochefoucauld to Cioran. “Once upon a time, history concerned itself only with what it considered important: the contrivers of significant events, on the one hand, and the forces that such happenings enlisted or expressed, on the other. Historians had difficulty deciding whether history was the result of the remarkable actions of remarkable men or the significant consequences of powerful forces, of climate, custom, and economic consequence, or of social structures, diet, geography, but whatever was the boss, the boss was big, massive, all-powerful, and hogged the center of the stage; however, as machines began to replicate objects, little people began to multiply faster than wars or famines could reduce their numbers, democracy arrived to flatter the multitude and tell them they ruled, commerce flourished, sales grew, money became the risen god, numbers replaced significant individuals, the trivial assumed the throne, and history looked about for gossip, not for laws, preferring lies about secret lives to the intentions of fate. As these changes took place, especially in the eighteenth century, the novel arrived to amuse mainly ladies of the middle and upper classes and provide them a sense of importance: their manners, their concerns, their daily rounds, their aspirations, their dreams of romance. The novel feasted on the unimportant, mimicking reality. Moll Flanders and Clarissa Harlowe replaced Medea and Antigone. Instead of actual adventures, made-up ones were fashionable; instead of perilous voyages, Crusoe carried us through his days; instead of biographies of ministers and lords, we got bundles of fake letters recounting seductions and betrayals: the extraordinary drama of lied-about ordinary life. Historians soon had at hand all the devices of exploitation. Amusing anecdote, salacious gossip would now fill their pages, too. History was human, personal, full of concrete detail, and had all the suspense of a magazine serial. The techniques of fiction infected history; the materials of history were fed the novelist's greed. Nowhere was this blended better than in autobiography. The novel sprang from the letter, the diary, the report of a journey; it felt itself alive in the form of every record of private life. Subjectivity was soon everybody's subject. The origin of the novel lies in its pretense of actuality. Early novelists felt the need to foreground their work with a false realistic front. Defoe tried to pass off Journal of a Plague Year as an actual journal. Fielding presented Jonathan Wild as a "real" account. As the novel evolved, it left these techniques behind. “The word novel, when it entered the languages of Europe, had the vaguest of meanings; it meant the form of writing that was formless, that had no rules, that made up its own rules as it went along. “In the eighteenth century, Defoe, Richardson, and Fielding overthrew the aristocratic romance by writing fiction about a thief, a bed-hopper, and a hypocrite—novels featuring verisimilitude, the unfolding of individual experience over time, causality, and character development. “As recently as the late eighteenth century, landscape paintings were commonly thought of as a species of journalism. Real art meant pictures of allegorical or biblical subjects. A landscape was a mere record or report. As such, it couldn't be judged for its imaginative vision, its capacity to create and embody a world of complex meanings; instead, it was measured on the rack of its "accuracy," its dumb fidelity to the geography on which it was based. Which was ridiculous, as Turner proved, and as nineteenth-century French painting went on to vindicate: realist painting focused on landscapes and "real" people rather than royalty. “The novel has always been a mixed form; that's why it was called novel in the first place. A great deal of realistic documentary, some history, some topographical writing, some barely disguised autobiography have always been part of the novel, from Defoe through Flaubert and Dickens. It was Henry James (especially in his correspondence with H. G. Wells) who tried to assert that the novel, as an "art form," must be the work of the imagination alone, and who was responsible for much of the modernist purifying of the novel's mongrel tradition. I see writers like Naipaul and Sebald making a necessary postmodernist return to the roots of the novel as an essentially Creole form, in which "nonfiction" material is ordered, shaped, and imagined as "fiction." Books like these restore the novelty of the novel, with its ambiguous straddling of verifiable and imaginary facts, and restore the sense of readerly danger that one enjoys in reading Moll Flanders or Clarissa or Tom Jones or Vanity Fair—that tightrope walk along the margin between the newspaper report and the poetic vision. Some Graham Greene novel has the disclaimer, "This is a work of fiction. No person in it bears any resemblance to any actual person living or dead, etc., etc. London does not exist." “When Thomas De Quincey wrote Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, he led his readers to believe that his addiction was behind him; he was taking opium when he wrote the book and continued to take it for the next thirty years. Edmund Gosse's Father and Son, written when Gosse was fifty-seven, recounts conversations that purportedly took place when he was eight; people who had known the Gosses protested that Edmund made up these conversations, which of course he had. Orwell's "Such, Such Were the Joys" was denounced for its inaccuracies by people who had been his classmates. “In the early nineteenth century, modern industry and the growth of the railroad system led to a wave of urbanization and the rise of Europe's great cities. These new hubs of commerce and transportation mixed people as never before, creating a powerful engine of new culture. The industrial age brought technologies of mass production. Suddenly, the cost of duplication was lower than the cost of appropriation. It was now cheaper to print thousands of exact copies of a manuscript than to alter one by hand. Copy makers could profit more than creators, which led to the establishment of copyright, bestowing upon the creator of a work a temporary monopoly over any copies, encouraging artists and authors to create more works that could be cheaply copied. Authors and publishers, including eventually publishers of music and film, relied on cheap, mass-produced copies protected from counterfeits and pirates by a strong law based on the dominance of copies and on a public educated to respect the sanctity of a copy. This model produced, in the twentieth century, the greatest flowering of human achievement the world had ever seen. Protected physical copies enabled millions of people to earn a living directly from the sale of their art to the audience. “In 1830, Emerson was frustrated with sermons, with their "cold, mechanical preparations for a delivery most decorous—fine things, pretty things, wise things—but no arrows, no axes, no nectar, no growling." He wanted to find what he called "a new literature." A German con artist, Johann Maelzel, visited America with a "panharmonicon," an organ without keys. He would crank its heavy silver lever three times and step off to the side, and the machine would spit out an entire orchestra's worth of sound: flutes, drums, trumpets, cymbals, trombones, a triangle, clarinets, violins. After seeing Maelzel's machine perform, Emerson called the new literature he'd been looking for "a panharmonicon. Here everything is admissible—philosophy, ethics, divinity, criticism, poetry, humor, fun, mimicry, anecdote, jokes, ventriloquism—all the breadth and versatility of the most liberal conversation, highest and lowest personal topics: all are permitted, and all may be combined into one speech." “In the first half of the nineteenth century, which remains for many a paradise lost of the novel, certain important certainties were in circulation: in particular the confidence in a logic of things that was just and universal. All the technical elements of narrative—the systematic use of the past tense and the third person, the unconditional adoption of chronological development, linear plots, the regular trajectory of the passions, the impulse of each episode toward a conclusion, etc.—tended to impose the image of a stable, coherent, continuous, unequivocal, entirely decipherable universe. To have a name was important, all the more so for being the weapon in a hand-to-hand struggle, the hope of a success, the exercise of a domination. It was something to have a face in a universe in which personality represented both the means and the end of all exploration. The novel of characters, though, belongs entirely to the past; it describes a period: the apogee of the individual. The world's destiny has ceased, for us, to be identified with the rise or fall of certain men, of certain families. The world itself is no longer our private property, hereditary and convertible into cash. Two hundred years later, the whole system is no more than a memory; it's to that memory, to the dead system, that some seek with all their might to keep the novel fettered. “"The author has not given his effort here the benefit of knowing whether it is history, autobiography, gazetteer, or fantasy," said the New York Globe in 1851 about Moby-Dick. “In 1859, Darwin's Origin of Species, which sold out the first day it was published, threatened to undermine the Bible's legitimacy, to explain the unexplainable. The Dewey decimal system was invented in 1876, although adopted slowly at first. A. E. Houseman said, "The aim of science is the discovery of truth, while the aim of literature is the production of pleasure." Knowledge was exciting, but it threatened to quash imagination and mythology. In 1910, the General Convention of the Presbyterian Church adopted the Five Fundamentals, a doctrine of five principles underlying Christian faith, a list of dogmas requiring of the faithful adherence to the inerrancy and literal truth of scripture. If we must be governed by the two-dimensional world of fact/fiction, then steps must be taken to ensure that our sacred texts land on the side of fact, that scripture not end up in the fictional cul-de-sac. We must be able to believe. “In the second half of the nineteenth century, several technologies emerged. Commercial printing technology dramatically improved, the new "wet plate" technique made photography popular, and Edison invented the phonograph. The first great wave of popular culture included newspapers, magazines, novels, printed sheet music, records, children's books. Not only did authors and artists benefit from this model but the audience did, too: for the first time, tens of millions of ordinary people were able to come in regular contact with a great work. In Mozart's day, few people heard one of his symphonies more than once; with the advent of cheap audio recordings, a barber in Java could listen to them all day long. At the end of the nineteenth century, the moving picture gave actors a way to reach a much wider audience, effectively linking people across time and space, synchronizing society. For the first time, not only did your neighbors read the same news you read in the morning, and know the same music and movies, but people across the country did, too. Broadcast media—first radio, then television—homogenized culture even more. TV defined the mainstream. The power of electromagnetic waves is that they spread in all directions, essentially for free. “Plot itself ceased to constitute the armature of narrative. The demands of the anecdote were doubtless less constraining for Proust than for Flaubert, for Faulkner than for Proust, for Beckett than for Faulkner. To tell a story became strictly impossible. The books of Proust and Faulkner are crammed with stories, but in the former, they dissolve in order to be recomposed to the advantage of a mental architecture of time, whereas in the latter, the development of themes and their many associations overwhelms all chronology to the point of seeming to bury again in the course of the novel what the narrative has just revealed. Even in Beckett, there's no lack of events, but they're constantly in the process of contesting themselves: the same sentence may contain an observation and its immediate negation. It's now not the anecdote that's lacking—only its character of certainty, its tranquility, its innocence. “Collage, the art of reassembling fragments of preexisting images in such a way as to form a new image, was the most important innovation in the art of the twentieth century.

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| This unit will explain what a National Park is—how did it get to be one—and just where are they located, so that the children will have an historical starting point. Many facets of education can be interwoven into a study of National Parks. The skills of inferencing, sequencing and fact-finding would be utilized in the reading of the historical accounts of the first man to explore the parks. Map skills would definitely be an outcome of the unit. Children could do location lessons—plotting the locales of various park sites, using Latitude and Longitude. Math skills also could be incorporated in the unit with lessons on mileage, sizes of park areas, and a Time Line of historical happenings. This unit would be an on-going one through the school year as each different area of the United States is introduced and studied. There are not many books written about National Parks for children, so a great asset to teaching this unit will be Visual Aids. The beauty of the Parks needs to be seen. As Steward Udall, the former Secretary of Interior of the United States has written, “Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Park are in a special sense American Heartlands. They reveal the full majesty and beauty of our country, the scope and reach of it, the awesome forces that have shaped it . . . Amid these splendid park scapes we can fill our Lungs and our Eyes and our Hearts.” Inner city children need to see and learn about this beautiful aspect of our country, and what better way than through videos and picture books? Reader’s Digest has made a set of 3 videos, Yellowstone, Yosemite, and The Grand Canyon, which would be a wonderful way to introduce children to the vastness and beauty of these three historical areas. The National Park Service itself prints handbooks about the natural and historical places which they administer. This series would be a useful teaching tool, as each one has an historical perspective and is filled with drawings and photographs. An important concept to be included in these lessons is the “idea” behind the formation of national parks—that these areas are set aside for the benefit and enjoyment of “all” people. Reading the accounts of the beginnings of the national parks includes a wealth of reading skills, such as cause and effect, gleaning main ideas, and using deductive skills such as inferencing. Learning the past history will give the children an idea of how important the present and future of national parks is to be maintained. The knowledge that those first trappers who set eyes on the wonders of the geysers and the vastness of the wilderness could have chosen to go the “expansion and development” route of the west traveling pioneers of 1800’s is a lesson children must learn. They will see that these men devised the creative idea of “no private ownership”—that these beautiful places should be protected in their natural states for the use and enjoyment of all people and generations to come. The Historical Record will show that later this idea was introduced by William Clagett, Congressman from Montana, in a bill which passed January 30, 1872; and on March 1st, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed it, so Yellowstone National Park became the first National Park in our Nation—and first in the world! Although there are not many books for children to read about the history of National Parks, one very good one has been published by the National Historical Society—the American History—Illustrated Series, which children would enjoy. In June, 1976, an article titled The Country Just Above Hell was written by Peggy Robbins in which she relates the history of Yellowstone from the Indians and the first writer, a fur trader and clerk for The American Fur Company, named Warren Angus Ferris, to President Theodore Roosevelt who toured Yellowstone on horseback in 1903. Her article chronicles the “life of Yellowstone” from the Indian tribes who, she informs, gave this name to Yellowstone after they heard of the white man’s religion; they surmised this must be “just above Hell”. She traces the exploration of the park through the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1806 when they first heard of “a great lake and other wonders”. Children would be enthralled by the adventures of John Colter, the first known white man to have entered Yellowstone. A very stimulating creative writing lesson could be gleaned from this story. The children could be asked to write about the feelings they might have had if they had accompanied Colter on his expedition. Another visitor and great yarn spinner about Yellowstone was Jim Bridger, who between 1822 and the 1840’s became the best known hunter and guide in the West. Children would enjoy reading about his travels and the fact that he was only 18 when he first began hunting and trapping. He learned to speak 11 Indian languages and traveled for 3 years in Yellowstone country before returning to St. Louis to relate his adventures. His tales about these marvelous wonders were called “too absurd to print”. An editorial branded his stories as “lies”. In 1859, he retuned to guide a small military expedition, under the command of Captain William Raynolds, to explore Yellowstone but was held back by an extremely heavy early snow. Finally, in 1869, three Montana men—David Folsom, Charles Cook, and William Peterson—decided to explore Yellowstone themselves. This 3-man exploring party made the first successful exploration of the area. They returned safely to Montana with accounts of the beautiful places they had been. Because of these written accounts, Jim Badger’s stories were listened to a little more. Another group explored the area in 1870—a military expedition of Washburn, Langford and Doane. They first charted and named Old Faithful. It so fascinated the members of the expedition that they camped nearby and marveled at it for an entire day. It was in this party that a Judge, Cornelius Hedges, first insisted that the Yellowstone region should not be opened to private ownership but should be “protected” in its natural state by the government so that all people could enjoy its wonders. The accounts and sketches of the members of this expedition brought forth the first known authentic map of Yellowstone Lake. These accounts stirred great interest in this unique part of America. After learning these facts, another useful teaching device is the use of a Time Line. Children can get an idea of the time it had taken for the exploration and establishment of the parks through to the laws enacted to protect them. Because this idea of a national preserve was totally new—no one had any experience in the administration and development of such a property, in August of 1886 it came under the care of the U.S. Army and was there for 30 years. The National Park Service was created in 1916, and then profession is took over the maintenance and care of the Parks. Before this, no real system existed for the governance of these areas; now this agency became the primary Federal entity whose aim would be to preserve these significant natural and cultural resources. Because each of the national parks has its own history, many social studies lessons could include their study. The Yellowstone Act (1872), which had set aside two million (2,000,000) acres of public land in Wyoming and Montana from settlement, occupancy, or sale and declared them as public grounds for the benefit and enjoyment of the people, would be a good starting point for children. They could then trace the expansion of this idea that land in its “natural condition” was worth preserving and follow the growth of the National Parks system in the U.S. Another aspect to be shown is that, along with the idea of “preserving” naturally followed the concern for “conserving”. This conservation attitude is also an important one for children to realize and to be made aware of its continuing growth as people changed their attitudes toward nature. Roderick Nash, author of Wilderness and the American Mind, points out “that wilderness was the basic ingredient of American civilization.” He adds that a large portion of the energies of early civilizations was directed at defeating the wilderness in nature and controlling it in human nature. But he contends that, as America matured, thoughts about the environment changed. Americans began to see wilderness as an asset rather than a liability. He surmised “Civilization created wilderness.” Nash reminds us that to the Indian nomadic hunter-gatherers like the Sioux, “it made no sense to distinguish wilderness from civilization.” The Pioneers obsession was to clear the land and bring light into darkness—the early pioneer did not feel at home in the wilderness. Their attitudes were represented by the many military terms they used in describing their condition of “conquering”, vanquishing, or “struggling” with Nature to convert it into a prosperous civilization. Along with the lessons taught about the Pilgrims and the settling of America, it could be shown that the Pilgrims perceived the idea of wilderness as evil and fearsome. Yet they celebrated westward expansion as one of their great achievements and an evidence of God’s blessing that wild country should become fruitful and civilized. The old colonial and pioneering emphasis on exploitation of the resources was giving way to an awareness of the beauty and wonder of Nature. Roderick Nash wrote in The American Invention of National Parks of four principal factors that helped bring about these changing viewpoints: “our unique experience with nature on the American continent, our democratic ideals, our vast public domain, and our affluent society.” Fortunately, the ideas and Opinions of the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition of 1870, advocating that there be no private ownership of that region, won political support and were written into law. These ideals helped to support the establishment of the National Park Service which today includes the consolidation of national parks, national monuments, historical sites, national military parks, eleven national cemeteries and thirty “affiliated areas”— properties that receive technical or financial assistance according to the legislative or cooperative agreements defining their relationship with the Service. These “affiliated areas” include such places as the Boston African American National Historical Site, Massachusetts; The Mormon Pioneer Historical Trail, Illinois to Utah; and the Ice Age National Scientific Reserve in Wisconsin. The next great scenic national parks after Yellowstone—Sequoia, General Grant and Yosemite, all in California, were not established until 1890. Then in the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, Congress separated the idea of forest conservation from the national park idea. By 1916, the National Park Service had fourteen national parks comprising 4,750,000 acres, and 159 national forests containing more than 150,000,000 acres. As the unit progresses to the study of Yosemite, it will expose children to the man who has been called the “father” of National Parks, John Muir. He believed from his first sight of it that Yosemite was one of the most important places on Earth. This fact becomes evident while reading the book he wrote about it, The Yosemite, published by the Sierra Club, which he founded in 1892 to begin his legislative activities to save the lands with which he had fallen in love. This book, I feel, could be used with fifth graders along with teacher guidance and insights. A Reading Social Studies lesson could instigate discussions and inferences by posing questions to the students such as: “What do you think John Muir felt when he first came to Yosemite?”; “How did these feelings help him to rise to preservative actions?”; and/or “What did you feel as you read a specific section?”. Muir’s descriptions of his adventures in the years he spent traveling the Yosemite Valley would be an exciting introduction to use with children. The essays of the Approach To The Valley are so clearly and graphically written that you feel you are entering it with him. His adventures in the snow and the earthquakes would be most interesting to young readers. Some of the essays could be excerpted and discussed with the class and used as a writing lesson to stimulate thoughts about national parks and the ideas of preservation and conservation. Along with John Muir, an important man to consider in the history of parks is Frederick Law Olmsted, who, as David Brower contends, in the forward to The Yosemite, should be called “Grandfather of National Parks.” Olmstead had worked to establish New York’s Central Park and was named Superintendent of Sierra mining estates a year after Yosemite was set aside. He proposed the rights for landscape in the National Park idea. He felt the first requirement is to preserve the natural scenery and restrict within the narrowest limits the necessary accommodation of visitors. Olmstead’s son, Frederick Law Jr., also a noted landscape architect, agreed with his father’s visions and later helped to see them embodied in the writing of the National Park Act of 1916. This Act provided “that the national beauty and wildlife in the national parks were to be used and enjoyed by the public by such means as would leave the landscape unimpaired.” Well into the 20th century, national parks emphasized only the high, rugged, spectacular landforms of the West, and the prevailing feeling was that national parks mist begin with worthless land and remain worthless to survive. According to Barry Macintosh Bureau Historian of the N.P.S., over the years guidelines have been set and refined for the evaluation of national parks. Currently the Park Service maintains Historical Parks should be associated with persons, events or themes of national importance; should encompass structures or features of great intrinsic or representational value; or should contain archeological resources of major scientific consequence. A natural park might be an outstanding or rare example of geologic landform or biotic area, a place of exceptional ecological or geological diversity; a site with a concentrated population of rare plant or animal species or unusually abundant fossil deposits, or an outstandingly scenic area. Mackintosh asserts that a few places of questionable national significance have been admitted over the years, but as Congress makes the final decisions after hearing recommendations, the wonder is not that the System has fallen short of its ideals, but that it has come so close! In it are a remarkable representation of the nation’s greatest natural and historic places and recreational areas of outstanding attraction. The reorganization of the National Park System in 1933 began with the Act of Congress, approved by President Herbert Hoover and used later by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to consolidate all national parks, monuments, cemeteries, and murials under the National Park Service administration. This had major consequences as it charted the assumption of what the National Park System should contain by adding new kinds of areas not previously considered parks or monuments. It increased the System’s holdings by adding a dozen natural areas in 10 western states and nearly 50 historical areas in 7 eastern states and the District of Columbia. These new historical areas introduced a degree of diversity that had not existed before and brought out the point that now with parks in all sections of the country, the System was truly “national”. An important component of this unit would be field trips. Children need to visit and see first hand some of the aspects of a National Park area. One area trip could be to the New Haven Green, which has always been the center of the city. Photographs of earlier days could be shown to introduce the pupils to the early uses of the Green and to the reasons why the city fathers in the early part of the 20th century wanted to include it in their Civic Improvement Plan. A plan was commissioned by the committee from Frederick Law Olmsted, the noted Landscape Architect, who recommended that the Green be restored to its former simple rows of trees and that new walkways be formed. He also suggested adopting the policy of excluding forever all structures from the Green except a well-designed monument or music stand. This, he noted, would keep the Green a park to be enjoyed by all people in the city and would ensure that the city’s historic center would not be defaced. A field trip that would delight children and show them the difference between a National Park site and an Historical Site would be to the Salem Maritime National Site. Here students would see the remnants of a seaport which was important during the colonial era. They could visit the Customs House and realize the importance of trade and the taxes to the settlers of the town. They could visit the bonded warehouse and learn how weights and measures were used by the sea captains, and see the way cargoes were measured and stored. If time allowed, another Massachusetts Historical Site, the Saugus Iron Works, could also be visited. This site consists of buildings and land of the Saugus Iron Works founded in 1647. The industrial buildings are historically accurate reproductions and Rangers are there to conduct a tour. The children would enjoy the workings of the water wheels and the Blacksmith’ s demonstration of nail making. A filmstrip is shown which would be very informative to young children about the early history of the Iron Works. Both these trips would make history come alive for students. Although the National Park System is famous for its large natural resource-based places such as the Grand Canyon, there are national park areas in almost every part of the country. These include historical sites and parks dedicated to Native American Indian culture, and military history. These parks of wonder, beauty and historical significance certainly belong in our school systems as part of the curriculum. They should be reminders to future generations of the importance of the ideals behind their beginnings and the need for concern about their future. Children need to know somewhere wherever you travel in the United States there is a park to offer the chance to experience America’s history and the wonders of nature—and, as Robin Winks, Professor of History at Yale University, has stated, ”The National Park can aptly be called ‘the World’s Greatest University’ ”. - 1806—Lewis & Clark Expedition - 1807—John Colter, earliest known white trapper - ____—Epic Journey - 1808—Winter—called “Colter’s Hell” - 1822—Jim Badger (3 years trapper) - 1834—Warren Angus Ferris (American Fur Co.) - ____wrote about Firehold Geyser Basin - 1849—Parks placed under authority of Department of the Interior - 1859—Capt. William Raynolds - ____Military Expedition - 1860’s—Folsom, Cook, and Peterson - ____Famous Expedition - 1864—Yosemite Valley explored - ____—U.S. Senator John Conness - 1864—June 30, President Lincoln signed Bill - 1870—Washburn, Langford—Doane—expedition - ____First charted and named “Old Faithful” - ____Judge Cornelius Hedges —“idea” of ‘a place set apart for all’ - 1871—Congressmen William Clagett from Montana introduced National Park Act - 1872—Passed Senate - ____March 1, President U. S. Grant signed Yellowstone National Park Bill - 1890—Sequoia National Park, Yosemite, and General Grant - ____Rock Creek Park authorized (D.C.) - 1916—August 25, President Woodrow Wilson created National Park Service in Dept. of Interior Reading a Time Line - 1. A Time Line can be helpful in understanding when important things happened; - 2. A Time Line shows how one happening may lead to another; - 3. A Time Line gives a sense of the order in which things took place. Procedures Distribute mimeoed Time Line and mimeoed questions: Use Tine Line to answer these questions. - 1. What does this Time Line show? - 2. What happened in 1806? - 3. In what year was Capt. Raynolds Expedition? - 4. What was important in 1872? - 5. How many years before parks came under authority of Dept. of Interior? - 6. What year was important for Yosemite? Materials Mimeoed Time Line and Questions Yosemite National Park - 1. To acquaint student with location and beauty of Yosemite; - 2. To foster discussion of what is a national park; - 3. To introduce students to John Muir’s book, The Yosemite. Procedures Introduce book to students. Have them read chapter excerpts. Discuss children’s reactions to his writings. Have students write observations gained from readings. Show video of Yosemite. Questions for Discussion - 1. Who was John Muir? - 2. Why did he go to California? - 3. What were some of his feelings about Yosemite Valley? - 4. Do you think having national parks is a good idea? Why? - 1. Book The Yosemite—John Muir - 2. Video of Yosemite National Park - 3. Map of United States Map Lesson on National Park Sites Objectives Students will be able to: - 1. Identify sites of National Parks in contiguous 48 states; - 2. Locate Yellowstone, Grand Canyon, and Yosemite by states; - 3. Observe numbers of parks in National Park System; - 4. Map an imaginary trip to a park site from home in Connecticut. Procedures Pass out mimeoed map of National Park System. - A. Ask pupils to observe locations of various parks by name and to identify the states in which they are found. - B. Questions to be asked: - ____1. Can you estimate number of sites? - ____2. Locate Petrified Forest. - ____(Why is this included in Park System?) - 3. Locate Yellowstone, Grand Canyon, and Yosemite. - ____Name the states in which they are found. - 4. Map out your own trip to a National Park. Materials Mimeoed maps of National Park Service The National Park System Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac. Oxford University Press, New York, 1949. Muir, John. The Yosemite. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, Reprint 1914. Nash, Roderick. Wilderness and the American Mind. 3rd Edition, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1973. Runte, Alfred. National Parks, The American Experience. 2nd Edition, Univ. of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1979. Shullery, Paul. Mountain Time. S & S Books, Yellowstone, 1984. Tejada-Flores. Yellowstone To Yosemite. Western Eye Press, Colorado, 1988. - Booklets: KC Publications Picture Booklets - ____American History Illustrated Series - ____June, 1976 - ____The National Park Service - ____Interpretive Handbooks: - 1. Shaping The System - ____Barry Mackintosh-U.S. Dept. of Interior 1985 - 2. The Place Where Hell Bubbled Up A History of the First National Park U.S. Dept. of Interior - 3. History and Prehistory in National Park System History Division N.P.S. Washington, D. C. 1987 - 4. The National Parks Index: 1989 U.S. Dept. of Interior Washington, D. C. 1989 - ____Adventures in Your National Parks - ____Books For World Explorers - ____National Geographic Society Videos: Readers Digest Series: - ____Grand Canyon—55 min. - ____Yellowstone—55 min. - ____Yosemite—55 min. National Park Service Films and Videos - 1. National Parks: Our Treasured Lands (1983) 28 min. - 2. Giant Sequoia (1979) 17 min. - ____(Sequoia-King Canyon National Park) - 3. STONE FOREST (1974) 17 min. - ____(Petrified Forest National Park) - 4. Shenandoah: The Gift (1982) 17 min. - ____(Shenandoah National Park) - 5. Great Sand Dunes (1980) 15 min. - ____(Great Sand Dunes National Monument) Contents of 1990 Volume III | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home| Join me on a brief journey through the eyes of these strangers. Somewhere on earth, all five characters land close by one another, open their eyes, and begin to converse about the differences in each other and all the people passing by. African: " That person is different from me because his eyes are slanted." Angel: " That person is different from me because she's having a Batmitzva." South American: "That person is different from me because her skin is darker than mine" African: " That person is different from me because his skin is lighter than mine." Alien: " Well that person is the same as me because he's got four legs, a looong neck, and short antennae on his head." African: "That's not a person, It's a giraffe!" God: "Every single person is different from every single person. Similar sometimes, different definitely." All: " We must be in America!" This simple scene tells of the journey of how five people/ beings arrived in America. It is clear why they came; they were all seeking change. It is clear how they got there. God simply dropped them there. What about us? In order to understand who we are today better, we must delve into the roots of our heritage. How did we come to be American? The answer to this question will be the basis of the curriculum unit New Beginnings. This unit will integrate the art of drama with the immigration process. Very often you can't fully understand what would prompt another person to such a life altering decision as to leave their homeland unless you've experienced the details of the situation first hand. Freshman drama students will utilize this unit. As these students embark on their high school career, they may find a common ground between themselves entering a new atmosphere, and the characters they will create who will make their way throughout the course to a new land called America. Through the exploration of character work, basic acting skills, and essay writing, the students will create a character from somewhere other than America. By exploring the specific details, either factually, or imaginatively, of their characters' daily life in their homeland, combined with the immigration procedures within a given time frame, the students will recognize the obstacles, advantages, and many possible reasons for becoming an American citizen. In the short piece I have written in the opening of this unit I chose to include an alien, and an angel. My thought being, never say never. Everything is possible. One or two students might entertain a similar philosophy, and limiting them to the obvious may only hinder their creativity. The objective is to show the students that as Americans we all originate elsewhere, and by ultimately putting them in someone else's shoes, they may gain a greater acceptance toward others who are so called "different" from them. For the first three days of class, pose to the students the following question: If you could have been born anywhere besides America, in any year, and be any type of person, besides yourself, where, when, and who would you be? Have the students write their ideas in as much detail as possible. Give them free reign to be as imaginative, or as obvious as they wish to be as long as they are detailed and specific. Each student will read their ideas aloud and should be permitted to share physical character examples of the character. On the fourth day, the students will be asked to choose one of the three characters they may want to be as a basis of their character work. For example, suppose the student ultimately chooses intergalactic space traveler, Andromeda, 1983. Their initial description of that character might read as follows: I am an intergalactic space traveler. I soar through the universes in a V shaped, multi-colored light, slow craft. It travels beyond human comprehension through the galaxies until it reaches the earth's orbit than it kicks into slow gear. I observe human beings and study the way they act and react to each other and their ever-changing environment. My species does not age. I receive nourishment from mineral rocks that grow in the black holes in space, but my favorite snack food is cheese from the earth's moon. Library access will now be set up for the students to begin researching information on their chosen birthplace, but this does not have to be their only means. If they know someone originally from their chosen birthplace, the student might want to set up interviews with them. Poems and short stories are also encouraged as accessible information. A basic questionnaire outline will be given as a guideline, but they will be expected to access as much information as possible. At the completion of their research, the students will be given a character analysis worksheet. (1) This worksheet will be used in two ways. First, the student must answer the questions based upon their own selves giving them a greater understanding of their own characteristics. Second, the student must answer the questions based upon their unit character. Answering these questions from two points of view allows them to make clear and concise choices for the characters further development throughout the unit. At this point the students will begin to write a three- part essay. Essay writing will be encouraged throughout the unit, and all work will be kept in individual folders for the students to reference and to guide their progress. Using the same intergalactic space traveler as an example, the character may now be perceived in a more extensive manner, and the description might possibly now be elaborated upon as follows: My name is Io (4). I am an Intergalactic Space Traveler. That is my job. I am named after one of the 16 satellites that orbit Jupiter. I come from a galaxy called Andromeda. It is 2.2 million light years from earth. The exact name of my birth-place is Brightonox in the land of Vindemiatrix. The atmosphere is cool and gelatin-like. The surface of the land is spongy, so instead of walking, we bounce. We have weather similar to earth. As earth is the third planet from its' sun, we are the third land from Betelgeuse. Betelgeuse is our closest star, and is three times the size of the sun. When Betelgeuse shines well upon us we call this span a geusey span. We get showers in our weather as well, only it is our ground that breaks open and stones pull upward and fly straight into the atmosphere. This doesn't happen too often. On Vindemiatrix, we communicate with a language called Monocerus, but we have a heightened communication ability that allows us to understand every known language in the universe. There are 300,000 Vindemiatrixian in our sector. We have no need for laws because we are unified peaceful beings. Our main source of nourishment comes from Betelgeuse. When we get the signal that we need to be nourished, which is when liquid flows from our visual receptors, we simply stand outside and face the gigantic star, and we become full. Our most frequent tradition is to visit the earth to celebrate our creators' greatest masterpiece: the human being. We visit earth at least once a month, their time. We celebrate by throwing glowing rocks through their sky. Wur arrivals are often very noisy and create electrical flashes throughout their firmament. To compensate for the commotion, we release multi-colored arches in their sky for their viewing pleasure. With these sample essays I have combined basic facts with imagination to demonstrate the beginnings of how this unit will play out. The students may choose a character more common or more extraordinary. Keep in mind that this is a drama class, the possibilities are endless. Students will write an initial essay of the lifestyle and culture of their chosen birthplace. This essay will include facts listed from the questionnaire outline in as much detail as possible. Students will write a detailed essay of their character based upon the choices they've made. This essay will include the specifics listed in the character analysis worksheet. Again in as much detail as possible. Students are ready to begin combining the previous essays to create a story of what their characters daily life was like growing up. This is absolute imagination, and only the facts of their birth-place need to coincide. When all essays are complete, the students will assemble into groups of four. Each member of the group will read their essays aloud. A question and answer period will follow each reading to promote further ideas that may have been overlooked. The students will now collaborate on ideas about possible reasons why each character would choose to leave their birth-place and venture to America. Each student will then choose one primary reason on which to base his/her further character work. Throughout the course of this unit, students may, and hopefully will, ultimately find many reasons as they develop a thinking character. Relaxation- Releasing unnecessary tension from the muscles By practicing this process, the students will eventually be able to assess and relax their bodies under any circumstances within five minutes. The purpose for relaxation to an actor is not for rest. What use would an actor be on stage or in film if they were half asleep? Relaxation is used to release stored tension in the muscles and should always be practiced in an active and energized manner. Begin by having the students sit in their chairs as comfortably as possible without holding on with their arms or legs, etc. Remind them to pay close attention to their breathing, inhaling through the nose filling the diaphragm with air, and slowly releasing the breath through the mouth. They may now begin to assess the muscles from the tip of their toes to the top of their head. In order for them to release the tension, they must move each area of the body slowly and specifically, acknowledge the tension, focus their breath to the area, and tell that area to relax. To maintain the relaxation, we test the previous areas by once again moving it, this time using only the energy required. Once the entire body has been assessed you may stand up, shake out each muscle, and bounce lightly on the balls of the feet. Always maintain a steady breathing pattern. Students will feel relaxed, refreshed, and awake. Concentration- Focused exploration and assessment Student will understand that in order to create believability as a character, concentration is a must. Give the student an everyday object. One with weight, texture, color, and fragrance is preferred. Ex: A glass of soda. Have them hold it and study the physical attributes of the object for five minutes. Take the object away, and ask them to recreate holding the object trying to remember the details. This is not a miming exercise, but one of exploration. Therefore, in this exercise, as in all acting exercises, the students should not be trying to obtain a result. Sensory Awareness- Heightening the abilities of the five senses Students will understand that sharpening the five senses breathes a more believable life into a character. Heightening sensory awareness is useful to every actor in that we absorb and remember all daily information through our senses. Keeping senses sharp allows an actor to work with more than words from a script by aiding him/her in creating a believable environment. For example, suppose the given circumstances in a scene are that it is raining and you have no umbrella. The rain is making you chilly. By recreating the effects of the rain sensorially, that is how it looks, sounds, tastes, feels, and smells, the body will naturally react the way it would if it were actually raining. Therefore instead of a character indicating that it is raining, maybe by pulling a jacket over his/her head, you will instead have a character responding in the moment to the affects of the rain. Once again begin by sitting relaxed, and focused on breathing. Dealing with the immediate classroom environment, begin with the sense of sight. How many different things do you see? Are the colors vivid? What are the details of objects around you? What can you see through your peripheral vision? Can you extend that vision further, and see more clearly? Move to sound, taste, touch, and smell in the same way, always questioning yourself to gain more detail, always striving to reach a higher level. This exercise should be done on a daily basis to keep the process sharp. To free up the students' own habit of expression. To prevent any two actors from developing the same characteristics. Students will learn to make quick decisions as another character. Students will begin to apply relaxation, concentration, and sensory technique into their stage work. People watching- Students will choose one person for one day. They will study the details of their walk, body language, facial expression, vocal quality, posture. The student will recreate the subject in class. Animal exercise- Students will choose and study their favorite animal, also recreating its' physical attributes in class. They will incorporate the animals' movement with their own. This exercise should not be rushed, and may be done over a period of a few classes. Whose hat is this? - Students will be given an array of hats to choose from. By answering the questions: occupation, age, and location, the students will define what type of character would wear each hat. Students will move about the room wearing the hat as others ask ten random questions about who the person in the hat is? Coming to America Students will understand how improvisation aids in character development. Students will incorporate sensory exercises into their scene work. Students will learn basic problem solving. This improvisation will incorporate the elements of objective, conflict, and resolution, and these should be there only guideline. Remind them that we are not seeking particular results. The purpose is discovery. Begin with allowing the students time to create their sensory environment and to establish their own space within the classroom. The character is ready to board the craft of choice that will take them to America. They are bidding farewell to your loved ones. Objective- To discover their characters' reactions to a highly emotional situation. Conflict- You realize that you left your ticket at home. Resolution- The improvisation cannot conclude until the character has fully played out the events, and resolves the issue. There is no right or wrong, only different choices. The characters have arrived in America. Once again have them establish their own space within the classroom. Let them know that they will all arrive in the same place at the same moment in full character. Let them move about the room in silence. Each character will have their own image of America, and they should respond fully to their new environment. Now allow them to verbally react to the other characters in there surroundings. This would be a good point for the students to begin a character journal to be written in on a weekly basis, or as often as possible. The journal should include both the characters thoughts, feelings, and circumstances. The students may also want to record their notes on process and their personal progress. Following improvisations, students should discuss the outcomes, always focusing on what they were able to extract for further use. A View from the Bridge - Set in the 1950's this play depicts illegal immigration and its consequences. A Bintel Brief - Letters from Jewish immigrants to the editor of the Jewish Daily Forward. Men In Black - Tommy Lee Jones, and Will Smith play the 90's version of intergalactic immigration officers. City of Angels - An angel must relinquish his immortality in order to love a woman. Throughout the readings and viewings, the students will be encouraged to put aside their created characters in order to experiment with some of the scripted characters. This will allow them to work on more than one character at a time. As part of their grade, students will turn in their journals, which should include the characters trials and tribulations from their moment of leaving their homeland, to achieving their ultimate goals in America. Through the series of essay writing, improvisations, and journal writing, the students will ultimately script a short play that will include each created character. Students will find alternative solutions through debate. Upon reading and establishing the logical breakdown of A View From The Bridge (1) students will be set up in character pairs as follows: Catherine versus Rodolpho, Catherine versus Uncle, Uncle versus Rodolpho. Students may take turns playing each role. The rest of the class will act as moderators. Characters will engage in a conversational debate according to their own viewpoint. As the debate plays out, students in the audience may randomly ask questions pertaining to the conversation at hand. The actors must acknowledge the questions by motivating the conversation toward a logical conclusion. The lesson will continue until every student has a chance to participate. Students will refer back to the script and play out scenes in accordance with motivations extracted from the debate. A copy of A View from the Bridge Students will utilize the brainstorming process to discover a form of problem solving. Using the Bintel Briefs (2) as a guideline, students will compose a help letter pertaining to a difficult situation which their character is facing. Students will assemble into groups and improvise a scenario based on their letter. Other members of the group will enter the improvisation with possible means for a solution. Students will incorporate this exercise into the short play that will be written as part of their final grade. A copy of any page from A Bintel Brief. Paper and pen. Character Swap Day-After viewing the works of the other students, take one day to allow the other students to do impressions of someone else's character. This will give the students another view upon which they may wish to expand. Ellis Island Day Trip-Teacher will set-up the necessary itinerary. This activity may be more beneficial if done early on in the course. A follow up to this trip might be an improvisation based upon the physical inspection process that the immigrants had to endure. Immigrant Chat Day- Perhaps a great deal of impact would be gained from speaking to a survivor of a Nazi concentration camp who found relief in America. This may be possible through the Holocaust museum in Queens, N.Y. 3. Geographical Location 5. Language/s Spoken 7. Form of Government 8. Natural Resources 9. Main Source of Food - 1. Characters age, weight and height - 2. Type of speech - 3. Characteristic way of walking - 4. Particular mannerisms or idiosyncrasies II. Character Biography - 5. Nationality, section of the Country III. Psychological Silhouette - 1. Childhood - 2. Educational background - 3. Occupation - 4. Hobbies - 5. Home-Life - 6. Social Life - 7. Style of dress - 8. Level of I.Q. - 1. What is the character's environment like? - 2. What is his/her self-concept? - 3. How does the character behave under emotional stress? IV. Sensory of Physical Images - 4. What is the character's outlook on life (optimistic/pessimistic)? - 1. Animal - 2. House - 3. Color - 4. Music - 5. Type of beverage - 6. Season of year - 7. Odor - 8. Type of literature - 9. Furniture - 10. Transportation 2Metsker, Isaac, A Bintel Brief, Doubleday and Co. 1971 3Character Analysis Worksheet This worksheet is used at Hamden High School, and is believed to be the work of Julian Schlusberg. 4National Geographic Atlas of the World Revised 6th Edition, National Geographic Society, Washington D.C. 1992 Isaac Metsker, A Bintel Brief, Doubleday and Co. 1971 F. Paul Miceli, Pride of Sicily, Theo Gaus Sons Inc. 1950 F. Paul Miceli, Where Democracy Triumphs, New London, Conn. 1931 Metsker Isaac, A Bintel Brief Doubleday and Co. 1971- This collection of letters from Jewish immigrants in the early 1900's sent to the editor of the Jewish Daily Forward ask for help with daily struggles in the format of Dear Abby. Sonnenfeld Barry, Director, Men In Black 1997- Two top secret immigration agents protect the planet from dangerous extraterrestrials and intergalactic terrorists. Siberling Brad, Director, City of Angels 1998- An angel must give up his immortality and live as a human, no matter what fate has in store, in order to love a woman. Contents of 1999 Volume III | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute

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Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution of a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn in a book called Applied Imagination, in which he proposed that groups could double their creative output with brainstorming. The technique typically involves gathering a group of up to 10 people, including some invited guests from other fields, posing a question, and asking them to respond with as many answers as possible. Their responses are recorded, and later sorted and evaluated. The theory is that members of the group will be stimulated by each others’ ideas to come up with new suggestions. Of the multiple ideas, one or more will be a good solution for the problem. Recent studies have show that because of such problems as distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking, brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Numerous attempts have been made to improve brainstorming or use more effective variations of the basic technique. Modern methods such as the use of email to collect and distribute participants’ ideas, or computer applications that allow group members to log in and record their own contributions, may overcome these obstacles and increase the effectiveness of brainstorming. Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it provides other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work. There are four basic rules in brainstorming. These are intended to reduce social inhibitions among groups members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity of the group. - Focus on quantity: Following the maxim, quantity breeds quality, participants are urged to generate as many ideas as they can during a brainstorming session. The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution to the problem being discussed. - Withhold criticism: During brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold.' Instead, participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process. When judgment is suspended, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas. - Welcome unusual ideas: In order to follow the first rule and generate as many ideas as possible, unusual ideas are welcomed. Participants are encouraged to look from new perspectives and suspend assumptions. These new ways of thinking may provide better solutions. - Combine and improve ideas: Good ideas may be combined to form a single, even better good idea, as suggested by the slogan "1+1=3." Brainstorming is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association. Set the problem Before a brainstorming session, it is critical to define the problem to be discussed. The problem must be clear, not too big, and captured in a specific question such as, "What service for mobile phones is not available now, but needed?" If the problem is too big, the facilitator should break it into smaller components, each with its own question. Some problems are multi-dimensional and non-quantified, for example, "What are the aspects involved in being a successful entrepreneur?" Finding solutions for this kind of problem can be done with morphological analysis (problem-solving). Create a background memo The background memo is the invitation and informational letter for the participants, containing the session name, problem, time, date, and place. The problem is described in the form of a question, and some example ideas are given. The ideas are solutions to the problem, and can be used when the session slows down or goes off-track. The memo is sent to the participants well in advance, so that they can think about the problem beforehand. The facilitator composes the brainstorming panel, consisting of the participants and an idea collector. A group of 10 or fewer members is generally more productive. Many variations are possible but the following composition is suggested. - Several core members of the project who have proved themselves. - Several guests from outside the project, with affinity to the problem. - One idea collector who records the suggested ideas. Create a list of lead questions During the brainstorm session the level of creativity may decrease. At this moment, the facilitator should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about looking from another perspective? It is best to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins. The facilitator leads the brainstorming session and ensures that ground rules are followed. The steps in a typical session are: - A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example What should be the CEO retirement present? or What can be improved in Microsoft Windows?. - The facilitator presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed. - The facilitator asks the brainstorming group for their ideas. - If no ideas are forthcoming, the facilitator suggests a lead to encourage creativity. - All participants present their ideas, and the idea collector records them. - To ensure clarity, participants may elaborate on their ideas. - When time is up, the facilitator organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and encourages discussion. - Ideas are categorized. - The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas. - Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed. - The facilitator thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation. - Participants who have ideas but were unable to present them are encouraged to write down the ideas and present them later. - The idea collector numbers the ideas as they are presented, so that the facilitator can use the number to encourage an idea generation goal, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!. - The idea collector should read back each idea as it has been recorded, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator. - When participants are expressing several ideas at once, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This encourages elaboration on previous ideas. - Managers and other superiors may be discouraged from attending a brainstorming session, as their presence may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas. Brainstorming involves more than just the generation ideas for others to evaluate and select. Usually the group itself will, in its final stage, evaluate the ideas and select one as the solution to the problem proposed to the group. If the group itself is to carry out the solution: - The solution should not require resources or skills the members of the group do not have or cannot acquire. - If it is necessary to acquire additional resources or skills in order to implement the solution, they should be incorporated as the first part of the solution. - The solution must include a way to measure progress and success. - The steps to carry out the solution must be clear to all, and amenable to being assigned to the members so that each will have an important role. - There must be a common decision making process to enable a coordinated effort to proceed, and to reassign tasks as the project unfolds. - There should be evaluations at milestones to decide whether the group is on track toward a final solution. - There should be incentives to participation so that participants maintain their efforts. Nominal group technique The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming that encourages all participants to have an equal say in the process. It is also used to generate a ranked list of ideas. Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. The moderator then collects the ideas and each is voted on by the group. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation. After distillation, the top-ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas. It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting to facilitate this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method before tackling the important ideas. Group passing technique Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person in a clockwise direction, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea. The group may also create an "Idea Book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem. Team idea mapping method This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees participate and no ideas are rejected. The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one large visual idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well. Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and take action. Electronic brainstorming is a computerized version of the manual brainstorming technique. It can be done via email and may be browser based, or use peer-to-peer software. The facilitator sends the question out to group members, and they contribute independently by sending their ideas back to the facilitator. The facilitator then compiles a list of ideas and sends it back to the group for further feedback. Electronic brainstorming eliminates many of the problems of standard brainstorming, such as production blocking and evaluation apprehension. An additional advantage of this method is that all ideas can be archived electronically in their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion. Electronic brainstorming also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session. Other brainstorming techniques are web-based, and allow contributors to post their comments anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over an extended time period, typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak time" before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used particularly in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas where collecting and evaluating ideas would be useful. Extensive research conducted by Olivier Toubia of Columbia University indicates that the use of incentives is very effective within the context of brainstorming. Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described above) that can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the solution space (the criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the session and can be used to intentionally constrain the ideation process. In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants. The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are then swapped again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated for three or more rounds. In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming. “6-3-5 Brainwriting” (also known as the 6-3-5 Method, or Method 635) is a group creativity technique used in marketing, advertising, design, writing and product development originally developed by Professor Bernd Rohrbach in 1968. The aim of 6-3-5 Brainwriting is to generate 108 new ideas in half an hour. The technique involves 6 participants who sit in a group and are supervised by a moderator. Each participant thinks up 3 ideas every 5 minutes. Participants are encouraged to draw on others' ideas for inspiration, thus stimulating the creative process. After 6 rounds in 30 minutes the group has thought up a total of 108 ideas. "Individual Brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming on an individual basis. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and the use of a "spider web," or “bubble maps” to organize ideas visually. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming. Defining the problem itself and identifying the best questions to ask can be the focus of a brainstorming session. This has been called questorming. Another topic for brainstorming can be to find the best evaluation methods for a problem. Effectiveness of brainstorming Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, researchers have not found evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either quantity or quality of ideas generated. When placed in a group setting, colleagues or co-workers may be inhibited from speaking out by fear of criticism (evaluation apprehension), or because they believe that their ideas are not important or that others will make up for their lack of participation (social loafing). A brainstorming session is most effective if the participants are deeply motivated and believe that they have something important to contribute. “Production blocking,” the tendency for one individual to block or inhibit other people during a group discussion, is a common problem in brainstorming groups. If six people are in a group and one person is talking at length about his or her idea, then the other five people are "blocked" and less able to provide their own creative input. They may not have time to think of an idea, or they may be distracted or forget about their idea before they have an opportunity to share it. Production blocking becomes more of a problem as the size of the group increases. Studies have shown that brainstorming groups are little more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals working independently. Newer versions of brainstorming, in which individuals write down their ideas and submit them for other members of the group to review, or the use of email and computer applications that allow individuals to think creatively over longer periods of time, overcome barriers like production blocking and social inhibitions. These forms may be more effective in tapping the creativity of individual members of a group and arriving at substantial solutions. How well these newer methods work, and whether or not they should be classified as brainstorming, are subjects for further research. Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups, it may provide other benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing work enjoyment, and improving team work. Members of the group may become more creative when they are removed from their customary work environment. One of the most valuable benefits is exposure to the views of invited guests from outside the project, who may be able to provide new insights and perspectives from their professional or personal experience. - ↑ A.F. Osborn, 1963, Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving (Third Revised Edition). (New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons). - ↑ Olivier Toubia, 2006, "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science. - ↑ E. Santanen, R. O. Briggs, and G-J. de Vreede, 2004, “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4): 167-198. - ↑ Rohrbach, Bernd: "Kreativ nach Regeln – Methode 635, eine neue Technik zum Lösen von Problemen." Creative by rules - Method 635, a new technique for solving problems first published in the German sales magazine "Absatzwirtschaft," Volume 12, (1969): 73-75 and Volume 19, October 1, 1969. - ↑ A. Furnham and Yazdanpanahi, T., 1995, “Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming.” Personality and Individual Differences, 19: 73-80. - ↑ Questorming: An Outline of the Method, Jon Roland, 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009. - ↑ B. A. Nijstad, W. Stroebe, H. F. M Lodewijkx, 2003, “Production blocking and idea generation: Does blocking interfere with cognitive processes?” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 531-548. - ↑ M. Diehl and W. Stroebe, 1991, “Productivity loss in idea-generating groups: tracking down the blocking effect.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61: 392-403. - ↑ B. Mullen, C. Johnson and E. Salas, 1991, “Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12: 3-23. - ↑ In the Encyclopedia of Creativity, Tudor Rickards, in his entry on brainstorming, summarizes its controversies and indicates the dangers of conflating productivity in group work with quantity of ideas. T. Rickards, 1999, Brainstorming, M. Runco and S. Pritzker, Eds, Encyclopedia of Creativity, (San Diego: Academic Press Vol 1), 219-228. - Correll, Linda Conway. Brainstorming Reinvented: A Corporate Communications Guide to Ideation. New Delhi: Response Books. 2004. ISBN 9780761932703 - Diehl, M. and W. Stroebe. "Productivity Loss in Idea-Generating Groups: Tracking Down the Blocking Effect." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (1991): 392-403. - Furnham, A. and T. Yazdanpanahi, "Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming." Personality and Individual Differences. 19 (1995): 73-80. - Mullen, B., C. Johnson and E. Salas. "Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: a meta-analytic integration." Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 12 (1991): 3-23. - Nijstad, B. A., W. Stroebe, H. F. M. Lodewijkx. "Production Blocking and Idea Generation: Does Blocking Interfere With Cognitive Processes?" Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 39 (2003): 531-548. - Osborn, Alex F. Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation. 1993. ISBN 9780930222734. *Portfolio brainstorming brainstorm, brainstorming, inspiration for your idea. [Korea]: CA Press. 2008. ISBN 9788977483309 - Rawlinson, J. G. Creative Thinking and Brainstorming. New York: Wiley. 1981. ISBN 9780470270912 - Rickards, T. "Brainstorming," Mark A. Runco, and Steven R. Pritzker. Encyclopedia of creativity. Vol 1 219-228. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press. 1999. ISBN 9780122270758 - Roland, Jon. "Questorming: An Outline of the Method", 1985. Retrieved February 12, 2009. - Santanen, E., R. O. Briggs, and G-J de Vreede. “Causal Relationships in Creative Problem Solving: Comparing Facilitation Interventions for Ideation.” Journal of Management Information Systems. 20(4) (2004): 167-198. - Toubia, Olivier. "Idea Generation, Creativity, and Incentives," Marketing Science (2006) - Warmke, Clare and Lisa Buchanan. Idea revolution: guidelines and prompts for brainstorming alone, in groups or with clients. Cincinnati, Ohio: HOW Design Books. 2003. ISBN 9781581803327 New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: - Brainstorming (Feb 12, 2009) history - Production_blocking (Feb 12, 2009) history - Social_loafing (Feb 12, 2009) history - 6-3-5_Brainwriting (Feb 12, 2009) history Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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Tips for writing papers (adapted from www.writinglabedge.com/guidelines/course) For easy ways to improve your paper, please see my English Matters page. The thesis statement is the single most important aspect of your paper; it is, essentially, the justification for its very existence. A good thesis sentence should contain: Your basic argument The blueprint for the organization of your supporting details Developing the Argument Topic versus statement - At the outset of your brainstorming, you will likely first decide on a topic for your paper; namely, the particular subject you plan to address in response to the assignment (in some cases, the assignment will already include a specific topic). Your job in formulating a thesis is to find a specific statement to make about that topic. Examples of Topics: "Natural Imagery in Wordsworth and Coleridge"; "Plato's Treatment of Gender Roles in The Republic." Examples of Statements: "In The Prelude, Wordsworth uses natural imagery to reflect his increasing awareness of divinity, while in "This Limetree Bower My Prison,” Coleridge's treatment of nature serves to establish his relationship with fellow human beings"; "In The Republic, Plato's arguments for gender equality are characterized by sameness of role, yet still subject to a male-dominated hierarchy." Using your sources to find your argument - Rather than making an opinion statement (one thing is "better" than another, etc.) your argument must be pulled from textual evidence. Conversely, however, it cannot be a restatement of what your source tells you, but must be an original thought arising from some point of interest, contradiction, or vagary within the text. Specificity - In writing your statement, be sure to say exactly what you're arguing- do not make a broad generalization. Your reader should know from your thesis what your specific arguments are, not just roughly what they prove. Also, take into account the length you intend your paper to be. In the space of six pages, for example, you can't thoroughly discuss the effects of, say. World War II on America, but you might be able to analyze one aspect of its impact on a specific industry or social group. Too General: "There are many similarities between Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina, but there are some differences as well." More Specific: "Though both Madame Bovary and Anna Karenina pivot around the tension between individual liberty and societal mores, Flaubert concerns himself with the decadence of self-indulgence, while Tolstoy focuses on the notion of feminine entrapment." Tension - Perhaps most important, make sure that your argument can be controversial. If you set out to prove something that is a given (like "the 1960s were an era of American cultural upheaval" or "Hamlet undergoes numerous psychological changes") your paper is not only uninteresting, but entirely pointless. When you think you've decided on a statement, see if you can make a counterargument to refute it. Your job is to show how the evidence of your sources should be interpreted in a particular light, but crucial to its being worth reading is the fact that other interpretations are possible. Framing your paper - In addition to stating your argument, your thesis should give an indication of the particular components thereof. Though it is not necessary for you to include the gist of each subsequent topic sentence in your thesis, it is important that the basic prongs of your over-arching idea be addressed. Incomplete thesis: "In Moby Dick. Melville renders Ahab as a diabolical figure” Complete thesis: "In Moby Dick, Melville renders Ahab as a diabolical figure through the contrasting Christ imagery of the Whale, omnipresent Biblical mythology, and a psychological descent analogous to the Fall." One more note: Contrary to popular belief, your thesis does not have to be just one sentence. If you cannot construct an adequately complex thesis without making a heinous run-on, by all means, break it up. Once you've decided what your thesis is going to be, you must be able to frame it in a manner that provides an effective entry into your work. No matter how great your argument is, it will not do much good if no one is enticed into reading it. The two most important functions of your introduction are to serve as a grabber (a stylish, creative lead-up to what you’re trying to say) and as justification (an explanation of why your argument is even important in the first place). Some Basic Guidelines DON’T summarize - Though it might seem easy to preface your thesis with only a synopsis of the texts you’re writing about, this is a particularly dull way to begin a paper. DON'T keep reiterating your thesis - Your thesis should appear in your intro as the culmination of the previous thoughts, not just something you mention and then keep restating to fill up a paragraph. DO ask yourself questions - Why is your thesis relevant? How is its being proven important to the understanding of either text or fact? By linking your argument to a larger issue, you will give your argument both universality and interest. DO be creative - Think about what aspect of your topic you find the most interesting, and figure out why. Use this to make it interesting to your reader. (The following are some pre-packaged introduction ideas. It is important, however, not to just adopt one and use it for every paper, particularly for the same instructor. This practice will become trite very quickly.) The quotation - Find a quote from one of your sources or, even better, from elsewhere that seems to get at the problem you're dealing with. State it at the beginning of your intro and discuss how it relates to what you're trying to prove. The question - Throw out a broad question of universal interest, and demonstrate how a possible answer can be related to your thesis (Example: "What do women want? It's a question that's plagued mankind since the dawn of history . . . the works of Emily Dickinson and Sylvia Plath yield two different paradigms of feminine self-realization"). The anecdote - This works particularly well for a historical essay, and even better if you have some ability at creative writing. Pick a specific incident that represents the underlying conflict of your piece, and briefly narrate it like a story. Explain afterwards how the instance reflects a problem you're attempting to solve. Each body paragraph of your paper builds towards proving one particular aspect of your thesis, and each of these aspects should be crystallized into a strong topic sentence. If your paper is quite short, these sentences might represent the main points you mentioned in the blueprint part of your thesis, but they might each be more specific aspects of one of those points, particularly if your paper is longer. Defining your topics - First and foremost, a topic sentence is a piece of analysis, NOT summary. Think of it in a similar manner to how you thought of your thesis; in other words, an original interpretation based upon the textual evidence of your source. The first of the following examples illustrates a statement of fact, rather than an argumentative topic sentence. Weak Topic Sentence: "Book Five of Paradise Lost concentrates on the conversation between Adam and the archangel Raphael.” Strong Topic Sentence: "Throughout Book Five, Milton utilizes images of gardening and nourishment to convey man's maturing relationship to the divine." Relationship of topics to thesis - Your topic statements should each provide a solid area of analysis by which your thesis is true. They should, however, be more specific than a mere restatement of part of it. Thesis: "In Journey Through the Twelve Forests, David Haberman apprehends the Ban-Yatra pilgrimage as a realization of the god Krishna's omnipresence, through separate realizations of the journey's cyclical nature, the externalization of the divine, and the relationship between asceticism and pleasure." Topic Sentence for Second Paragraph: "Throughout the narrative, the physical relationship of the pilgrim to the natural landscape of Braj, as well as worshipped images of Krishna and other deities, reflects the presence of Krishna as an interactive externality, rather than the occupant of an inaccessible sphere." |Building Your Argument Part One: Close Readings| Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers. Close reading is a term used to describe how you ought to be using your sources. The most important element of close reading is questioning; it is imperative that you actively engage the text in order to develop your own ideas to use as arguments. If at all possible, make your close reading your second reading of the source. If you've read it once already, you will have a basic understanding of the text, and you can focus on a more intensive questioning. Use highlighters - Take note of any and all points of interest in the text. If you've got a thesis in mind already, use several different colors of highlighter, each for information relevant to a separate prong of your argument. This will make your life much easier when you go back to integrate your sources, particularly if you've got an extensive amount of text to cover. Look for patterns - Be aware of recurring techniques-both literary and rhetorical-which the author uses to illustrate a concept. Specific sorts of imagery, allusion, or dialogue, which seem to be similar or related inevitably, reveal a larger intention that can be made into an argument. Ask questions - In expository work, continually ask yourself "Is this true? What evidence supports this statement? Can other conclusions be drawn from the facts of this text?" By deciding whether or not you agree with the arguments of your source, you'll begin to crystallize more subtle arguments of your own. In literature, question the author's purpose in using particular narrative structures. "Why is this metaphor used? What does the comparison signify? Why do we learn this particular piece of information in such a manner? Why is the setting dwelled on so much in this passage? What is the relationship between setting and character?” Write these questions in the margins as you go along. Get down to the details - One of the most sophisticated close reading techniques you can incorporate into your work is an analysis of the multiple connotations of a specific word. Be aware of every single word the author uses. When you find one of particular interest, literally look it up in the dictionary and consider how each and every definition might be applied to the text. Even if the author uses it with one literal definition in mind, see if the connotations of the other definitions can be applied to your idea (This is particularly true of Shakespeare). Consider the source in relation to other texts - If something in the work reminds you of something else you've read, there's quite possibly a good reason why. Consider how your source is a response to or a continuation of other texts. Always be on the look out for Christ symbolism and Greek mythological allusions; both are fairly easy to spot and can be effectively analyzed in support of a particular interpretation. From Coleridge's Kubla Kahn: "In Xanadu did Kubla Kahn a pleasure dome decree; Where Alph the sacred river ran through caverns measureless to man; into a sunless sea." Your assignment is to write about how the poem illustrates the power of human creativity. In light of this, here are some questions to ask yourself right off the bat: Why does Coleridge select an Oriental locale and a historical figure to open his work? What is the significance of the word "pleasure," "measureless," "sunless"? What is Alph, and does Coleridge use it as the setting for his poem? Answering these questions might involve a consideration of distance, in both time and space, related to the vastness of human capacity. You might also consider "measureless" and "sunless" as descriptive of types of knowledge or ignorance; in breaching the "sunless" sea with his dome, what sort of power is Kubla Kahn exhibiting? A trip to the dictionary (or, more likely, a glance at the inevitable foot note) will provide the information that the Alph is a magical river in mythology. This begs the question, "how does a fantastic setting relate to Coleridge's view of the imagination?” |Building Your Argument Part Two: Integrating Sources| Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers. The meat and potatoes of your body paragraphs will be a mixture of textual summary and your analysis of it. Once you've done your close reading and structured your topic sentence for a paragraph, go back and pull out the details you've highlighted. In putting these details into your paper, it is absolutely imperative that you balance each one with YOUR analysis of their significance. It might help, at least until you're used to the idea, to maintain a mental ratio: three sentences of your interpretation for every one concrete detail of the text. The concrete detail - Paraphrase the gist of the actual textual information as CONCISELY as possible. It is important for your reader to understand what you're talking about, but only as an illustration for your own ideas. The interpretation - Go back to the questions you've asked yourself during the close reading. What answers have you found that you can explain here? As always, remember that good interpretation avoids both summary and opinion—your arguments must be original but crafted from actual evidence. Example: "Coleridge opens his poem with an immediate statement of locale: ‘In Xanadu’. This fable-like invocation makes the reader immediately conscious of distance, as well as the mystical connotations of the Orient in the context of Victorian imperialism. By choosing a setting with such dual reverberations of reality and fantasy, Coleridge creates a landscape parallel to his view of the imagination—vast in breadth, yet potently accessible." Note how very little textual detail was necessary to come up with quite a bit of interpretation. Keep an eye on the big picture - As tempting as it is to fill space with any interesting idea you come up with, do not put a single thought onto the page that you cannot relate directly to the proving of your topic sentence. Remember, your paper must act as the impetus for an idea, not merely a description of your sources, however subtle that description might be. Integrating quotes - Sometimes the textual details you include will necessarily take the form of direct quotation, particularly when analyzing language. It is always best to do so as inconspicuously as possible. The quotes should serve only to prove your ideas, not to supplant them. Rather than using big block quotations, wherever possible include only that which is specifically necessary to your point, within the framework of your own sentence. Bad Integration: Keats describes the Grecian urn as follows: "Thou still unravish'd bride of quietness; Thou foster child of silence and slow time; Sylvan historian who canst express; The flowery tale more sweetly than can rhyme." Good Integration: Keats begins by personifying the urn in terms of human innocence, as an "unravish'd bride" and a "foster child of silence and slow time". |Building Your Argument Part Three: Strategy| Click here for an introduction to critical thinking that will help you (1) analyze what you read and (2) write persuasive papers. Now that you've done some good analysis within your paragraphs, it's necessary to examine how they fit in to the goal of your overall paper. Avoid Chronology - When looking at your paper as a whole, it is much better for your paragraphs to relate according to a process of thought, rather than of chronology. If it seems as though your paragraphs are divided according to the order of your source (In other words, "first this happens," then "this happens," then "and finally . . .”), there's a good chance you're lapsing into plot summary. Ordering according to thought process - Here's where your highlighting becomes useful again. Follow each of the ideas you developed throughout the text individually. If you highlighted in different colors, make all your pink highlights one section, your blue highlights another, and your yellow ones a third. In this manner your writing flows in an ordered progression, but according to the development of an argument, rather than recapitulation of the text. Make your paragraphs build off of each other - It's best to try to arrange your paper in a manner that grows increasingly more specific. In subsequent paragraphs, try to refer back to what you mentioned in previous ones, and explain how your current subject extends or re-examines it in a new light. Transitions - In order to give your paper unity and flow, it's important to always make smooth transitions between paragraphs. Consider the relationship between the two paragraphs, and use it as a way of moving from one to the other. You might address a similarity in argument, by saying "In a similar manner . . .", "This argument may be allied to "subject B" in terms of . . .", "Likewise . . .", or "The idea of X recurs again with respect to . . ." To express a dissimilarity, you might use "In contrast . . .", "On the other hand . . .", or "Nevertheless". |Issues of General Structure| Before putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard) it will make your job much easier to have an idea in mind of exactly how your paper is going to be framed. "Discuss” and "Analyze” prompts If you're writing on a pre-assigned topic, its nature will likely affect the way in which your paper is structured. If you're asked to "discuss" or "analyze" something (for example, "Discuss the effects of the Enlightenment on the French Revolution), it means you need to treat a specific aspect of a broad topic. It is important, in these cases, to stick to the specific focus of the prompt: don't talk about the Enlightenment itself or other aspects of the French Revolution. You must confine your paper solely to the specific relationship between the two. When thinking about your structure, then, it's best to come up with the general areas you'd like to discuss (this will largely be determined by the amount of space you have), and to divide your paper mentally between those. The Comparative Analysis Very often you'll be asked to compare two pieces of literature, and there are several ways in which to effectively set up this sort of essay. The first thing to remember (which will be explored more extensively in the thesis section) is that your paper cannot just compare the two pieces in general, exhaustively mentioning all similarities and differences with no specific argument. Once you know exactly what your argument is, your structure will be crucial to the techniques you use to make it. The sequential method - This means discussing all of text A and then moving on to text B. Example: The prompt says "Compare Milton's view of Hell in "Paradise Lost" with that of Marlowe in "Dr. Faustus." It might be easier, here, to spend your first pages thoroughly analyzing Milton's view and then moving on to Marlowe's independently. It is then key, however, that your conclusion be a successful integration off he two or else you won't have a unifying argument. The point-by-point method -This method works well if you have a number of parallel specifics to deal with in both texts, and involves discussing each one in turn, with respect to both texts at once. Example: The prompt says "Discuss the relationship between symbolism and character in Faulkner's Light in August and Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath." In this case, it might be easier to discuss the individual relationships one at time. You could discuss Christ imagery in both texts first, for example, and move on to erotic symbols and so forth. The Lens Paper This type of comparative paper concentrates on one particular text, but views it through the “lens” of another. Example: Discuss "The Rape of the Lock” in terms of mock epic, with reference to Homer's Illiad. In this case, the second text should be used as a continual reference point, but should not be analyzed in and of itself. A way to structure this sort of paper is to break down your argument with respect to your main text into a number of points, as you normally would with a "discuss" paper. Within each paragraph, insert segments of analysis as to how your new arguments function within the paradigms established by the lens text. |Some General Grammar and Style Tips| Vary your sentence structure - Nothing seems more unsophisticated than an uninterrupted succession of subject-verb constructions. Take a series of sentences like the following as an example: "Moby Dick can symbolize both a manifestation of God or of the ultimate evil.” Here are just a few of the variations you can make: Melville renders Moby Dick as simultaneously a manifestation of God and as a symbol of the ultimate evil. That Moby Dick is subject to a dichotomy of interpretations is evident in his depiction as both a manifestation of God and of the ultimate evil. We may intimate that Moby Dick is a juxtaposition of both the divine and the diabolical. Combine short sentences - Try reading your paper out loud. If it seems choppy it can likely be remedied by your grouping short sentences into longer, more complex ones. For example: "Gatsby’s obsession with Daisy has deeper implications. He becomes obsessed with escaping his own past." This would be much stronger if combined: "Gatsby's obsession with Daisy eventually translates into a yearning to escape his own past." Don’t use passive voice - Plain and simple. It makes your writing weak. Bad: "This fact was proven by Napoleon's subsequent actions." Good: "Napoleon proved this fact through his subsequent actions." The object of the sentence should never be turned into the subject. Maintain consistency in tense - Don't drift from the present to the past to the conditional (from "he is" to "he was" to "he would have"). Some things to avoid wherever possible: Starting a sentence with "there are" or "there were". Using the phrase "this shows" (as a substitute say "evident in this fact is" or "This interpretation belies the idea that"). Using the word "quotation" when incorporating a direct quote. This makes for an awkward break from your natural thoughts, and creates an aura of self-consciousness in your writing. The first person or second person tense. Sometimes using the first person plural (as in the previous example of "we may intimate") is generally acceptable, in that it conveys a universality that the "I" or "you" voices preclude. Confusing commas and semi-colons. A semi-colon can be used to connect two short, related sentences into a longer one: ”Trench warfare became standard during World War One; it was used in all the major confrontations." A comma cannot be used in this way. Confusing "who" and "whom"; the former is a subject, the latter an object. Broad, non-specific words like "good," "bad," "nice," "important," "vivid," and "thing". If those are the only words you can use to express what you're saying, it's likely not subtle enough to make for a very good argument. As the very last impression your reader gets of your paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to sell your argument once and for all. It's a place for reflection, for looking back at the relationship between the numerous ideas of your paper. Most importantly, however, it ought to be the site of your most complex analysis; that which incorporates everything that's gone before. Some General Cautions DON'T allow the conclusion to become merely a restatement of the thesis with a couple of linking sentences beforehand. DON'T view it as merely an ornamental way to end your paper - its role should be to justify your paper at the highest level. DO analyze how your argument has changed as your paper has progressed. If you haven't proven anything more than merely what you mentioned in your introduction, you haven't really said anything at all. Throughout the course of a good paper new subtleties of argument ought to have manifested themselves, and the place to integrate all these subtleties into a new, more powerful statement of your thesis, is right in the conclusion. DON'T begin your conclusion with the opener "In conclusion . . .". That makes your paper awkwardly self-conscious and contrived, rather than naturally unfolded. DO attempt some sort of unified closure, with respect to what you set up in the introduction. If you used one of the previously mentioned clever introductions, make reference again to the quote, questions, or anecdote you incorporated. DO consider linking your argument to a more universal idea, analyzing its relevance with an eye on the new angle your argument proved. It’s important to remember that every single piece of information you obtain from a source must be cited in your paper. This applies not only to quotes, but to every single fact you incorporate. There are several methods for doing citations, but it's best just to choose one and remain consistent. Below are directions for doing citations in the MLA style, one of the most widely recognized formats. The first step is to make a bibliography, inclusive of all works you've cited in your paper. Click here to see examples of proper citations (according to the Chicago Manual of Style). |Editing & Revising| Read Your Paper Out Loud To help you polish the term paper even further, read it out loud. You will be amazed at the faulty grammar and awkward language that your ears can detect. This will also give you a good sense of the flow of the piece and will alert you to anything that sounds too abrupt or out of place. Good writing, like good music, has a certain rhythm. How does your paper sound? Is it interesting and varied or drawn out and monotonous? adapted from www.writinglabedge.com/guidelines/course

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ALTERNATE NAMES: Kikuyu POPULATION: 5 million LANGUAGE: Gikuyu; English; KiSwahili RELIGION: Christianity (Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, fundamentalist groups, African Separatist Churches); traditional beliefs 1 • INTRODUCTION The Gikuyu, like the white settlers in the early twentieth century, were attracted to the Kenya highlands because of cool temperatures, fertile soils, and abundant rainfall. Prior to the arrival of the Gikuyu, the area was occupied by hunters and gatherers known as the Dorobo. It is not known exactly when the Gikuyu first occupied the central highlands, but their oral history indicates that the Gikuyu occupied the area for hundreds of years prior to the arrival of the Europeans in Kenya. The Gikuyu have figured significantly in the development of contemporary Kenyan political, cultural, and social life. The Land and Freedom Movement (referred to pejoratively as the "Mau Mau" Movement) during the 1950s was primarily a Gikuyu guerrilla war (a war fought without organized government troops) in response to British domination. The British had taken farming lands from the Gikuyu and given these lands to white settlers. Gikuyu were forced to work on these farms and to provide labor for cash crops such as coffee and tea. The Gikuyu nationalist Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978) became the first president of Kenya at its independence in 1963. He is respected among the Gikuyu for his leadership against colonialism (outside rule) and for his status as is regarded as the father of his country. Today, the Gikuyu, like other Kenyans, participate in a democratic political system. Gikuyu are organized into two major political parties that are considered to be part of the opposition (to the ruling government) in Kenya. These parties are the Democratic and the Ford-Asili Parties. Political participation is primarily through election to a parliamentary (similar to a congressional) seat (of which there are 188 in Kenya) or through direct election to the national presidency. 2 • LOCATION The Gikuyu are the largest ethnic group in Kenya. They number about 5 million among Kenya's total population of about 28 million. The Gikuyu live throughout Kenya but primarily reside in Nairobi Province and Central Province, located in the central region of the country. As Kenya's largest group, the Gikuyu occupy a central position in Kenyan social life. The capital city of Nairobi lies just at the southern boundary of the area traditionally occupied by the Gikuyu people. Thus, many Gikuyu now are counted among the city's inhabitants of about 1.5 million people. Gikuyuland is a plateau of about 100 miles (160 kilometers) from north to south and 30 miles (48 kilometers) from east to west. Its elevation ranges from about 3,000 feet (900 meters) to over 7,500 feet (2,300 meters) above sea level. The plateau features deep gorges and parallel ridges. Rainfall is plentiful. However, on the eastern side of the plateau, the terrain is comparatively dry and is dominated by a grassland zone. The elevation increases to the west, giving rise to more rainfall and woodlands with good potential for agriculture. The largest ecological area is characterized by high altitude and rainfall where plant life is abundant and most of the population is concentrated. This is the area where significant cash crops are grown, including pyrethrum (a flower that produces a natural insecticide), coffee and tea. Rich soils aid the growth of traditional crops such as sweet potatoes, bananas, millet, sorghum, cow-peas, and maize (corn), which is the staple throughout Gikuyuland. 3 • LANGUAGE The Gikuyu are generally fluent in three languages. The primary national language in Kenya is English. All children receive instruction in English beginning in primary school and continuing through university. KiSwahili is a second national language, although it is not the language of government, it is widely used as a language of trade and commerce, especially by those without formal education. KiSwahili is also taught in the schools from primary through secondary school. The Gikuyu use either English or KiSwahili when traveling outside the central highlands. Radio, television, and mass media publications are available in both languages throughout Kenya. The Gikuyu language is the preferred language at home and in the community. Gikuyu is taught in primary schools throughout Gikuyuland. 4 • FOLKLORE The Gikuyu people explain their origins as farmers and herders in the following way. The first tribal parents, Gikuyu and Mumbi, had their own children, who then had children who dispersed around Mount Kenya. One day a grandchild's knee started swelling. When he opened his knee, three little boys emerged, who became his sons. In time, one of them became a hunter; one enjoyed collecting fruits and plants; and the third made fire for cooking. The hunter domesticated some animals, and the collector grew crops such as bananas, cassava, and sweet potatoes. The third son applied fire to stones and metals and became a blacksmith. In this way, the Gikuyu culture originated. The Gikuyu attribute their ultimate origins to sacred intervention by their god Ngai who sometimes resides on Mount Kenya which, for the Gikuyu, is a sacred place. According to legend, Ngai carried the first man, Gikuyu, to the top of Mount Kenya. Ngai showed him the rich land spread out below the mountain. Gikuyu was told that his sons and daughters would inherit the land and multiply. Gikuyu was given a wife named Mumbi, meaning "Creator" or "Molder," and together they had nine daughters. Ngai said that whenever problems arose, the people should make a sacrifice and gaze at Mount Kenya in order to be assisted. One day, Gikuyu was unhappy at not having a male heir. He pleaded with Ngai to provide a son for him. After appropriate rituals, Gikuyu went to a sacred tree where he found nine men waiting to greet him. He arranged for these men to marry his daughters provided they agreed to live under his roof and abide by a matrilineal system of inheritance (tracing descent through the female line). In time, many grandchildren and great-grandchildren were born. Still later, each daughter came to head her own clan, thus giving rise to the clans of the Gikuyu people. The legend continues that in time the kinship system changed from a matrilineal to a patrilineal one (tracing descent through the male line). It is believed this happened because the women became excessive in their domination over men. The men ganged up on the women when they were all pregnant at the same time. They overthrew female rule and became heads of their families. From then on, polygyny (one man with several wives) replaced polyandry (one woman with several husbands) as a marital practice. Nevertheless, the women were able to maintain their names for the main clans. To this day, most women carry one of these names. The names are Wanjiru, Wambui, Wanjiku, Wangari, Waceera, Wairimu, Wangui, Wangechi, Wambura and Wamuyu. A number of other important legends provide cultural heroes. Among these are Karuri, who was a past ruler of legendary proportion. Another is Wamugumo, a noted giant believed to have been able to eat an entire goat by himself. He could clear land that took many men a long time to clear, and he was able to kill lions, buffalo, and leopards with ease. A famous woman called Wangu wa Makeri ruled during the period of the matriarchy (when women held the majority of power). At that time, women were allowed to have many husbands, especially young men, and the old men did all of the work. Traditionally, folktales and riddles combined with myths to provide young people with a strong sense of Gikuyu values. Grandmothers were excellent story tellers. Some common riddles are: A man who never sleeps hungry? Fire (since it is fed throughout the night); My son lives between spears? The tongue; My child travels without rest? The river (always flowing). Proverbs are numerous in modern-day culture and change constantly to reflect the times. For example, one proverb teaches that "A good mortar does not correspond to a good pestle," to explain that successfully matching a husband and a wife may be difficult. Another proverb widely heard is "When the hyenas come, nobody will give shelter," which means that in times of panic, it is every man for himself. Many proverbs teach common sense, such as "When one goes on a journey, he does not leave his bananas cooking in the fire." One tongue twister refers to a child who saw a tadpole and ran away; when the tad-pole saw the child, it also ran away. In Gikuyu, one says Kaanaka Nikora kona kora kora, nako kora kona kaanaka Nikora kora. 5 • RELIGION The Gikuyu today are prominently represented in a variety of Christian churches. These include the Roman Catholic, the Anglican, fundamentalist, and African Separatist churches. The significance of belief in a high god, Ngai, is maintained or was transferred to the Christian-centered belief in monotheism (the belief in one god). Ngai created everything. He lives in the sky and is invisible. Sometimes he lives on Mount Kenya. He should only be approached for serious problems such as those involving life-and-death questions. During periods of famine or epidemic diseases, Ngai is approached by the elders on behalf of the entire community. Other traditional beliefs have also persisted into contemporary life. Important among these is the belief in ancestral spirits. These departed relatives are involved in all matters, especially those not considered important enough to seek Ngai's attention. Matters of everyday health, for example, involve the ancestor spirits, who cause sickness when their interests are not taken into consideration. "Traditional doctors" were popular resources for determining which ancestor was responsible for a particular disease and for advice on how to please the ancestor. In the past, religious values emphasized community solidarity and discouraged individualism. Authority was vested in elders and prophets, who were believed to know what was best for all people. Expressions of individuality and solitary life were not encouraged. Someone perceived to be outside the group might be accused of being a witch and could be killed by the elders. At the same time, considerable security was provided by the emphasis on the group. 6 • MAJOR HOLIDAYS The Gikuyu typically celebrate the same holidays as other Kenyans ( see Kenyans). 7 • RITES OF PASSAGE The Gikuyu are well known for their traditional rituals of adolescence. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, there was a custom known as Ngweko. Periodically, elders supervised gatherings of young people who would spend private time with each other for the purpose of getting to know members of the opposite sex. Young people paired off according to mutual attraction. Should a young girl become pregnant, the boy responsible was held accountable and was expected to marry the girl he had impregnated. The Gikuyu considered Ngweko to be a form of sex education. And since Ngweko was associated with reproduction, the Gikuyu considered it a sacred act of carrying out the orders of their high god Ngai to reproduce. Many elder Gikuyu believe that the missionaries made a mistake when they labeled Ngweko as sinful. The schools that were established after the arrival of the Europeans did not include sex education. Since the beginning of co-educational boarding schools, teenage pregnancies have become a major social problem in Kenya, including among the Gikuyu. Prior to participating in Ngweko, both boys and girls undergo numerous rituals, including surgery on their genital organs. The purpose of these rituals is to enable young people to bond with others with whom they have undergone painful experiences. Clitoridectomy (female circumcision) was, and to some extent still is, practiced by the Gikuyu. It is the topic of much debate by Africans and others, and is often referred to by outsiders as female genital mutilation. A middle-ground position appears to be emerging that grants the social significance of adolescent ritual while working to eliminate clitoridectomy, even under hospital conditions where it now occurs. (The procedure was formerly done in unsterile conditions with crude instruments. Many life-threatening injuries and deaths resulted.) Gikuyu boys continue to be circumcised, a practice widespread in Africa and many other parts of the world as well. Many dances and songs, called mambura (rituals or divine services), take place during initiation ceremonies. Gikuyu history is publicly enacted so as to provide a sense of community solidarity. Each irua group is given its own special name. Initiation ceremonies involve special foods and the selection of a sponsor to impart knowledge and to supervise the young person. After several days of instruction, boys and girls are taken together to a compound for their circumcision. Numerous friends and relatives gather for singing and dancing throughout the night. A special feast is made for the parents of the children. The day before the operation, there is a ceremonial dance known as matuuro . The next day the physical operations occur. Both boys and girls are expected to endure circumcision without crying or showing signs of weakness. Many elder Gikuyu people still maintain strong relationships with others with whom they were initiated. While mandatory painful initiation ceremonies are increasingly becoming a thing of the past, many Kenyans are troubled by what they perceive to be a rising tide of individualism and lack of peer group solidarity among the young. Young people today in Kenya must work out for themselves how to combine old customs with modern ones. This issue is a prominent theme and is the subject of stories, plays, and other programs on Kenya radio and television. 8 • RELATIONSHIPS The local community, school, and church are central to Gikuyu social relations. Dating, courtship, friendship, and family life are significant concerns around which people construct their social lives. In the past, social life was dominated by rules about age hierarchies and gender distinction. There is evidence that Gikuyus have more individual choice in these matters today. However, some Gikuyu have lost their sense of community responsibility so cherished in the past. In the past, boys were organized into groups of local boys who had been initiated at the same time. These were grouped into larger groupings, called regiments. Boys in a common group or regiment proceeded through life together and exercised authority over groups and regiments coming after them. Detailed rules governed the roles of various age or generational groupings in the realms of dating and procreation, defense, and social structure. 9 • LIVING CONDITIONS The Gikuyu enjoy the abundant natural resources provided by the central highlands of Kenya. Due to the altitude, much of the region is free of malarial mosquitoes and the tsetse and other flies that spread human and animal diseases. The Gikuyu have had success in commercial farming and in many other businesses. Some Gikuyu now own large estates and live an affluent lifestyle. However, many other Gikuyu live in slums, which have grown rapidly in urban areas, especially Nairobi. Thousands of homeless street children have come to Nairobi from Gikuyu towns where they suffered from family dislocation and poverty. In the past, traditional Gikuyu houses were round with wooden walls and grass thatched roofs. Neighbors generally helped in the construction of a home in exchange for beer and meat. Building supplies were collected from local materials. A husband and wife typically lived in separate houses. The woman's house had space for her children and her sheep and goats. Well-built homes sometimes lasted for ten years or more, although rethatching the roof was an annual event. 10 • FAMILY LIFE Traditionally, the Gikuyu preferred large families living in big compounds. It was considered a religious obligation to have children. Four children—two boys and two girls—was the ideal. Boys were desirable because they carried on the family name, which was passed on through the male line. Girls were desired so the family could collect bride wealth (gifts to her family from her husband-to-be's family), which could in turn be used to obtain wives for their brothers. A married woman became more powerful as she bore more children. Her children stayed with her in her home, separate from their father. Polygyny (one man having multiple wives) was valued as a means to provide large families. Women, too, often preferred polygyny to monogamy (one man and one woman); they often helped their husbands find younger wives. Elder wives had clear authority over younger wives and supervised them in affairs of the compound. Events leading to marriage began with an initial meeting of the aspiring son-in-law with his perspective parents-in-law. The young woman's agreement was required at this meeting before events could proceed. Later stages included parental visits, exchanges of goods as bride wealth, and finally the young woman moving into the home of her husband. The marriage itself was finalized when, prior to moving in with her husband's family, the young man and his relatives visited the young woman's house bearing special gifts. Today, marriage no longer involves these traditional rituals and exchanges. Nevertheless, there is still bride wealth, significant involvement of parents in the choice of their children's spouses, and the high value placed on having children. Marriage ceremonies no longer involve Gikuyu religious rituals, which have given way to Christian and Islamic marriage practices. 11 • CLOTHING In the past, Gikuyu adults dressed in animal skins, especially sheep and goat skins. Skin tanning was a vital industry for which many men were renowned as specialists. Women's clothing includes three pieces—an upper garment, a skirt, and an apron. Men wore a single garment covering the entire body. Young men preferred bare legs made possible by wearing short skirts, especially those made from kidskin (lambskin or goatskin) because of its smooth hairs. Elders wore more elaborate costumes—often made of fur. European clothing is now commonplace throughout Gikuyuland. In rural areas, women wear multicolored cotton dresses or skirts and blouses. Men generally wear Western-style trousers and shirts with jackets and ties for formal occasions. Women who prefer to dress in African fashion wear long pieces of colorful cloth as skirts and wrapped around a dress. 12 • FOOD Farm produce and meat are abundant and provide excellent nutrition. Maize (corn) made into a thick porridge, called ugali , is the national dish of Kenya. (See recipe in article on Kenyans.) Ugali is eaten with meat, stews, or traditional greens known as sukuma wiki. Irio, a Gikuyu dish, is a mixture of the kernels from cooked green corn boiled with beans, potatoes, and chopped greens. In the past, beer brewing was a cooperative activity between men and women. Beer was made from sugarcane, maize, and millet. Gourds were used to contain the strained juices for fermenting. Today, bottled beverages generally have replaced traditional beer for daily and social consumption. Distilleries in Kenya provide an assortment of beer and soft drinks. Eating meat is standard for all ceremonial occasions. A popular meal, especially on Sundays, is nyama choma (roasted meat). Goat meat is the most popular choice, although it is more expensive than beef. Chicken is also a regular treat. In the past, the Gikuyu had a ceremonial calendar that involved feasting. Boiled and roasted meat were eaten on these occasions, and beer was the beverage of choice. Although the traditional ceremonial calendar is largely a thing of the past, Gikuyu maintain an intensely social existence involving regular attendance at funerals and weddings. These events are always accompanied by an abundant supply of meat and bottled beverages. 13 • EDUCATION Traditionally, children were taught through an educational process that began very early in the life cycle. Infants were sung lullabies emphasizing tribal values. As a child grew, he or she listened intently to tales, riddles, and proverbs having moral messages. Even after the advent of formal schools during the colonial era, a special time was set aside for the telling of folktales. In the past, boys played games emphasizing leadership roles that involved bows and arrows, spears, and slings to teach marksmanship skills. Girls cooked imaginary dishes and played at making pots and grinding grains. Dolls, made with local clay and grass, were also standard play items for girls. As children matured, boys were trained by their adult male relatives, and girls by their mothers, grandmothers, and older sisters. For example, boys were taught to differentiate large herds of cattle or goats by their color, size, and horn texture. Fathers and grandfathers also taught youngsters the boundaries of their land, techniques for preparing land for farming, and family genealogy. Mothers taught girls about crops, soils, weather and other significant details of food production. Today, the traditional informal educational system has been mostly replaced by formal education. In Kenya, including Gikuyuland, there has been an attempt in recent years to make formal education more sensitive to traditional values and knowledge. A hazard of teaching only modern subject matter is that traditional wisdom—such as, for example, knowledge about wild plants potentially edible during famine—becomes lost to future generations. Reaching a reasonable balance between the old and the new in the school curriculum is a constant challenge faced by Gikuyu educators. Harambee (which means "let's pull together") primary and secondary schools are being built throughout Gikuyuland and elsewhere in Kenya. The literacy rate (percentage of people able to read or write) in Kenya is about 50 percent, but it is lower in Gikuyuland. 14 • CULTURAL HERITAGE Music and dance, along with storytelling, were all emphasized in the past. Dancing by men and women was mandatory at initiation ceremonies, weddings, and other public events. People of all ages enjoyed dancing. There were three kinds of musical instruments in the past: drums, flutes, and rattles. The last were used for private pleasure, while drums and flutes were played publicly at dances. Song was woven into the fabric of everyday life. There were songs for babies; songs sung by girls while threshing millet; songs sung by boys while practicing archery; songs sung by families and community members during weddings and funerals; songs sung by community members and initiates during ceremonies; songs about everyday problems of life and love that were sung around the campfire; songs for drinking; songs about cultural heroes both past and present; and songs sung in praise of ancestors and the High God, Ngai. Written literature includes children's literature, which recount tribal stories and tales. One such book, titled Nyumba ya Mumbi, graphically illustrates the Gikuyu creation myth. Perhaps the most famous twentieth-century writer is Ngugi wa Thiong'o, whose many stories, plays, and novels have chronicled the Gikuyu struggle for national identity. 15 • EMPLOYMENT In the past, there was a very strong division of labor by gender. Nevertheless, men and women worked together as well as separately in tasks that complemented each other. Each woman had her own plots of land where she cultivated crops such as sweet potatoes, millet, maize (corn), and beans. Men were responsible for heavy labor, such as clearing the land and cutting down trees. Household tasks for women involved maintaining granaries and supervising the feeding of sheep, goats, and cows. A polygynous husband (one with multiple wives) had his own hut apart from his wives where he ate with friends or his children and was served food by his wives. On a daily basis, women, together with their children, collected firewood, water, and produce from the garden. There was also a division of labor by gender concerning industries. Some men were ironsmiths, manufacturing knives, arrowheads, bracelets, axes, hammers, spears, and other utilitarian tools. Only women were potters. Pottery provided for household needs. Women also excelled in making baskets. Men tended to specialize in skin tanning. The informal educational system of the Gikuyu involved children and young people learning economic tasks from adults and specialists through direct observation and often apprenticeship. Today, the Gikuyu remain intensely agricultural and devoted to their land. Cash crops are now significant, but the traditional division of agricultural labor is still very much in place. Through formal education and accumulation of private assets, many Gikuyu are now wealthy and enjoy affluent lifestyles. Professional occupations, as well as employment in factories and other working-class jobs, now differentiate the Gikuyu into social categories based on income. Nevertheless, among most Gikuyu, there is still a strong sense of ethnic solidarity and shared cultural heritage. 16 • SPORTS Throughout Gikuyuland, schools sponsor competitive sports for boys and girls. Spectators enjoy soccer (football) and track and field. In the past, Gikuyu boys enjoyed games such as wrestling, weightlifting, and club throwing. There were district mock fights pitting young boys from each area against their counterparts from elsewhere. Wrestling produced stars who were widely praised throughout the country. Girls played hide-and-seek and jumping games while still young, but became increasingly more involved with household responsibilities and marriage as they approached their midteen years. 17 • RECREATION Like other Kenyans, the Gikuyu enjoy watching television, listening to the radio, and going to movie theaters. Radio and television regularly feature tradtional Gikuyu material. People of all ages play a board game known as bao in which players attempt to capture the seeds of their opponents. The game involves a wooden board containing holes in which seeds are placed. A player seeks to capture his opponent's seeds using a complex strategy whereby his opponent's seeds end up on his side of the board. This indigenous (native) African game of strategy is widespread in Africa and is now played elsewhere in the world. 18 • CRAFTS AND HOBBIES Traditional industries and crafts have been largely replaced by tourist and commercial markets. The most notable traditional activity still in existence is basket making, which is done by women. The Gikuyu kiondo (basket) is now popular in Europe and America, where it is widely used by students as a handbag or bookbag. The kiondo is a knitted basket made in various shapes, colors, and sizes. These baskets are knitted from strings gathered from shrubs. They are sometimes decorated with Gikuyu geometric designs. Another traditional folk art is the manufacture of figurines made from local materials such as clay, discarded wire, and grass. They depict scenes from solitary or communal daily life such as children playing, elders in various kinds of clothing, people dancing, bicycling, and singing. 19 • SOCIAL PROBLEMS Perhaps the primary social problem of the Gikuyu is how best to manage their comparative success in Kenyan commerce and politics. The Gikuyu are often opposed by groups trying to lessen the political power they hold by virtue of their large population and their relative wealth among Kenya's ethnic groups. The Gikuyu have expanded into regions outside of their central highlands homeland. Many Gikuyu, therefore, are now wealthy "immigrants," seen by groups elsewhere in Kenya as intruders and landgrabbers. Problems in Kenya as a whole include alcoholism and the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Consumption of alcoholic beverages is common. This combines with poorly maintained roads to produce one of the highest rates of accidental death due to driving anywhere in the world. 20 • BIBLIOGRPAHY Arnold, Gay. Modern Kenya. New York: Longman, 1981. Dinesen, Isak. Out of Africa. New York: Random House, 1972. Kenya in Pictures. Minneapolis, Minn.: Lerner Publications Co., 1988. Presley, Cora Ann. Kikuyu Women, the Mau Mau Rebellion, and Social Change in Kenya. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992. Stein, R. Kenya . Chicago: Children's Press, 1985. Themes in Kenyan History. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1990. Webb, Lois Sinaiko. Holidays of the World Cookbook for Students. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx, 1995.

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Conlangs are classified into types and subtypes based mainly on why they are created. The three basic types are engelangs (engineered languages), auxlangs (auxiliary languages), and artlangs (artistic languages). Whatever your reason for making a language, it's good to keep always in mind why you started it in the first place. - 1 Engineered languages - 2 Auxiliary languages - 3 Artistic languages - 4 Other ways of classifying conlangs Engelangs, sometimes called englangs, are conlangs designed to meet objective criteria, rather than subjective goals like "elegance" or "ease of use". For example, one might design an engelang so that the arrangement of sounds in a word classifies its meaning; or so that its grammatical structure imitates formal logic; or so that its expressions conform to a certain ideology or point of view (say, Taoism, or feminism). Subjective goals are always around — motivating the choice of objective criteria, and filling in gaps in the language design that the objective criteria don't address. As long as the technical criteria take precedence when deciding features of the language design, it's an engelang. Be aware (and beware) that the names for this type of conlang and its subtypes vary a bit across the conlanging community. What we're calling engelangs here, some conlangers call loglangs (a term we're using just for the ones that implement formal logic); and some other conlangers call them philosophical languages (a term we're using for a subtype of engelangs distinct from loglangs). Loglangs are conlangs built around the structure of formal logic. They are usually designed to investigate how the human mind would work when using a language with that structure. Logical languages tend to have few or no irregularities and be similar in style to computer programming or markup languages. They advocate a logical and consistent architectural structure of utterances. Lojban, a language created to test the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis (the idea that language shapes the operation of the mind), is considered archetypal of the genre. Others are like Ithkuil, a language created by John Quijada: Ithkuil exists as an exercise in how human languages could function. These often overlap with philosophical languages. Some examples of loglangs: - — developed in the mid-twentieth century, originally as a tool with which to test the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis. - — a community-driven offshoot of Loglan. Its development is ongoing. - Ceqli — originally inspired by Loglan, then took a turn toward the naturalistic. - — a knowledge representation language, for an attempt to create artificial intelligence through vast accumulation of knowledge. - — intended to express thoughts precisely and densely. Philosophical languages are conlangs constructed to meet some philosophical goal. This goal can be to explore how the mind works by altering the fundamental structure of the language (which is the aim of some loglangs, such as Ithkuil), or it can be to see if language is even possible when certain elements are changed. In general, philosophical languages are experimental. In some of them, for example, all the words for manmade objects (artifacts) will typically begin with the same letter, t for instance, all the words for pieces of furniture will begin with to-, the word for "chair" will be tod, words for different types of chairs will begin with tod-, organisms will begin with v, plant species will begin with ve- while animals begin with vu-, all vertebrates will begin with vuz-, mammals with vuzu- and rodents with vuzum-. A common criticism of languages that use such a word categorization system is that the words that are most similar in meaning and topic, and will therefore most need to be distinguished from each other, will sound too alike, and become too confusable to learn, even though the goal of these languages is usually to make memorization easier. In a few of these languages a single phoneme or very short (two-letter) syllable will indicate an element of meaning, such as "light/vision", "female", or "many". Some examples of philosophical languages: - Wilkins' philosophical language — seventeenth century classification language. It has been described as paving the way for Roget's Thesaurus. - aUI — 1960s. Each sound has a meaning, and the meanings of words are built up from the meanings of the sounds. - Ro — early twentieth century classification language. One of its supporters was Melvil Dewey, creator of the Dewey Decimal System. - Ygyde — twenty-first century. Two-letter morphemes carry meaning, and longer words are built up as compounds. - Toki Pona — twenty-first century. Designed to facilitate Taoist thinking. Very few words with no inflections and uncomplicated meanings, and very simple grammar. Auxlangs are designed to help ease communication between two or more linguistically diverse communities. They use simple phonology and grammar to try to make them easy to learn. Their grammars are made in such a way as to express the widest range of meanings possible. There are many Auxlangs, and some of them were among the first constructed languages ever made. Some examples of auxlangs: - Esperanto — probably the most widely known auxlang. It includes words from languages of several Indo-European branches and has a highly developed system of word derivation. - Volapük — the most successful auxlang prior to Esperanto. Its vocabulary is derived from Germanic roots. - Ido — derived from Esperanto, separating in an event called the schism (or even the Great Schism) from which resentments have not entirely faded more than a century later. Ido uses a Romance-derived vocabulary. - Latino sine flexione — based on Latin without inflections. - Novial — based on modern West European languages. - Solresol — based on the musical scale. It can be sung and played. Many auxlangs borrow their vocabulary entirely from the Indo-European languages — often from a mix of Romance and Germanic languages, but most often entirely from Romance languages. As a result, the vocabulary and general method of reaching the goal of universality sound a lot alike from auxlang to auxlang. These auxlangs are often called "Euroclones". More recent auxlangs that take their vocabulary from more diverse sources and use non-Indo-European grammar include Vorlin, Ceqli, Ilomi, and SASXSEK. Artlangs are created for a wide range of reasons: fleshing out works of fiction, fun, experimentation, or even historical study (colloquially called "if-langs"). Most people who create artlangs do so simply because they enjoy it. The artlangs best known today are probably Klingon, created for the Star Trek franchise by professional linguist Marc Okrand, and the many Elvish languages, most notably Quenya and Sindarin, in Tolkien's Middle-earth. The most familiar and general subset of artlangs are fictional languages. These are spoken by the inhabitants of the fictional worlds of a book, movie, television show, video game, comic, or toy, such as Middle-earth, the Star Trek universe, or the game Myst. These worlds in which they are spoken are called conworlds, inhabited by fictional concultures. The conworld influences what words the language will have for flora and fauna, articles of clothing, foods, objects of technology (such as bricks, cannons, or telephones), sports, music genres, ethnic groups, religious concepts, and place names. The culture will also have an influence on some things like verb tenses (how your people view the future and the past, or whether time should even be grammatically indicated at all any more than place should), pronouns (whether the speakers need fine enough shades of "we" to distinguish the concept of "you and I" from "he and I", or whether they have different levels of formality for "you"), and how kinship terms are split up (some languages have different words for older and younger brothers, others do not distinguish "brother" from "sister", and some have different words for the sister of a sister and the sister of a brother). Tolkien started out inventing languages for his amusement and then retroengineered a fictional universe to have a world in which these languages would be spoken. Since the Internet became popular, many people have now become able to put up information on their conlangs and associated conworlds on their sites, and these have become famous. Verdurian, the language of Mark Rosenfelder's Verduria on the planet of Almea, is often invoked as a symbolic representative of these Net-based fictional languages. Some examples of fictional languages: - Klingon — created for the Star Trek franchise by linguist Marc Okrand; meant to have a harsh sound, but be pronounceable by actors, and to reflect a suitably bellicose worldview. - Na'vi language — created for the movie Avatar by professor Paul Frommer; meant to fit the film concept, and be pronounceable by actors, but not sound like any particular human language. - — described in George Orwell's novel 1984; supposed to prevent dissident thoughts by not allowing them to be expressed. - Quenya and Sindarin — the most prominent of J.R.R. Tolkien's Elvish languages; designed to Tolkien's personal taste. He created Middle-earth as background for the languages. - Verdurian — created by Mark Rosenfelder for a Dungeons & Dragons world; borrows from various European languages, but doesn't closely resemble any of them. Altlangs are also known as What if? languages or if-langs. They speculate on an alternate history and try to reconstruct how a family of natural languages would have evolved if things had been different. What if King Harold had won the Battle of Hastings? What if the Polynesians had settled in Central America during the time of Meso-American Empires? What if Alexander the Great had not been able to conquer Egypt? What if Greek civilization went on to thrive without a Roman Empire, leaving Greek and not Latin to develop several modern descendants? The language that would have evolved is then traced step by step in its evolution, to reach its final form. The revered grandfather of this genre is Andrew Smith's Brithenig, which attempts to determine what Romance languages would have evolved into had the Romans displaced the Celtic people in Great Britain. The vocabulary of Latin is altered through the same evolution that befell Welsh from the evolution of the Celtic languages through the present day. An altlang will typically base itself on the core vocabulary of one language and the phonology of another. An altlang will ideally have meticulous understanding and admirable imagination as to world history, sturdy knowledge of linguistics, and ingenious improvising when it becomes necessary to "toss it up". Some examples of altlangs: - — might have evolved if Latin had displaced the native Celtic language in Great Britain. - — might have evolved if the Romans had conquered Poland. Personal languages are languages that are created by and belong just to the inventor, for just the inventor to see, or perhaps to show off. A personal language is created for the ultimate purpose of creating a language. There is no conworld it is associated with, no people whom the creator actually expects to speak it, no product that will be manufactured in its language. A personal language is considered by many to be artlanging in its purest form, although a personal language may well have no artistic intention behind it. A personal language may be invented to create a beautiful language or for self-expression. It may be invented to give out a tribute to a language or language family the creator really likes, attempting to capture the flavor of the original as much as possible, or it may be created just for the fun that there is in creating a language. Personal languages are often created as practices in linguistics; a conlanger learning about ergativity might write out the grammar of an ergative conlang in order to understand how ergative languages work. Some exist to test outlandish phonologies or orthographic systems, or have hundreds of noun cases or tens of millions of possible verb forms. Many are invented simply because people love constructing languages! The creators of personal languages often share their languages and update their progress over the Internet, and many habitually scrap an old conlang project that hasn't gotten beyond a lexicon of 50 words and start a new one. These personal languages tend to have short lifespans, but others are developed for years on end as their creators try to become truly fluent in them, perhaps using them for diaries and other writings. Some artlangs are micronational languages — like fictional languages, but their creators make them real. They declare territory, issue official flags and currency, and recruit citizens, then have the citizens learn the language. These are the languages of micronations, sometimes created for entertainment, but often breakaway nations that are created for political purposes, declaring themselves to exist alongside UN-recognized nations (such as Sealand, the Conch Republic, or Atlantium). The members of these micronations meet up and speak the language they have learned when they are participating in these meets. The language and its creation belong to all the citizens of these micronations. They determine the direction of its evolution, invent new grammatical constructions when they discover it is necessary, and coin new words as they speak. Some examples of micronational languages: Other ways of classifying conlangs The three broad kinds of goals we've described — technical features, cross-cultural communication, and art — aren't mutually exclusive. What if your goal is to see whether a certain technical goal can be successfully combined with your personal aesthetics? Is that an engelang or an artlang? Liva is a conlang with just that sort of goals, and its author has suggested that conlangs should be placed on the interior of a triangle, with the three pure types of conlangs at its corners (see here). Even if a conlang has a single, pure primary goal, there are enough details in any conlang that the primary goal probably doesn't cover all of them. Auxlangs have some artistry in their making — it's been argued that artistic merit is part of why Esperanto has succeeded so much better than its competitors. Engelangs may have some artistry in them, too; and artlangs often have some technical aspirations lurking under the surface. A particular class of mixed-goal conlangs with its own name is the fauxlangs, short for fictional auxlangs. These are supposed auxlangs created by characters in a fictional setting, often in an alternative history. Examples include - Rex May's Texperanto — created by L.L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, in an alternative history where he emigrated to the Republic of Texas. - At one time, Ray Brown's το άνευ κλίσι Ελληνικό ("Greek without inflections") was a fauxlang — the analog, in an alternative history where Alexander the Great conquered Rome, of Giuseppe Peano's 1903 auxlang Latino sine Flexione. It was revised a few years ago, though, to be more of an englang because the fictional setting was found too limiting. A relex is a conlang generated from a pre-existing language by replacing the forms of the words, while leaving most of the rest of the original language unchanged — especially, - the exact meanings of the words from the original language, and/or - the grammar of the original language. With both of these unchanged, the conlang is a sort of word-replacement code for the original language. By extension, relex is sometimes used as a broad criticism of any conlang seen as too closely copying another language. The largest class of relexes are (by reputation, at least) artlangs whose authors failed to notice that they were copying most of the look and feel of their native language. Not all relexes are artlangs, though, and not all are unintentional. Auxlangs Speedwords and Glosa have both been criticized as relexes of English. The loglang started as a deliberate relex of , since which their grammars and vocabularies have gradually diverged as both languages underwent further development (see here). Some relexes may be used for specific purposes, for example, the Israeli miltary uses a relex of Hebrew called "NADBAR". The conlanging term relex is a shortening of the term relexification, borrowed and adapted from linguistics proper. The linguistic term has a narrower meaning: in linguistic, a pre-existing language keeps its grammar but replaces its vocabulary from another pre-existing language. The language from which the vocabulary is taken is called the lexifier. A priori and a posteriori Particular features of a conlang can be a posteriori — meaning borrowed from natural languages, rather than invented — or a priori, meaning invented rather than borrowed from natural languages. These terms are most often used to describe the forms of words, as with thewords toki, from the English word talk, and pona, from Latin bona (good). An entire conlang may also be described as a priori/posteriori if most of its grammar and vocabulary are of that type. A conlang described as a posteriori usually borrows from several, or even many, different natlangs; relexes are not normally called a posteriori. Classification-based vocabulary is an a priori strategy that has been used in a number of engelangs (e.g.,) and some auxlangs (e.g., ). Most auxlangs make extensive use of a posteriori vocabulary. A diachronic conlang is equipped with an internal, i.e., fictional, linguistic history. Since the internal history is fictional, all diachronic conlangs are artlangs; but most subtypes of artlangs include both diachronic and non-diachronic (synchronic) languages. Tolkien's Elvish languages are the most famous example of diachronic conlanging, with an entire family of languages descended from a common ancestor,. Many artlangs, though by no means all, have at least some suggestions of internal history about them, even if no parent language has been fully worked out. Altlangs are diachronic, by definition. Kitchen sink languages A kitchen sink conlang is one that has way too many exotic features, all at once for no apparent reason — "everything including the kitchen sink" in an uncoordinated mishmash. Unlike relex, kitchen sink has no neutral technical sense; it's always a strong term of opprobrium. Kitchen sink languages are at the opposite end of a spectrum from relexes: where too little tinkering can produce a relex (that lacks interest), too much tinkering can produce a kitchen sink language (that lacks plausibility). It has been suggested that a conlanger's second conlang — after they've made a relex for their first — is often a kitchen sink language; but even experienced conlangers, tempted by the lure of exotic features, can sometimes fall into the trap of kitchen-sink-ism. Caution should also be exercised, though, in applying the term kitchen sink to a conlang — not only because it's such a strong term, but because just having many unusual features doesn't necessarily make it a kitchen sink language (which is why the term is so strong). For proper use of the term, the many unusual features should be unjustified; in principle, at least, it's possible for many unusual features to occur in a smoothly coherent design, so that they all feel quite natural in context. The catch is that — as David Peterson remarked when awarding the 2007 Smiley Award to , a highly respected conlang with several unusual features — there is a double standard at work between natlangs and conlangs: any bizarre features of a natlang are natural by definition, but the same features in a conlang would have to persuade on their own merits. His case in point is , a natlang with no way of expressing time; no way of counting; a culture with no storytelling, oral history, or art; it can be spoken, whistled, hummed, or drummed; and it has different phonologies for men and women. If it were a conlang instead of a natlang, its creator would have a hard time passing it off as naturalistic.

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African American literature 2008/9 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Literature types African American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. The genre traces its origins to the works of such late 18th century writers as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano, reaching early high points with slave narratives and the Harlem Renaissance, and continuing today with authors such as Toni Morrison, Maya Angelou and Walter Mosley being ranked among the top writers in the United States. Among the themes and issues explored in African American literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and equality. African American writing has also tended to incorporate within itself oral forms such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues and rap. As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, so, too, have the foci of African American literature. Before the American Civil War, African American literature primarily focused on the issue of slavery, as indicated by the subgenre of slave narratives. At the turn of the 20th century, books by authors such as W.E.B. DuBois and Booker T. Washington debated whether to confront or appease racist attitudes in the United States. During the American Civil Rights movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. Today, African American literature has become accepted as an integral part of American literature, with books such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Colour Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Toni Morrison achieving both best-selling and award-winning status. Characteristics and themes In broad terms, African American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States of America. However, just as African American history and life is extremely varied, so too is African American literature. That said, African American literature has generally focused on themes of particular interest to Black people in the United States, such as the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American studies, including African American literature, "speaks to the deeper meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom, democracy, equality, the inclusiveness of all." As such, it can be said that African American Literature explores the very issues of freedom and equality which were long denied to Black people in the United States, along with further themes such as African American culture, racism, religion, slavery, a sense of home. and more. African American literature constitutes a vital branch of the literature of the African diaspora, with African American literature both being influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and in turn influencing African diasporic writings in many countries. In addition, African American literature exists within the larger realm of post-colonial literature, even though scholars draw a distinctive line between the two by stating that "African American literature differs from most post-colonial literature in that it is written by members of a minority community who reside within a nation of vast wealth and economic power." African American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, African American gospel music, blues and rap. This oral poetry also appears in the African American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence and alliteration. African American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry. However, while these characteristics and themes exist on many levels of African American literature, they are not the exclusive definition of the genre and don't exist within all works within the genre. In addition, there is resistance to using Western literary theory to analyze African American literature. As Henry Louis Gates, Jr., one of the most important African American literary scholars, once said, "My desire has been to allow the black tradition to speak for itself about its nature and various functions, rather than to read it, or analyze it, in terms of literary theories borrowed whole from other traditions, appropriated from without." Early African American literature Just as African American history predates the emergence of the United States as an independent country, so too does African American literature have similarly deep roots. Lucy Terry is the author of the oldest piece of African American literature known which was "Bars Fight", 1746. This poem was not published until 1855 in Josiah Holland's "History of Western Massachusetts". Also, Briton Hammon's "The Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprising Deliverence of Briton Hammon, A Negro Man", 1760. Poet Phillis Wheatley (1753–84), who published her book Poems on Various Subjects in 1773, three years before American independence. Born in Senegal, Africa, Wheatley was captured and sold into slavery at the age of seven. Brought to America, she was owned by a Boston merchant. Even though she initially spoke no English, by the time she was sixteen she had mastered the language. Her poetry was praised by many of the leading figures of the American Revolution, including George Washington, who personally thanked her for a poem she wrote in his honour. Despite this, many white people found it hard to believe that a Black woman could be so intelligent as to write poetry. As a result, Wheatley had to defend herself in court by proving she actually wrote her own poetry. Some critics cite Wheatley's successful defense as the first recognition of African American literature. Another early African American author was Jupiter Hammon (1711–1806?). Hammon, considered the first published Black writer in America, published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" as a broadside in early 1761. In 1778 he wrote an ode to Phillis Wheatley, in which he discussed their shared humanity and common bonds. In 1786, Hammon gave his well-known Address to the Negroes of the State of New York. Hammon wrote the speech at age seventy-six after a lifetime of slavery and it contains his famous quote, "If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves." Hammon's speech also promoted the idea of a gradual emancipation as a way of ending slavery. It is thought that Hammon stated this plan because he knew that slavery was so entrenched in American society that an immediate emancipation of all slaves would be difficult to achieve. Hammon apparently remained a slave until his death. His speech was later reprinted by several groups opposed to slavery. William Wells Brown (1814–84) and Victor Séjour (1817–74) produced the earliest works of fiction by African American writers. Séjour was born free in New Orleans and moved to France at the age of 19. There he published his short story " Le Mulâtre" ("The Mulatto") in 1837; the story represents the first known fiction by an African American, but written in French and published in a French journal, it had apparently no influence on later American literature. Séjour never returned to African American themes in his subsequent works. Brown, on the other hand, was a prominent abolitionist, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian. Born into slavery in the Southern United States, Brown escaped to the North, where he worked for abolitionist causes and was a prolific writer. Brown wrote what is considered to be the first novel by an African American, Clotel; or, The President's Daughter (1853). The novel is based on what was at that time considered to be a rumor about Thomas Jefferson fathering a daughter with his slave, Sally Hemings. However, because the novel was published in England, the book is not considered the first African American novel published in the United States. This honour instead goes to Harriet Wilson, whose novel Our Nig (1859) details the difficult lives of Northern free Blacks. A subgenre of African American literature which began in the middle of the 19th century is the slave narrative. At the time, the controversy over slavery led to impassioned literature on both sides of the issue, with books like Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) representing the abolitionist view of the evils of slavery, while the so-called Anti-Tom literature by white, southern writers like William Gilmore Simms represented the pro-slavery viewpoint. To present the true reality of slavery, a number of former slaves such as Harriet Jacobs and Frederick Douglass wrote slave narratives, which soon became a mainstay of African American literature. Some six thousand former slaves from North America and the Caribbean wrote accounts of their lives, with about 150 of these published as separate books or pamphlets. Slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the abolitionist struggle are the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. Many of them are now recognized as the most literary of all 19th-century writings by African Americans, with two of the best-known being Frederick Douglass's autobiography and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Jacobs (1861). While Frederick Douglass (c. 1818–95) first came to public attention as an orator and as the author of his autobiographical slave narrative, he eventually became the most prominent African American of his time and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history. Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass eventually escaped and worked for numerous abolitionist causes. He also edited a number of newspapers. Douglass' best-known work is his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, which was published in 1845. At the time some critics attacked the book, not believing that a black man could have written such an eloquent work. Despite this, the book was an immediate bestseller. Douglas later revised and expanded his autobiography, which was republished as My Bondage and My Freedom (1855). In addition to serving in a number of political posts during his life, he also wrote numerous influential articles and essays. After the end of slavery and the American Civil War, a number of African American authors continued to write nonfiction works about the condition of African Americans in the country. Among the most prominent of these writers is W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963), one of the original founders of the NAACP. At the turn of the century, Du Bois published a highly influential collection of essays titled The Souls of Black Folk. The book's essays on race were groundbreaking and drew from DuBois's personal experiences to describe how African Americans lived in American society. The book contains Du Bois's famous quote: "The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colour-line." Du Bois believed that African Americans should, because of their common interests, work together to battle prejudice and inequity. Another prominent author of this time period is Booker T. Washington (1856–1915), who in many ways represented opposite views from Du Bois. Washington was an educator and the founder of the Tuskegee Institute, a Black college in Alabama. Among his published works are Up From Slavery (1901), The Future of the American Negro (1899), Tuskegee and Its People (1905), and My Larger Education (1911). In contrast to Du Bois, who adopted a more confrontational attitude toward ending racial strife in America, Washington believed that Blacks should first lift themselves up and prove themselves the equal of whites before asking for an end to racism. While this viewpoint was popular among some Blacks (and many whites) at the time, Washington's political views would later fall out of fashion. A third writer who gained attention during this period in the US, though not a US citizen, was the Jamaican Marcus Garvey (1887–1940), a newspaper publisher, journalist, and crusader for Pan Africanism through his organization the UNIA. He encouraged people of African ancestry to look favorably upon their ancestral homeland. He wrote a number of essays published as editorials in the UNIA house organ the Negro World newspaper. Some of his lecture material and other writings were compiled and published as nonfiction books by his second wife Amy Jacques Garvey as the Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey Or, Africa for the Africans (1924) and More Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey (1977). Paul Lawrence Dunbar, who often wrote in the rural, black dialect of the day, was the first African American poet to gain national prominence. His first book of poetry, Oak and Ivy, was published in 1893. Much of Dunbar's work, such as When Malindy Sings (1906), which includes photographs taken by the Hampton Institute Camera Club, and Joggin' Erlong (1906) provide revealing glimpses into the lives of rural African-Americans of the day. Though Dunbar died young, he was a prolific poet, essayist, novelist (among them The Uncalled, 1898 and The Fanatics, 1901) and short story writer. Even though Du Bois, Washington, and Garvey were the leading African American intellectuals and authors of their time, other African American writers also rose to prominence. Among these is Charles W. Chesnutt, a well-known essayist. The Harlem Renaissance from 1920 to 1940 brought new attention to African American literature. While the Harlem Renaissance, based in the African American community in Harlem in New York City, existed as a larger flowering of social thought and culture—with numerous Black artists, musicians, and others producing classic works in fields from jazz to theatre—the renaissance is perhaps best known for the literature that came out of it. Among the most famous writers of the renaissance is poet Langston Hughes. Hughes first received attention in the 1922 poetry collection, The Book of American Negro Poetry. This book, edited by James Weldon Johnson, featured the work of the period's most talented poets (including, among others, Claude McKay, who also published three novels, Home to Harlem, Banjo and Banana Bottom and a collection of short stories). In 1926, Hughes published a collection of poetry, The Weary Blues, and in 1930 a novel, Not Without Laughter. Perhaps, Hughes' most famous poem is "The Negro Speaks of Rivers," which he wrote as a young teen. His single, most recognized character is Jesse B. Simple, a plainspoken, pragmatic Harlemite whose comedic observations appeared in Hughes's columns for the Chicago Defender and the New York Post. Simple Speaks His Mind (1950) is, perhaps, the best-known collection of Simple stories published in book form. Until his death in 1967, Hughes published nine volumes of poetry, eight books of short stories, two novels, and a number of plays, children's books, and translations. Another famous writer of the renaissance is novelist Zora Neale Hurston, author of the classic novel Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937). Altogether, Hurston wrote 14 books which ranged from anthropology to short stories to novel-length fiction. Because of Hurston's gender and the fact that her work was not seen as socially or politically relevant, her writings fell into obscurity for decades. Hurston's work was rediscovered in the 1970s in a famous essay by Alice Walker, who found in Hurston a role model for all female African American writers. While Hurston and Hughes are the two most influential writers to come out of the Harlem Renaissance, a number of other writers also became well known during this period. They include Jean Toomer, who wrote Cane, a famous collection of stories, poems, and sketches about rural and urban Black life, and Dorothy West, author of the novel The Living is Easy, which examined the life of an upper-class Black family. Another popular renaissance writer is Countee Cullen, who described everyday black life in his poems (such as a trip he made to Baltimore, which was ruined by a racial insult). Cullen's books include the poetry collections Colour (1925), Copper Sun (1927), and The Ballad of the Brown Girl (1927). Frank Marshall Davis's poetry collections Black Man's Verse (1935) and I am the American Negro (1937), published by Black Cat Press, earned him critical acclaim. Author Wallace Thurman also made an impact with his novel The Blacker the Berry: A Novel of Negro Life (1929), which focused on intraracial prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point for African American literature. Prior to this time, books by African Americans were primarily read by other Black people. With the renaissance, though, African American literature—as well as black fine art and performance art—began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture. Civil Rights Movement era A large migration of African Americans began during World War I, hitting its high point during World War II. During this Great Migration, Black people left the racism and lack of opportunities in the American South and settled in northern cities like Chicago, where they found work in factories and other sectors of the economy. This migration produced a new sense of independence in the Black community and contributed to the vibrant Black urban culture seen during the Harlem Renaissance. The migration also empowered the growing American Civil Rights movement, which made a powerful impression on Black writers during the 1940s, '50s and '60s. Just as Black activists were pushing to end segregation and racism and create a new sense of Black nationalism, so too were Black authors attempting to address these issues with their writings. One of the first writers to do so was James Baldwin, whose work addressed issues of race and sexuality. Baldwin, who is best known for his novel Go Tell It on the Mountain, wrote deeply personal stories and essays while examining what it was like to be both Black and homosexual at a time when neither of these identities was accepted by American culture. In all, Baldwin wrote nearly 20 books, including such classics as Another Country and The Fire Next Time. Baldwin's idol and friend was author Richard Wright, whom Baldwin called "the greatest Black writer in the world for me". Wright is best known for his novel Native Son (1940), which tells the story of Bigger Thomas, a Black man struggling for acceptance in Chicago. Baldwin was so impressed by the novel that he titled a collection of his own essays Notes of a Native Son, in reference to Wright's novel. However, their friendship fell apart due to one of the book's essays, "Everybody's Protest Novel," which criticized Native Son for lacking credible characters and psychological complexity. Among Wright's other books are the autobiographical novel Black Boy (1945), The Outsider (1953), and White Man, Listen! (1957). The other great novelist of this period is Ralph Ellison, best known for his novel Invisible Man (1952), which won the National Book Award in 1953. Even though Ellison did not complete another novel during his lifetime, Invisible Man was so influential that it secured his place in literary history. After Ellison's death in 1994, a second novel, Juneteenth (1999), was pieced together from the 2,000-plus pages he had written over 40 years. A fuller version of the manuscript will be published as Three Days Before the Shooting (2008). Jones, Edward " The Known World", 2003 Carter Stephen, "New England White" 2007 Wright W.D. "Crisis of the Black Intellectual",2007 The Civil Rights time period also saw the rise of female Black poets, most notably Gwendolyn Brooks, who became the first African American to win the Pulitzer Prize when it was awarded for her 1949 book of poetry, Annie Allen. Along with Brooks, other female poets who became well known during the 1950s and '60s are Nikki Giovanni and Sonia Sanchez. During this time, a number of playwrights also came to national attention, notably Lorraine Hansberry, whose play A Raisin in the Sun focuses on a poor Black family living in Chicago. The play won the 1959 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. Another playwright who gained attention was Amiri Baraka, who wrote controversial off-Broadway plays. In more recent years, Baraka has become known for his poetry and music criticism. It is also worth noting that a number of important essays and books about human rights were written by the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. One of the leading examples of these is Martin Luther King, Jr's " Letter from Birmingham Jail". Beginning in the 1970s, African American literature reached the mainstream as books by Black writers continually achieved best-selling and award-winning status. This was also the time when the work of African American writers began to be accepted by academia as a legitimate genre of American literature. As part of the larger Black Arts Movement, which was inspired by the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements, African American literature began to be defined and analyzed. A number of scholars and writers are generally credited with helping to promote and define African American literature as a genre during this time period, including fiction writers Toni Morrison and Alice Walker and poet James Emanuel. James Emanuel took a major step toward defining African American literature when he edited (with Theodore Gross) Dark Symphony: Negro Literature in America, the first collection of black writings released by a major publisher. This anthology, and Emanuel's work as an educator at the City College of New York (where he is credited with introducing the study of African-American poetry), heavily influenced the birth of the genre. Other influential African American anthologies of this time included Black Fire: An Anthology of Afro-American Writing, edited by LeRoi Jones (now known as Amiri Baraka) and Larry Neal in 1968 and The Negro Caravan, co-edited by Sterling Brown, Arthur P. Davis and Ulysses Lee in 1969. Toni Morrison, meanwhile, helped promote Black literature and authors when she worked as an editor for Random House in the 1960s and '70s, where she edited books by such authors as Toni Cade Bambara and Gayl Jones. Morrison herself would later emerge as one of the most important African American writers of the 20th century. Her first novel, The Bluest Eye, was published in 1970. Among her most famous novels is Beloved, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1988. This story describes a slave who found freedom but killed her infant daughter to save her from a life of slavery. Another important novel is Song of Solomon, a tale about materialism and brotherhood. Morrison is the first African American woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. In the 1970s novelist and poet Alice Walker wrote a famous essay that brought Zora Neale Hurston and her classic novel Their Eyes Were Watching God back to the attention of the literary world. In 1982, Walker won both the Pulitzer Prize and the American Book Award for her novel The Colour Purple. An epistolary novel (a book written in the form of letters), The Colour Purple tells the story of Celie, a young woman who is sexually abused by her stepfather and then is forced to marry a man who physically abuses her. The novel was later made into a film by Steven Spielberg. The 1970s also saw African American books topping the bestseller lists. Among the first books to do so was Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley. The book, a fictionalized account of Haley's family history—beginning with the kidnapping of Haley's ancestor Kunta Kinte in Gambia through his life as a slave in the United States—won the Pulitzer Prize and became a popular television miniseries. Haley also wrote The Autobiography of Malcolm X in 1965. Other important writers in recent years include literary fiction writers Gayl Jones, Rasheed Clark, Ishmael Reed, Jamaica Kincaid, Randall Kenan, and John Edgar Wideman. African American poets have also garnered attention. Maya Angelou read a poem at Bill Clinton's inauguration, Rita Dove won a Pulitzer Prize and served as Poet Laureate of the United States from 1993 to 1995, and Cyrus Cassells's Soul Make a Path through Shouting was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize in 1994. Cassells is a recipient of the William Carlos Williams Award. Lesser-known poets like Thylias Moss, and Natasha Trethewey also have been praised for their innovative work. Notable black playwrights include Ntozake Shange, who wrote For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide When the Rainbow Is Enuf; Ed Bullins; Suzan-Lori Parks; and the prolific August Wilson, who won two Pulitzer Prizes for his plays. Most recently, Edward P. Jones won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for The Known World, his novel about a black slaveholder in the antebellum South. Young African American novelists include Edwidge Danticat, David Anthony Durham, Tayari Jones, Mat Johnson, ZZ Packer and Colson Whitehead, just to name a few. African American literature has also crossed over to genre fiction. A pioneer in this area is Chester Himes, who in the 1950s and '60s wrote a series of pulp fiction detective novels featuring "Coffin" Ed Johnson and "Gravedigger" Jones, two New York City police detectives. Himes paved the way for the later crime novels of Walter Mosley and Hugh Holton. African Americans are also represented in the genres of science fiction, fantasy and horror, with Samuel R. Delany, Octavia E. Butler, Steven Barnes, Tananarive Due, Robert Fleming, Brandon Massey, Charles R. Saunders, John Ridley, John M. Faucette, Sheree Thomas and Nalo Hopkinson being just a few of the well-known authors. Finally, African American literature has gained added attention through the work of talk show host Oprah Winfrey, who repeatedly has leveraged her fame to promote literature through the medium of her Oprah's Book Club. At times, she has brought African American writers a far broader audience than they otherwise might have received. While African American literature is well accepted in the United States, there are numerous views on its significance, traditions, and theories. To the genre's supporters, African American literature arose out of the experience of Blacks in the United States, especially with regards to historic racism and discrimination, and is an attempt to refute the dominant culture's literature and power. In addition, supporters see the literature existing both within and outside American literature and as helping to revitalize the country's writing. To critics, African American literature is part of a Balkanization of American literature. In addition, there are some within the African American community who do not like how their own literature sometimes showcases Black people. Refuting the dominant literary culture Throughout American history, African Americans have been discriminated against and subject to racist attitudes. This experience inspired some Black writers, at least during the early years of African American literature, to prove they were the equals of European American authors. As Henry Louis Gates, Jr, has said, "it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture." However, by refuting the claims of the dominant culture, African American writers weren't simply "proving their worth"—they were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Scholars expressing this view assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male activity." This means that, in American society, literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the African diaspora, African American literature thereby broke "the mystique of connection between literary authority and patriarchal power." This view of African American literature as a tool in the struggle for Black political and cultural liberation has been stated for decades, perhaps most famously by W.E.B DuBois. Existing both inside and outside American literature According to James Madison University English professor Joanne Gabbin, African American literature exists both inside and outside American literature. "Somehow African American literature has been relegated to a different level, outside American literature, yet it is an integral part," she says. This view of African American literature is grounded in the experience of Black people in the United States. Even though African Americans have long claimed an American identity, during most of United States history they were not accepted as full citizens and were actively discriminated against. As a result, they were part of America while also outside it. The same can be said for African American literature. While it exists fully within the framework of a larger American literature, it also exists as its own entity. As a result, new styles of storytelling and unique voices are created in isolation. The benefit of this is that these new styles and voices can leave their isolation and help revitalize the larger literary world (McKay, 2004). This artistic pattern has held true with many aspects of African American culture over the last century, with jazz and hip hop being just two artistic examples that developed in isolation within the Black community before reaching a larger audience and eventually revitalizing American culture. Whether African American literature will keep to this pattern in the coming years remains to be seen. Since the genre is already popular with mainstream audiences, it is possible that its ability to develop new styles and voices—or to remain "authentic," in the words of some critics—may be a thing of the past. Balkanization of American literature? Despite these views, some conservative academics and intellectuals argue that African American literature only exists as part of a balkanization of literature over the last few decades or as an extension of the culture wars into the field of literature. According to these critics, literature is splitting into distinct and separate groupings because of the rise of identity politics in the United States and other parts of the world. These critics reject bringing identity politics into literature because this would mean that "only women could write about women for women, and only Blacks about Blacks for Blacks." People opposed to this group-based approach to writing say that it limits the ability of literature to explore the overall human condition and, more importantly, judges ethnic writers merely on the basis of their race. These critics reject this judgment and say it defies the meaning of works like Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man, in which Ellison's main character is invisible because people see him as nothing more than a Black man. Others criticize special treatment of any ethnic-based genre of literature. For example, Robert Hayden, the first African-American Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress, once said (paraphrasing the comment by the black composer Duke Ellington about jazz and music), "There is no such thing as Black literature. There's good literature and bad. And that's all." Proponents counter that the exploration of group and ethnic dynamics through writing actually deepens human understanding and that, previously, entire groups of people were ignored or neglected by American literature. (Jay, 1997) The general consensus view appears to be that American literature is not breaking apart because of new genres like African American literature. Instead, American literature is simply reflecting the increasing diversity of the United States and showing more signs of diversity than ever before in its history (Andrews, 1997; McKay, 2004). This view is supported by the fact that many African American authors—and writers representing other minority groups—consistently reach the tops of the best-seller lists. If their literature only appealed to their individual ethnic groups, this would not be possible. African American criticism Some of the criticism of African American literature over the years has come from within the African American community; some argue that Black literature sometimes does not portray Black people in a positive light. This clash of aesthetics and racial politics has its beginnings in comments made by W.E.B DuBois in the NAACP publication The Crisis. For example, in 1921 he wrote, "We want everything that is said about us to tell of the best and highest and noblest in us. We insist that our Art and Propaganda be one." He added to this in 1926 by saying, "All Art is propaganda and ever must be, despite the wailing of the purists." DuBois and the editors of The Crisis consistently stated that literature was a tool in the struggle for African American political liberation. DuBois's belief in the propaganda value of art showed most clearly when he clashed in 1928 with African American author Claude McKay over McKay's best-selling novel Home to Harlem. To DuBois, the novel's frank depictions of sexuality and the nightlife in Harlem only appealed to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers looking for portrayals of Black "licentiousness." DuBois also said, "Home to Harlem ... for the most part nauseates me, and after the dirtier parts of its filth I feel distinctly like taking a bath." This criticism was repeated by others in the Black community when author Wallace Thurman published his novel The Blacker the Berry in 1929. This novel, which focused on intraracial prejudice between lighter-skinned and darker-skinned Blacks, infuriated many African Americans, who did not like such a public airing of their culture's "dirty laundry." Naturally, many African American writers did not agree with the viewpoint that all Black literature should be propaganda, and instead stated that literature should present the truth about life and people. Langston Hughes articulated this view in his essay "The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain" (1926), when he said that Black artists intended to express themselves freely no matter what the Black public or white public thought. A more recent occurrence of this Black-on-Black criticism arose in charges by some critics that Alice Walker's novel The Colour Purple unfairly attacked Black men. In addition, African American author Charles R. Johnson, in the updated 1995 introduction to his novel Oxherding Tale, criticized Walker's novel for its negative portrayal of African-American males, adding "I leave it to readers to decide which book pushes harder at the boundaries of convention, and inhabits most confidently the space where fiction and philosophy meet." Walker later refuted these charges in her book The Same River Twice: Honoring the Difficult.

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To learn the skill of narrating a story in fiction, authors, teachers, and students must know what words mean and not confuse terms or use them interchangeably. Note, in particular, the difference in meanings of narrative the noun and narrative the adjective, narrator and character, and literary fiction and memoir. - Narrate v: to give an account of something in detail. - Narrator n: somebody who tells a story or gives an account of something. - Character n: one of the people portrayed in a story. - Narration n: the act of telling a story or giving an account of something. - Narrative (1) n: an account of a sequence of events in the order in which they happened. - Narrative (2) n: a discussion or speech about the policies, opinions, or proposals of a political party. The senator’s narrative . . . - Narrative adj: having aim or purpose of telling a story, or involving the art of story telling. - Author n: the creator or originator of something. - Fiction — stories that describe imaginary people and events. - Literary fiction — serious, character-based fiction, as opposed to genre or popular fiction, that is plot based. - Story — an account of a series of events. - Memoir — an account of events written from personal knowledge. - Autobiography — an account of someone’s life written by that person. - Biography — an account of someone’s life written by another person. - Creative nonfiction — literary or narrative journalism, using literary skills in writing nonfiction. In scene vs. narrative telling Authors must clarify their own thinking about how to provide story information: 1) story advanced by telling a sequence of events, 2) in-scene reader involvement by showing character action, 3) descriptive narrative, 4) dialogue, 5) images and setting. Show-don’t-tell has been the imperative in literary fiction for centuries, but increasingly fewer authors respond. The result is fewer good stories created as an art form. Point of view Character “points of view” are often used by a narrator to tell a story. First person and third person are most commonly used. (Second person is trendy but rarely provides lasting reader satisfaction necessary for great storytelling.) The narrator has a point of view that may be used for improving time management of story progression or for information that is not within the reasonable range of the character’s senses, memory (life experiences), education, or intelligence. Point of view has many definitions. Most commonly writers think of point of view as 1) a position in space, time, or development from which something is considered. But point of view can also be 2) a manner of evaluating something, or 3) a reasoned opinion about something. In essence, a character point of view is not simply a position for considering physical action in a story, it is a character-revealing way for the narrator to present story information to the reader. And there are complexities of point of view that, if not appreciated–or if mismanaged, will cause the reader to question unnecessarily the character’s reliability—and credibility. It is not helpful to think of a point of view in storytelling as a camera, as is often taught. The concept of writing a fiction or real scene from a specific angle in the scene and a specific distance from the action allows staging and reader orientation visually through imagery and human sensation. But evaluating story action and opinions are also involved, things a camera does not do. This broad, all-definitions approach to point of view is especially useful when considering use of narrator and character points of view together. Example: point of view. I despised Amy. She was beautiful, I’ll give her that, but she thought the world revolved around her–-that God made other people to admire her. Never once did she think of me, or anyone, as a human with feelings. The structure of this paragraph in 1st person point of view is common, acceptable, and useful. But 1st person point of view is tricky. Consider that we, as readers, don’t know the story-truths. Did the point of view character really despise Amy, or was he (or she) madly in love but unwilling to reveal feelings? And then, he (or she) makes a judgmental statement that she is “beautiful.” Is that true? And by whose standards? Then he (or she) states Amy’s thoughts about God, motivations, and refusal to think of others. Is it true that Amy thought this? When we, as readers, don’t know what is true about the speculation of first person, we don’t have reliable information to build character, to become attached, or form opinions. First person is a point of view that removes a reader from knowing facts and the result is a lack of reliable information the build’s character and promotes understanding of motivation and first person point of view a reader to suspend disbelief in the character’s capabilities. In essence, telling what Amy thought and wanted is not within reasonable boundaries of the 1st person point of view. Of course, it is acceptable as speculation but fact is stated as truth [what she thought]). Yet, it is necessary information that is best thought of as “narrator-information” since a narrator usually knows all about the story world and has the reader-acceptable gift of knowing what all characters think and feel. I was so in love with Amy I had come to despise her. She was sitting at her dressing table in front of a mirror, admiring her vibrant youthful skin, her full head of coal-black hair, and dark brown eyes. I moved to her side to look at her. She shifted her gaze to avoid me . “Did you ever love me?” I asked. “You let me think that you cared.” She turned her back to me. “You witch. No one could ever love you,” I said, angry now that even when I was with her, she thought of no one but herself. “Just go. Jason is coming,” she said, without emotion, in a soft, restrained whisper that hurt me to the core. This passage, a little over written for emphasis, reveals probably story-world truths about both characters: the man is in love and dealing with his rejection, the beauty and the vanity of the woman, and her callous lack of empathy. By moving in scene and creating dialogue conflict and emotional depth, we bring probably story truth to the reader and it strengthens characterization and story impact. Here’s another alternative to avoid the awkwardness of first person narration and unreliability of truth that deadens characterization and story, third-person narration in scene. 1) in scene. 2) in descriptive narrative. Amy refused to look at Bobby, whose abrupt entry into her bedroom frightened her. She laid her hairbrush down and with both hands gathered her shoulder-length black hair behind her head and fastening it with a silver clip. Her face had lines of apprehension, and she had a brief anxiety that they might forever remain and spoil the beauty she held in pride. She could see him in the mirror as he shut the door behind him. He moved toward her. “I’ve had it,” he said. “Please,” she said avoiding his angry stare at her in the mirror. “I’ll kill him,” he said. He had no right to threaten. She’d never led him on. He was a nobody. Now the information–pride in beauty, no empathy, religiosity delivered in narrative. Amy sat at her dresser in her bedroom. She saw Bobby enter uninvited through door and approach her from behind. She refused to turn around. She would ignore him. He threatened to kill her finance. Her heart raced. She looked in the mirror to control any hint of fear. That would only inflame him. He told her to listen up; he was serious. She prayed silently for her safety but he refused to leave. Again, information imparted; there is no question of the characterization, even though the in-scene presentation is probably more effective than the straight narrative. Information provided through a character—first or third person–-that is not reasonable makes that character unreliable, either intentionally or unintentionally. A character does not know the truth of Amy’s thoughts, and also shows arrogance in telling the reader these impossibilities. But won’t that build character? Yes, but character aspects should be what the author always wants to imply. In essence, it is perfectly reasonable, and often necessary, to use a first person character as the more story-wise narrator but it must not be accidental, it must not be obvious, and it must be consistent for the story being written. In general, it is useful to resist thinking that unraveling complexities of point of view is unnecessary–the if-it works-and-I wrote-it, it-must-be-good approach to creating fictional stories. Authors must be aware of the subtle and complex layers of point of view so that they can use point of view effectively. It is inescapable. Well-reasoned opinions about point of view are essential for all authors who want to be in control of the storytelling process as an art form and what they provide for a reader. Voice and point of view, although related, must not be equated. Voice is everything a character does and says that helps identify the character. Point of view is the microscopic (close) or telescopic (distant) way a character delivers story information. And while characters deliver story information in their own voice, a narrator is telling the story—even in first person. Multiple voices are often used but should remain consistent and identifiable. Principles of narration. Great stories are told by a narrator, not a character. A narrator uses a point of view to deliver the story. (When done seamlessly, the reader becomes engrossed and does not register how the narrator is delivering story information, either directly or through a character. It is most effective if a narrator is present both in first person or third person points of view, although the narrator may be more submerged in 1st person point of view.) One often used technique in first person to deliver”narrator” information is to use a “double ‘I.'” That is, the story being told with the “I” in the story and also the story being told by the “I” from a different point on the story time line, the older “I.” The older “I” charcter delivers story information from a narrator’s perception that can’t be known by the younger “I.” The takeaway principle is: a narrator is created by an author but should be thought of as a distinct intellect who is telling the story. Thinking of oral story tradition when writing In academic discussions and workshops, terms are frequently used without common understanding as to their meaning. It is a practice that has resulted in entire careers riddled with confusions about the basics of storytelling—and the unique problems in the written story. It is often helpful, in discussions of point of view and narrators, to think to an oral storytelling tradition. The storyteller is always telling the story. And the teller, who is often not the author of the story, is in control of narrative passages, action, dialog, and internal reflection. At times, the storyteller relies on suspension of disbelief—that the storyteller could know the information presented—to increase tension and infuse drama. And listeners can have transcendence as if they were within the character’s living self. Imagine Ornesto, a storyteller, telling Henry James’s story, “Turn of the Screw,” in 2007 to a high school literature class. James published “Turn of the Screw,” in 1898. Ornesto, to be effective in his dramatization will make the presentation as familiar to his contemporary (2007) audience as possible. Ornesto, telling a story already open to decades of interpretations, will tell it in his way, in 2007. He might dip into Flora or Mile’s minds choosing most relevant facts for his purpose, or characterize Mrs. Grose with room left for the 2007 listeners to fill in their own details. Ornesto may make Peter Quint as evil as he can, choosing his words (mostly if not all from James) for best effect. Ornesto is the narrator—knowing all about the story world and choosing story facts from a limited story-world perspective. (James is considered the creator of the story world with knowledge outside the story world.) Note that as narrator, Ornesto will make the best choices about story information for his audience. It is this separation advantage of author from narrator from character(s) that fiction writers often ignore. Now Ornesto, to keep his story moving, will narrate, and may well use different points of view, other than what author Henry James would, to be effective. Here is a useful rule: although the fiction author writes the story, the author should not tell the story. The narrator tells the story (that is created by the author) and moves within the limits of the story world. And, at times, the narrator uses the narrator’s voice for certain story information, and uses character point of view—or points of view—to deliver other story content. This prevents stray authorial ideas into the story. There are two difficult concepts to digest: 1) by clear conceptualization of author-narrator-character delivered information, authors add ease to reader understanding, and 2) when contemporary writers choose a single character’s point of view exclusively, as if it were a selective filter, they often limit the potential of the story. Narrators contribute to the story presentation and direct decisions about character contribution. A narrator’s contribution is an intrusion to be excised from the story if it creates a diversion to excuse the author’s inability to write effective prose. But good judgment is necessary. If narrator information does not fit into the continuous fictional dream of the story provided for the reader at that moment, it is an intrusion and should not be included. Authors must use narrative techniques while remaining true to quality and “veracity” of storytelling that minimizes the need for suspension of disbelief. Any thought, opinion, emotion of the author in a story should be removed as detrimental to creating a story as an art form. Most common are political ideas or needs to comment on real-world social change. (The story may deal with these issues, but through action-enlightenment, not narrative emotional descriptions.) Author intrusion often borders on essay and propaganda and is not compatible with great fiction stories. (This does not mean that themes and meaning important to the author are not a integral part of great stories. They are, but they are expressed through careful story structure and skillful, craft-savvy presentation.) It is also important that the authorial morality be understood and be consistent. All good literary stories are constructed on a moral framework that is easily perceived by the reader. Moral fiction is the cardiovascular system of a literary fictional story, and is provided by the author as a matrix in which the characters and narrator act. Of course the morals of characters and narrator differ–this provides conflict, suspense, and change in character in the story. Yet presence of authorial morality provides the mirror surface off which different moralities will reflect. 1st person point of view is the same as the narrator When the narrator collapses into the first person character, although it seems logical and acceptable, it sets up often-unaddressed questions–but perceived questions–in the reader’s mind as to who is telling the story, credibility of the narrator, and whether the suspension of disbelief should be continued. Many contemporary stories don’t differentiate information sources and if the information delivered is credible from the source. For example, in first-person in-scene construction of a story passage, to be accurate, the first person can only tell and comment on what is happening in the story within the range of five senses at the the moment in story time. Along the same line, if the first person comments on the past, it has to be within the intellectual capabilities, memory for story events–and when speculating–within the characters capabilities and established sensitivities. But narrators are different. Every narrator tells about something that has happened, that is from a period where time has progressed, knowledge has increased, history expanded, understanding explored. For a reader to accept information outside the logical thoughts and perceptions of the first person character, the reader must believe the first person character is older and looking back on the story–that is wiser and acting as a narrator–or accept a narrator’s contribution to the a story as created by the author to help the reader understand the story. This takes considerable author skill; most authors, with little concern for logic, don’t consider attention to a sliding scale of reliability for story-credible information delivery. Probably few readers care about details, but many readers stop reading when they think the writing is bad, and bad fiction can come from the lack of clarity in storytelling that confusion over first-person/narrator relationships can cause. Close (or tight) vs. distant character points of view The sense of the reader of how close the character is to the story action is created by syntax, word choice, imagery, and ideation. This is true in all choices for story including presentation, dialog, narration, description, internal reflection, even exposition. As a character seems more distant from the action, they function more and more as a narrator. The author who recognizes character and narrator information in close and distant terms is able to present more consistent voicings, more in-depth character reliability, more easily grasped imagery–and will be in better control of the writing process. In essence, use of narrator information (that is information not filtered through a character point of view) provides flexibility to provide essential story information that is outside the character senses and knowledge and/or intellectual capabilities. This is useful technique in all but the rare story. Narrator point of view The narrator point of view is not a silo in a field of character-point-of-view silos. Narrators tell stories and it is not useful to consider a narrator point of view as similar too—or equivalent—to a character’s point of view. Narrators float above the story in a hot-air balloon with useful overviews that characters cannot achieve from their restricted silos. Omniscient narrator. (Omniscient: knowing everything.) Narrators know only about their story worlds. They know more than is told in the story by a character but they do not know all that the author knows and they should not tell what the author knows and believes outside the story world. It is an important distinction for an author who wants to tell stories clearly, logically, and effectively. This implies the author knows all truths. Impossible. Authors know only what they perceive of their world and think in their insular minds, and it is never omniscient. Omniscience is reserved for deities. To apply “omniscient” knowledge to a story becomes distracting and ineffective for story and the restrictions of being human and being unique direct and intensify the storytelling in ways that being universal and “omniscient” as an author will not achieve. The term “omnicient point of view” applied to the use of multiple points of view of characters and narrator is not useful. Use of multiple points of view provides different information about stories that should not be considered collectively as “ominsicent.” Thinking of, and use of, the term “omniscient” for multiple perceptions in telling of a fiction story can produce confusion in understanding and accptance in the storytelling . . . and restrict the quality of of story. So, multiple 3rd person points of view is not an “omniscient point of view.” Points of view in a story are not spices in a stew that give a blended effect. Points of view are pears, figs, cashews, marshmallows, all in a bowl that are consumed separately (even if simultaneously) with sometimes memorable and always distinct individual effects that contribute to the whole experience of eating. “Omniscient point of view” is not a term equal to multiple points of view, but is often implied as equal in discussions of the craft of writing. Story world is restricted, selective, purposeful, intense, directed and never random. It is where the characters act and it is what the narrator delivers to the reader. In good fiction, its boundaries are sacrosanct and should not be violated. In general, narrators tell stories and may or may not change. Usually characters change from revelations or change in the way they think about something brought about by story action. To avoid confusion about who the story is about, narrators tell a story and usually do not always change significantly. But there are many exceptions. Many stories have very effective narrators blessed with revelations and reversal in thinking that may be or may not be similar to a character. Note too that when the author is considered to be equal to the narrator, a narrator enlightenment is awkward if not often impossible. Strong ironic meaning is also often lost when there is loss of character and narrator distinction. As a useful rule, how characters–and sometimes narrator–change in a story needs to be under the author’s control and thoroughly considered before and during writing . . . and in revision. Time line and point of view A character’s point of view changes with the advancement of the story time (as does every human in real time). Here is a review of the three elements of point of view, all of which are a part of our understanding what point of view can be: (1) position in space or time, (2) a mental attitude or opinion, (3) a manner of evaluating. Thank you for reading, William H. Coles

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When teaching children about shapes, they need to do various activities to learn the differences between the shapes. Some students may need much repetition, and some may learn them quickly. Adjust the activities according to the student. Here are some activities: Compare the shapes to objects: “A circle is round like a ball.” “A square is like a window (square shaped).” “A rectangle is like a door.” “A triangle is shaped like pizza or an ice cream cone.” Have actual shapes for the student to feel. For teaching about a circle, you could use lids, tops to bottles, a ball, a plastic cup (the top and bottom), and any objects you see that have a circle in them. In the picture below, you will even see a round, Spider-Man wipe-off board. For teaching about a square, you could use a square box, a square book, a square cake pan, etc. Count the four sides on all the squares. For teaching about a rectangle, you could use a rectangular shaped box or book, an oblong cake pan, a Kleenex box, a notebook, etc. Count the four sides on all the rectangles, two longs sides and two short sides. For teaching about a triangle, you could use an ice cream cone, a piece of pizza (or a picture of one slice of pizza), a party hat, etc. Count the three sides on all the triangles. Use simple workbooks like the ones pictured above that have stickers and/or activities. Count the sides on the squares, rectangles, and triangles when working with them. Having students trace the shapes is an excellent activity. Have students cut out the shapes. You can draw large shapes for the students to cut out first and then later progress to smaller and smaller shapes. Following the lesson on The Five Senses, students can compare and group objects. Here are some activities: Make sure students understand “same” and “different.” Have two objects that are exactly the same and one that is different (such as two math books and an English book, or two identical balls and one that is different, etc.) Show the two objects that are the same and talk about how they are alike. Then show two objects that are different and talk about the ways they are different. Show two flowers that are not completely alike and talk about the ways they are the same (both are pretty, both smell good, both have stems, both have leaves, etc.) and ways they are different (one is shorter, they are different colors, etc.) Talk about how we use our senses of look, smell, and touch when we’re comparing the flowers. Explain to students there are different ways to compare things. Have a group of objects such as shells that the students can practice comparing and putting into groups such as big shells/little shells and then white shells/colored shells. Other objects that you could use to compare and group would be different sizes and colors of seeds, various rocks, or different sizes and colors of marbles. Have students compare their pencils. Remind students there are different ways to compare things. Have students with pencils longer than six inches line up on one side of the room. Have students with pencils shorter than six inches line up on the other side. Another comparison would be to have yellow pencils on one side and colored pencils on the other side. Or pencils with erasers on one side and those without erasers on the other. As a first grade teacher in the public schools and in doing private tutoring in my home, I found it very rewarding to teach young students, and I know there are others who feel the same way. Aspiring pre-school and elementary teachers can earn a teaching certificate online from a wide array of universities. One student I tutored at my home knew how to count to ten, but one of the skills we had to work on a lot was how to count objects up to ten. He would often get mixed up after counting five objects, would start counting too fast and miss some objects, or he would start moving backwards and recount objects he had already counted. It took a lot of repetition for him to learn to do this, and so we did various activities. These are some of the activities we did: Have student put 10 Teddy Grahams or Fish Crackers in a row. Have student count slowly, touching each cookie or cracker as they count it. Count with the student a couple of times if necessary. If successful, they get to eat one cookie. Then count the 9 remaining cookies. If successful, they get to eat one more cookie. Repeat until all cookies have been eaten. Use simple number workbooks. I was able to find two sticker and activity workbooks for this student that he enjoyed. Some pages involved stickers and some involved coloring. Line up various objects to count such as blocks, pennies, game pieces, etc. Count how many there are and make a game out of it, such as put six blocks in the bucket, nine pennies in the piggy bank, etc. Presidents Day(also Presidents’ Day) is known as Washington’s Birthday and is celebrated in February on the third Monday. The reason the celebration of his birthday was moved to the third Monday in 1971 was to simplify the calendar. Many people celebrate both Washington and Lincoln’s birthdays or all of the presidents’ birthdays on Presidents Day, but it was originally instituted to celebrate George Washington’s birthday alone. However, it is convenient to celebrate more than one president on that day and most people do that. CHILDREN’S BOOKS ON PRESIDENTS: So You Want to Be President? by Judith St. George. (2001 Caldecott Medal Award Winner) Great for ages 8-12. Our Country’s Presidents: All You Need to Know About the Presidents, from George Washington to Barack Obama by Ann Bausum. Great for ages 9-12. You’re Kidding! Incredible Facts About the Presidents by Elizabeth Koehler-Pentacoff. Great for ages 8-12. Don’t Know Much About the Presidents by Kenneth C. Davis. CHILDREN’S DVD’S & VIDEOS: Presidents Day DVD ( Holidays for Children DVD Series) by Library Video Company Presidents 2-DVD Special – Abraham Lincoln and George Washington by Nest Learning System George Washington was the first president of the United States. It is not a fact that George Washington chopped down a cherry tree. His biographer, Mason Weems, made this up to illustrate how honest Washington was in dealing with people. It is a fact that Washington was an honest person. He is known as “The Father of our Country.” Washington is known for being “First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen.” A good friend of mine taught Science to ESL Students in 6th-8th grades. The students she taught had reached “conversational language” level, not “academic level.” It usually takes two years to be able to communicate in a foreign language, but more to learn in that language. Her students had one year of English instruction beforehand, and English was spoken in her classroom. So she had a difficult task to teach students who were still on a conversational English level and not on an academic level. Here are some tips from my friend: Animation is important. At the middle school level, students generally don’t like animation, but these ESL students looked for clues in all areas. Moving arms in directions, changing voice tones for emphasis, etc. Teacher uses balls with flashlights, etc., to show the concepts of the basics of atoms, astronomy, chemistry, etc. Use lots of simple visuals and drawings. This teacher told of this example: I had a very low English level girl from Mexico paired up with a brand new Vietnamese student with even lower English proficiency. They had to do a lab with measuring, graphing, etc. They were one of the best groups!! They communicated with pointing, moving objects, nods and smiles, and did better together than either could have apart. And they did this totally by signals. It takes cooperation, though, and middle schoolers get embarrassed so easy. They don’t want to appear ‘dumb’ so they act like they don’t want to do things. This is my opinion: Labeling was done in the first year of learning English, and I think it would still be good for students with less English profiency in the second and third years. If they already know what the object is and how to read the word, having the label could also reinforce learning how to spell the word. Most kids are fascinated with volcanoes. When teaching about them, it is important to let kids make a volcano, have good pictures of real volcanoes, and if possible, a video, since most students are not able to take a field trip to actually see one. If you are fortunate to be on the island of Oahu in Hawaii, then you can hike up to the top of Diamond Head, an extinct volcano. We did this, and it was quite impressive. Or you can visit Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Big Island of Hawaii, which we also did, and you might get to see an actual lava flow. We didn’t get close enough to see a lava flow, but we did walk through the Thurston Lava Tube which was very interesting. Here is a book we own that has many great pictures of volcanoes: Use a large pan, 9 x 13. Place an empty 16 ounce bottle in the middle of it with the top off. Using either papier mache, modeling clay, or salt play dough, make a mountain with vertical ridges around the bottle. Do not cover the top of the bottle. Paint brown and let dry. Mix 1 tablespoon liquid dishwashing soap and 1 tablespoon baking soda in a cup and carefully pour into the bottle in the middle of the mountain. (If you’re brave, you can add a few drops of red or orange food coloring in with the soap and baking soda.) Place the pan with the mountain outside. Add 1/4 cup white vinegar to the bottle and stand back. Your volcano will erupt! For ESL students, be sure and label everything. For Gifted students, ask higher level questions. There is a chemical reaction when the baking soda and vinegar are mixed. It produces a carbon dioxide gas (a chemical reaction) which is the same gas that a real volcano produces. Kit: Volcano Island – Discovery Extreme Light and Sound Rumbling Volcano by Poof Slinky Our Amazing Volcanoes / Earth Science Kit by Poof Slinky Valentine’s Day has been celebrated for many, many years. I remember when I was a child, a relative told me about her childhood when one of her classmates stole her Valentine cards that she was going to pass out. As a child (and now too), I thought that was sad for someone to do that. That happened back in the 1920’s, so that just goes to show how long children have been passing out Valentine’s Day cards at school. ORIGIN OF VALENTINE’S DAY: The first recorded mention of Valentine’s Day was by Geoffrey Chaucer in 1382 when he wrote about “Volantynys Day.” Later in 1400, a High Court of Love was established in Paris on Valentine’s Day. Modern Valentine’s Day, as we know it, was celebrated in the 1840s, and Valentine cards made from paper lace were mass produced as early as 1847. Make Valentine’s Day cards for parents or someone special using paper lace doilies and construction paper. Talk about how over one hundred and fifty years ago people made paper lace cards. Make a Valentine’s Day Zoo. Using all different sizes of heart shaped cut-outs, let the students glue them together to make different animals. Make or buy heart shaped sugar cookies. Let children decorate their edible Valentine cards. Have children make up their own Valentine poem and write it on a heart shaped piece of paper. These ideas are good for all students, including ESL and those with learning disabilities. Teaching science to ESL students involves a lot of hands on activities, visuals, and labeling. Here are some ideas: The 5 Senses – Use a lot of various things for each sense. Label by putting names of things on index cards: SEEING – have different objects or pictures to look at such as things of different colors and shapes, etc. An activity would be to group things together that are the same color or the same shape. FEELING – have objects of different textures to touch such as rough and smooth, hard & soft objects (rock, stick, cotton ball, feather), etc. An activity would be to group all the rough rocks together and all the smooth stones together. HEARING – have different things that make sound such as musical instruments, small drum, container with popcorn in it so it makes noise when shaken, etc. SMELLING – have various things to smell such as a cotton ball with perfume, small containers with different spices, cotton ball with vinegar, etc. TASTING – have different things to taste (something sweet, something salty, something sour) Concepts to cover: We find out many things by using our senses. Our eyes help us see, our hands help us feel, our mouth helps us taste, our ears help us hear, and our nose helps us smell things. We can tell if things are the same or different by using our senses, and we can group things together that are alike. Many times we will use several of our senses. If we’re looking at flowers, we can look, smell, and touch the flower. Play “The 5 Questions Game” with various objects from all the five groups. Ask, “Can you see it? Can you feel it? Can you hear it? Can you smell it? Can you taste it?” Have an assortment of various seeds or dried beans. Have the students sort the seeds/beans in different ways. For example, sort them by colors, then sort by shapes, and then sort by size. Put some objects in a brown paper bag. Let students feel the objects inside the bag and guess what they are. Matching Game: Have small pictures of ears, eyes, mouth, hands, and nose. Glue each picture on an index card. Write each of these words on an index card: hear, see, taste, feel, smell. Have student match the pictures with the corresponding word. Here is an example of a simple book (see explanation) I made with a four year old tutoring student who knew all his letter sounds. He really enjoyed this activity. With this book, we worked on additional skills such as learning the sight word “want.” (This student was reading when he started kindergarten.) When I taught Gifted and Talented students, they were in a regular classroom (first or second grade). I had a mix of regular students, gifted and talented students, ESL students (sometimes students starting the year speaking no English), and children with learning disabilities or physical handicaps. How is a teacher able to meet the needs of gifted students? Teacher’s manuals will often have suggestions for gifted students. Have the gifted students work on projects they can do by themselves. Just because a student is a gifted student does not mean they are an independent worker or a self-motivator. Pair these students up with a partner who is an independent worker. Utilize resources. I had one exceptionally bright first grader who would go to the library and do research on topics of his choosing with minimal supervision from the librarian. He would either write about it or illustrate and make a poster about his research. Encourage students to enter extra activities offered by your district such as Science Fair, History Fair, Invention Convention, Art Contests, etc. One year, I had a gifted second grader (an ESL student) who excelled in art and entered a district contest. He won an award! Have students work on a class newspaper that they publish once a week or once a month. A lot of times, you can see where certain students excel in one or more of the Seven Areas of Giftedness. Develop centers or projects for these areas. Brainstorming stretches the children’s minds. This skill will be useful in something as simple as writing a sentence all the way to creative writing, in reading skills, in math, social studies and science skills, and also in higher level thinking skills. It is used in problem solving and the creation of solutions. Creative people brainstorm. This will be a skill used throughout one’s life. PART ONE – BRAINSTORMING FROM WHAT IS VISIBLE: The first step in teaching children how to brainstorm is for the teacher to model brainstorming, show them how you yourself brainstorm. Take something they can see such as one of their classmates. Think out loud and write on the board everything about that student. For example: Her name is Sally. She’s in first grade. She has blonde hair. She has long hair. She’s wearing jeans and a T-shirt. She wears glasses. She has a big smile. She has a picture of a dog on her T-shirt. Another example would be to take a book, preferably a big book so all students can see easily. If I had the book about Goldilocks and the Three Bears, then this is what I would write on the board from what we could see in the picture on the front of the book: There are three bears. One bear is really big. One bear is little. One bear is in-between size. The bears are brown. There is a girl. She is little. She has blonde hair. She is wearing a dress. Here dress is blue and red. There is a house. It has a door and two windows. There are lots and lots of trees (a forest). There are flowers beside the house. After you have modeled for the students, then brainstorm together with the students. After that, have the students practice brainstorming with a partner, then by themselves. First graders, as you know, come with varying levels of skills. Some students will be clueless on how to even begin writing a sentence. That’s when the teacher needs to brainstorm with those students. Here are some ideas that are good with first graders, ESL students, or students with learning disabilites: Pick a topic to write about that is of high interest. It’s close to Valentine’s Day, so I will pick Valentine hearts. Discuss with the students, “Now what do we want to say about hearts?” Let them share their ideas and write them on the board. Pick one idea that is not a complete sentence such as “pretty and red.” Explain that a sentence is about someone or something. Ask, “What is it that is ‘pretty and red?’ Our sentence has to tell us.” Hopefully, someone will say “a heart.” Write the complete sentence on the board: A heartis pretty and red. Underline the two main parts of the sentence and show that the sentence is about “a heart” and “is pretty and red” tells about that heart. Another student may have said, “a pink heart.” So the teacher would ask, “What about a pink heart? The sentence has to tell us something about this pink heart.” The end result might be: A pink heartis on the table. Go through the other student ideas and work together to make sentences out of them. Then give each student a heart-shaped piece of handwriting paper and let them try writing their own sentence. Some students will be able to sound out words to write their own sentence, and some students will not be able to do that. With those students, you need to work one-on-one: Ask what their sentence is about. Start with the first word, sound it out slowly for the student, and go sound by sound while having the student write the sound they hear. Do this with each word until the sentence is finished. Soon, when the students feel more competent in writing a sentence, discuss with them the following: Sentences always start with a capital letter. Sentences always end with a period or something else. Nearly all their sentences will be telling sentences at this point. Always praise their work and find something positive to say about it. Make them feel proud and take ownership of their work. Those who are fearful of writing should eventually get to the point where they can write their own sentence. Here is another example of a simple book I made with a four year old tutoring student using pictures out of the Sunday paper. We worked on color words, sight words, and adding “s” to the end of the word “car” to make it mean “more than one.” He caught on real quick to that. (This student was reading when he started kindergarten.) Here is another example of a simple book I made with a four year old tutoring student, a big fan of Spider-Man, who knew all his alphabet sounds. We were working on learning to spell the word “man,” so this book reinforced what we were working on and motivated him to want to read. He really enjoyed this activity. Teacher certification rules differ from state to state. Several states have varying ways for teachers to get their certification, including alternative certification. This type of certification does not involve a traditional bachelor’s degree in education. People receiving this type of certification usually go through an accelerated program, have to pass a state test, and go through a mentoring program. These requirements also vary from state to state. If you or someone you know is interested in getting teacher certification, there are several online certification programs which have produced many teachers. Large piece of heavy cardboard or plastic foam for the base Assortment of cardboard boxes to form the levels of the garden Heavy-duty tape to tape the boxes together Modeling clay – white Acrylic paint – blue & green Piece of plastic greenery that has many small removable pieces on it Wire cutter to cut the coat hanger Make the basic shape of the varying levels with the assorment of boxes that you have. Tape them together securely with heavy-duty tape Tape the boxes securely to the base Cover the entire area of the boxes with white modeling clay Remove many small pieces of greenery from the large piece. Shorten if necessary. Place in rows in the modeling clay while the clay is still soft, securing with a small mound of clay at the base of each piece of greenery (tree). Paint the green grass in rows. Paint the blue waterfall, stream, and pond of water. Cut the coat hanger to make the irrigation line to take water to the top level. Bend the coat hanger two inches from the end at a 90 angle to make the coat hanger not touch the ground. Do this on both ends of the coat hanger. Secure both ends of the coat hanger to the project with a mound of modeling clay. Word webs are great to use with kids. I have used them in the regular classroom, with ESL students, and with Gifted & Talented students. Here are some examples of different word webs that you can print. Just click on the highlighted words: One goal of teaching about Abraham Lincoln should be to “make him come alive,” to help students realize that he was a real person just like they are. Here are some tips on teaching a unit about Lincoln that hopefully will add to the materials you have: TEACHING ABOUT LINCOLN: On the Abraham Lincoln Museum site, there is one reproducible page for an Abraham Lincoln Discussion Web that would be great to use in the classroom regardless of visiting the museum. Click on this site for Lincoln and scroll down to page 23. This is a great page for a Discussion Web on Lincoln’s life. I have used Discussion Webs many times, and they are great for students of all ages. Need a unit on Lincoln? An experienced teacher has a free unit on Abraham Lincoln on her website with printable worksheets and also a biography. These materials are free for teachers and homeschooling parents. Having an Interest Center in the classroom on Abraham Lincoln would help motivate students to learn about him. The center could contain pictures of the era in which Lincoln lived. Old looking objects could be placed in the center as well as student-level books on Lincoln. Use your imagination and be creative! Depending on the level of the students, here are some of Lincoln’s accomplishments to discuss with them: His decision to fight kept the country from coming apart. He had great foreign policy which kept other countries from getting involved in the Civil War. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation which freed the slaves. He strongly supported the Thirteenth Admendment which ended slavery. He is known for his honesty, leadership, and character. He gave the House Divided Speech. He gave the Gettysburg Address. He is quoted even today due to having many famous quotes known world wide. Make a log cabin out of Lincoln Logs Make a log cabin by gluing Popsicle sticks together Some of your Lincoln books would probably come from the library. Click here to see a list of good kids’ books on Lincoln available on this site. CHILDREN’S DVD’S & VIDEOS: Abraham Lincoln: Great Americans for Children Series – DVD by Schlessinger Media Presidents Day DVD ( Holidays for Children DVD Series) by Library Video Company Long-term learning for students is one goal of teachers, right? Well, according to the Abraham Lincoln Museum site, museum studies show the following: The museum experience brings students out of the textbook in an exciting way. The people in history come alive! Exposing students to things they can see, hear, and touch greatly increases their long-term learning after being presented with new material in the classroom . Experiencing exhibits and artifacts reinforces what was learned. The social experience that occurs on a field trip greatly increases the learning that happens in the museum. The exhibits appeal to the many different learning styles of students, and they also appeal to all ages. (I can testify to that!) The powerful stories told by the exhibits and artifacts help the students to remember their experience for a long time. A talented teacher friend of mine has written children’s biographies about several presidents, including Barack Obama, which are available online for teachers and homeschooling parentsat no charge. She also has these printable worksheets on Barack Obama, as well as the other presidents, available online which are also free for teachers: Online Jigsaw Puzzle Online Crossword Puzzle Online Word Scramble Online Word Search Online Color Picture Again, all of her materials are free for teachers and homeschooling parents. If anyone wants to use them for commercial purposes, they need to contact her. Be sure and visit her site. She has a lot of great, free material! OTHER CHILDREN’S BOOKS: Barack Obama: Our 44th President by Beatrice Gormley. Great for ages 8-12. Making simple books to teach skills is so simple and easy. These little books can be used to teach so many skills and used on different levels from pre-reading to independent reader. Most children enjoy making a book on something they are really interested in, and they want to read it. They enjoy gluing on pictures or drawing pictures to illustrate their story. SKILLS THAT CAN BE TAUGHT BY MAKING SIMPLE BOOKS: Interest in looking at books because the child is interested in the subject matter How to hold a book and turn the pages Learning the parts of a book such as the cover, the title, the author Learning that the spoken word can be written down and then read over and over again in book form Learning that we read starting with the top line and read in a left-to-right manner Learning that the first word in a sentence always starts with a big, capital letter and the sentence ends with a dot/a period (Later you can proceed to question marks and exclamation marks.) Learning that the pictures on a page go along with the story and can provide clues about the story Learning that anybody can make a book and put their ideas down on paper Learning various phonetic skills depending on the words used Learning sight words Computer paper or any blank, unlined paper Pictures from magazines, newspapers, brochures about the zoo or tourist destinations, children’s stickers (whatever interests them such as Batman, Spiderman, Hello Kitty, holiday stickers, etc.) Brainstorm with the child and decide on the topic for the book. Make the cover page and write the title and write the child’s name as the author. If the child is a pre-reader, have them dictate one sentence for each page. Let the child watch you write the sentence so they visualize the process of writing the spoken word on paper. Let the child illustrate the sentence either by drawing a picture, gluing on a picture from a magazine or brochure, or choosing stickers for their illustration. Complete the book, maybe 3-5 pages for a beginner. When the book is finished, start with the cover and read the title and the author, running your finger under each word as you read. After you have read the book, encourage the child to read it or read it again with you. Help the child to run their finger under the words as they are being read. Older children will not require as much guidance when making books. Depending on their skills, help them when necessary. A very simple, inexpensive way to start out teaching young children patterns would be to have three different colors of caps from gallon milk or water jugs. Have several of each color. If you don’t have the caps, then cut out circles out of colored tagboard. Start with a very simple pattern and then make it progressively harder. Start out demonstrating the whole pattern at first, showing how to duplicate the pattern to make sure the child understands the concept of “pattern.” Then see if the child can duplicate it. For example: One thing that I purchased years ago was a set of pattern blocks and pattern block design cards. These are great for teaching mathematical patterns. Students not only get to see the patterns, but they get to touch and feel them. They are able, through trial and error, to see how patterns work. My own children got to use them at home while they were growing up, too, and now I am able to use them in private tutoring and in a couple of years hope to use them with our young grandson. It’s worth the investment of $20-$30 to have these materials which not only develop cognitive thinking but are just plain fun to do! If you don’t have the money to invest in these materials right now, you could make your own set of one-dimensional shapes and simple pattern cards with colored tagboard. Just look online at pattern blocks and pattern block design cards to get ideas. Austin, the capital of Texas, is home to the fairly new Bob Bullock Texas State History Museum. The building is impressive on the outside and inside, being three stories tall. It contains interactive exhibits, an IMAX Theater, and a great Cafe for meals and snacks. We thoroughly enjoyed the exhibits and theater and eating in the Cafe. This is a museum we definitely recommend. They have great resources as well for teachers and home schooling parents. There are links to these resources below: A computer game by Spinmaker called Alphabet Zoo is great for teaching creative writing at an early age. Years ago, my husband bought this game for our daughter when she was four years old. She soon learned how to write her own stories and illustrate them with the picture maker. She started reading when she was three years old so she already knew most of the alphabet sounds. When trying to spell words for her stories, she would either try to sound out the words and spell them phonetically or she would ask a parent or grandparent, whoever was close by. This was one of her favorite computer games and I guess it instilled a love of writing in her. When she was in high school she went to state UIL competition and placed well in journalism and headline writing. Learning to write creatively was definitely something that was fun for her! The National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, located in Fort Worth, Texas, is one of the museums we have visited. It’s a fairly new museum that is architecturally beautiful. It is very informative and lets visitors see, hear, and experience what life was like back in the early days of cowboys and cowgirls. I definitely recommend this museum. Cowboys and cowgirls are part of our national history, an important part in teaching Texas history. What better way to make that history come alive than to plan an educational trip as part of a vacation. That’s something that our family has done on many occasions and has greatly enjoyed! Big Brain Acadamy and Brain Age aretwo of the best video games out there that can teach or strengthen several cognitive skills including math concepts. Here are some of the math skills children (and adults) can learn through these games: Value of coins These games cover many different cognitive areas. If you are not familiar with them, I highly recommend them. They are good brain stretchers! We own both games, and they are great for young and old alike. Leap Frog learning products are great products for teaching reading, math, and other skills. From what I have seen and read, they are exceptionally good products. Someone I know said that her child loved the music in Leap Frog Math Circus and didn’t even realize that she was learning because she was having so much fun. And that is a big key to teaching children, making it fun! What could be more exciting to a child than to read a story where they were the main character. That would definitely peak their interest in reading if it needed to be. There are companies that offer personalized books for children in a variety of topics. A book could be chosen that would best match the child’s interests. That would be fun to read and create interest in reading at the same time. Puzzles are great for developing skills in children. Here are some of the skills that puzzles help them develop: Fine motor development Our grandson was 16 months old this past Christmas, and we gave him several puzzles which he really likes. W gave him four Non-Toxic Foam Puzzle Books which have one large puzzle piece on each page of the book. Very simple. He has several puzzles that his parents have bought him also, and he enjoys trying to put these simple puzzles together at his young age and is learning several skills. Springfield, Illinois, is the home of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, a great educational travel destination. Our whole family, grandma included, took this educational trip together, and we all loved it. This state-of-the-art museum is truly fascinating, makes history come alive, and reveals Lincoln’s life in an unforgettable way. Be sure to allow plenty of time to tour the entire museum! (There are other things to do in Springfield, too, such as touring the famous Frank Lloyd Wright Dana-Thomas House which is amazing. Also, the old “Route 66” goes through Springfield and there are all sorts of relic eating places and memorabilia.) Having the “teacher packrat syndrome” of saving anything and everything that could be used for teaching, I have a lot of caps from gallon water bottles. They come in different colors such as red, blue, and purple. These are great for counting, teaching patterns, for teaching beginning addition and subtraction, for teaching multiplication and division, for fractions, etc. Anything that you buy a lot of, whether it’s water bottles or Coke bottles, you can save the bottle caps for teaching math. One important strategy when teaching ESL students is to have a “print rich” environment. In other words, label everything you can. Index cards and colored markers are a great way to do this. Here are some examples of things to label: chair, table, desk, door, window, chalkboard, bookcase, flag, trash can, TV, etc. The more you can label, the better. What better way to make history come alive than to travel to learn at a place like the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame in Waco, Texas. Our family visited the museum on our vacation and really enjoyed it. The museum gave the history of the Texas Rangers along with artifacts, and it also memorialized 30 Texas Rangers who served with great distinction. The movie about the history of the Rangers made it even more real. It is truly a museum worth visiting! Modern Curriculum Press Phonics Workbooks have been one of the best, inexpensive ways that I have taught phonics through the years. As you can probably guess, I am a strong believer in phonics. Being the #1 choice for teaching phonics for over 40 years, these workbooks are easy to use. Over 50 million children have learned to read with the help of these phonics workbooks. When I was teaching first grade in an ESL (English as a Second Language) school, new reading curriculum was adopted one year that utilized the “Whole Language” approach to teaching reading. The other first grade teachers and I quickly realized that this approach was not working for our ESL students or for students with learning disabilities. Children who learned to read effortlessly would learn no matter what approach was used, but most of our students needed the structure and stability of a good phonics program. We told our principal and the PTA president our beliefs, and the PTA purchased a Modern Curriculum Press Phonics Workbook for each child in first grade. They did this faithfully every year, and we were able to teach our students how to read by supplementing the Whole Language approach with phonics. Welcome! I plan to share experiences, tips and techniques that I have gathered in my 19 years of teaching in the public school system and in 30+ years of teaching children’s Bible classes. I have also done private tutoring throughout the years and have tutored approximately 50 students. By sharing my experiences, I hope you can find something helpful to use in your teaching experience.

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You might remember your elementary teachers assigning endless homonym and homophone worksheets every year. But that was a long time ago. If you need a fresh reminder, I am here to explain the difference between some of these commonly misused words. First, we need to define our terms accurately. Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs You might have heard homonyms, homophones, and homographs used interchangeably. They each are similar, but not quite the same. Think of it like how a square is a kind of rectangle, but a rectangle is never a square. Homonyms = words with the same sound but have different meanings. Most of the time, the reader will understand your intended meaning by the context. “Eating Dates for Lunch” sounds yummy… but taking out of content, a reader might interpret that line as the plot of cannibal horror romance. The word date has two meanings in English, making it a homonym example. Homophones = words that sound that same but have different spelling and meanings. You probably will find homophones the most frustrating because there’s no trick to them. You have to memorize the different homophone spellings and their meanings to know the differences. “Snacking on Twin Pears” sound like someone having a delicious fruit snack. However, “Snacking on Twin Pairs” sound like the cannibal is a picky eater. Pear and pair are homophone examples, just like weight and wait, doe and dough, whole and hole, etc… If you break apart the word homophone itself, it’s easier to remember its definition. In Greek, “homo” means the same and “phone” means sound. Homographs = words spelled the same but have different pronunciation and meaning. Homographs exist purely to irritate English learners. It’s like you’re looking at a word in a sentence and it’s not the word it looks like at all. Weird, right? For instance, the word bow has two meanings, and each has its own pronunciation. In the sentence, “The actors took a bow at the end of the play” bow sounds like cow and means to lower yourself in a gesture of respect. In “Louis tied his present with a red bow” the “ow” blend to make a long o sound in bow. You could also consider the word a homonym since there are two kinds of bows: the weapon and the kind of knot. Another homograph example is minute, 60 seconds, and minute, very small details. English is complicated even many to native speakers. Believe it or not, there are thousands of homonyms, homophones, and homographs! Before you start to feel overwhelmed, there’s a better way of looking at them. Homophones with Puns and Silly Poems! Rather than dreading the memory of those obnoxious homophone worksheets, try using the wrong word to create double meaning for puns, silly poems, and raps. Don’t look at homophones as an annoying editing chore. Live a little and have fun creating corny jokes. You’ll enjoy the learning process and, at the same time, memorize the differences between types of homophones and homonyms. If you’re witty enough, impress your friends with your best dad jokes by incorporating puns in everyday conversation. You might even impress the empress sweetheart of your dreams! (see what I did there?) Puns, one-liners, and quick-witted jokes are the highest form of sophisticated humor! You might have heard them referred to as a “play on words”. From my teaching experience, I believe learning should be a form a play! If you don’t enjoy it, you’re not doing it right. In fact, I challenge you after reading this post to create your own short story, poem, or rap that creatively incorporate some of these homophones. Share away when finished. No copying my story! Homophone Words (A to Z): Prince Rupert’s Tale Here are 30 essential homophone words you should know to effectively write content and become a pun master: (1) – Affect vs. Effect Some English teachers might have taught you the mnemonic VANE, “verb affect, noun effect”. Unfortunately, they lied to you. You can use both words as verbs or nouns. Instead, think of the word affect as “to act upon one’s mental state” usually in an emotionally way, similar to affection. Then, the word effect means the “result or consequence of a cause”. The effect of the plague released the zombie curse. The elders had studied the Ancient’s teachings and knew the end was nigh. Their sad words affected everyone deeply. (2) – Air vs. Err vs. Heir Air is another word for the wind or atmosphere. Err is the verb form of error. And, an heir is someone next in line to become monarch in a royal family. Like herb, the “h” is silent in heir, so remember you must use the indefinite pronoun “an” with it. Nearly a year later, the crisp air blew past the last heir to a powerful kingdom. He sat in deep contemplation. On the onset of the zombie apocalypse, he decided to err on the side of caution. (3) – Ball vs. Bawl A ball is a sphere toy or sporting equipment. My dog loves his ball. You could also call a formal dance a ball. It’s also used in a more vulgar sense to refer to the male gonads. Along those lines, we commonly say a person “has balls” (or testicular fortitude) meaning they are bold and courageous. You can use ball as a verb as in to “ball up” or shape dough or clay into a sphere shape. English uses ball figuratively in idioms like “get the ball rolling”, meaning start things, and “drop the ball”, meaning to make a mistake. On the other hand, bawl is a synonym for cry or shout and can be used as both a noun or verb. I bawl my eyes out every time my cat does something cute. The Swedish children used to play ball carefree in the streets, but then the zombies ate their brains. The nation mourned and their parents bawled for weeks on end. (4) – Base vs. Bass Base has several meanings in English. It could refer to a facility, like a military base. Bases are the corners of a baseball diamond that players run around to score. The base of a column or shaft is the lowest level. Or base could mean the more intangible foundation or support of an idea or argument, similar to basis. Bass is tricky because it’s also a homograph. Bass with a long “a” sound refers to the bass tone in music and is a homophone with base. But bass the fish, also known as perch, is pronounced with a short “a” sound. So, you could have a boy bass that burps bass bellowing at the bottommost base of the river. Try saying that 10 times fast! As the undead overran the country, the boy prince ordered the construction of a secret base on the ocean floor. He quickly moved all his knights and barons to the safety of the new royal headquarters. The pampered child even made arrangements for his beloved bass clarinet to travel to the palace in a special submarine. (5) – Bare vs. Bear Mixing these two homophones can have very humorous results. Bare is an adjective meaning empty or nude. Bear as a noun means the animal, though as a verb is used in several idioms and phrases. To “bear children” means to give birth, the past tense being “bore” (but “bare children” is naked kiddos). Then, “bear” with an object can mean to carry, possess, or endure, as in to “the right to bear arms” (but the “right to bare arms” sounds like the demands of cultists or feminist). If you “bear with” someone or something, you have patience for them. In nautical terms, to “bear down” means to approach another ship (but “bare down” might mean to strip!). In the height of the Zombie International Crisis (ZIC), the young prince, Rupert by name, bathed in his underwater luxury accommodations. The warm water soothed his bare skin. He couldn’t bear the thought of helpless people dying. (6) – Boar vs. Bore Boar is a wild pig-like mammal. Boar’s Head is a meat packaging company that strangely doesn’t serve boar. The noun doesn’t change from singular to plural, but it seems some dictionaries accept both boar and boars. Bore is a verb meaning to dull or tire someone. Your history professor might give a very boring lecture on the Peruvian social structure in the 1960s. You could also use as a noun. Your date from last Thursday might have been a bore at dinner. Now the past tense verb form bored should not be confused with board, meaning a wooden plank. So, it’s a homophone within a homophone? Before long, the virus infected even the animals! The boar, bears, and deer became enraged and twisted into revolting demon forms. They, in turn, spread the contagion to the seals and walruses. Eventually, the sickness affected the sharks, squids, and finally the deep anglerfish. Prince Rupert, who had grown quite bored, quickly became alarmed. (7) – Bye vs. By vs. Buy Bye is an abbreviation of goodbye. You might be surprised that dictionaries don’t agree on the preferred spelling. You could write goodbye, goodby, good-bye, or good-by. “Goodbye” is the most popular and preferred by the Associated Press. Because of all this confusion, you actually could write bye or by and both mean farewell. Remain consistent and align with your editing standards. It’s interesting to note that “goodbye” itself originated as an old English contraction of “God be with ye”. In sports, a bye round of a tournament is where a player or team advances without facing an opponent, usually because of an odd number of participants. By is a preposition loosely meaning from (“the book is by Stephen King”), around (“Steve rode his bike by the lake”), or approximately (“I am taller than you by seven inches”). Buy is a verb meaning to purchase, the past tense being bought. You could also consider bi, a shorthand for bisexual, a homophone in this group. Meanwhile, the few remaining European survivors banded together and formed a colony in the caves of the Tatra Mountains in Slovakia. They lived in harmony using a simple code: no one person was more important than another. By firmly believing everyone had value, they cooperated to create a safe and thriving community. Soon an economy developed where villagers could buy and sell crafts using coins minted by approval of the elders. Together, the elected council hoped to finally say ‘bye to the terror of the outside world. (8) – Core vs. Corp Core is the central part or idea of something. The apple core contains the seeds. Corp is an organization or unit of people, usually in the military. The Marine Corps protects the nation. The “p” is silent, so is the “s” in the plural form. You would never say corps like “corpse”. The elder council became the core leadership of the society. They sent corps of scouts to clear the country roads and forage for food. Soon they reclaimed enough land for the colony to farm potatoes. Then, mysteriously, men of the cloth wandered into the midsts and shared their message of salvation. (9) – Conscience vs. Conscious Your conscience is your moral principles that guide you. Think of Jimmy Cricket and how he advised little Pinocchio. Conscious is the state of being awake and aware of something. You could be unconscious under sedation before an operation or while drunk. You should follow conscience in making a tough choice, hopefully, while you’re conscious enough to know what you’re doing. The Tatra Republic, as it came to be known, became the last center of human civilization. The holy men from the Church of Zanzabu came more frequently and began to patrol the base of the mountain. Zombies and other hellish creatures didn’t dare approach once the monks established their sanctum on the summit. But it wouldn’t be long before the evil forces organized a plan of attack! Over the next month, the children of the colony slowly disappeared without a trace. The people searched in vain and began to panic. The High Priest assured the people they had nothing to fear. Yet, one determined warrior named Kazimierz decided to investigate and spy on the enemy himself! He conscience told him the cunning clerics were hiding something. One night, he ventured down to the valley to sneak about the zombie masses. He found them bowing down around a crystal prism atop an ungodly altar. Kazimierz could see an ugly, demented monster of a man trapped unconscious inside the glass. (10) – Ensure vs. Insure Ensure means to make certain or secure. Before leaving for work, you should ensure you’re wearing pants. Insure is to issue protection from damage under as under an insurance policy. State Farm insures automobiles and mobile homes. Assure, meaning to encourage or give promise to, isn’t technically a homophone because it has a slightly different pronunciation, though it’s still commonly confused with others. I used it in the previous paragraph of the story. The Church of Zanzubu assured, or promised, the people they would be safe…. little did they know… Suddenly, out of the shadows, the High Priest walked slowly through the crowds of the living dead! He cradled a small girl in his arms. The child appeared dazed in a trance or under some wicked spell. The girl, caught in her magic stupor, approached the crystal tomb. Instantly, her body melted to the bone and the flesh poured through the translucent casing to feed the monster inside. The Ancients told that only the blood of innocents could ensure the creature’s resurrection, or so the stories tell. Kazimierz had heard the legends of the Lord Festus the Zombie King, but he never believed them. Few people gave credence to old myths of bygone ages. The wise elders still feared his return. They understood the prophecies and even purchased policies to insure against the fiend’s destruction. (11) – Hanger vs. Hangar Hangers are the hooks in your closet, while hangars are shelters for planes. As a way to remember the difference, hanger has a second “a” and is used airplanes, though they could also apply to submarines… as in the next part of our tale: Nearly 800 miles away, Prince Rupert rummaged through his hangers for his best suit. He had to dress in style if he was to return to the surface. In the final moments, as the waters rushed in and destroyed the palace, Prince Rupert fled to the hangar and fired up his favorite yellow submarine, leaving his court servants and advisors to die. As he ascended the ocean depths, he remembered his old bass clarinet was still stored securely in the cockpit. He smiled at the fond memories he had practicing his scales. (12) – License vs. Licence In American English, license is both a noun and verb. However, in British English, licence is the noun form and license is the verb. To hunt game, the state must license you, and you must carry your licence with you at all times in parks. Unfortunately, the little prince was too young to acquire his submarine licence, and he had abandoned his engineering corp to their deaths. In frustration, he fiddled with the colorful buttons, levers, and switches. His meddling caused the console to smoke and settings go haywire! The vessel shifted and rolled every which way. He cursed his father, the king, for not having the decency to license his only son! (13) – Lightening vs. Lightning Confusing these two homophone words could lead electrifying deliveries. Lightening is the present participle of the word “lighten” and either relates to shading or weight. Dumping cargo is a good way of lightening a ship. Johnny’s cheap camera had a poor lightening effect on the photos. You could also use it figuratively in the phrase “lightening the mood”. And ahh… lightening is also a noun that refers to when the head of an unborn baby moves and settles in the pelvic region of the pregnant mother during the third trimester. Jennifer knew her delivery was soon because she felt the lightening of the baby. Lightning is the flash of electricity in the sky during a storm. Sparks of lightning shot out of the submarine’s circuitry. Flames charred Prince Rupert’s face as he quickly reached towards the big red button on the center control. He hadn’t tried that one yet. Immediately, his seat blasted him above a hatch above him and into the wide blue sea. The royal brat held his breath long enough for a clear bubble casing to wrap around his body. As the pod still rocketed through the water, he let out a sigh of relief. Curious though, he poked his little finger at the glowing bubble wall and created a beautiful lightening effect with a pulse of rainbow colors. (14) – Hoard vs. Horde Hoard is a verb meaning to hold on to something obsessively. Horde is a noun that refers to a nomadic group of peoples, like Genghis Khan’s Golden Horde or the orc hordes of Mordor. Prince Rupert landed squarely on the beaches of Poland’s northern shore. The bubble capsule faded and he tumbled out onto the sand. He lamented ruining his fancy suit, though he hoarded his precious bass clarinet. Even though the bulk case to it slowed him down, he considered it an essential item in his quest. He knew it was time to fulfill his destiny. He couldn’t avoid it any longer. As he made his way inland, a roaming undead horde began to chase him all through the countryside. (15) – Lead vs. Led Lead is the metal found in pencils. Lead-contaminated water can make you very sick. Led is the past participle of the verb lead. Confused? That’s because lead is homograph. Lead with a short “e” refers to the metal, while lead with a long “e” sound is the act of showing leadership as in “lead the way, captain!”. George Washington led his country to victory in the American Revolution. The prince ran as far as he could, but he realized he had to face the zombies. He reached into his silk trousers and pulled out a semi-automatic handgun and filled the freaks with lead. His weapon of choice was fully customized to output the most precise shots and had a light purple paint job. He felt assured of victory, but soon the hungry foes cornered him in the deserted town. Then, suddenly, a stranger appeared out of an alley and saved him with a spell of blinding light. The man led the way to safety. (16) – Mussels vs. Muscles Mussels are a general name for many edible clams that are somewhat a delicacy. Your expensive dinner date might involve dining on mussel soup. Muscles are masses of tissue under your skin. You go to the gym go to build beefy muscles. It’s possible that deep on the ocean floor exist the most fabulous muscular mussel, the biggest bodybuilding mollusk in all the seven seas! When they settled into a shelter outside the town, the stranger introduced himself as Kazimierz. He mostly lived on the beach because he could easily catch and eat mussels. For almost a year now, the once naive Kaz had lived on his own wandering about Europe searching for a way to undo the ritual of the Zombie King. The monster overload had now risen to life and, soon after, destroyed the Tarta Republic, thanks to the deception of the Church of Zanzabu. The lone warrior Kaz stood against the evil by learning old magic and growing big muscles. (17) – Peel vs. Peal Peel is the action of removing the skin or outer layer of something. You could also call the skin of a fruit the peel. So, you would peel a banana peel. Does the word peal ring any bells? Yes! Peal is a noun and verb meaning “sound loudly”. It’s usually associated with church bells, though it could apply to things like gunfire, fireworks, or laughter. I tend to think of how “I heard the Bells on Christmas Day” uses the word towards the end. Kaz was honored to meet a royal prince. He peeled the shells off of his collection of mussels, and they enjoyed lunch. Rupert proudly announced he had a secret weapon to finished off the zombies for good! The awful peal of his bass clarinet would hypnotize the hellish beasts. Kaz was angered the little prince had hidden away for so long, and he doubted the plan would even work. They decided they should test out the theory. (18) – Peek vs. Peak vs. Pique Peek is to sneak a look at something. Many high school boys have tried to peek into the girls’ locker room. You might have played peek-a-boo with your baby. The peak is the highest point of something, particularly a mountain. You could use it in an adjective expression. The legendary muscular mussel worked his shell to peak performance. Pique means to excite someone’s interest or curiosity. It also means to annoy or anger someone. You have to rely on the context to interpret. An attractive lady may pique your attention, but if you’re caught ogling, you may pique your girlfriend into slapping you. They journeyed into the next town and peeked around the corner of a wall. A group of zombies strolled mindlessly at the peak of a hill in the center of the abandoned plaza. The brave Kaz jumped out and shot a fireball spell into the sky. The blaze of flames and scattering of ashes piqued the interest of the undead. (19) – Poor vs. Pore vs. Pour Poor is the opposite of wealthy. Aladdin was a poor street rat. Pores are the microscopic openings in your skin that secrete sweat. In geology, it’s also the gaps between sediment and soil that allow water to seep through to the bottom. Your property might have porous rocks around the garden. As a verb, pore means to read or glance over something. And then, pour means to release or let flow a liquid. You pour milk into your cereal bowl. However, you could use it figuratively. You might pour your heart out in confessing to a crush… but you would pore over your studies before a test since that’s literally reviewing your notes and the textbook. Prince Rupert readied his instrument and let out a thunderous deep bellowing sound. Poor Kaz covered his ears as the hideous noise filled the air. The ugly creatures became enchanted by the obnoxious notes pouring into their minds. Their feet began to shuffle uncontrollably. Their hips swayed to and fro. The music seeped into very pores and reached into vacant souls. (20) – Principal vs. Principle The principal, as a noun, is the head administrator of a school or other organization. You can remember this definition because the word ends in “pal”, and your principal is your pal. Right? In finance, it means the initial amount of a loan before interest. Used as an adjective, principal means the highest rank or importance. Jim Carrey was the principal comedy actor of the 1990s. A principle is a doctrine or rule. Your professor might explain the principles of chemistry in a lecture. If someone refuses something out of the “principle of the matter”, they are referring to their personal code of morals or honor, not their high school principal. The melody, though distasteful, put the zombies in a dancing mood! The expression on their faces transformed from stone cold to a recognizable smile. Their eyes brightened and glowed with misty tears. Slowly their natural life returned. Kaz soon recognized one as his elementary principal… But the music wasn’t enough to free them. The zombies screamed and collapsed before completely renewing their human form. Prince Rupert was astonished at the power of music. They both talked it over for a long while. They could use the instrument to destroy them, but, out of principle, they decided it better to save them. (21) – Rain vs. Rein vs. Reign Rain is water the falls down during a storm. Reins could refer to the harness stripes on horses that riders use to direct the animal or “to rein in” the horse is the verb form. More figuratively, you could rein in or control anything. Someone who is always angry needs to rein in their outbursts. Reign is the rule of a leader, typically a monarch. Ivan the Terrible reigned as Tsar of All Russia from 1533 to 1547. From that day onward, Prince Rupert wrote and practiced music. Over time, he reined in his wild timing and awkward fingerings. He and Kaz were convinced they could reverse the zombie curse with lovely music. They just needed to refine some notes here and there. Before long, they hoped to overthrow the reign of the Zombie King…. But one night, as the rain poured down and drenched through their shelter, priests of the Church of Zanzabu rushed in and attacked! (22) – Read vs. Reed Read is to look and comprehend words in a book, magazine, brochure, etc… You are reading these words. Read is interesting because it’s spelled the same in the past tense but pronounced differently, making it a homograph with itself. In the past, read sounds like “red”. Reeds are a kind of stalk plants that grow in marshes. They are used for some wind instruments. The High Priest heard rumors of an enchanted bass clarinet that had the Ancients foretold long ago. To be certain, he ordered the execution of anyone who could read music. The world under the Zombie King must remain one devoid of any remotely beautiful sounds. The order’s assassin’s reached central Poland and followed a trail of reeds leading them straight to Prince Rupert. (23) – Real vs. Reel Real is what is true or exists in reality. A reel is a cylinder tool used to store and play motion pictures or a fishing reel is a spool the wire is wrapped around the pole. As an action, you reeling is to wind back up the reel spool. But you can reel your body by spinning or wobbling. A boxer might reel away from a punch. The priest assassins caught Kaz and Prince Rupert by surprise. They reeled away from their daggers as best they could, but their assailants were too fast. One stabbed Kaz deep in the chest. Another quick swing of a blade slashed his thigh. The prince struggled away from his own attacker, pulled out his trusty purple pistol, and dispatched the religious enforcers. Yet, Kaz dropped to the floor in pain. He whispered to his Scandinavian friend, “The power of music isn’t in the instrument or the notes or even the lyrics. The real magic of life… it in the passion of your heart.” Then he breathed his last. (24) – Toe vs. Tow Toes are the appendages on the end of your feet. You should wash between your toes when you bathe. Tow is to pull or haul something as with a chain or cord. If you park in the fire lane, the city may tow your vehicle and ticket you. If you’ve been to a busy harbor, you might have seen a cute little tow boat tugging a freight ship. In agony, Prince Rupert towed his friend’s body outside. He spent an hour digging a proper grave, promised himself to set things right, and buried the fallen warrior. He played the saddest song ever on his bass clarinet. Chills rolled down his body from head to toe as he contemplated bring balance to the world. (25) – Their vs. They’re vs. There If you cannot win an argument online, the next best thing is to correct someone’s misuse of these homophones! (Seriously, I don’t recommend becoming a grammar Nazi and trolling people. It’s too much work) Their is a possessive case of the pronoun they. Your teacher might be worried the students forgot their homework. They’re is a contraction of “they are”. They’re 30 days in June. There is an unspecified place or time away from you, the opposite of “here”. My brother tried to help me in a video game by pointing out, “He’s hiding over there!” Prince Rupert knew he had to make things right. People deserve their lives back. There is no joy without the art of sound and dance. The prince had the power and thus the responsibility to restore life to the mindless masses. Their freedom was in his hands! Yet, it required him to face his greatest enemy… the Zombie King, his father! Living up there on the Tatra Mountains, the undead king felt safe and in control. Now, his outcast son planned to return to save his father and end his madness. They’re worlds apart, but music would bring them together. (26) – To vs. Too vs. Two To is a preposition that indicates direction. Every weekday I drive to work. Too is an adverb meaning in addition or also. Do you love ice cream? I do too! It might also mean “in excess”. Too much ice cream gives you a tummy ache. Two is the next whole number after one. I have two little dogs. The young heir ran out with determination to Slovakia. He stealthy scaled the steep stone and gravel incline up the mountain. By the time he reached the summit, his two hands were covered in knicks and bruises. He was not deterred as he dashed down halls to the sanctum of the Church of Zanzabu. The Zombie King sat on a golden throne with the hellish creatures all bowed in worship. Even the deceitful priests too pay homage. (27) – Waist vs. Waste Your waist is the width of your belt line. Cheerleaders tend to have small waists. Waste as a noun means junk, garbage, or a desolate place. As a verb, to waste something is throw it out, destroy it, or fail to utilize it. As an adjective, wasteful is using something in excess or in a greedy way. Wasteful spending can lead to debt (that’s lead as in direct you to, not the metal. See #15). As the veneration of the king continued, the High Priest appeared out of the shadows without his shirt and beautiful women clutched at his waist. The crowds were captivated in royal adoration, their sense too dulled to notice the villain enter the stage. He laughed and shouted, “Everyone seeks something to worship, some idol to waste their thoughts and captivate their minds. I’ve given the world what they crave. Now I am free to do as I please as the fools waste away.” The women at his side smiled at his cunningness and kissed him. (28) – Vain vs. Vein Vain can be an adjective to describe someone as being extremely conceited or short-sighted. Otherwise, it could describe an action that is useless or fails to achieve its goal. And, to take the “Lord’s name in vain” would be to speak it irrelevantly. Veins are the blood vessels under your skin. Chains retrained the Zombie King in his exquisite chair. Though the face was ugly and disfigured, Prince Rupert recognized the man behind the monster. Even if had been 10,000 years, they were still family. The same blood ran through their veins. Once the father had been king of the Underworld, but he banished his son for giving aid to dying humans. The dead were appointed to die at their assigned hour. When the king learned that his son even taught them magic and ruled over Sweden, he considered it divine treason and launched a war against him. The humans fought in vain against the immortal Lord Festus, King of the Underworld. The Ancients, powerful human mages, could only seal the god of death into a crystal tomb. (29) – You vs. Yew vs. Ewe You is the second personal pronoun in English. It could be both singular or plural, though some country folk say ya’ll (contraction of “you all”). Yews are evergreen trees, and they are the favored material for bows. Skilled medieval archers crafted their own yew bows. Ewes are female sheep. Prince Rupert, with bass clarinet in hand, leaped down from his hidden nook in the ceiling. The High Priest reared back in astonishment, and his girls fled. The Zombie King, whom the prince knew as Lord Festus, angrily roared, “Son! Have you returned to mock and defy me as before, as the mortal world does now!” The boy prince approached the boldly golden throne. He said, “No… I’ve come to forgive your hate and say… you’re right. I hate people dying. Mortals are fragile like gentle ewes. They deserve care and guidance, but there must be a balance. Without death, they are caught in this limbo state. They cannot understand life without appreciating both the end and the beginning. They cannot be the living dead anymore. I started this curse, thinking it would be a blessing. But I am here to make it right.” Then he began to play the sweetest sound on his instrument. The yew walls and columns of the temple violently shook. (30) – Your vs. You’re Your is the possessive case of the pronoun you. Your browser is open to this webpage. You’re is a contraction of “you are”. You’re accessing my website. The throng of zombies rose and became wide-eyed with wonder. They rolled their arms high in excitement as the color returned to their skin, their hair grew back, and their voices echoed the music. The sound slowly returned their mortality and ended their misery. But then, the High Priest launched a lightning bolt from his palms and shattered the enchanted bass clarinet! “It’s over! Without your pretty little jingles, you’re finished. Attack him!” he ordered triumphantly. The zombies, dazed and confused, rushed to the platform and grabbed hold of the prince. But, just as many of the zombies reach in for a hunk of flesh, the boy calmly said, “That’s where you’re wrong.” Then, he continued the lovely song by singing from the bottom of his heart. Moments later, the zombies all changed completely back to their human forms. Some collapsed and died instantly. Others people stood stunned and in disbelief at everything around them. Many recognized the High Priest and knew his schemes. They chased after him and tackled the frail old man to the ground. Prince Rupert, the heir to the Underworld kingdom, freed his father from the chains. He spent the next month reversing the zombie curse around the world. Finally, he returned with Lord Festus, where he belonged. That’s 30 of most commonly misused homophones, but there are countless more. Which ones do you have trouble mixing up? There might be some mnemonic or trick to remember the difference. The best and most fun, way to learn is always incorporating what you do in creative writing! I had fun writing the zombie story. Write content to inspire.

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Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the advantages of integrating arts into the curriculum. Looking closely at students with communication disorders, the immeasurable possibilities to aid them with verbal communication aids are never-ending. It is important for educators to acknowledge the success that has been demonstrated when students involve themselves in their learning as well as in their ability to communicate. Arts integration is an educational approach that creates a level of personal connection, as well as an appreciation for different learning styles. An emphasis on the process of discovery with the arts allows for unexpected outcomes. Teachers help students to develop more complex thinking skills, and add depth in the classroom through a creative analysis of the work created. The work is looked at for its meaning rather than its visual appeal. Using the arts can assist students in verbal understanding, focusing and concentration. Ranging from speech disorders to developmental disorders, the idea of art as therapy is never looked at as an alternative within the school system. I will be using the utilization of art integration in the school system as a way to analyze the success of students with speech therapy issues. With the increase in the number of students that need help with speech issues, the variety of methods that teachers are able to use should also expand. By using various strategies teachers demonstrate how the arts ignite creativity and enhance learning. Arts integration as a form of speech therapy in the Elementary Schools has a positive impact on the oral language and overall comprehension in elementary age children. The art as a method for assisting verbal communication in learning-disabled students combines “articulation and language skills”. Incorporating professional speech pathology strategies, the use of the arts looks at things that might assist the children in not only speaking but also progressing in creating their own communication. The events created are built on a “foundation of methods, enhanced by current research, and techniques that have been successful in many experiences.” (Estrella, 2005) “Can we think beyond the developmental stages in art that we have taken for granted for so long and that have implicitly limited the possibilities of experiences and materials that we have offered children?” (Mason 2006) It is important that all educators acknowledge the success that has been demonstrated when students involve themselves in their learning. Arts integration is an educational approach that creates a level of personal connection, as well as an appreciation for different learning styles, for both professor and student. Before finding the answer to questions regarding art in relation to communication it is necessary to understand the background, history, and importance of what Art Therapy is. Although similarly different, Art Integration and Art Therapy are similar notions but different practices. With a general concentration on combining art into the curriculum, Art Integration is a general education tool. While art therapy focuses solely on the use of art in relation to verbal exercises. Art Therapy by definition is a form of psychotherapy; in psychotherapy there is an exploration of feelings and concerns in nonverbal and verbal exercises that use simple visual art materials. Art therapy focuses on the creative processes possible for a person instead of what they are able to produce. Perplexing and difficult feelings are able to be expressed through using Art Therapy because it is presented in a non-threatening manner. It is used to encourage insight, self-awareness, and independence of the patient. Teachers help students to develop more complex thinking skills, and add depth in the classroom through a creative analysis. Those who utilize Art Therapy often feel they are able to communicate and gain understanding within various communicational aspects through it. Art Therapy is said to help in a creative process that a person goes through in which they can find “inner guidance” and find “self-healing” at a conscious level.(Ulman, 1975) Art Therapy can be expressed through “storytelling, poetry, music, dance, visual arts, painting, sculpture, and any other type of creativity activity”.(Ulman, 1975) Many Art Therapists believe that there is growing a stronger connection between art and healing and believe that Art Therapy is significant to a person’s health. In an article entitled “Expressive Therapy: An Integrated Arts Approach” expressive therapist Estrella, discusses expressive arts therapy, integrative arts therapy, and therapy as an all-purpose treatment for children with communicative as well as learning disabilities. Her idea of “interrelatedness of the arts” takes an integrated approach to the use of the “arts as a tool for psychotherapy.” “Also referred to as expressive arts therapy, integrative arts therapy, multimodal expressive therapy, or intermodal expressive therapy”, according to the author this represents a “discipline rooted in philosophical, cultural/historical, and clinical models that each support the unique contributions that an interdisciplinary approach to the arts affords.” (Estrella 2005) Using the arts can assist students in understanding, focusing and concentrating. Arts integration in the Elementary Schools has a positive impact on the language, oral as well as overall comprehension in elementary age children. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the advantages of integrating and effectively using the arts in the curriculum as a therapy tool, for students with language as well as communication disorders. Furthermore, this paper will evaluate the arts as an integration tool to encourage mainstreaming of LD (Learning Disabled) students into the classroom. By using these various strategies teachers demonstrate how the arts ignite creativity and enhance learning. “There is a growing recognition of the arts as intrinsically interdisciplinary.”(Estrella, 2005) “Recent research tends to stress the negative impact of knowledge on drawing, the extent to which what children know about an object prevents them from drawing what they see.” (Giles 2004) The arts too many educators are viewed as leisure activity, non-academic, and irrelevant to the employment world. An integrative approach to teaching, for example, “connects visualization with reading comprehension, contextualizes math, or brings an experiential context to the science or social studies classroom.”(Estrella 2005) Funding for art education in many schools both public and private has significantly reduced or completely been cut. Government officials at state or city levels feel the need for art education is not as significant as the need for more academic based programs like mathematics, history, science and social studies. Studies proposed to make a cut of 35.6 million dollars in art education (FY 2006 Ed Budget Summary, 2005). Officials see art education as something that is impeding on their student’s academic careers, rather than helping them. Using the arts can assist students in understanding and applying skills to standardized exams. Focus and concentration can be developed through an appreciation and appliance of different learning styles, such as “linguistic, visual or kinesthetic thinking.”(Estrella 2005) Through the integration of insight into cognition (thinking) and expression (acting) students perform at a higher level. Although art therapy has been used in some fashion beginning in the “first half of the twentieth century”, its range of helpful effects is still only partially explored today. (Appel 2006) Therapists constantly invent new ways to use the arts to assist people with a variety of disabilities and psychological problems. However, it was not until about “one hundred years ago that doctors began to record descriptions of spontaneous artwork done by their patients”. (Appel 2006) “The emotional development of children, fostered through encouragement of spontaneous creative expression and self-motivated learning, should take precedence over the traditional intellectual approach to the teaching of standardized curriculum”(Appel 2006). Not only does it encompass “less threatening, non-verbal techniques with patients that have profound difficulty verbalizing” their feelings and thoughts; it can be used to “open and expand verbal communication’, as well.(Geist 2008) Art therapy, is meant to function as a way of supporting “ego functioning by enhancing a sense of identity and self-esteem and in the process, fostering maturation” in the patient.(Ulman 2005) In other words, Art therapy complements or supports psychotherapy but does not replace it. An entity of its own, psychotherapy, although an effective therapy method, would be used with art therapy rather than by itself. From the earliest days of psychoanalysis, the making of art was viewed according to the analyst’s theoretical stance. By examining the patient’s conscious mind art therapy is still engaged in this fashion as an attachment to logical treatment. This concept has also had a “considerable impact on the broader field”. (Strand 2006) There are many fields of study that focus on children and their needs whether it may be mental, social or physical, one of these fields of study is child psychology. Child psychology is a form of study that allows understanding the developmental stages of children and what should be expected of them during their different stages. But art therapy permits us to understand children at a different level, a more intimate level, allowing us to view more in-depth the mind of a child. By understanding the developmental and behavioral stages of children, therapists can better identify what is hindering the child from proper and age appropriate communication. The theory that encompasses ideas to increase aid for students with developmental disorders touched upon by theorist Lev Vygotsky, who states that culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development” is one of his best-known concepts. The overall role of the speech-language pathologist is the integration of “fluency-shaping and stuttering modification approaches.” The author goes in detail about how well children represent events seeming in “their world” in relation to speech. The authors concept in relation to Vygotsky and his theory of Scaffolding which argues that students can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own, connects directly through a process of using what the students already know, to develop the things they need help with. Those who argue against funding arts education need to take a closer look at what art education does for a child. With the constant need for extracurricular activities resources in the schools are limited, with too much emphasis on instruction time; students lose the opportunity to express themselves as individuals. As displayed in the graph above, a 2003 study of a Minneapolis Elementary school system showed the overall amount of students that had integration in schooling had an impactful increase in the amount on their reading score. The “pink line” representing the English Language Learners showed a valuable increase in the total reading scores increased in relation to the amount of integration incorporated. Likewise, the amount of students qualifying for free lunch had a measurable increase due to an increase of arts integration. Researchers have found that enriched arts education bridges gaps created by socioeconomic and language barriers because art is a shared language and skill that all children understand. Likewise, research has shown through the graph that Low-SES students involved in music programs outscored low-SES no-music students on the referenced mathematics assessment. Low-SES students who were more involved in drama activities had greater reading proficiency and a more positive self-concept, and the gaps widened over time, as compared to low-SES students with little or no involvement. With the 2001 “No Child Left Behind Act”, some states and districts have dramatically cut back their arts programs as well as decreased funding for arts education; the number of art, music, and drama teachers; and the time chosen in schools for art related activities. But in many instances there is a lack of knowledge about art and its therapeutic forms, among caregivers as well as among those who could benefit from it. As Ulman points out, the term “Art Therapy” is used to refer to a variety of practices with many different aims, noting that there are numerous different kinds of qualifications. What all art therapy has in common, however, is that engaging in an art practice is “used in some attempt to assist integration or reintegration of personalities.”(Ulman 2005) Similarly, an interview from the mother of a now, 11 year old son states that when he was 5- 8 years old he participated in art/play therapy and states that, “It (art therapy) has helped him to accept himself the way he is. He had difficulty feeling like he was “different” from other children and the play/art therapy has helped him understand to accept the differences as positive aspects of his life.” (N. Gidney, personal communication, February 14, 2010) In a 2010 article about funding in schools, Holly Lambert, a teacher at Morgan School in uptown Charlotte, is reaching out to the ASC (Arts & Science Council) for “up to $60,000 through a web site that raises money and matches donations to go towards the arts education across the United States (DonorsChoose.org).” Lambert and many of her colleagues are submitting requests for “musical instruments, art supplies and other materials on a special page: donorschoose.org/asc. The ASC will match up to $30,000.” The need for resources is ever growing and will continue to increase as funding decreases. (Brown, 2010) Teachers often find themselves in a field without formal “recognized certification”; working within schools art teachers or classroom teachers, often have to teach in their own art field, because a standard art inclusion curriculum isn’t provided. Meanwhile, boards of education, principals, and state legislatures are pressing for reading, mathematics, science, and social studies achievement, placing the arts in schools at risk. In this graph it displays a fifth grade classroom, focusing on males. This shows, likewise to the other graph, a significant increase in the reading scores in relation to the amount of integration. The more integration allowed, the better the students’ scores ended up, especially in males. Students performing “below the standard” or “nearly meeting the standard,” require educational opportunities that partner their learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal) with their areas of weakness (verbal linguistic, logical/mathematical). (Wadeson 1980) Q: Do the arts transform the environment for learning? Language for the students should strive at all times to develop an atmosphere that encourages verbal communication. In this, interviewer N. Gidney states that her sons “communication skills have increased through play therapy. Through the play therapy we have learned new ways to communicate with each other. I have learned a lot about the way he communicates and it has helped my son to feel more comfortable talking to me about subjects he may not have if it was not for the therapy.” (N. Gidney, personal communication, February 14, 2010) Likewise, there must be times of quiet during the school day for individualized instruction, but in integrating art into the curriculum it encourages and helps develop independent working skills. In providing enriching language activities more can be made of group activities. The idea of social exchange is evident when looking at the things that encourage students to speak to each other rather than think independently. The development of language skills is important for successful interpersonal communication. Geist argues in an article entitled “Integrating Music Therapy Services and Speech-Language Therapy Services for Children with Severe Communication Impairments: A Co-Treatment Model,” how preschool children with speech-language disorders demonstrated social communication skills in basic group music activities with their non-disabled peers. This text connects directly to BF Skinners behaviorism theory stating that “learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment.” The effectiveness of arts activities relating to the overall goals of a special needs students as well as the overall goals of the academic curriculum. Perceptual training through the arts is emphasized, and teacher’s guides to problems related to slow learners as well. “"¦Although researchers involved with child art have long insisted that art is far more tightly interwoven in the fabric of human learning than contemporary Western culture tends to admit, the complex socio cultural and historical reasons for the peripheral position of art in North American schools and preschools remain to be fully explicated, widely understood, and revised in action.” (Geist 2008) By using and integrating art into lessons, techniques to broaden language experiences using activities that are divergent from the traditional instructional processes, bombard the child with experiences and specific uses of language, exposing them to a variety of modes of expression, encouraging listening skills, thinking skills, and opportunities for talking. Often times the language distorted child feels self-conscious in speaking before others. The child is often misunderstood, resulting in a reluctance to attempt further verbal communication, resulting in looking for ways of dealing with this hesitancy to talk. With the integration of various art forms, these students with communication disorders or an inability to verbalize become responsible for expressing themselves to other children through a range of media. “Drawings are believed to reflect the subject’s mental representations and conceptual knowledge about the objects they draw. Drawings become more accurate and detailed as children’s mental models of the world become more extensive and differentiated.” (Gardner 2006) Certain forms of arts instruction enhance and complement basic reading instruction aimed at helping children “break the phonetic code” that unlocks written language by associating letters, words and phrases with sounds, sentences and meanings. Since we do not “read reading” but rather texts of various kinds in search of meaning, it is important that forms of arts instruction promote both basic reading skills and the achievement motivation that engages young learners in the reading experience. Children develop the ability to write, read, speak, listen, and think by having “real” experiences with motor activities, reading, speaking, writing, listening, and thinking, and by getting support from experienced learners. Integrating the arts means that the elements of creativity are developed and taught with a set of common experiences. (Gardner 2006) There are many advantages to integrating the arts in relation to speech therapy. Children learn all aspects of language by using language in purposeful situations as well as in situations they enjoy. By integrating the arts into therapy methods, we put children in situations that match the way in which they naturally learn and use language. By integrating the arts for children with communication delays, children develop better critical thinking abilities. A treatment for many kids with speech and or language disorders refers to a problem with the actual production of sounds, where a language disorder refers to a difficulty understanding or putting words together to communicate ideas. As defined, a speech or communication disorder is characterized by the following: “Articulation disorders include difficulties producing sounds in syllables or saying words incorrectly to the point that other people can’t understand what’s being said. Fluency disorders include problems such as stuttering, the condition in which the flow of speech is interrupted by abnormal stoppages, repetitions (st-st-stuttering), or prolonging sounds and syllables (ssssstuttering). Resonance or voice disorders include problems with the pitch, volume, or quality of the voice that distract listeners from what’s being said. These types of disorders may also cause pain or discomfort for the child when speaking. Dysphasia/oral feeding disorders, including difficulties with eating and swallowing.” (Sutton 24) Because language disorders can be either passionate or significant, therapy should focus on children who have difficulties understanding language as well as those who difficulty putting words together, limited vocabulary, or inability to use language in a socially appropriate way. Including art, books, objects as well as constant events, these aid in the stimulation of language development. Repetition as well as exercises to build speech and language skills help with articulation or sound production. With the variety of reasons why children need speech therapy, the arts in collaboration relates to cognitive (intellectual thinking) or other developmental delays and motor problems. Certain music instruction, including inclusive instruction that includes spatial training, “develops spatial reasoning and spatial-temporal reasoning skills”, which are fundamental to understanding and using mathematical ideas and concepts. Learning in individual art forms as well as in multi-arts experiences engages and strengthens fundamental capacities as “spatial reasoning”, including organizing and sequences, conditional reasoning, theory and consequences, problem solving, and creative thinking. Those officials that are not fighting the budget cuts made towards music education are becoming a part of the reason that current youth will suffer a loss in education. The attitude that math and science are the most valuable subjects to learn is carried over in the budget debate. It has made the whole idea of publicly funded fine arts projects seem wasteful and frivolous. Students who were achieving at academic expectation scored high on all rhythmic tasks, while many of those who scored lower on the rhythmic test achieved below academic expectation. If music education keeps being disregarded, America will suffer by losing a unique opportunity to educate children and keep them in school. Creative thinking skills are improved, by using “the side of their brains that don’t get used in math and science”. Geist argues that music therapy can be integrated with speech therapy and service as an effective method for children with communication delays. This argument is that with the integration of communication arts through music effective speech-language services are set. Through mutual models with “procedures, experiences, and communication outcomes” demonstrate how preschool children with speech-language disorders “demonstrated social communication skills in basic group music activities with their non-disabled peers”. However, many professionals are working carefully to improve procedures to “address the varied and sometimes complex communication and educational needs of children with disabilities” (Geist 2008). Sublimation is a topic that is notorious in art therapy, where some art therapists support the concept and others dismiss it. According to Ulman, author of Art Therapy, “only on the basis of sublimation can the function of art and full potential of art therapy be adequately understood” (8). While some art therapists believe that the therapeutic value of art therapy can only be achieved through sublimation, many others have witnessed the positive effects art therapy can have in individuals who do not achieve sublimation. This text relates directly to my topic in that through the theorist Freud and his Artistic Sublimation theory. Which states Sublimation is the transformation of unwanted impulses into something less harmful. This can simply be a distracting release or may be a constructive and valuable piece of work, in relation to art. Sublimation channels this energy away from destructive acts and into something that is socially acceptable and/or creatively effective. Typically, an Art Therapy assessment involves the therapist’s giving the client a series of five or six art tasks, using a variety of media. These tasks relate to the student’s perception of self, his or her family, and school, or other aspects of their environment. These drawings and the student’s behavior while approaching this task are then evaluated along with developmental, family, and academic history. It is important to note that children’s progress in drawing differs significantly across the cultural spectrum. A person who uses art as an assessment tool needs to be familiar with the art children are exposed to and the culture they are from, before making an evaluation. Ulman describes sublimation as “instinctual behavior is replaced by a social act in such a manner that this change is experienced as a victory over the ego” (balance between reality, primitive drives, morals) (p. 8). According to Ulman, “Artistic sublimation consists in the creation of visual images for the purpose of communicating to a group very complex material which would not be available for communication in any other form"¦Every work of art contains a core of conflicting drives which give it life and determine form and content to a large degree” Fine arts educations were not seen as important or even minimally essential, “music should be used to help students overcome racial and cultural stereotyping, bias, and insensitivity”. Studies have shown the number of years of instrumental music instruction and academic achievement in math, science and language arts are significantly connected. This practice emphasizes the adaptive components that can be put into music integration. Focusing but not limiting to autistic students, Geist claims that when paired with music, speech contributes to feelings that need to be expressed. What students are able to learn, as well as retain through the arts is demonstrated in a variety of mediums. Young children who engage in dramatic enactments of stories and text improve their reading comprehension, story understanding and ability to read new materials they have not seen before. The effects are even more significant for children from economically disadvantaged circumstances and those with reading difficulties in the early and middle grades. In looking at dance integration researchers suggest it encourages pro-social behaviors as well as self-control. The ability to express oneself through dance shows a significant decrease in the frequency of negative behaviors. These techniques were introduced using movement, childrenrsquos stories and discussion. Using dance in the classroom, results have shown that teachers noticed a significant decrease in violent behavior in their students. Including fights, failing to pacify, being frustrated as well as not being able to control their emotions. The children reported significant decreases of these behaviors both seen and experienced: “someone is doing something wrong,” and “someone throwing something.” Significant changes in the students’ perceptions and feelings about experiencing or seeing aggression were noted in their “not feeling happy”. The use of dance in the classroom allows students to handle themselves and responding to certain situations. Research in dance showed an increase of ldquofeeling happy,rdquo and a decrease in ldquofeeling scared.rdquo (Wadeson 1980) “Cognitive psychologists continue to undertake studies related to children’s art experiences, operating within an established consensus regarding the nature of age related changes in children’s drawings observes persistent interest among his colleagues in children’s passage from “intellectual” to “visual realism”. (Purnell 2004) Art therapy is a therapy technique that did not “position its existence until the 1940s” (Sutton 12). Originally techniques used in art therapy were used in other form of therapy such psychoanalysis or the method of understanding mental life. In which a person would illustrate spontaneously and use free-association. “Art therapy gives children both verbal and nonverbal outlets. In art therapy the whole creative of art is recognized: form, content, and individual meaning. Art therapy helps in reconciling emotional conflicts as well as promoting self-awareness and personal growth.” (Mishook 2006) The process of creating art is rather simple, while the field of art therapy is complex. Creating art in a therapeutic setting the child goes through a process. Focusing on a feeling or an event; creating an image that represents the feeling or even; and discussing the significance of the created image (Kramer 1971). In the creation of an image the client is given a choice of various mediums whether it is drawing, painting, modeling, or construction. A more structured technique in art therapy is that of the “Human Figure Drawing Test” by Elizabeth Koppitz. This technique is used to measure a child’s emotional and mental development. Various depictions of figures have meanings. According to Koppitz, if child were to draw “small figures these would be interpreted as meaning being timid, while large figures would represent aggression”. Likewise some of these drawings reveal the relationships between the members of the child’s family. According to (Gullant 2008) the Best Practice for Arts Integrated 21st century Learning include the idea that the products created “reflect students’ responsibility for identifying problems and issues, conducting research, examining values, and making reflective decisions within an arts infused curriculum.” This also includes “active involvement in developmentally appropriate activities results in high-quality works that are a fusion of arts and non-arts disciplines.” Gardner refers to the ages between 5 and 7 as “the golden age of drawing,” and the research teams have devoted considerable attention to the apparent demise of artistry in the middle to late childhood and its unreliable resurgence in adolescence.” (Geist 2004) Developmental aspects of children’s drawings In 1947 Victor Lowenfeld published the book Creative and Mental Growth that was used to connect intellectual growth, psychosocial stages of development, and six stages of development in children’s drawings. Kellogg Foundation (1970) also supported the conclusion that children progress in drawing through different stages, fall into predictable age groups. The Scribble Stage, which appears at about eighteen months to two years of age is said to not just be aimless motion created at random by the child, but demonstrates an awareness of pattern and growing hand-eye coordination. (Silk & Thomas, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987) “Soon after children start scribbling, they will start to name what it was they drew after they have finished drawing it. Around two years of age, children will sometimes label their drawing before they have started working on it, but if the drawing looks like something else to them, they may just change the label. Their scribbles progressively become more recognizable and separate shapes appear on the same page. At around three and a half years, children begin incorporating details like fingers on hands.” (Silk & Thomas, 1990; Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987) The following stages from ages four to nine consist of two drawing stages, The “Pre-Schematic” Stage and the “Schematic” Stage. Both identified by Lowenfeld, the “Pre- Schematic stage is when children can draw a human figure with a circle and two dangling lines for legs, sometimes as Lowenfeld states include a If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more Cite This Work To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Related ServicesView all DMCA / Removal Request If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please:

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Language technique plays an essential role in writing a story or assignment writing. There is a wide range of language techniques. Before we go further, it’s important for us to know the definition of Language techniques. What is language technique? Language techniques are the elements that a writer brings to his or her story to emphasize the theme on which they are focusing. It plays an important factor in writing an essay or story. Language techniques and elements can be found anywhere in the story. As a result, it helps a student to understand a story, poem, essay, or novel in a better way. Language techniques and their effects Language technique helps you to score well in your writing. If you have a deep understanding of language techniques, then you can score well. For this, you need to understand language techniques deeply. Language techniques and their effects help you to understand the following principal factors: - How writers gain impact in their writing - to use various features in your writing (creative and transactional, as well as for your oral presentations) to craft your writing and gain impact - to help you achieve unit standards which require you to explore language and think critically about poetic/transactional/oral texts In the English language, you will learn many language techniques. These techniques are helpful in making a good essay or story. These techniques help us to write in a different style and format. Moreover, these are the base of the writing techniques. First of all, we will discuss the language feature and the common verbal language technique. Let’s discuss the Language feature. When analyzing language, you must show that you are aware of how it is written. This means identifying the language features used and explaining their effect. This will get clearer when you read the examples. Let us discuss more than 10 techniques that everyone should know. Common Verbal/Written English Techniques Now, let’s discuss the most common English language techniques! These include literary techniques and figures of speech that we use in the English language to convey messages, meaning, or depth in our writing, poetry, or storylines. Here we will discuss the list of structural features in English. It is the repetition of the vowel sounds creating an internal rhyming within phrases and sentences. In the sentence, “The mother spoke in a low mellow tone.” This contains the repetition of the “o” sound. This indicates that there is a repetition of a vowel sound. Imagery is a popular language technique. It is useful for the students. It helps the students to set up an image or scene in the audience’s mind. This makes a sensory impression in their mind. The students can relate their task with the help of imagery. In the sentence: The music was so moving that our whole body was shaking as if it came from within us. Imperatives are one of the most important language techniques. We use imperatives to give orders, commands, warnings or instruction. If you request somebody, then we use “please.” - Come here! - Sit down! - Do not walk on the grass. Minor sentences are also known as irregular sentences. These sentences consist the following: - single words - sentence fragments There are two main parts of a Minor sentence: Single words sentences In conversational language, we use single words to get the response or information from another person. Some of the single word sentences are sentence words, one-word sentences, or just word sentences. - Person A: “Where is your meeting again?” - Person B: “Denver.” Even though person B responded in a single word, but it contains all the relevant information that is necessary for the context of the conversation. We often use sentence fragments as standalone sentences. The following are the examples: - Incomplete clauses - Dependent clauses In conversational English, we use these language techniques. When we talk or respond to another person, we use this language technique. - Person A: “Are you going to have lunch soon?” - B: “In about an hour.” (prepositional phrase) - Person A: “Do you want to come to a movie with me later?” - B: “Sounds good!” (incomplete clause) - Person A: “When did you realize that you wanted to pursue politics?” - B: “When I was in college.” (dependent clause) Interjections convey emotions, expresses meaning and feeling. Interjections are divided into primary and secondary interjections. Primary interjections are single words derived from sounds, rather than from existing word classes. It still has widely recognized meaning. Some common primary interjections are: - argh (an expression of frustration) - brr (an expression of being cold) - eww (an expression of disgust) - grr (an expression of anger) - ooh (an expression of amazement) - phew (an expression of relief) A comma helps in linking the interjections to a major sentence. They can also stand on their own as minor sentences. You can punctuate an interjection with the help of exclamation marks. - “Ooh! That’s a beautiful dress.” - “Brr! It’s freezing in here!” - “Eww! I hate coconuts!” Secondary interjections are single words or short phrases that belong to other existing word classes. Some common secondary interjections are: - bless you - good grief - oh my - oh well - oh my God Secondary interjections often punctuated with exclamation points. For example: - “Oh my God! We won the lottery!” - “Wow! What a great achievement!” - “Congratulations! That was an impressive victory.” However, we can also have weaker secondary interjections that are punctuated with periods or interrogative ones that use question marks. - “Well shoot. I really thought we were going to win.” - “Good grief. I didn’t see that coming.” - “Well? Are we going to watch a movie?” - “What? You don’t like coconuts?” An idiom is a phrase or fixed expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning. While talking in conversational language, we use Idioms. - Person A: “Hi, how are you?” - Person B: “Hey, Jeff! Long time no see!” - Person A: “How can you evict us from our house like this - B: “Orders are orders.” - Person A: “When will you have that report ready for me?” - B: “Any minute now!” Idioms are frequently used and understood in everyday speech and writing. They are abbreviated, with the full phrase left to be understood by the listener or reader. For instance: - Person A: “I went through all the trouble of getting her this job, and she still managed to screw it up.” - B: “Well, you can lead a horse to water.” (Short form of “You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make it drink.”) - Person A: “I took them to the best restaurant in town, but they said they would rather have had cheeseburgers.” - B: “What do you expect? Pearls before swine.” (Short form of ”cast(one’s) pearls before swine”. ) Proverbs are similar to idioms. They are also understood due to their frequent use. Proverbs are widely used by everyone. Proverbs are self-contained sentences that express a truth based on common sense or shared experience. Many of them are divided into minor sentences over time. - “You should try and form better habits in your day-to-day routine. Early to bed, early to rise, that sort of thing!” (Short for “Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”) - “I’m not sure why people are shocked that he’s suspected of stealing. If the shoe fits.” (Short for “If the shoe fits, wear it.”) - “Sure, bring your friends. The more, the merrier!”. Have you ever heard the following words? What do you think, what are the common things in these words? Shakespeare invented them and was termed as neologisms. Neologism is new word or phrase which most of the writers does not use now. Shakespeare used neologism in his stories and poems. butter: to give a long, rambling speech about uncertainty Butter combines other words like blabber and stutter to create a new word with a new meaning. onesteva: the sound an off the hook phone makes This word is an attempt at having a word for the sound we all know so well. sarchasm: the gulf between the author of sarcastic cleverness and the person who doesn’t get it This word combines sarcasm with chasm for a humorous new word. Types of Neologisms As there are a variety of ways to make new words, there are a variety of types of neologisms. Here are a few specific types of neologisms: Portmanteaus or Blend Words Portmanteaus do just what they say: Two words are blend together to create a new word which combines their meanings. Here are a few examples of blend words: - smoke + fog = smog - spoon + fork = spork - breakfast + lunch = brunch Derived words are words that use ancient Greek and Latin phrases to match the English language. Here are a few examples of derived words: 1.Latin word: Villa Meaning: villa or house Derived words: villa, village, villager 2.Latin word: sub Derived words: submarine, subway 3.Latin word: Copia Derived words: cornucopia, copious Transferred words take derived words to a whole new level, as they encompass words taken from another language and used in an adjusted form in English. - herbs from French is known as herbes meaning herbs - alligator from Spanish is known as meaning lizard - wiener dog from German is known as wiener meaning hot dog New words come from creativity and invention. Sometimes we merge the existing words and borrow some from other cultures and languages. Onomatopoeia is a language technique, which copies the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described. This makes the description more expressive and interesting. “The gushing stream flows in the forest.” It is a more meaningful description than just saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” It has said to attract the attention of the reader. It is done purposely to draw the reader’s attention to hear the sound of a “gushing stream.” This is making the expression more effective. Words such as I, my, you, me, he, she, our, is known as the personal pronoun. The target is to attract the reader’s attention in a direct manner. It makes the readers involved and engaged. Example: you can make a difference.: In personification, you relate the qualities of a person to a non-human object. Personification makes non-living objects seem lively and lifelike. Moreover, it also contributes to our sense of togetherness with these non-living objects. Raindrops danced on the pavement Rhyme is a repetition of similar-sounding words occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. It gives a pleasing effect to a poem. Moreover, it offers itself as a prompt device smoothing the progress of memorization. For instance, all nursery rhymes contain rhyming words in order to ease learning for children. This helps them to memorize that particular poem effortlessly. We do not seem to forget the nursery rhymes we learned as a kid. Below are a few nursery rhyme examples with rhyming words in bold and italics: Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool? Yes sir, yes sir, three bags full! One for the master, one for the dame, And one for the little boy who lives down the lane. Simple sentences as a language technique are very useful for the students. It makes the communication easy to understand. Moreover, they are short and to the point. Simple sentences are the easiest way to attract the reader’s attention. It is a popular language technique. The services are expensive Slang consists of words that are non-standard in a given language and is generally spoken to show inclusion in a certain social group. “Last night was flop. I was supposed to go to a party with my friends, but they flopped on me. They are all such floppers.” Here the slang term being used is “flop” which means a planned event does not happen. A flopper is someone who cancels the plan at the last minute. A catchy language technique strikes the attention of the reader. It has short and striking phrases. ‘If you think education is expensive, try ignorance’ – Derek Bok (US educator and lawyer) Till now, Moreover, this will make you understand the language technique deeply. Any words that cause an emotional reaction are examples of emotive language. Put that in the recycle bin. This sentence is not emotive. It is a command, but it does not cause an emotional reaction. You should recycle because it saves the planet. This sentence is emotive. It suggests an action that produces an emotional response. Don’t you want to save the planet? How could you choose not to recycle since it saves the planet? The emotive response causes a reaction or a response. The Effect of Emotive Language Especially relevant, Emotive language causes an effect on the audience. When used effectively, emotive language can cause an audience to react in a particular way. This audience manipulation is a type of rhetoric. Therefore, emotive language can cause an audience to take action or to argue with the speaker. Emotive language should not be overused. Additionally, we should use when there is a purpose. The speaker should achieve what he/she exactly wants. As a result, using emotive language effectively can be very beneficial to a speaker. Coming on to the next section, we will discuss the different literary techniques. Before proceeding, we must know that what are the different literary techniques? What is a literary device? Commonly, the term Literary Devices refers to the typical structures used by writers in their works to convey his or her message(s) in a simple manner to his or her readers. When employed properly, the different literary devices help readers to appreciate, interpret and analyze a literary work. There are two main parts of Literary devices: - Literary elements - Literary techniques The writers use Literary Elements to develop a literary piece e.g. plot, setting, narrative structure, characters, mood, theme, moral, etc. Writers simply cannot create his desired work without including Literary Elements in a thoroughly professional manner. Common Literary Elements Plot: The logical sequence of events that develop a story. Setting: It refers to the time and place in which a story takes place. Protagonist: It is the main character of story, novel or a play e.g. Hamlet in the play Hamlet Antagonist: It is the character in conflict with the Protagonist e.g. Claudius in the play Hamlet Narrator: A person who tells the story. Narrative method: The manner in which a narrative is presented comprising plot and setting. Dialogue: Where characters of a narrative speak to one another. Conflict: It is an issue in a narrative. The whole story revolves around this. Mood: A general atmosphere of a narrative. Theme: It is central idea or concept of a story. Literary Techniques, on the contrary, are structures usually are words or phrases used in literary texts. A writer uses this to achieve not only artistic ends but also readers understanding and appreciation of their literary works. Examples are metaphor, simile, alliteration, hyperbole, allegory, etc. In contrast to Literary Elements, Literary Techniques are a major aspect of literary works. Literary Devices, it is useful to look at their definition and examples: Common Literary Techniques Imagery: It is the use of figurative language to create visual representations of actions, objects, and ideas in our mind in such a way that they appeal to our physical senses. The room was dark and gloomy. -The words “dark” and “gloomy” are visual images. The river was roaring in the mountains. – The word “roaring” appeals to our sense of hearing. Simile and Metaphor: Both compare two distinct objects and draws a similarity between them. The difference is that Simile uses “as” or “like” and Metaphor does not. “My love is like a red red rose” (Simile) He is an old fox very cunning. (Metaphor) Hyperbole: It is a deliberate exaggeration of actions and ideas for the sake of emphasis. Your bag weighs a ton! I have got a million issues to look after! Personification: It gives a thing, an idea or an animal-human quality. The flowers are dancing beside the lake. Have you seen my new car? She is a real beauty! Alliteration: It refers to the same consonant sounds in words coming together. Better butter always makes the batter better. She sells seashells by the seashore. Allegory: Here an abstract idea is given in the form of characters, actions or events. “Animal Farm,” written by George Orwell, is an example allegory using the actions of animals on a farm to represent the overthrow of the last of the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. In addition, the actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the Revolution. Irony: The intended meaning is completely opposite to their literal meaning. The bread is soft as a stone. So nice of you to break my new PSP! Language techniques are vast. Language techniques help the students to write in a different way. What are Persuasive Techniques? Persuasive Techniques is presenting reasons and examples to influence action or thought. Effective persuasive writing requires a writer to state clearly an opinion and to supply reasons and specific examples that support the opinion. We have discussed the different persuasive techniques in our another blog post. First of all, we should know what language analysis technique is? Language analysis technique: It means that how the writer conveys meaning through language techniques, such as figures of speech, sentence structure, tone and word choice. Common language analysis techniques are: We have discussed all these language analysis techniques in our another blog post. In conclusion, we have discussed in detail about the language techniques a student must know. These language techniques will help you to understand the functions and usage of the language techniques. These are helpful in your writing techniques. If you implement these techniques in the assignment writing, then you will get the best result. Hi, I am Susan White. I am a Senior Marketing Executive and Content Editor at AllAssignmentHelp.com. For the past few years I have been working with this company. I hope you liked the post above from one of our team members. If you want to share any improvements or want some more on this blog, please share your request on our email email@example.com. I have been in this academic industry for a very long time. You can know more about me from my LinkedIn profile. Below are some of my achievements that I prize: – Successfully published five academic research papers in the marketing field – Assisted hundreds of students get best grades in their courses – Regularly helping my colleagues do their best at their job – Toured several places around the world in the past five years! – A proud mother of a kid! 🙂 Thank you again for reading this article. I look forward to your feedback and continued support.

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Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Indigenous Australians Motivation and Indigenous AustraliansEdit The aim of this chapter is to explore motivational psychology within Indigenous Australians. This is far from an easy topic because of the lack of dedicated psychological literature to date. Indigenous psychology only became a teaching requirement within the psychology curriculum in Australia during the 2000s and there are still limited resources on this topic. This is, in part, because there are few Indigenous psychologists and social science researchers. Much of current Indigenous research work pertains to Aboriginal health and social issues, and not necessarily to specifically understanding motivational psychology. Nevertheless, this chapter seeks to identify some motivational psychology groundwork to improve on the psychological understanding of the impact of European settlement on Indigenous Australians' motivation and values. - What are the traditional values and motivations of indigenous Australians? - What are the contemporary values and motivations of indigenous Australians? - What are the motivational differences between indigenous and non-indigenous Australian cultures? - What kind of impact has European settlement had on influencing or affecting values and motivations within the indigenous Australian cultures? - It was estimated that indigenous Australians first arrived on the Australian continent around 68,000 years ago. This was a period in time when Australia was closer to Indonesian shores and Tasmania was still apart of the mainland. - Around 1606, Dutchman Willem Janszoon sailed to west coast Australia. Janszoon was the first European to meet with the native indigenous Australians, where he discovered their semi-nomadic hunting and gathering behavioural habits (Broome, 1994). - In 1788 the First Fleet arrived in Australia. Indigenous Australian political structure was far different from European political structure, as a result, a cultural gap formed between the indigenous Australians and Europeans. - Lack of cultural understanding and acceptance lead to violent interactions between the two cultures. Many indigenous people were slaughtered defending territory, family and cultural beliefs (Broome; Clancy 2004 & Kauffman, 2000). - Introduction of feral animals and plants added to the devastating loss in native wildlife and habitat destruction. The arrival of foreign species meant that new diseases were introduced, to which indigenous Australians had no naturally immunity (Colley, 2002). - 1869 saw the removal of indigenous Australian children from their families. These children later became known as the Stolen Generation.This period greatly added to the cultural gap already formed at the time (Broome). - In 1967 a referendum allowing indigenous Australians to be recognised as Australian citizens was accepted throughout the Australian population (Murphy, 2008). - 1991-2000 saw the endorsement of the Declaration for Reconciliation (Kauffman, 2000). - 2000 to 2010 saw the Australian government issuing a public apology for the wrongful acts in the past, such as the stolen generation. Today, there is more acceptance and acknowledgment of the indigenous Australian culture (Bretherton & Mellor, 2006). Comes from Latin word ab origine, meaning "from the origin or beginning". Have prior or historical ownership of a land, maintain parts or all of their distinct traditions and associations with the land. Aborigines differentiated in some way from the surrounding populations and dominant nation’s culture. Traditional Values and Motivations of Indigenous AustraliansEdit The Power of Dreaming on Indigenous Motivations, Beliefs and LifeEdit Traditional values and motivations within the indigenous culture are conveyed through dreaming. This narrative styled law reflects an understanding of truth, goodness and life values. Some of these values include equality, justice and the importance of family and community. Dreaming can be seen as a form of extrinsic motivation, in the sense that if these cultural values and expectations are achieved, then a person will be rewarded in the spirit world. From a non-indigenous perspective, dreaming can be interpreted, as a religion that motivates and encourages a particular style of thinking and living within the world. This style of thinking is unique and spiritual. There are behavioural and cognitive motives that can be characterised by certain rituals within this spiritual religion, that have been preserved and passed down through indigenous generations. Some examples of these rituals include ceremonial dances and dream time stories (Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001; Kauffman, 2000 & Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010). An internal state that arouses, directs and encourages individuals towards some form of goal (Lei, 2010). Importance of storytelling in reflecting motivations and valuesEdit Summary of 'The Bat and the Butterfly' dreaming story "A young man abducts a woman, and keeps her as a prisoner in a cave. Her family is not able to rescue her. As a final resort she turns into a butterfly and escapes. When her captor turns into a bat to chase her he is driven back into the cave by the hunters in the girl's family". The lesson to the listeners of this story is that however talented you may be, when you behave like a coward and don't follow society's laws then you may be banished to live as another form forever in the darkness. This story also explains the origins of the bat and the butterfly. Stories such as these highlight values and beliefs the mold a society. Dreaming stories act as social models of how individuals are expected to live. The stories create awareness and direct behaviour that is influenced by environmental, social and cultural elements. For the video interpretation of "The Bat and the Butterfly" and other dream time stories click here Stories from the Dreamtime are extremely complex and sacred, as such, the full meaning is only understood within Indigenous culture itself. For the non-indigenous population the surface meaning is only explained. Therefore, on the surface, dreaming stories help explain the processes that are involved in creating the world, while also acknowledging all living forms and spirits that inhabit the worlds surface, for example the "Bat and the Butterfly" story explains the creation of bats and butterflies. Dreaming stories also draw on values within the tribal regions they are told in. As such, many stories exist that reflect the totemic belief systems and environmental history of the surrounding land (Stasiuk & Kinnane, 2010). Indigenous Australians are motivated to achieve these values and cultural expectations. The bat and butterfly story teaches the lesson of respect for people. As selfishness and greed can result in social and spiritual repercussions. (Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong & Turnbull, 2006; Colley, 2002; Howard, Thwaites & Smith, 2001 & Kauffman, 2000). Spirituality is a key feature within the Indigenous Australian dreaming and culture. The concept of spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. Spirituality is used as a motivation for health and well-being, where the mind, body and spirit are connected in sickness and healing.All of which ultimately creates purpose and meaning for life and death as it incorporates past, future and present experiences (Kauffman, 2000 & McLennan, 2003). Dreaming and spirituality are believed to be forms of psychological resilience within the indigenous culture. For instance, indigenous Australians who were part of the stolen generation, where they were acculturated from their indigenous culture, were found to be more susceptible to mental illness than culturally-connected indigenous Australians. In addition, McLennan's (2003) study suggested that higher levels of stress within indigenous Australians at that time was related to their difficulty adapting to this changing social structure. Recent studies suggest that dreaming can create opportunities for indigenous Australians who are experiencing cultural dislocation or stress to reconnect to their ancestors and spiritual aspects of their culture. This connection is highly motivating and significant to their identity and well-being (McLennan). By redeveloping this spiritual bond, McLennan found mental illness to decrease. Stress levels lowered and there was a stronger ability to cope. McLennan's study highlights the potential importance of spirituality in maintaining a sense of purpose and connection to indigenous identity and cultural beliefs, all of which seems to be a source of motivation in regard to psychological survival (McLennan). A contemporary link to indigenous dreaming, in the aspect of helping to develop meaning and direction in one's life, can be seen within the narrative style therapies that have been employed within counselling settings. Found to be very successful, narrative knowing is based on the idea of making sense of the world by telling stories, which individuals are surrounded by in everyday life. Similar to the ideas behind indigenous dreaming, the narrative is a representation of knowledge, culture, family, life and living. Both the narrative therapy and dreaming emphasise collectiveness and collaboration. Individuals are members of a network and society, which can be interpreted as family, therapist or community type networks. Ultimately, both cultures use narrative style to externalise problems in an expressive and collective nature in order to find solutions (Percy, 2008). Refocus Box: "The Importance of Dreaming" Margaret Maria Brandl is an educator of Indigenous Australian culture. This is her interpretation of the dreaming; “Land is hollowed for Aborigines in ways non-Aborigines are not even able to guess at. The landscape as we see it is, to Aboriginal eyes, shaped by the tracks of the ancestors beings who have passed through it and over it (and still do). These marks and tracks of the ancestors can be seen in the shape of the hills and valleys, in the rocks and rivers and caves, in the trees and other plants in it and in the animals that live on it. Such ‘tracks’ become patterns in art or song and dances in music and permeate Aboriginal thinking and life at every level. The land is seen as giving constantly of its riches and resources and stories to its Aboriginal people. Like a mother it cares for them. Aboriginals throughout Australia often say, ‘The Land, my Mother’.”(Kauffman, 2000, p. 6) Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion dedicated to the landscape and to the living and spiritual forces. There is a deep sense of respect that transcends from the dreaming, motivating aborigines to understand, acknowledge and pass on the cultural values that are portrayed as sacred and necessary for the survival of this culture (Kauffman, 2000). de Souza and Rymarz (2007, p. 279) define cultural identity as the level of identification and integration that individuals have with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of life. It is critical time in adolescent growth and establishment of cultural identity as an individual moves beyond the perceived control of parents in an attempt to establish ones own identity, which may or may not conflict with community expectation. History has a strong influence on identity, as cultural identity is highly reliant on being passed down to younger generations by elder community members for its survival. The key feature in keeping cultural identity alive comes down to maintaining a sense of community. It is argued that community offers a variety of basic services and activities. If an indigenous adolescent is unable to obtain the services or have access to particular activities, there is a high chance he or she will search for another community. This may involve finding new social networks with people that do not share the same cultural beliefs, ultimately resulting in a change of cultural identity and motivational source (de Souza & Rymarz, 2007). Research highlights that urbanised indigenous children face a loss of identity due to a high degree of dislocation from their cultural heritage. Indigenous identity has evolved overtime as a result of diverse cultural ideologies and practices that have developed in Australia since before European settlement. Urbanised indigenous people may struggle to reunite with their identity and cultural beliefs. This is believed to be the result of growing urban populations that marginalise the smaller number of indigenous members in such areas. Loss of identity or culture is thought to be a major contributor for lowing motivation to reconnect with one's heritage (de Souza & Rymarz). Kinship within the aboriginal community instills a great sense of togetherness regardless of genetic linkage. Totems are given to individuals in order to create a place for that person within a community. It can link them to other relatives (via links to totems) in different locations. If an aboriginal has no family in other communities then they can be adopted, if their totem links to another family. They are then termed 'brothers' of that family kinship or new community. Kinship can therefore be seen as a form of human support, this is one of the fundamental needs that maintains or allows motivation to grow. Aboriginal Australians can then develop motivation from the degree of kinship felt within their lives (Broome, 1994; Kauffman, 2000). Contemporary Values and Motivations of Indigenous AustraliansEdit Traditional indigenous values, beliefs and motivations have evolved since the arrival of indigenous Australians approximately 68,000 years ago. This evolution is a result of diverse cultural interactions in Australia since European settlement. While the basic concept of dreaming is still strong in the aboriginal culture, there are some changes as a direct result of the technological advances in societies and new awareness of other ideologies and cultural beliefs. This is a large area of interest for Fogarty and White (1994), Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) and Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) who came up with a set of psychological human values with the belief they could be replicated cross-culturally (Schwartz and Bilsky). These values included the biological needs of human beings, the necessity of organised social interaction, survival and welfare in terms of group needs and cognitively formed values that strengthen through socialisation, development, and conscious goal setting. From the above human requirements, 11 motivationally associated values were constructed. - Self-direction: encompassing creativity, freedom, goal choice, independency and curiosity. - Stimulation: formed from variety and excitement. - Hedonism: the pleasures and enjoyment of life itself - Achievement: the successfulness and capabilities that are the result of ambition, motivation and intelligence. - Power: level of authority, wealth, social influence, public perception and recognition. - Security: social order, family security, national security, reciprocation of favours, cleanliness, sense of belonging, health. - Conformity: obedience and self-discipline, respecting elders and honouring family. - Tradition: respect for customs, humility, devoutness, acceptance of role in life, moderation. - Benevolence: helplessness, loyalty, forgiveness, honesty, responsibility, truth, friendship, mature love. - Universalism: broadmindedness, social justice, equality, world at peace, unity, with nature, wisdom, protection of the environment. - Spirituality: meaning of life, sense of inner harmony, sense of detachment (Fogarty & White, 1994, pp. 4-5; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1990). Fogarty and White (1994), suggest that only items six to eleven relate to indigenous Australians, as these reflect a more collectivist society. Below are the ten motivational values that were ranked highly for indigenous university students (Fogarty & White, 1994) The top ten Indigenous motivational values were ranked: - Family security - Honoring parents - Choosing own goal - True friendship - Social justice The above list indicates the motivational values of security and family as being the most important item for indigenous students. Some of the unique motivational values chosen within the indigenous experimental group included honouring parents, equality, politeness and social justice. These values reflect the sixth to eleventh items of Schwartz and Bilsky (1990) motivational associated values. In comparison, non-indigenous student values were found to have more individualistic-oriented rankings, such as family, security, true friendship, health, self-respect, choosing own goals, inner harmony, honesty, freedom, mature love and success. Motivational Differences Between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australian CulturesEdit Over the years, a popular area of investigation within cross-cultural psychology has been the differing cultural perspectives in Australia (Fogarty & White, 1994). The primary difference in perspectives is believed to come from motivational sources such as values (Vernon, 1976, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994). Chur-Hansen, Caruso, Sumpowthong and Turnbull (2006) add that life perspectives differ between indigenous and non-indigenous people as a result of cultural heritage and value systems. For indigenous populations, education and health systems are inadvertently seen as unnecessary or shameful in regard to cultural pride and values. On the other hand, non-indigenous cultures, such as the dominant white Anglo-Saxon Protestant, highly value education and government health systems. When Indigenous people experience a burden of values between conflicting cultures, which can occur within an education system, then their motivational value system prioritises attitudes and relationships. Table 1. Some major comparisons between Australian cultures (Harris, 1988, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994, p. 3) |Indigenous Australian Perspective||Non-Indigenous Australian Perspective| View knowledge as owned and is looked after by particular people within the community. |World view consists of major changes that have already taken place||Knowledge is freely available for those who want it.| |View of world has religious basis||View of world is more scientific (Westernised perspective)| |View of environment is more passive, with more focus placed on adapting to the land.||Manipulate the land to benefit personally, e.g. farming and introducing foreign plants and animals.| |Greater emphasis placed on quality of personal relationship and belief that a perfectly good social system exists.||Westernised concepts of world view and progress entails development, change and control.| Table 1 presents differing Australian cultural perspectives and focuses on what is more salient for each culture. Traditional Aboriginal cultures place a significant weight on personal qualities and relationships as well as a deep sense of respect for the environment and what it has to offer. Christie (1985, cited by Fogarty & White, 1994) highlights that Australian Aboriginals' survival is highly reliant upon communal cooperation and co-existence. Therefore, motivations tend to reflect a collective nature within Indigenous Australian populations. These motivations differ to white Australian populations which are more individualistically-oriented (Fogarty & White, 1994). Schwartz (1990) developed a 56 item questionnaire to determine motivational values across cultures. The questionnaire was used on indigenous and non-indigenous university students. Results found differences in motivational values, providing further evidence to suggest that indigenous Australian student values reflect collective tendencies. Contemporary issues facing Indigenous AustraliansEdit Indigenous families and community are believed to experience greater levels of exposure to stressors that have the potential to be detrimental to well-being.These stressors can include health issues like, mental disorders, death of family members or friends, accidents and disability. There are stressors that relate to relationship breakdowns, unemployment issues, risk seeking behaviours in regard to alcoholic consumption and taking drugs, witnessing violent, abusive acts and associating in criminal activity. Lastly, there are stressors in relation to imprisonment, overcrowded living arrangements, anxiety from pressures to achieve cultural responsibilities and dealing with experiences of racism and discrimination. Current literature highlights the increased likelihood for indigenous populations to experience one or more of the above stressors than non-indigenous populations (Fordham & Schwab, 2007, p. 15). As one of the most disadvantaged cultures in Australia, governments and communities are highly motivated to help form better living conditions and respect for the Australian indigenous culture. Below are just some of the problems indigenous populations are still facing today: - Poor housing - Lower life expectancy - Higher unemployment - Lower incomes - Lower participation in education - Higher imprisonment rates - Higher alcohol consumption rates Much of these problems are the result of dispossession, racism and lack of understanding from the wider Australian community (Colley, 2002; Fordham & Schwab, 2007; & Kauffman, 2000). As a result of this, governments are trying to find ways of empowering and assisting the indigenous community. This includes providing better educational opportunities such as giving scholarships to study at universities; creating more job opportunities, introducing government social support systems, like helping individuals who can not find jobs and promoting reconciliation through awareness on indigenous cultures. (Colley, 2002; & Kauffman, 2000) Indigenous Motivational Behaviours within Academic SettingsEdit Another area of differences in motivation between indigenous and non-indigenous Australian populations can be seen in academic settings. A study by McInerney (2008) revealed differences in motivations using the personal investment theory. This theory is based on motivational components of achievement goal, which embodies an individual's abilities, mastership and adeptness within life, sense of self, where an individual has purpose, resilience and a self concept, and finally, facilitating conditions, which encompasses external support from people such as family, teachers and friends. According to personal investment theory these key motivational elements assist in the learning processes within academic settings. The study revealed that aboriginal students more often missed school then non-indigenous students. This is one possible explanation for lower academic levels within this population. McInerney believes this aspect of personal investment theory is linked to negative self concept, where school is not seen as important and therefore motivation to go or participate is low. This may be a direct result of minimal facilitating conditions as defined in the personal investment theory. Results found aboriginal students had lower levels of family support when it came to encouraging school attendance and achieving goals at school. It was further found that Aboriginal students were exposed to higher levels of negative peer influence for things like truancy. Aboriginal student awareness and acknowledgment of lacking social support is believed to be a major contributor for decreasing motivation in academic settings. This is then thought to create a chain reaction effect that later impacts on learning and future opportunities (Bodkin-Andrews, Craven & Martin, 2006 & McInerney, 2008). Impact of European Settlement on Values and Motivations Within Indigenous Australian CultureEdit A theory in motivation involved with effectively supporting intrinsic predispositions in regard to behaviours and cognitions Motivations can be used as a valuable resource in the face of adversity, it can help people to adapt to environmental, social and personal challenges that arise overtime. When individuals feel helpless or a loss of control, then motivation can act as a driving force to help cope with unpredictable situations. In 1788, a sense of helplessness and loss of external control were real threats to the indigenous population at the time. The arrival of European settlers changed the indigenous social system dramatically, as there was a push for acculturation by the Europeans as a solution to the violent political struggles over land issues and for ultimate cultural dominance (Chur-Hansen et al., 2006). It is thought that one of the reasons indigenous Australians survived this unsettling era, was due to high levels of motivational adaptation through self determination (Colley 2002 & Murphy, 2008). Despite the dispossession, loss and human suffering, the indigenous population fought for their human and political rights, with the motivational belief that land taken away centuries ago should be returned. Furthermore, there was a push from state and federal governments to have a better understanding of indigenous culture, society and identity, with the belief it should be preserved not repressed (Colley; Finlayson & Curthoys, 1997 & Murphy). Can you remember some of the major differences in indigenous cultures and non-indigenous cultures? Here is a quick test to see how much you have learnt. INSTRUCTIONS: Circle whether the following statements are characteristic of indigenous cultures or non-indigenous cultures. - Land is seen as part of identity, gives feeling of strength and belonging, it is sacred. Indigenous OR non-indigenous - Culture portrays collectivist tendencies. Indigenous OR non-indigenous - Has greater levels of support and motivation in academic contexts. Indigenous OR non-indigenous - Views world in terms of science rather than spiritually. Indigenous OR non-indigenous - World view and progress entails development, change and control. Indigenous OR non-indigenous - Uses narrative styled storytelling to explain the earths creation. Indigenous OR non-indigenous True or FalseEdit - For any human being, supportive conditions allow motivation to maintain or grow. True/False - Motivations can assist in dealing with personal challenges and can help an individual to adapt to environmental and social changes out of their control. True/False - Culture is a static concept, where culture stays the same throughout time. True/False - According to personal investment theory, indigenous students show lower levels of motivation to learn and attend school as a result of poor intelligence. True/False - Some of the motivational values found in indigenous university students were equality and social justice, which reflect a collectivist culture. True/False - Indigenous Australians believe the mind, body and spirit are connected to well-being. True/False - Dream time stories are only created as an entertainment tool for bored remote indigenous children. True/False - The traditional values and motivations of indigenous Australians are carried through generations by storytelling. - Dreaming can be interpreted as a spiritual religion that instills values and social law. - Spirituality is forged around the land, self and community. It motivates health and well-being through the connection of mind, body and spirit. - Spirituality and dreaming can build resilience within individuals that are stressed or have mental illnesses. - Cultural identity relates to the level of identification and integration with a particular set of beliefs, practices and way of living. - Loss of identity can contribute to lower levels of motivation. - Kinship, social support and facilitating conditions all influence the growth of motivation. - Indigenous Australians regard values such as, security, family, health, honesty, goal setting, friendship, self-respect, equality, politeness and social justice most highly within their culture. - Major differences in environmental perspectives between indigenous and non-indigenous Australians. - Indigenous Australians face contemporary issues, some of which includes unemployment, heavy alcohol consumption, lower income and higher imprisonment rates. This is believed to be the result of racism, lack of understanding and insufficient social and government support. - Indigenous students lack the motivation in academic settings as a result of inadequate social and family support. - By using motivational resources, such as self-determination, Indigenous Australians have been able to adapt to the changing social and political structure overtime. Answers to ActivitiesEdit - Activity 1: I, I, N, N, N, I - Activity 2: T, T, F, F, T, T, F Bodkin-Andrews, G., Craven, R. G., & Martin, A. J. (2006). Motivational behaviours and cognitions of indigenous Australian secondary students. Retrieved from: http://www.self.ox.ac.uk/Conferences/2006/Bodkin-Andrews5.pdf Bretherton, D., & Mellor, D. (2006). Reconciliation between Aboriginal and other Australians: The "Stolen Generations". Journal of Social Issues, 62, 81-98. Retrieved from: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=14&hid=8&sid=522c642e-6ebd-4d17-9011-241106e2917c%40sessionmgr11 Broome, R. (1994). (2nd Ed.),Aboriginal Australians. Traditional life. (pp.9-21). Sydney: Allen and Unwin. Chur-Hansen, A., Caruso, J., Sumpowthong, K., & Turnbull, D. (2006). Cross-cultural and indigenous issues in psychology. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson & Prentice Hall. Clancy, L. (2004). Culture and Customs of Australia.Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press. Colley, S. (2002). Uncovering Australia. Archaeology, indigenous people and the public. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. de Souza, M., & Rymarz, R. (2007). The role of cultural and spiritual expressions in affirming a sense of self, place, and purpose among young urban, indigenous Australians. International Journal of Children's Spirituality, 12, 277-288. doi: 10.1080/13644360701714951 Finlayson, J., & Curthoys, A. (1997). The proof of continuity of native title. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders Studies ,18,1-15. Retrieved from: http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/ntpapers/ntip18.htm Fogarty, G.J., White, C. (1994). Differences between values of Australian aboriginal and non-aboriginal students. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 25, 394-408. Retrieved from: http://eprints.usq.edu.au/963/1/Fogarty_White_Values_Abor_and_non-Abor_1994.pdf Fordham, A.M., & Schwab, R.G.J. (2007). Education, training and indigenous futures CAEPR policy research: 1990-2007. Center for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research the Australian National University. Retrieved from: http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/verve/_resources/Education_Training_and_Indigenous_FuturesCAEPR_Policy_Research_1990-2007.pdf Howard, J., Thwaites, R., & Smith, B. (2001). Investigating the roles of the indigenous tour guide. The Journal of Tourism Studies, 12, 32-39. Retrieved from: http://www.jcu.com.au/business/idc/groups/public/documents/journal_article/jcudev_012838.pdf Kauffman, P. (2000). Travelling aboriginal Australia. Discovery and reconciliation. Flemington, Victoria: Hyland House. Lei, S. A.(2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: evaluating benefits and drawbacks from college instructors' perspectives. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37, 153-160. Retrieved from: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&hid=15&sid=81b39a7f-0b57-40bf-bfad-ba0ab7b6f30c%40sessionmgr10 McInerney, D. M. (2008). Personal investment, culture and learning: Insights into school achievement across Anglo, Aboriginal, Asian and Lebanese students in Australia.International Journal of Psychology, 43, 870-879. doi: 10.1080/00207590701836364 McLennan, V. (2003). Australian indigenous spirituality and well-being: Yaegl community points of view. Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal, 27, 8-9. Retrieved from: http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/fullText;dn=167230324255510;res=IELHSS Murphy, M.A. (2008). Representing Indigenous self-determination. University of Toronto Law Journal, 58, 185-216. doi: 10.3138/utlj.58.2.185 Percy, I. (2008). Awareness and authoring: the idea of self in mindfulness and narrative therapy. European Journal of Psychotherapy and counselling, 10, 355-367. doi: 10.1080/13642530802577109 Schwartz, S.H. & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 550-562. Retrieved from: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=14&hid=17&sid=2ef25792-1c7a-4564-b8de-ddce1f58edf9%40sessionmgr14 Schwartz, S.H. & Bilsky, W. (1990). Toward a theory of the universal content and structure if values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 878-891. Retrieved from: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&hid=17&sid=2ef25792-1c7a-4564-b8de-ddce1f58edf9%40sessionmgr14 Stasiuk, G., & Kinnane, S. (2010). Keepers of Our Stories. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 39, 87-95. Retrieved from: http://search.informit.com.au.ezproxy1.canberra.edu.au/fullText;dn=473744275853755;res=IELHSS

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Some people think of science as learning facts about the world around us. Others think of science and other ways of knowing as “the having of wonderful ideas” (Duckworth, 1987). This latter view of science and ways of knowing match the characteristics of young children as learners. Young children are naturally curious and passionate about learning (Raffini, 1993). In their pursuit of knowledge, they’re prone to poking, pulling, tasting, pounding, shaking, and experimenting. “From birth, children want to learn and they naturally seek out problems to solve” (Lind, 1999, p. 79). Such attitudes and actions on the part of young children indicate that they engage in scientific thinking and actions long before they enter a classroom (Zeece, 1999). Unfortunately, when science education is introduced in a formal setting, it often reflects the understanding of science as the learning of facts. This approach has led some educators to suggest that “most science learning that takes place in formal settings is not true science” (Zeece, 1999, p. 161).This article will discuss the benefits of active, hands-on learning, goals for early childhood science programs, and suggestions for fostering scientific learning in the early childhood classroom. Science as Active Exploration While it is appropriate to introduce older students to science history and expect them to learn facts discovered by others, young children should learn science (and all other areas of study) through active involvement – that is, through first-hand, investigative experiences. Young children should be involved in “sciencing” versus the learning of scientific facts presented by others (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995; Mayesky, 1998; Zeece, 1999). Sciencing is a verb and suggests active involvement. Such involvement should be both hands-on and minds-on in nature. Thus, children should be engaged both physically and mentally in investigating and manipulating elements in their environment (Chaille & Britain, 2003; Kilmer & Hofman, 1995). To be developmentally appropriate and to be in compliance with national guidelines for the teaching of science, science education at the preschool and primary level must be “an active enterprise” (Lind, 1999, p. 73). Both the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993) call for an action-oriented and inquiry-based approach to science with young children. As articulated by Lind (1999), “the best way to learn science is to do science” (p. 74). Therefore, science for young children should involve asking questions, probing for answers, conducting investigations, and collecting data. Science, rather than being viewed as the memorization of facts, becomes a way of thinking and trying to understand the world. This approach allows children to become engaged in the investigative nature of science (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995; Lind, 1999) and to experience the joy of having wonderful ideas (Duckworth, 1987). Teachers can’t give children “wonderful ideas”; children need to discover or construct their own ideas. Developing new concepts or ideas is an active process and usually begins with child-centered inquiry, which focuses on the asking of questions relevant to the child. While inquiry involves a number of science-related activities and skills, “the focus is on the active search for knowledge or understanding to satisfy students’ curiosity” (Lind, 1999, p. 79). Knowing the right answer, then, is not one of the primary objectives of science in the early childhood curriculum. Duckworth (1987) refers to “knowing the right answer” as a passive virtue and discusses some of its limitations. “Knowing the right answer,” she says, “requires no decisions, carries no risks, and makes no demands. It is automatic. It is thoughtless” (p. 64). A far more important objective is to help children realize that answers about the world can be discovered through their own investigations. Sciencing, for example, involves coming up with ideas of one’s own. Developing these ideas and submitting them to someone else’s scrutiny is, according to Duckworth (1987), “a virtue in itself—unrelated to the rightness of the idea” (p. 68). Developing ideas of one’s own add breadth and depth to learning. This is so, even if the child’s initial ideas are inaccurate views of the world. Duckworth (1987) explains: “Any wrong idea that is corrected provides far more depth than if one never had a wrong idea to begin with. You master the idea much more thoroughly if you have considered alternatives, tried to work it out in areas where it didn’t work, and figured out why it was that it didn’t work, all of which takes time” (pp. 71-72). Desired goals of science in the early childhood curriculum include what we hope children will attain or achieve in three different areas: content, processes, and attitudes or dispositions. Content refers to the body of knowledge representing what we know about the world. Children’s body of knowledge develops and increases over time, and their desire to communicate and represent their knowledge should be acknowledged and supported. The processes, or process skills, represent the active component of science and include such activities as predicting, observing, classifying, hypothesizing, experimenting, and communicating. Adults should support children in practicing and applying these skills in a variety of activities throughout the day. This can be done by showing a sincere interest in children’s observations and predictions and by providing a variety of materials and settings that invite experimentation. Certain attitudes or dispositions are also central to scientific inquiry and discovery. These include curiosity, a drive to experiment, and a desire to challenge theories and to share new ideas (Conezio & French, 2002). Teachers should value these attitudes or dispositions, be aware of how they are manifested in young children, and find ways to acknowledge and nurture their presence. Productive Questions to Foster Scientific Thinking* Type of Question Calls attention to significant details What is it doing? How does it feel? Measuring & counting Generates more precise information Fosters analysis and classification How are they alike? Encourages exploration of properties and events; also encourages predictions Supports planning & trying solutions to problems How could we…? Encourages reflection on experiences & construction of new ideas Why do you think? Can you explain that? *Adapted from Martens, 1999, p. 26 Science in the Early Childhood Classroom Science is often sadly neglected in the early childhood classroom (Johnson, 1999). Perhaps this is because science is “perceived and presented as too formal, too abstract, and too theoretical – in short, too hard for very young children and their teachers” (Johnson, 1999, p. 19). Perhaps this neglect is also due to the mistaken idea that the “constructivist” approach to education is incompatible with science education (Johnson, 1999). A constructivist approach to education is based on the understanding that knowledge is constructed by children versus being given or transmitted to them. In this approach, children are viewed as “intellectual explorers” (Lind, 1999) and “theory builders” (Chaille & Britain, 2003).This approach assumes that as they interact with the world around them, young children develop their own complex and varying theories about this world. Teachers working from a constructivist approach provide a supportive environment where young children are encouraged to go about testing and revising their original theories. Key ingredients for a supportive environment include: a) a variety of interesting materials for children to explore and manipulate, b) unstructured time for children to develop and test their own ideas, and c) a social climate that tells the children that questions and experimentation are as valuable as knowing the right answers. Productive questions posed by the teacher at just the right time are also critically important to helping children construct their own understandings. Productive questions are, in fact, one of the most effective tools for supporting constructivist learning (Martens, 1999). Most children have difficulty constructing understanding simply by engaging in an activity – that is, they “fail to make connections necessary to arrive at a desired understanding” (Martens, 1999, p. 25). Productive questions provide a bridge between what the children already know and what they experience through an activity. Productive questions thus “take a student forward in his or her thinking; they enable a teacher to provide scaffolding for students beginning to build their own understandings” (Martens, 1999, p. 25). As outlined by Martens (1999) and presented on page 32, there are six different types of productive questions that work well with the constructivist approach to teaching and learning. These questions also support the science curriculum goals in an early childhood classroom. Used strategically, these questions allow teachers to meet students where they are in their thinking and provide the type of scaffolding needed at any given moment (Martens, 1999).The teacher’s choice as to what type of question to use is based on what the teacher hears and sees as the children engage in an activity. The constructivist approach places the child at the center of the educational process. The teacher’s role in this approach is to serve as observer and facilitator rather than instructor (Chaille & Britain, 2003; Martens, 1999). Science education, however, has long been teacher-centered, with the teacher as the authority figure and the one with all the right answers. Without doubt, such a traditional science program – involving authority-based, teacher-directed instruction – is inappropriate for young children (Johnson, 1999). While best practices in science education at all levels call for a more hands-on, inquiry-based approach, the image of teacher-as-authority persists (Johnson, 1999). This image needs to change, so that young children can reap the benefits of a stimulating science curriculum that nurtures their curiosity and their on-going intellectual development. Through such a curriculum, children will experience the joy of having wonderful ideas – that is, the joy of finding out. Science and Young Children: Comparing Approaches · Science viewed as already-discovered knowledge · Teacher viewed as authority · Areas of study set by teacher · Large group instruction and investigations · Evaluation based on right answers · Content not connected to children’s experiences · Predetermined parameters around areas of study · Prescribed ways to collect and record data · Science viewed as separate area of the curriculum · Science viewed as active exploration · Teacher viewed as facilitator · Areas of study set by child interest · Individual and small group investigations · Evaluation based on multiple criteria · Content connected to children’s experiences · Content of study open-ended · Multiple ways to collect and record data · Science integrated with other curricular areas Fostering Scientific Thinking One of the primary goals of the early childhood science curriculum is the development of scientific thinking in young children. Scientific thinking differs from the learning of scientific facts in that scientific thinking involves children in the process of finding out. Instead of learning what other people have discovered, scientific thinking leads children to make their own discoveries. Scientific thinking is manifest as young children ask questions, conduct investigations, collect data, and search for answers. Scientific thinking is evident, for example, when Jake puts one snowball in an empty bucket while he puts another snowball of about the same size in the water table. “I want to see which one lasts the longest,” he says. Chaille and Britain (2003), inThe Young Children as Scientist, present a constructivist curriculum model for science and emphasize the importance of scientific thinking. They clearly debunk the notion that the constructivist approach is incompatible with science education. They describe young children as “actively inquiring natural scientists” (p. 20) and learning as “the process of theory building” (p. 5). This view of young children and how they learn is supported elsewhere in the literature where young children are described as being naturally curious and “biologically prepared to learn about the world around them” (Conezio & French, 2002, p. 12). In the above example, Jake knew that snow melts when exposed to warm temperatures. He wasn’t sure, however, if water at room temperature would make any difference in how quickly snow melted. His self-selected experiment was designed to help him find out. To foster scientific thinking, teachers should view young children as active learners (versus recipients of knowledge) and give them varied opportunities to explore and experiment. Such opportunities will allow children to construct meaning and develop understandings that are not only valid but also valuable to their on-going intellectual development. The teacher, in response to Jake’s experiment, could extend – or scaffold – his learning by posing several productive questions (as presented on page 32) at opportune times. A measuring question would be a good place to start. How many minutes will it take before the snowball in the bucket melts? How many minutes for the snowball in the water table? Action questions and reasoning questions could follow: What would happen if we broke the snowball into smaller pieces? Why do you think the snowball in the water table melted first? Can you invent a rule about how things melt? An environment that fosters scientific thinking is one that gives young children the time, space, and materials to exercise their curiosity. It also gives them the freedom to engage in child-centered explorations, experimentations, and explanations. Note that in the questions posed in relation to Jake’s experiment, the teacher avoided giving facts or stating rules. The questions posed invited more reflective thinking and further experimentation on Jake’s part. The experiment and the related findings were his, not the teacher’s or someone else’s. To become engaged in scientific thinking, children need access to materials that they can take apart and the tools to assist them in doing so. They need places where they can dig in the dirt and dip water from a pond. They also need magnifying glasses, measuring tools, buckets, and frequent access to the natural world. Teachers should take advantage of the different ways science can be naturally integrated into a play-centered curriculum. Science should not be viewed as an “add on” or a separate part of the early childhood program. Sciencing occurs, in many cases, in what children already do and how they think about what they do. As a child experiments with a mixture of oil and water, for example, she is making observations and predictions. The child is also building theories and testing those theories. These physical and mental manipulations represent the essence of what science is all about. Children’s construction of knowledge can be enhanced through social interactions—that is, by sharing their observations and ideas with each other. Children should be encouraged to work together “in building theories, testing those theories, and then evaluating what worked, what didn’t, and why” (Conezio & French, 2002, p. 13). Shared inquiry where children work together can be especially beneficial in fostering curiosity and stimulating new ideas (Chaille & Britain, 2003). One way to involve children in shared inquiry is through solving problems that focus on a specific situation: How can we move this heavy box? or How do we find out what our turtle likes to eat? Shared inquiry generates a number of diverse ideas about the problem and challenges children to communicate the reasoning behind their ideas. There’s no doubt that “problem solving and reflective thinking play an important role in children’s science learning” (Lind, 1999, p. 80). Science should be integrated into all the other curricular areas. Math, literacy, social studies, and art can all be linked to science. For literacy, it’s easy to introduce and/or reinforce scientific thinking through poetry, storytelling, and non-fiction children’s literature. The benefits of such integration, as outlined by Zeece (1999), include: - providing accurate information in understandable and interesting language; - offering topical information from varied viewpoints; - helping children develop inquiring minds and a scientific approach to solving problems in increasingly sophisticated ways; - presenting models of scientific methods of observation, hypothesis formulation, data gathering, experimentation, and evaluation; and - fostering an appreciation, understanding, and respect for living things. Science-based literature should be chosen carefully with attention to both literacy and science concerns in mind. As expressed by Zeece (1999), “Criteria for selection of natural science-based children’s literature ideally parallel those used for other high-quality literary resources” (p. 161). Additional considerations, however, relate to how elements of the natural world are represented and presented. With these considerations in mind, Zeece (1999) recommends choosing books with the following criteria in mind: - current, factual content; - clear and simple explanations; - depth and complexity of subject matter closely matched to the developmental and interest level of children in the group; - beautifully presented illustrations and narrative; - content consistent with overarching philosophy of the program; and - completeness and ease of use allowing children to answer questions and/or explore ideas effectively. Science Concepts Typically Taught During the Preschool Years* Systems (groups or collections having some influence on one another) e.g.: parts of the human body; ecosystems (where animals and plants live interdependently) Models (representations of real objects or phenomenon) e.g.: word descriptions or drawings; physical models Constancy and Change (how things change over time) e.g.: seed to plant; different seasons; growth and decay Scale (focusing on characteristics and comparisons) e.g.: size; distance; quantity; weight Patterns and Relationships (structure and organization of matter) e.g.: properties of materials; alike and different comparisons; patterns in nature Cause and Effect (explanations for phenomena) e.g.: shadows; freezing/melting; gravity Structure and Function (relationship between characteristic and action) e.g.: makeup of plants and animals; tools; eating utensils Variations (discontinuous and continuous properties) e.g.: sounds; colors Diversity (variety of types) e.g.: seeds; leaves; living organisms *Adapted from Kilmer & Hofman (1995) From this discussion, it should be clear that the science curriculum in an early childhood program should include both teacher planned activities and “spontaneous sciencing.” Teachers should certainly plan a variety of interesting and challenging situations which invite young children to observe, explore, and experiment (Chaille & Britain, 2003). Examples of such situations include teacher-led explorations of the properties of water, characteristics of animals and their habitats, life cycles of plants, and patterns found in nature (seasons, light and shadows, day and night).Many rich opportunities for sciencing, however, occur on a daily basis during unplanned events in the classroom and on the playground. These opportunities invite spontaneous sciencing and can lead to the “having of wonderful ideas.” “Spontaneous sciencing occurs whenever a child (or a teacher) sees something of interest and wonders about it” (Kilmer & Hofman, 1995, p. 55). A constructivist teacher recognizes such moments and pauses to observe, reflect, and explore with the children. The occasion may be icicles hanging from the roof, a bird building a nest, or ants at the base of a tree. By stopping to observe and reflect, teachers give children the opportunity to grow in appreciation and understanding of the world around them. Children are naturally curious about the world and want to find out as much as they can. They want to know what makes the wind blow, how trees grow, why fish have fins, and where turtles go in the winter. But they don’t want adults to give them the answers. They want to be the discoverers, the experimenters, and the theory builders. They don’t want science to be something that is imparted to them; they want it to be something that they do. They want to be scientists; not just consumers of science. They want to ask their own questions, collect their own data, and arrive at new and wonderful ideas. These “wants” should shape the foundation of an early childhood science curriculum. Ruth Wilson, Ph.D., is a Professor Emeritus of Special Education at Bowling Green State University in Ohio. Dr. Wilson has focused much of her research and program development efforts on early childhood environmental education. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993).Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Chaille, C. & Britain, L. (2003).The young child as scientist (3rd ed.).Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Conezio, K, & French, L. (2002, September). Science in the preschool classroom: capitalizing on children’s fascination with the everyday world to foster language and literacy development. Young Children, pp. 12-18. Duckworth, E. (1987).‘The Having of Wonderful Ideas’ and Other Essays on Teaching and Learning. New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, J.R. (1999). The forum on early childhood science, mathematics, and technology education. In American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Dialogue on Early Childhood Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education. Washington, DC: AAAS, pp. 14-25. Kilmer, S.J., & Hofman, H. (1995). Transforming science curriculum. In S. Bredekamp & Rosegrant, T. (Eds.).Reaching potentials: Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment, Vol. 2. Washington, DC: NAEYC, pp. 43-63. Lind, K.K. (1999).Science in early childhood: developing and acquiring fundamental concepts and skills. In American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS).Dialogue on early childhood science, mathematics, and technology education. Washington, DC: AAAS, pp. 73-83. Martens, M.L. (1999, May).Productive questions: tools for supporting constructivist learning.Science and Children, pp. 24-27, 53. Mayesky, M. (1998).Creative activities for young children (6th ed.).Albany, NY: Delmar. National Research Council (1996).National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Raffini, J.P. (1993).Winners without losers: Structures and strategies for increasing student motivation to learn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Zeece, P.D. (1999). Things of nature and the nature of things: Natural science-based literature for young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26(3), 161-166.

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The artwork on this note card was created by 5768 WRJ Art Calendar artist Césan d’Ornellas Levine. This "Focus" section tells us what character attributes to value and how to achieve them. Mark this from The Random House Dictionary, 1987: char-ac-ter 1. the aggregate of features and traits that form the individual nature of some person or thing. 2. one such feature or trait; characteristic. 3. moral or ethical quality. 4. qualities of honesty, courage, or the like; integrity. 5.reputation. 6. good repute. Thus, your character is nothing more-–but also nothing less-–than the sum of traits that define your unique essence, with one significant addition: the term as defined above-–and as used in the "Character" section and in this guide-–always connotes positive, or morally desirable attributes. Further, and as the authors in this section stress, character is essentially an aspiration, a process that points to perfection but never quite gets there because humans are capable of failure and capable of evil. The task is to minimize the influence of your yetzer hara-–the evil inclination--and to maximize the expression of your yetzer tov-–the inclination to good. Character development and achieving moral behavior, both deeply rooted in Jewish teaching, also concern parents and educators generally. In the United States, for example, achieving these goals became a national priority as a result of the No Child Left Behind Act of the U. S. Congress (signed into law January 2002), which included "Skills for Life" among its educational targets. For educators, that means helping students internalize a host of values organized in "Six Pillars of Character" that accord well with Jewish expectations: While the "Focus" articles approach character development from a variety of perspectives, the understandings they share suggest three "Big Ideas" to explore: 1. '13 Ways to Become a Good Person' by Rabbi Joseph Telushkin Citing Torah's view that human nature is morally neutral, Rabbi Telushkin invokes Jewish sources that show us how to control the evil impulse and harness the good. Much of the success in this quest depends on practicing self-awareness, which empowers us to modify behavior appropriately so as to improve character --"the goal of life." Rabbi Telushkin provides thirteen practical ways, drawn from Jewish wisdom, to start on the path to becoming a good person. They emphasize repeating good deeds, surrounding yourself with people who practice goodness and wisdom, placing others before yourself, understanding your place in the larger scheme of things, and becoming aware of your motivations for acting one way or another. Recording your behaviors in a "character journal" can focus your efforts, help you avoid improper choices, and provide a framework for seeing God as the "ultimate biblical model for character building." 2. Sidebar 1: '5 Common Character Weaknesses' by Rabbi Joseph Telushkin. Rabbi Telushkin warns that there is a flip side to building character: the negative character traits that get in the way of achieving the goal. These impediments are easy to recognize because we've often experienced each in some degree. Overcoming the obstacles to character development lies in being aware of your behaviors and in concerted effort to avoid the pitfalls. 3. Sidebar 2: 'Questioning Your Character' by Rabbi Joseph Telushkin Knowing which behaviors are good and which ones are bad is only the beginning of the process of character development. Self-assessment is an essential ingredient. Rabbi Telushkin's 18-item check list challenges you to be honestly introspective about your shortcomings and is an action plan for the hard work needed to become a better person. 4. Sidebar 3: 'Perfection is Not the Goal' by Rabbi Jan Katzew Drawing on Jewish teaching, Rabbi Katzew reminds us that while character development is an essential life goal, it is a never-ending process whose objectives we may never entirely achieve. However, although perfection may always be beyond reach, being good is not, and we are not at liberty to desist from the task of self-improvement. We are capable of change and are obligated to seek a life of ethical balance in which our better self becomes more active than our yetzer hara, a balance that can help us begin to realize our potential as human beings created in the Divine image. In this way we will do "what is right and good in the sight of God." 5. 'I, Jacob' by Peter Pitzele In Pitzele's midrash (moral commentary) on the account of Jacob's encounter with God (Genesis 35:25-32), Jacob considers his troubled life, acknowledges his imperfection-–the limp imposed by his God-wrestling—and reflects on its impact on the rest of his life. Assessing the consequences of his visible handicap, Jacob rehearses his many failures. Never able to escape the sign of his infirmity, Jacob wonders whether his affliction is blessing or curse. Acknowledging that he is less than perfect, Jacob vacillates between bemoaning his fate and accepting his shortcomings. He comes to understand that while he can never achieve perfection, he is capable of struggling to achieve it, that he can redress failure through teshuvah (returning to God), that we are all God-limpers and God-wrestlers, that the ultimate question is, "How do you limp?" 6. 'Whistleblowing in Washington' by Jesselyn Radack Radack's account of her personal crisis of character takes us beyond theoretical discussions about choice and doing the right thing and plunges us into her real world of uncertainty, fear, and God-wrestling. As a legal advisor to the U.S. Justice Department in 2001, she informed the FBI repeatedly that they could not question John Walker Lindh, the celebrated "American Taliban," in the absence of counsel retained by his father. The FBI nevertheless proceeded while assuring the public that it was protecting Lindh's rights. As Lindh's trial progressed, Radack realized that the FBI had not informed the court about Lindh's attorney or about her official opinion. Recalling a verse in her bat mitzvah portion, "You shall not follow the majority for evil, and you shall not follow many to pervert [justice]" (Exodus 22:3), Radack chose to blow the whistle and risk losing a career rather than remain silent and be partner to a miscarriage of justice. Drawing strength from teachers and the Jewish tradition, she steadfastly believes that she made the only choice. She continues to pay the price for choosing conscience over career. 7. 'A Torah of the Heart' by Rabbi Eric Yoffie Rabbi Yoffie's parents helped shape his values, Yet, as a young rabbinical student, he was unable to find the spiritual guidance he sought, or answers to his questions about God, tradition, worship, and faith. He ultimately found support and sustenance in a personal bond forged with his Hebrew professor at the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion, who understood the importance of listening with patience and sympathy to one struggling for the right path and who taught him that his challenge was to overcome doubt and define the Torah he would teach the Jewish people. This caring and engaged teacher helped him to understand that he was not alone in his quest, that he could not expect certainty while struggling with theology, and that only he could determine his religious goals. Most important among the many things he learned from his teacher is that while you can find love of Torah in the text itself, it is insufficient without "the care and embrace of those who teach Torah." Today, as president of the Union for Reform Judaism, he continues to measure his relationships with those who seek answers against the model his understanding teacher provided. 8. Rabbi Bulman's Kiss & Other Lessons of a Newport News Childhood' by Rabbi David Ellenson Rabbi Ellenson reflects on the values imprinted on him by caring teachers and role models—values which guide his character to this day. The HUC-JIR president tries to bring to his students the passion and joy of Torah study that he learned from a childhood teacher. From another formative role model he learned to extend dignity to all, because each person, created in God's image and despite personal limitations, can be God's partner in repairing the world. Growing up in Virginia in the 1950s, Ellenson witnessed how an elected official suffered in the press and among his friends when he told his constituency to obey the law of the land and respect school integration. The experience presented the eleven-year old with a "profile in courage" that strengthens him to this day to speak out on moral issues; it also reminds him to behave with humanity even when no one else does. The moral anchors he learned in childhood help him define the virtues of character that he tries to exhibit: kindness, love of people, courage, leadership, gratitude, fairness, persistence, and love of learning. 9. 'Still Trying to be a Mensch' by Rabbi Jack Stern A childhood life-threatening illness left Stern with a short leg and limited hip mobility. He recounts how he translated the care and concern he received from parents, friends, and medical personnel into a paradigm to see disabled people as "normal" and to appreciate the power of "constructive nurturing," a lesson that led him to an early life of social action. While old stereotypes sometimes intrude upon best intentions, Rabbi Stern is able to exorcise these stumbling blocks by recalling the humiliation of a Black childhood playmate who was forbidden by White adults to play with him and his friends. Learning how to be a mensch (Yiddish: person of high character, considerate, honest, upright) is never-ending and sometimes unexpected, but lessons abound if we are alert to them. Rabbi Stern learned moral responsibility from a mother who upbraided her son in court for not accepting responsibility; from his wife, who counseled him to be honestly introspective so as to react appropriately to criticism; and from a woman worse off than he, who put his own obstacles in perspective. Rabbi Stern concludes that character is "a work in progress." 10. 'How to Become the Person You Want to Be' by Rabbi Edythe Mencher Rabbi Mencher's vignettes demonstrate that spiritual growth (i.e. character development) takes place not in a vacuum but in "the context of wholesome relationship to others." She also teaches that character-building usually happens in the context of problem-solving rather than from academic discussions about morality. In beginning the process of character change, Rabbi Mencher explains that most changes take place slowly and incrementally, but nonetheless change is indeed possible. It was this insight—specifically the noting of systemic change in nature--that gave a young shepherd named Akiva the confidence to overcome his obstacles and become one of our great teachers. Similarly, she says, we can overcome roadblocks to character development if our desire to do so is coupled with an awareness of the lessons in the world around us and our acknowledging that change is part of life. Another story emphasizes that defensiveness and fear of change are barriers to character development; that sometimes personal qualities we tend to think of as “positive” can have adverse effects if taken to extremes; and that small changes in behavior can lead to character growth. A third story reminds us of the dangers of choosing business obligations over the needs of family; that family interactions present opportunities to change for the better; and we need to realize the essential value of others and respond to them accordingly. We remove stumbling blocks in our relationship with others "one small character trait at a time." C. "Big Ideas" to Explore 1. Each person is responsible for his or her actions. The biblical prophets unambiguously championed personal responsibility. For example: For Rabbi Eugene Borowitz, responsibility is a consequence of freedom: The root of Jewish teaching about human beings is that God "made" us free...Because we are free, we are responsible for our acts...that's why we feel so bad when we've broken something and lied about it or when we've told a secret we'd sworn to keep. Being responsible for our acts brings us our glory and our guilt. No wonder we keep wanting to blame other people for the evil we do. The Bible has Adam say, when God accuses him of eating from the forbidden tree, "That woman you gave me, she made me eat from it"(Gen. 3:12). Judaism knows there are many influences on us. Despite them, it insists that we are free and so, responsible. -Borowitz (1979), pg. 7 In my own liberal Jewish philosophy, personal autonomy has emerged as the most fundamental intellectual theme. Other thinkers believe that accommodating Judaism to science or the Holocaust or the State of Israel ought to be our major conceptual focus. For all their importance, I would argue that none of these issues deserves priority over the need to clarify the meaning and practice of personal self-determination within the people of Israel's continuing Covenant relationship with God. -Borowitz (1983), pg. 256 Freedom and choice are inescapable aspects of the human condition. Gough, for example, assumes that personal responsibility is primary, arguing that a good-person status is not only your major mission in life but is up to you to achieve. Using your freedom to choose is the motif of Arendt's exposition of Adolph Eichmann's "I-was-just-following-orders" defense in his trial in Jerusalem in 1961 (see Hausner): What we have demanded in these trials...is that human beings be capable of telling right from wrong even when all they have to guide them is their own judgment, which, moreover, happens to be completely at odds with what they must regard as the unanimous opinion of all those around them….Those few who were still able to tell right from wrong went really only by their own judgments, and they did so freely....They had to decide each instance as it arose, because no rules existed for the unprecedented. -Arendt, pgs. 294-5 That evil can become banal does not excuse its perpetrators, just as the banality of goodness does not diminish the imperative to be good. A society that tolerates evil makes it easier for evil to occur; a social authority that tolerates good facilitates doing good. "Legitimate social authority-–hierarchal or peer authority -–facilitates both antisocial and prosocial behavior." –Blumenthal, pg. 45. For this reason-–and because we are commanded--Judaism expects us to choose acts of mundane goodness that will repair the world. Nevertheless, evil behaviors occur in "good" societies and people rise to goodness in "bad" societies. Elie Wiesel emphasizes: "One of the perplexing questions to emerge from the Holocaust is what led some people to reach out and help victims while others turned their backs or became perpetrators. [Blumenthal] challenges readers to confront their own behavior and ask whether they live their lives in a way that facilitates the doing of good." –Blumenthal, dust jacket Blumenthal asserts that "Prosocial attitudes must be 'carefully taught.' No one is born with a prosocial orientation....What is the teaching of goodness? What is the ideology of caring? The social-scientific and historical evidence suggest five such teachings. Questions for Discussion 2. Overcoming the evil inclination is a gradual process, requires diligence and helps us approach the ideal set by God. The No Child Left Behind Act (see above) triggered a massive effort by educators to produce a wide range of age-appropriate learning materials and led to the formation of the CHARACTER COUNTS! coalition, a project of the non-profit, non-sectarian Josephson Institute of Ethics (www.josephsoninstitute.org). Wes Hanson, editor of the Institute's basic primer, Making Ethical Decisions, notes in the introduction: Making ethical decisions requires the ability to make distinctions between competing choices. It requires training, in the home and beyond. Yet however much the material is reworked, the real work remains with you. No one can simply read about ethics and become ethical. It's not that easy. People have to make many decisions under economic, professional and social pressure. Rationalization and laziness are constant temptations. But making ethical decisions is worth it if you want a better life and a better world. Keep in mind that whether for good or ill, change is always just a decision away. Hanson's assumptions about character-development mirror Jewish teaching: Thus, the tradition-–based on the idea of One God--enforces what modern education knows about developing good character. Note Wurzburger: I believe that, based upon Maimonides' interpretation of the biblical text, the verse "thou shalt walk in His ways" challenges us to cultivate an "ethics of responsibility." More is required than mere compliance with the explicit rules prescribed by Halakhah. We are commanded to engage in a never-ending quest for moral perfection, which transcends the requirements of an "ethics of obedience." Jewish monotheism represents a radically different approach to religion. Its novelty consisted not primarily in the substitution of the belief in one God for the plurality of gods worshiped in polytheism. What was even more revolutionary in the Jewish conception of monotheism was… the attribution of moral perfection to God. –Wurzburger, pgs. 3-4 Questions for Discussion 3. God demands proper (ethical) behavior down to the smallest detail of daily pursuit. That the Jewish goal of human behavior is to move the world closer to the ideal of perfection is clear from Leviticus 19, the Holiness Code. In this, and in other ways, Jews are different from other groups, a reality analyzed by Hertzberg & Hirt-Manheimer: Do the Jews make any contribution to anti-Semitism? The answer is, fundamentally and unavoidably, yes. Their contribution to Jew-hatred is that they insist on being Jews; by definition they challenge the dominant dogmas. From the very beginning, when Abraham broke the idols of his father, Terah, he insisted that the faith in the one God is true and paganism is false. He challenged the culture around him...So long as Jews cling to their own faith and their own values, they call into question the majority faith and culture. Jews have the right to be different and to dissent from the majority culture. They have the right to demand that the majority culture accept them, and other people in the minority, for who they are. The test of a democratic society is its capacity to deal justly with people who are different, and especially those who question the majority's most deeply held assumptions. –Hertzberg & Hirt-Manheimer, pgs. 6-7 Questions for Discussion Hannah Arendt. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (New York, Penguin Books, 1994 edition). David R. Blumenthal. The Banality of Good and Evil: Moral Lessons from the Shoah and Jewish Tradition (Washington, D.C. Georgetown University Press, 1999). Eugene B. Borowitz. Understanding Judaism (New York, UAHC Press, 1979). Eugene B. Borowitz. Choices in Modern Jewish Thought (New York, Behrman House, 1983). Russell W. Gough. Character is Destiny: The Value of Personal Ethics in Everyday Life (Rocklin, CA. Prima Publishing, 1998). Gideon Hausner. Justice in Jerusalem (New York, Harper & Row, 1966). Arthur Hertzberg & Aron Hirt-Manheimer. Jews: The Essence and Character of a People (San Francisco, HarperCollins, 1998). Walter S. Wurzburger. Ethics of Responsibility (Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1994). See also: Seymour Rossel & Judy Dick. Sefer Ha-Aggadah: The Book of Legends for Young Readers (New York, UAHC Press, 1996): two volumes of selected gems of character instruction adapted from Sefer Ha-Aggadah, compiled by Hayim Nahman Bialik and Yehoshua Hana Ravnitzky in 1908-1911, translated by William Braude, and published in one volume by Schocken Books in 1992. Search URJ.org and the other Reform websites: The artwork on this note card was created by 5768 WRJ Art Calendar artist Césan d’Ornellas Levine. Show your WRJ pride with this zippered canvas bag. Features the phrase "Well-behaved women rarely make history" and the WRJ logo.

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Learning to correctly spell and understand words is an invaluable part of a childs educational development. With the influence of word processing programs and smartphones, the motivation of learning to spell properly is often hindered by the convenience of autocorrect. What you need is a grade by grade spelling words list! However, learning to spell a variety of words is essential to understanding and applying proper English into real-world situations. With SpellQuiz, an online spelling quiz program, learning to spell has never been more learner-friendly. SpellQuiz offers quizzes and tests for hundreds of spelling words based on the learning stage of the student. With this guide, youll read about many of the spelling quiz words taken directly from SpellQuiz materials. For each word, youll also find common definitions and insights as to why these words might be relevant to the associated age group, starting with first graders and ending with twelfth graders. Try this vocabulary tester to understand your current skill level! Now you can take part in online Spelling Bee too! Check out the SBO section on Spellquiz today! First graders start out with very simple verbs, nouns, and adjectives. These words will help them get a grasp on the basics of English speaking and spelling. The best 1st grade spelling words quiz should contain words that relate to simple things. This list should include those words that they would do or say in the real world. The word smell is a verb that describes the action of inhaling a scent or odor with ones olfactory nerves. Knowing how to distinguish senses by spelling, writing, and speaking is an integral part of learning and communication. The word dry is defined as something that is free of moisture or not wet. It is a descriptive word that first graders can learn to use in a wide range of subjects. The word cold is an adjective describing something that lacks warmth or has a low temperature. Like other adjectives that describe feelings, knowing this word is important for helping young children learn how to express themselves. The word hope is defined as a feeling that a given outcome or series of events will turn out for the best. This word is a noun that can also be used as a verb (for example, hoping). The word fog is defined as a cloudlike mass that can occur near the surface of the earth. Similar to rain, fog is an important noun to know when discussing the weather. The word play can be used as a verb when referring to a fun activity for amusement. It can also be a noun describing a composition of drama performed on a stage. The word bus is commonly used as a noun to describe a large motor vehicle used for transportation. Students will likely come to know this word very well. The word glass is a noun referring a type of transparent substance. Students may use the word when discussing a windowpane or cup, to name some examples. The word late is an adjective that describes something or someone that has arrived or occurred after the usual time. Late is an essential word to grasp for anyone who may need to do something within a deadline. The word drink is a versatile word that can be used as a noun as well as a verb. This is an expressive word that students should become familiar with right away. A test for 2nd-grade spelling words should include basic words. It would help them incorporate a wider range of adjectives, nouns, and verbs. It would help them get rid of the fear of spelling tests and exams. Word complexity will increase slightly, but words will still be familiar and vastly applicable. The word name is frequently used as a noun to describe a word that is designated or assigned to a specific person, place or thing. Using this word is a great start for children learning to address individuals or ask questions to specific people. The word puddle is defined as a small pool of water or some other type of liquid. This is a great double-letter word that a student can practice when learning about vocabulary and phonetics. The word there is an adverb defined as in or at that place. Second graders should be able to start recognizing the differences between there, theyre and their. The word floor is defined as a surface that encloses the lower part of a room in a structure. Second graders should be able to spell and recognize the noun, floor. The word truth is defined as something that is verified or conformed with facts. This is a great example of a commonly used word that ends in th. The word sister is defined as a female offspring that has the same parents or a close kinship with another. Many students with siblings will use this word on a day-to-day basis. The word bicycle is a noun referring to a vehicle with two wheels in tandem. This is a commonly misspelled word that students should be introduced to as they learn how to ride bicycles. The word knits is defined as the action of knitting or making a garment by hand with yarn. This plural noun can be a challenge due to the silent k. The word soil can be defined as a layer of the earths surface where plants and crops may grow. Students may begin recognizing this word in physical science studies. The word owl is a noun referring to a member of a group of nocturnal birds of prey from the taxonomic order, Strigiformes. Learning simple animal names is a great way to catch a students interest in a 2nd grade spelling words quiz. Third graders may begin to learn words that are more specific to certain types of subjects. A test for 3rd grade spelling words may also start to incorporate longer words with more syllables. The word airplane is a noun referring to heavier-than-air manmade This is a fairly commonly used word with two syllables. The word cried is derived from cry, which is defined as the action of shedding tears. This is a great example of a commonly used past tense verb. The word property is defined as a possession (such as a piece of land) that a person owns. This can be a challenging three-syllable word to spell. The word current can have several different meanings; its commonly used to define something thats passing in present time. This is an example of a word that is commonly used both as an adjective and a noun (the flow of water or electricity, for example). The word oxen is a plural of the noun ox, which is a type of This word is great spelling practice for appropriate words containing the letter x. The word pleasure is a noun defined as being in a state of gratification or delight. This word can be a challenge to spell and pronounce. The word stand is a verb defined as to rise to ones feet or be in an upright position. This word is commonly used as part of many verb phrases (stand down, for example). The word indoors can be defined as the space inside or within a building. This word is a commonly used adverb. The word bounce is a verb meaning to spring back from the ground or another surface. This is a unique action word that makes an interesting addition to a 3rd grade spelling words quiz. The word photograph is a noun referring to a picture, usually produced by a camera. This is a frequently used word and great spelling practice for words that end in ph. Quizzes with the best 4th grade spelling words will continue adding more complex words that are increasingly difficult to spell and pronounce. Fourth graders may also start to learn more unique adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions as they gradually expand their vocabularies. The word whenever is defined as at any time depending on the usage. Its a unique yet commonly used conjunction. The word master is defined as a person who owns or has the ability to control or hold power over something. This word can also be used as an adjective (a master play) or a verb (to master a language). The word award, as a verb, means to assign or bestow. As a noun, its something that one may receive, such as a medal. The word citizenship is defined as a position of having certain rights or privileges in a particular country or society. With its four syllables, this word may be a challenge to spell and pronounce. The word approach, as a verb, is defined as the action of coming near or closer to or to make advances. This word includes double letters (pp), which should be practiced in a 4th grade spelling quiz. The word acreage is a noun that defines a plot of land or a given extent of an area. This is an excellent spelling word as it can be a challenging word to use and spell correctly. The word dungeon is a noun that defines a type of stronghold or cell, often found within a castle. Students may come across this word while reading fiction or watching movies. The word apology is defined as an expression of regret or remorse that may be written or spoken by a person who has wronged another. This four-syllable word is a challenging addition to a 4th grade spelling words quiz. The word spoil is frequently used as a verb when discussing something that has become severely damaged or diminished in quality. As a verb used without an object, it can mean to become bad or to plunder. This unique verb means the action of wiggling, such as in discomfort. This word is great spelling practice for uncommon As they progress through more advanced subjects, a spelling quiz for fifth graders should include more creative or uncommon words that can still be used in typical, mature conversations. The word crawl is a verb referring to the action of a body thats moving in a prone position, such as on hands and knees. Students may use this word when talking about the movement of an animal. The word situation is a noun referring to a condition or state of affairs. Students may begin to use this word more frequently in complex sentences. The word misbehaving is a present participle of misbehave, which means to behave in an improper way. This is a long and challenging word to spell, making it a great addition to a 5th grade spelling words quiz. The word mighty is an adjective that describes the characteristic of having great strength or power. This word is an interesting adjective that fifth graders may learn to use in their own creative writing. The word according can be defined as agreeing when used as an adjective. According to is often used as a preposition, meaning in conformity with or depending on. The word cheapskate is a noun referring to someone who is very stingy, such as with money. This uncommon word is an interesting noun that students may use in creative writing. The word tourist is a noun referring to a person who travels, usually for pleasure. This word is a great example of when its proper to use ou instead of oo, although the sounds are the same. The word ceremony refers to a formal activity or rite, usually performed as an important public or personal event. Students may become familiar with this word when attending such events. The word lexicon is a noun referring to an inventory, dictionary or vocabulary, depending on the usage. This uncommon word is great spelling practice for words that contain the letter x. The word scissors is a noun referring to a type of instrument made for cutting paper. This is a word that fifth graders may use often, yet it can be a challenge to spell due to the silent c. Quizzes for 6th grade spelling words should include words that require the student to test their attention to detail and level of comprehension. These words may have various pronunciations or silent letters that require knowing the core meaning of the word. The word accept is a verb for the action of agreeing to take or receive something. This word should be practiced as it can be confused with the word except. The word acquired is past tense of the verb acquire, meaning to gain or come into possession of something. Students may use this word to build more advanced sentences. The word emergency is a noun referring to an unexpected occurrence or event, usually in a situation where help or relief is needed. Students should be able to identify this word when learning about safety. The word buildings is a plural noun referring to more than one enclosed structure. The word physical is an adjective that describes something as material or relating to the body. This is an important word to spell as it may be used in a wide range of applications, in school and elsewhere. The word scientist is a noun referring to someone who is an expert in the field of science. Due to the silent c, this word may be commonly misspelled; however, its a common and important one for students to learn. The word disagreement is a noun referring to the state or act of opposing something. This is a great example of a word that contains a negative prefix (dis-). The word autumn is a noun referring to a season of the year, specifically between summer and winter. This is a commonly used yet misspelled word ending in mn, making it a great addition to a 6th grade spelling words quiz. The word different is defined as unusual or not like others. This word is an adjective commonly used in many types of discussions. The word tropical is an adjective relating to the tropics, a geographical region often characterized by heat and humidity. Students may come across this word in ecology and geology classes. Seventh graders should now be able to spell basic and common words with ease. This is a great time for students to practice longer and more complex 7th grade spelling words that they can use in real life scenarios, such as college preparation. A steppe means an extensive plain, especially one without trees. Students may come across this word while studying physical geography, geography, and ecology. The word inquiries is a plural of the verb inquire, meaning to investigate or ask for information about something. The word negotiable is an adjective referring to something that has the ability to be bargained or made a deal with. This word can help students learn variations of ti sounds. The word rustling derives from the verb, rustle, meaning to make a sound from softly or slightly stirring or rubbing something, such as leaves. This is an interesting verb that people use in creative writing. You can describe a plague as an epidemic disease that causes high mortality. Seventh graders may come across this word in their history or literature classes. You can define Bonafide as authentic. While this word isnt very common, its an important adjective to know that may come up in legal documentation as well as some literature. The word obstacles is a plural form of obstacle, which means something that blocks ones way or hinders progress. The word can refer to physical barriers or nonphysical concepts. The word embarrass means to cause confusion and shame. Chances are, most people have felt and used this word in a variety of situations. But the spelling can get confusing based on the number of repeated letters. The word cancellation means the action of canceling an arranged or planned incident. However, it is one of those common words that children and adults should all know how to spell correctly. Seventh graders will likely come across this word in many aspects of their academic and career experiences. The word abandon is a verb meaning to give up or forsake. You may misspell it as abanden. An 8th grade spelling quiz should contain words that are relevant, interesting and challenging for young adults who may be especially busy with sports and friends. Words related to socializing and events can make for engaging 8th grade spelling words. The word accompanied is a past tense verb meaning to have joined a person or people in an activity or venture. This can be a challenging yet important word to know, especially in social situations. The word gymnasium is a noun referring to a large building, usually in a school, where gymnastics and other indoor activities are held. This will prove to be an important word to know as students attend events or practice sports. The word spectators is a plural noun referring to people who are watching a sport or event rather than participating. This is a great example of a challenging spelling word ending in The word senator is a noun referring to a person who represents the This word will become more important to know as students learn about history, politics and government affairs. The word abstain is a verb meaning to withhold or refrain from something, especially when it comes to voting or unhealthy behavior. Students will likely come across this word in health classes. The word accumulate means to gather something in increments. Its an action word that may come up in a variety of subjects, such as math or science. The word reunion is a noun referring to the act of being united again, such as the gathering of people who have met previously. This is a good addition to an 8th grade spelling words quiz because its an example of a word that starts with re. The word acoustic is an adjective that describes the sense of hearing. This word is also often used under the subject of music, referring to musical instruments without electric enhancement. The word perspective is a noun referring to the point of view or the state of something, such as in spatial relationships or visual experience. This is a great addition to a students vocabulary as it can be used in a variety of applications. The word punishable is an adjective meaning when something or someone is deemed worthy of receiving punishment. This word is a good example of the use of able combined with a complete word (punish). Ninth graders are now transitioning into higher levels of education with denser subjects. Quizzes for the best 9th grade spelling words need to contain several interesting or exclusive words that students may encounter both inside and outside of school. The word orchestra can be defined as a group of people playing a variety of musical instruments to produce harmonious sounds. Students may come across this uniquely spelled word while participating in school activities. The word gambling is a noun referring to the act of making a risk while playing a game or taking a chance when odds are at stake. Students need to recognize words such as this when dealing with real life The word acquittal is defined as the state or action of discharge or release. While it may be confused for a verb, its actually a noun and sometimes used in subjects of law. The word ambiguous is an adjective that describes something thats doubtful or equivocal with many possible meanings. This is a challenging spelling word that ninth graders may begin to come across more frequently. The word apparatus is a noun referring to instruments or mechanisms that are usually complex in nature. Students may encounter this word in science and physiology classes. The word laboratory is commonly used as a noun defining a place or building where scientific activities take place, such as experiments for research. This word can frequently be misspoken and misspelled as Labratory The word approximately means roughly or slightly accurate but not exact. This word is an adverb but derives from the word approximate, which is an adjective. The word benevolent is an adjective that describes something or someone who has kindly or charitable feelings or the desire to help others over themselves. Students may come across this word in literature. The word blasphemous is an adjective that describes something that is profane or irreverent. This word makes a great addition to a 9th grade spelling words quiz because it introduces students to words they may not otherwise hear very often. The word bravado means a bold display of courage intended to impress. While it may sound like an action (verb), its actually a display or behavior (noun). The best 10th grade spelling words quiz should contain impressive spelling words that help students broaden their vocabulary and gain a firm grasp on proper spelling and grammar. Students should be able to integrate these words into their experiences while having a solid understanding of definitions and usage. Abnormal is an adjective that describes something that deviates from the norm. This word can be used in a variety of situations and discussions, such as when describing weather, behavior or economics. The word integral is commonly used as an adjective to describe something that belongs to a part of the whole or something that is necessary to complete the whole. This word may also come up as a noun in mathematic The word geometry refers to a branch of study in mathematics. Tenth graders will likely be taking geometry classes, so its important that they are able to spell the name correctly. The word conclusive is an adjective defined as serving to settle or decide a question. This word may be used in discussions of subjects such as science or criminal justice. The word ecstatic is an adjective that describes the feeling of intense emotions or ecstasy. This word has a unique spelling, making it a great addition to a 10th grade spelling words quiz. The word discipline is a noun referring to an activity or behavior that involves training to develop a skill or make a correction in accordance with rules. Due to its spelling with sci, this word can be a challenge to spell and pronounce properly. The word appreciated derives from the word appreciate, meaning to recognize or understand something to its full worth. This word can be categorized as a past tense verb. The word exhibition is a noun referring to a public display or a showing of something. This word can be commonly misspelled when the h is left out, making it an ideal candidate for a 10th grade spelling words quiz. The word institution is a noun referring to an organization, society or building that devotes itself to a specific cause or program. Students may begin to come across this word when looking at colleges or learning about organizations. The word preserve is a verb meaning to keep something alive or maintain something. It can also be used as a noun when talking about, for example, a wildlife preserve or fruit preserves. The best eleventh grade spelling words quiz will contain several uncommon, challenging adjectives and verbs that students may use to build a more diverse vocabulary for speaking and writing. An 11th grade spelling words quiz may also contain words found in 11th grade class subjects, such as history, criminal justice, earth science and so on. The word thorough is an adjective describing something that has been completely or perfectly completed or executed. This word is great for spelling practice as you can confuse it with through. The word castigate is a verb that means the act of criticizing or punishing in an effort. Mostly, Students may come across this word while studying history or criminal justice. The word intrinsic is an adjective describing something that belongs or lying within something naturally. This is a useful vocabulary word that students may use in papers and essays. The word abhorrent is an adjective describing something as loathsome. This is a unique adjective that you can use in creative writing. The word sedentary is an adjective describing something thats at rest such as in a sitting position and not moving. You might confuse this word with the word sedimentary, which has a completely different meaning. The word parliament means the highest legislature of Great Britain. Although you can use it to define meetings and assemblies related to public or national affairs. This word has a tricky spelling with the silent a. The word severity has a close connection to harshness or intensity. It often refers to extreme pain or behavior. Students may use this word in a range of applications. So, its important to learn how to spell and pronounce it correctly. The word nullify is a verb meaning to deprive or declare as void. This is a unique uncommon word that you can see in many subjects, such as history and politics. The word deprecating refers to the act of expressing disapproval or protesting against something. This word is a present participle of the word deprecate. The word contentious is an adjective that describes something or someone as argumentative or quarrelsome. Students may use this word when describing people or characters. A 12th grade spelling words quiz should have advanced, adult to near-adult level words that will truly put students to the test. These words may not be common in typical conversations. However, they still have learning value and you may speak or write them in more advanced topics. The word reciprocated is a verb meaning to return a feeling or interchange, such as the giving and receiving of gifts. This word is a past particle of reciprocate, a commonly misspelled word. The word insincere is an adjective describing something that is dishonest or hypocritical. This is yet another great descriptive word that you can use in creative writing. The word conversationalist refers to a person who is interesting or contributes well to conversations. Interestingly, this six-syllable noun is a great challenging addition to a 12th-grade spelling words quiz. The word cavalier refers to a noun as a man, knight or solider, usually mounted. This word can also be used as an adjective to describe something or someone as haughty, offhand or indifferent to something important. Here are a few ways that SpellQuiz can directly help students learn and retain even the most complex spelling words: SpellQuiz offers fun and engaging study materials. So, students can master spelling as well as learn how to use a wide range of useful words throughout their lives. Spelling Tests per Grade

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For teachers and kids, the beginning of the school year means “Reading Assessments”. We test to see if our students’ reading levels have increased, remained the same or decreased over the summer. However, although we get an independent reading level, we know that the reading level may not always be 100% accurate. Asking the right comprehension questions can help kids be better readers. The following Behaviors/Skills and Questions can be useful when working with students who are at an independent reading level from K through N. Knowing the skills and behaviors at levels above and below a student’s level will help teachers and parents ask better questions to support comprehension. This strategy can help our students on their independent reading level as well as our Review/Reinforcement and Enrichment students. Comprehension/Behaviors Skills (F & P Levels K/L) dialogue to understand characters cause and effect by understanding characters and events how problems and events are related for information to confirm predictions evidence from the story to support their ideas or thinking predictions based on prior knowledge and the text the solution to the problem important ideas in the text predictions based on character traits Comprehension Questions (F & P Levels K/L) Retell the story in Who is speaking? How do you know? Does what you just read remind you of anything? How does this help you better understand the text? name) in detail. What happened? Why did it happen? What in the story makes you think that? What do you think will happen next? Why? What caused (problem or event) to happen? How do you know? What do you think (character’s name) will do? Why? School Age Readers and Writers – (5 to 9-year-olds) Give your child encouragement when he or she is doing homework or a writing assignment. Remind your child that writing involves several steps like panning, composing an initial draft, revising, and final editing. No one does it perfectly the first time. Read different types of books to expose your child to different types of writing. Kids love a variety of fiction and non-fiction formats including plays, chapter books, series books, books with sequels, short stories, diaries and logs, and graphic texts. Create a writing toolbox — Find a special box and fill it with drawing and writing materials. Think of everyday opportunities for your child to write —the family shopping list, thank -you notes, birthday cards, or sign on the bedroom door. Ask your child to read out loud what he or she has written. Create a book together — Make a handmade book together by folding pieces of paper ion half and stapling them together. Your child can write his or her own story, with different sentences on each page. Ask your child to illustrate the book with his/her own drawings. Show your child how to summarize a story in a few sentences, for example, or how to make predictions about what might happen next. Both strategies help a child comprehend and remember. After reading a story together, think out loud so your child can see how you summarize and predict. Pick books that are at the right reading level —Help your child choose reading materials that are not too difficult. The goal is to give your child lots of successful reading experiences Partner Reading – Take turns reading aloud to each other. Whether it’s a page or a sentence, it’s another way of getting a couple minutes of reading fun. Learning to read is not easy and takes time. Many parents wonder on the best ways to help their kids learn to read. With 8 grandkids under 9, we have various levels of reading going on in our family. Ranging in age from 7 months to “newly 9” we have readers of all sizes and abilities. I created the following list to make it a little easier for my adult children to have a few “reading ideas” to help their kiddos. Reading is very comprehensive and therefore, there is a wide range of activities at each level. The important thing to remember is reading builds on foundational skills. Therefore, each level is important for reading success. Don’t worry if your more advanced reader wants to do a lower level. Even advanced readers can continue to learn and grow from some of the Preschool Reader activities. Last week we started with our series with Very Early Readers (Birth – 2 years). This week we continue with Preschool Readers (2 – 5yrs). Preschool Readers (2 to 5 years) Discuss what’s happening, point out things on the page, ask your child questions When looking at a book together, point out how we read from left to right and how words are separated by spaces. Talk about print everywhere. Talk about written words you see in the world around you and respond with interest to your child’s questions about words. Ask your child to find a new word every time you go on an outing. Watch My Lips – Encourage your child to watch your lips and mouth while you make certain sounds. Have your child think about how his/her own lips and tongue move. You can say something like, “Can you feel how your mouth moves the same way at the beginning of the words sun, snake, and sour? Watch my mouth while I say them.” Exaggerate the letter s when saying the words. Play sound games— Give your child practice blending individual sounds into words. For example, ask “Do you know what the word is? m-o-p?” Say the sound each letter makes rather than the name of the letter. Hold each sound longer than you normally would. This will help your child recognize the different letter sounds. Trace and say letters while saying the letter’s sound at the same time. Use a pan filled with rice, sugar or beans to involve touch, sight and speech. Play word games — Use a dry erase board to play word games with your child. First, write out a word like mat. Then change the initial sound. Have your child sound out the word when it becomes fat and then when it becomes sat. Next change the final sound, so the word changes from sat to sag to sap. Then change the middle sound, so the word changes from sap to sip. Punctuate your reading.?! -. Discuss how punctuation on a page represents ways of speaking. You can say, for example, “When we talk, we usually pause a little bit at the end of a sentence. The way we show this pause in writing is to use a period.” Dig deeper into the story — Ask your child about the story you’ve just read together. Try questions that require your child to draw conclusions. Say something like, “Why do you think Clifford did that?” A child’s involvement in retelling a story or answering questions goes a long way toward developing his or her comprehension skills. Tell family tales — Children love to hear stories about their family. Tell your child what it was like when you or your parents were growing up or talk about a funny thing that happened when you were young. Storytelling on the go — Take turns adding to a story the two of you make up while riding in the car. Either one of you could start. Start with a beginning middle and end and work up to a longer story. A fun activity that stretches the imagination! Every minute counts in becoming a good reader. Why not set a goal to try to do at least one activity a day? Be prepared to have days when it doesn’t get done. It’s only a goal. Most of all, enjoy the special time with your child. When you think of winter in the Northeast you can’t help but think of SNOW. Whether it’s school delays, shoveling, or road conditions:; native New Yorkers (like me) can’t help but think of the negatives involved with the beautiful, fluffy, white stuff. So, how about thinking about the bright side of snowy days? How does free (or almost free) skiing for kids? Let’s face it, skiing can be expensive and ski resorts want to get families on the slopes. So, if you have a 3rd through 5th grader you are in luck. Check out the links below and see if you can jump on this great bargain. A pretty good deal if your child is an avid skier or just wants to give it a try. Be sure to check out the websites, there are some requirements associated with the offers. They are certainly worth a look! The Kids Learn to Ski or Ride Passportis the perfect program for those who do not ski or are true beginners. With the Learn to Ski or Ride program, a child receives a lift ticket, lesson and equipment rental free* at all participating ski areas. There are over 20 ski areas throughout New York State participating in the Learn to Ski or Ride program. Once you receive your Passport in the mail, you can start hitting the slopes! Reservations at ski areas may be required. *$27 processing fee applies. Must show proof child is in 3rd or 4th grade. Any child in the 4th or 5th grade can ski or ride for FREE at all participating ski areas in the state of Pennsylvania (when accompanied by a paying adult.) Just fill out the application on the back of this flyer, mail us a copy of your 4th or 5th grade report card for grade verification, a 2″ x 11/2″ color photo, plus $35-$40 non-refundable processing fee per child. We’ll mail you your 4th & 5th Grade Snowpass containing one FREE LEARN TO SKI/BOARD PACKAGE (beginner lift, lesson & rental package) to any one area of their choice and 3 FREE LIFT TICKETS for each of the participating Pennsylvania Ski Areas listed on our website. 4th and 5th grade Snow Pass Ski New Hampshirealpine and cross-country ski area member contributes one free lift ticket or trail pass for your fourth or fifth grader to enjoy New Hampshire’s scenic ski trails this winter. That’s 32 days (or nights) that your child can get outside and explore this season for just $30 upon grade verification. This program is open to 4th and 5thgraders from near and far–not just New Hampshire residents! The 4th & 5th Grade Snowsports Passport will be delivered to your email inbox once you’ve provided proof of eligibility. Look at website for exclusion dates. Learning to read is not easy and takes time. Many parents wonder on the best ways to help their kids learn to read. With 8 grandkids under 9, we have various levels of reading going on in our family. Ranging in age from 7 months to “newly 9” we have very early readers to advanced readers. I created the following list to make it a little easier for my adult children to have a few “reading ideas” to help their kiddos. Reading is very comprehensive and therefore, there is a wide range of activities at each level. The important thing to remember is reading builds on foundational skills. Therefore, each level is important for reading success. Don’t worry if your more advanced reader wants to do a lower level. Even advanced readers can continue to learn and grow from some of the Very Early Reader list activities. This week we start with our very early readers. Very Early Readers (Birth to 2 yrs.) Read together every day. Uninterrupted 2 minutes of time is time well spent. Keep a book or magazine with you all the time to read with your child. Every minute counts. Re-read a favorite – Kids love to hear books again. Repeated reading helps kids read more quickly and accurately. It helps promote their reading confidence. Research shows that repeated reading builds language skills. Read with fun in your voice. Why not use different voices for different characters. A little acting can go a long way! Let your child choose —Give your child the chance to pick his/her own books. Letting children choose their own books nurtures independence and their own interests. Read it and Experience it — Help your child make the connection between what he/she reads in books and what happens in life. If you’re reading a book about animals, for example, relate it to last month’s trip to the zoo. Make books and reading into something special by taking your kids to the library, helping them get their own library card, reading with them, and buying them books as gifts. Have a favorite place for books in your home, or even better, put books everywhere! Talk about what you see and do together. Talking about everyday activities helps your child’s background knowledge, which is crucial to listening and reading comprehension You can play games that involve naming or pointing to objects. Say silly tongue twisters—Sing sings and read rhyming books. These help kids become sensitive to the sounds in words. When you read aloud, read with expression. Coming Next Week: Preschool Readers (2 to 5 years) Coming in 2 Weeks: School Age Readers and Writers (5 to 9 years) Social Studies concepts can be difficult for some students to learn. However, there are some tools teachers can use increase a student’s access to academic content. Check out the 8 research-based strategies listed below. Graphic Organizers – Graphic Organizers, Mind Maps and Concept Maps provide a pictorial or graphic way to organize information and thoughts for remembering, understanding and writing. Multiple Intelligences – Dr. Howard Gardner proposed the theory in 1983 that there are 8 multiple types of intelligences or ways of processing information. (verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, musical, naturalistic, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal. Graph Dissection – Taking apart of breaking down information found in graphs, charts, maps and other graphics. Content Enhancements – Includes advanced organizers, visual displays, study guides, mnemonic devices, peer mediated instruction and computer assisted instruction. Historical Timelines – Timelines help students understand the passage of time by comparing the length of time passed with a time sequence with which they are familiar. Textbook Analysis – The systematic analysis of the text materials including the structure, the focus, and the learning assists. Concept Comparisons – Students use a graphic to compare and contrast key concepts. Assistive technology – Any item, piece of equipment, or product system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individual with disabilities. There is no ONE WAY to teach Social Studies. The key to developing lessons is to try different techniques and assess their effectiveness. The start of the school year brings some new reading terms for parents of children in the early grades. Many teachers use Guided Reading to teach reading. The days of everyone reading together out of one book has been replaced by small-group instruction. The small groups are composed of children that have similar Guided Reading Levels (GRLs). The level is assessed on a child’s word-knowledge, comprehension and fluency. These levels are also used to determine a child’s independent reading level. Fountas and Pinnell, (F & P) is one of the most popular assessment tools. The levels range alphabetically from A to Z, with level A representing the lowest level and level Z the highest. This allows the teacher to work closely with each student to help them become better readers by introducing them to increasingly challenging books and instructional focus. How Are Book Levels Determined? Books are assigned Guided Reading Levels based on several general expectations and capabilities of a reader. As the levels progress, the books become more difficult. Each level is based upon the increasing complexity of ten benchmark common book characteristics that readers encounter at all stages of the reading process from when your child picks up his or her first book through the time when he or she becomes a fluent reader. These guided reading categories are: Themes and Ideas: Big ideas communicated by the author Genre: Type of book Text Structure: How the book is organized Content: Subject matter of a book Sentence Complexity: Difficulty of the sentence Language and Literacy: The writing techniques used by the writer. Vocabulary: The frequency of new words introduced in the book. Words: How easy the words in the book can be figured out (decoded) by a reader Illustrations: The correlation and consistency of images and pictures in the books to the words printed on the page Book and Print Features: How the printed words are on the page. How Can I Find Books at My Child’s Guided Reading Level? Ask your child’s teacher for the appropriate Guided Reading Level (GRL) to practice reading at home. In the classroom, books are often labeled so kids can easily grab a book at their reading level. Your school or local librarian can be helpful to find books at your child’s level. Many book publishers also include a Guided Reading Level on their books. I’ve written a post about Overdrive as a database to access free books for adults and kids. However, I was not aware that they also have collections of books on different subjects. One of the listed subjects is Education. The collection includes books for both teachers, parents and students. Books are in both digital and audio files. Using your library card you can borrow up to 10 ebooks or audiobooks from your local library. Just use your library card for your one time registration and you’re ready to go. Books can be borrowed from 7 to 21 days. Sample: Overdrive PD Teacher Books Building A+ Better Teacher Green 2015 How Children Succeed Tough 2013 Mathematical Mindsets Boaler/Dweck 2015 Montessori From the Start Lillard and Jessen 2004 Secrets of the Teenage Brain Feinstein/Jensen 2013 Teach Like a Pirate Burgess 2012 The Coddling of the American Mind Lukianoff/Haidt 2019 Over the years I’ve collected a collection of education books. Take a look at the list below and let me know if there are any books that you may find helpful in your placements. I can bring them to your placement on our next observation. Access to your very own professional lending library! Brainstorm Siegel 2012 Bright From The Start Stamm 2008 Classroom Instruction That Works Marzano & Pickering 2001 For kids in school, knowing historical dates helps them relate to history and builds their general knowledge. Knowing these dates can help teachers engage students in conversations and students may even be impressed by their teachers historical knowledge! Knowing historical dates provides opportunities for students to learn history and build their general knowledge. Take a look and impress your students! Article-A-day is a strategy that teachers use in a classrooms that assigns students a non-fiction article to read each day. This technique strengthens a student’s background knowledge, vocabulary and stamina. This research-based classroom routine combines writing & oral sharing. The technique is used in whole-class or small groups and also as an independent project. A great FREE resource to support your Article-A Day program is ReadWorks. The site provides article sets that include 6-9 articles related on nonfiction topics. The articles are leveled from Kindergarten – 8th Grade. The resources can be printed, used digitally or projected on a Smartboard. ReadWorks encourages teachers to share their resources with other colleagues. Step 1: Students read an article independently. For students who cannot read independently yet, the teacher reads the article out loud twice. Step 2: Each student then uses their own “Book of Knowledge” to write down, or draw a picture of, two or three things they learned from reading and would like to remember in their own “Book of Knowledge.” A classroom Book of Knowledge can also be created if the article is used in whole class instruction. The strategy builds writing skills and strengthens the reading-writing connection. Step 3: Student volunteers share with the class, in 1-2 minutes, what they’ve learned and want to remember. IF 10 minutes is all you need to make an impact on reading comprehension, why not give it a try? Eight months down in 2019, how are you doing on those New Years Resolutions? If you are still working on catching up on professional development, take a look at this month’s newsletter. All 10 August posts are below, as well as ALL the posts since I started the blog in September 2018. My New Year’s Resolution to get the Threeringsconnections’ newsletter out on a timely, consistent schedule is accomplished: 8 down and 4 more to go! Have a great month! I am so pleased to be working with you during student teaching this semester. The college has provided you a high-quality education to prepare you for this day. They have recruited cooperating teachers that exhibit best practice to guide you through your student teaching placement. These mentors will help you graduate as competent teachers in content skills, classroom management, and knowledge of individual student learning needs. As your student teacher supervisor, I am here to assist and encourage your professional growth during your classroom experience. As the liaison between the college and school, I can assist you with both procedural and content material. Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you have any questions. These next few months will very busy so try to focus on everything that you experience. These day to day experiences will prepare you to have your own classroom someday. Ask questions, reflect on practice and accept advice. You have been prepared well and are ready for this challenge. Enjoy the journey!

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In today’s digital landscape, visuals are a necessity, not a luxury or an accoutrement. The spread of smartphones and social media has made them an essential part of communication. Visual is the broad term for anything we look at (photographs, illustrations, videos, etc.) used for communication. Visuals are a more effective and efficient means of communication than the written word. We are visual learners, and we equate seeing with the truth. Our brains process visuals 60,000 times faster than text, and “90 percent of information transmitted to the brain is visual” (Walter & Gioglio, 2014). Not surprisingly, we remember 80 percent of what we see compared to 20 percent of what we read and only 10 percent of what we hear1. Compelling images account for 94 percent2 more views than content without images. Visuals are a ubiquitous presence in our lives. The challenge facing communication professionals is how to make their message stand out. Visual metaphors offer an opportunity to penetrate clutter and reach an audience. A metaphor is a figure of speech where a word or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to imply a resemblance. For example, the internet is the information superhighway. Metaphors are ingrained in how we think and make sense of the world. They’re “pervasive in everyday life, not just language, but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Metaphors are commonplace in advertising. Approximately 75 percent3 of print advertisements include at least one metaphor in its headline. Visual metaphors are visual tropes. They are highly structured images that stimulate viewers to understand one concept in terms of another concept (Zeeshan, 2015). Visual metaphors perform better than verbal metaphors in advertising. “…subjects comprehended the advertiser’s intended meaning more often for visual metaphor ads than for verbal metaphor ads” (Scott & Batra, 2004). The reason is simple. The inclusion of the visual eases comprehension because viewers don’t need to create mental images. Visual metaphors are more common than you might think. According to the limited research on the subject, slightly more than three out of ten print ads4 contain visual metaphors. Types of Visual Metaphors There are three types of visual metaphors: juxtaposition, fusion, and replacement. The three types have different levels of complexity based on the amount of inferences viewers need to make to come to an acceptable conclusion. Juxtaposition is the least complex, fusion is moderately complex, and replacement is considerably complex (van Mulken, van Hooft & Nederstigt, 2014). Juxtaposition, also called similes, includes two images side-by-side. The visual includes the product (or target) next to what it’s being compared with (or the source). This example from Volkswagen juxtaposes a Volkswagen Passat with the lead Elk. The Volkswagen separates the leader from the herd, so we perceive the Volkswagen with the lead Elk. The association is formed from Gestalt’s principle of proximity. Because the Volkswagen is close to the leader, we group it with the leader. Volkswagen is a leader—it is the lead Elk. The next example is from Gravity Anomaly, an activewear apparel company. It juxtaposes a pair of shorts in front of a gravestone. On face value, it’s a bizarre message. Why would a brand want its product associated with death? The gravestone is a metaphor for a lifetime guarantee. This line of activewear is so durable it will last a lifetime. The Gravity Anomaly advertisement is a prime example of the necessity for textual clues. At the bottom, proceeding the logo is the text, “With its LIFETIME GUARANTEE, you wouldn’t want to be caught dead in anything else.” This practice is called “anchoring,” and it provides advertisers with a lifeline to ensure viewers understand the metaphor and the ad’s message. Almost every visual metaphor includes a text anchor to explain the metaphor’s puzzle if viewers can’t work it out for themselves. The desire for text anchors makes sense. Text anchors are a double-edged sword for advertisers. They are proven to aid in viewer comprehension but decreased consumer pleasure in interpreting the message (Phillips, 2000). Let’s look at an example from Heineken next. The advertisement juxtaposes a glass of beer next to a large stack of CDs. This visual has a few drawbacks that lessen its effectiveness. The scale of the glass of beer is off, or it’s a tiny glass. The second problem is having the Heineken label appear in the stack of CDs. The metaphor is too simple. It requires little cognitive effort—or elaboration—to solve. Generally speaking, the more difficult the puzzle, the more enjoyment a viewer attains from finding the solution. Finally, the advertisers included a text anchor. This advertisement would be better without the label on the stack of CDs or, better yet without the glass of beer—just the “labelled” stack of CDs as a fusion metaphor. Fusion—also known as hybrid or synthesis—combines the product (target) with what it’s being compared with (source) to form a single visual element (called a gestalt). The above example is an advertisement for Sydney Brewery’s Glamarama Summer Ale. It fuses the ale bottle with a popsicle. For the metaphor, the popsicle equals cold—a cold ale is a perfect complement for a hot summer day. The next fusion example is a Fresh Mug advertisement. It fuses a bale of wheat with a mug complete with beer foam. The metaphor is our beer is so fresh you can taste the wheat. The next fusion example comes from McDonald’s advertising the McFlurry. The advertisement fuses a man and ice cream, with the ice cream replacing his hair. It’s obvious that he has a McFlurry on the brain. The man’s expression is a further clue that he is thinking of ice cream. He’s staring off in a classic look of contemplation. The final and most complex type of visual metaphor is replacement. Replacement is when either the product (target) or what it is being compared to (source) is absent. Replacement is also called a contextual metaphor because it relies on context for viewers to find (or infer) meaning. This example from Mercedes-Benz uses a chicken to represent a car, and foxes represent danger and the lane markers. If the chicken strays from her lane, she’ll find danger. This visual plays on viewers understanding that foxes are a natural predator for chickens. Using two of the same predators taps the Gestalt principle of similarity, so viewers group them, making them easily understood as lane markers. The advertisement above is for Walkin Fitness Studio, an Indian fitness studio. This example uses animals as metaphors for a person. The visual includes silhouettes of an elephant’s rear end, the studio logo, and the front half of a horse. Each silhouette is cut off by a vertical line. The lines are on either side of the logo form a boundary for the logo. The lines and negative space surrounding the logo form the studio. The metaphor is rich: lumber in an elephant, leave a stallion. Chevrolet provides the example above, where a game of football replaces a car. It’s the context—in this case the lines of the parking space—that allows viewers to infer the action replaces a car. However, this is another example of how dependent visual metaphors are on text anchors. Without the text mentioning hands free park assist, it would be difficult to apply meaning to the visual. The replacement metaphor is strong (football replacing a car), but the intended meaning is unclear. The football action is also a metaphor for what someone is thinking about when he or she is parking the Chevrolet, and the hands-free park assist allows him or her to think about football instead of parking the car. Interpreting Visual Metaphors Visual metaphors aren’t read literally. They require interpretation. Visual metaphors deviate from viewer expectations. It’s the unanticipated deviation (or incongruity) that causes viewers to think figuratively and make inferences about the advertisement’s intended meaning. What viewers do is find the first plausible meaning that seems relevant to the message. Think of visual metaphors as puzzles—when we see them, we instinctively need to solve them. In our quest to solve the puzzle, we’re going to be lazy and use as little energy as possible. We’re also going to assume that the amount of effort it takes to solve the puzzle equals the amount of reward we’ll gain from finding the solution. “Receivers are inclined to expend as little effort as possible to understand the message and at the same time they will try to gain as much effect as possible from the message by processing it. In other words, receivers expect that the more processing costs a message requires, the more effect they will gain” (van Mulken, van Hooft & Nederstigt, 2014). Viewers trade cognitive effort for information and pleasure – the satisfaction gained from finding the visual’s meaning. This exchange of cognitive effort for information and pleasure is visual metaphors’ value for advertisers. It’s also an inherent risk because the information and pleasure effect is contingent on viewers ascertaining the visual’s intended meaning—solving the puzzle. Without the payoff, visual metaphors can frustrate viewers and can be a brand liability. In visual metaphor research, when an audience can easily understand an advertisement’s meaning, it’s called strong implicature. Conversely, it’s called weak implicature when an audience has difficulty finding a meaning. Let’s look at a few examples. Most of the examples discussed before were strongly implied. This example from Volkswagen has an ostrich in a cheetah suit as a metaphor for a car. It is relying on the audience to know that an ostrich is fast, but a cheetah is faster. The message is our car was fast—the new model is faster. This visual for Viande, a Brazilian food company, is weakly implied. It is difficult to read without prior knowledge of the company. The text anchor (or caption) translates to “noble cuts of beef.” The cow represents the beef—that connection is easy to make. It’s the nobility that is difficult to make. The author’s first thought was that cow looks like a piece of furniture? The advertiser’s intent was the pattern to be likened to the imprint on a high-end fashion accessory. Viewers were expected then to associate high-end fashion with nobility and apply the attributes of nobility to a cut of beef. Our cattle are premium quality, so our cuts of beef are premium quality. This advertisement for Boag’s Draught is also weakly implied. The unexpected deviation is the dog’s head. Why is it small? The text anchor, “These waters just make things better,” doesn’t necessarily answer the question. The stick in the dog’s mouth is the clue. He didn’t submerge his head. The water made him big. The advertisement is relying on the audience to know the cliché bigger is better. Without this knowledge, the image looks bizarre. The message is the water from Tasmania is special, and the beer is special because it is brewed with Tasmanian water. Visual metaphors have three primary benefits: attention, elaboration, and pleasure. Visual metaphors grab attention because viewers notice their novelty—deviation from expectation—stands out from the clutter, particularly in low involvement viewing conditions (e.g., magazine). Visual metaphors provoke elaboration (or cognitive activity), which means viewers make inferences or develop a theory. Pleasure comes from a sense of accomplishment from resolving the visual’s meaning. “The novelty of metaphors induces perception of error, but when the meaning is understood, the negative tension is relieved. Visual metaphors also elicit pleasure since the initial ambiguity stimulates interest and motivation, and the subsequent resolution is rewarding.” (Jeong, 2008). Visual metaphors can be seen as counterintuitive for advertisers because “research has shown time and again that consumers are uninterested in, ignore, and actively avoid processing advertising messages” (Phillips, 2003). If viewers avoid “processing” or comprehending advertising messages, why would advertisers want to make it more challenging to process their messages? The answer is simple: people love to solve puzzles. When we see a visual metaphor, it jars us and grabs our attention because it’s so unexpected. We elaborate on the picture and solve the puzzle and are left with a feeling of satisfaction. We are satisfied because the experience flatters our intelligence (or intellectual capabilities) by showing us that we’re smart enough to solve the puzzle. The secret potential of visual metaphors is the pleasure (or positive feelings) from solving a visual metaphor becomes associated with the product or company. This means that the pleasure the audience gains translates to a positive attitude toward the product and the brand. The boost in a positive attitude is a result of a rapport between the advertisers and the audience established when the audience solves the puzzle. Van Mulken et al. found that advertisements with visual metaphors are appreciated more and better understood than advertisements without visual metaphors (2014). Solving a visual metaphor also “enhances memory trace for the ad” (Phillips & McQuarrie, 2004)—simply put, it increases viewer recall of the advertisement. Visual Metaphors are Persuasive Including a visual metaphor improves the audience’s perception of the sender’s (or source) credibility. Viewers judge companies that use visual metaphors as more credible because their creativity is evaluated highly. “Metaphors may lead to greater persuasion mediated by message recipients’ positive evaluations of the message source.” (Jeong, 2008). Jeong (2008) found that advertisements with visual metaphors are more persuasive than advertisements without visual metaphors. The persuasiveness of visual metaphors is linked to the amount of engagement the audience needs to figure out the advertisement’s meaning. “Greater degree of mental participation required by visual argumentation may lead to a product of audiences’ own construction of meaning…and because people are often more willing to adopt a proposition that they have constructed, the implicitness of visual [not clearly expressed] argumentation can be a strong point of visual persuasion.” (Jeong, 2008). Some research also suggests that persuasiveness is affected by the amount of cognitive effort used making inferences because viewers will have fewer cognitive resources left to counter-argue the advertisement’s claim. The more effort viewers spend speculating on the meaning, the less likely they are to weigh the validity of an advertisement’s claim. This will, of course, increase the likelihood viewers accept an advertisement’s message. We enjoy a compelling visual metaphor so much that we accept its message without looking at it critically. Novelty (or deviation from expectation) is the catalyst for all the benefits of visual metaphors. It’s challenging to come up with a novel concept. What’s worse, the benefits of visual metaphors are dependent on comprehension. Without understanding, visual metaphors are at best useless and at worst destructive. At their root, visual metaphors are a balancing act between complexity and comprehension. If either is out of balance, advertisers have a big problem. Visuals that are too complex will decrease persuasion and pleasure. “Several studies have suggested that if a message is considered too difficult to solve, demanding too much cognitive processing effort, readers/viewers may opt-out and appreciation decreases.” (van Mulken et al., 2014). On the other side of the spectrum, visuals that are too easy have minimal benefit. So, if the product and what it’s compared to are similar, viewers have less appreciation for the advertisement. “Advertisements with metaphors that contain relatively comparable sources and targets were less appreciated than advertisements with metaphors with relatively incomparable sources and targets” (van Mulken et al., 2014). The same study found conventional metaphors were less appreciated than unconventional metaphors (van Mulken et al., 2014), which underscores how tied the benefits of visual metaphors are to novelty. Visual metaphors rely heavily on context and are culturally constructed. This means that visual metaphors—especially weakly implied ones—run the risk of being misinterpreted and having unintended or conflicting meanings applied to them. Let’s look at examples of ineffective visual metaphors. This example promoting a Toyota with a push-button start is perplexing. Most people associate poking a beehive with pain—being stung—which begs the question, why would a company want its push-button start associated with a beehive? One can only hazard that the concept is to challenge viewers to try it because it isn’t painful. This advertisement for Karlsberg’s Mixery Blend is cringeworthy. The error may be attempting to be too literal. Clearly, the advertisers didn’t pay enough attention to the implications of attaching an umbilical cord to an acholic beverage. Is it wise to have an acholic beverage associated with infants or nursing mothers? Also, this idea could link this beverage to bodily fluids—not appetizing. The execution of this advertisement for Gringo’s Tequila, a South African Tequila company, is excellent. The concept, however, raises cultural issues. The replacement visual metaphor has a Lucha libre (Mexican wrestling) wrestler’s head in a shot glass replacing tequila. It relies on a common stereotype—a lucha libra wrestler—that can easily be seen as offensive, which will impact the company’s brand. In this case, the company probably doesn’t care if it’s seen as a politically incorrect brand—and maybe its customers don’t care either. The point is advertisers and designers need to be cognizant of the cultural implications for their visual metaphors. There is no denying that visual metaphors grab viewer attention—a necessity for any advertising—the question is to what effect? They offer the opportunity to improve consumers’ attitudes toward a product and brand. Visual metaphors are more persuasive, more appreciated, and better understood than advertisements without visual metaphors. Visual metaphors are a balance between complexity and comprehension. To viewers, visual metaphors are a puzzle to solve and the greater the challenge, the greater the reward for solving the puzzle. Advertisers need to find the elusive middle ground between too complex and frustrating viewers or too simple and boring them. If viewers can’t resolve a visual metaphor, it hurts appreciation for the product and brand. Text anchors (included text) ensure viewers understand a message but at the expense of spoiling the fun of solving the puzzle. Further, Jeong 2008 found that visual metaphors without text anchors were more persuasive and concluded that “supplementary verbal propositions may not be necessary.” Moderately complex fusion metaphors have the most potential for advertisers and communicators. “The results from our study demonstrate that visual metaphors of moderate complexity are indeed most effective. Fusions turn out to be appreciated most, whereas replacements, the most complex type of metaphors, are least appreciated.” (van Mulken et al., 2014). Visual metaphors are a gamble and not for the risk averse. However, if advertisers are willing to roll the dice, visual metaphors present a unique opportunity to penetrate through the clutter and make a rewarding connection with an audience. - Wyzowl infographic - Power of Visual Storytelling by Ekaterina Walter and Jessica Gioglio. - Kim, Baek, & Choi, 2012 reported that approximately 75% print advertisements included at least one metaphor in their headline. - Studies on the prevalence of visual metaphors are rare. Kaplan (1992) looked 464 prints advertisements for automobiles and alcoholic beverages and found that 31% used visual metaphors. Walter, E., & Gioglio, J. (2014). The power of visual storytelling: How to use visuals, videos, and socail media to market your brand (1st ed.) McGraw-Hill Education. Bonner, C. (2014, September 15). Using gestalt principles for natural interactions. Retrieved from https://thoughtbot.com/blog/gestalt-principles Lupton, E. (2017). Design is storytelling. New York, NY: Cooper Hewitt. Simplicity, symmetry and more: Gestalt theory and the design principles it gave birth to. Retrieved from https://www.canva.com/learn/gestalt-theory/ Agrawal, A. (2017, January 19). How visual advertising will change marketing in 2017. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/ajagrawal/2017/01/19/how-visual-advertising-will-change-marketing-in-2017/#1100c5213408 Parera, E. (). 10 types of visual content you must include in your social media strategies (+ tools for creating them and the best tricks from the experts). Retrieved from https://postcron.com/en/blog/visual-content-strategies-for-social-networks/ Zen, P. (2017, December 27). Learn about the 5 ways in which storytellers use images to sway audiences. Retrieved from https://www.yotpo.com/blog/5-visual-storytelling-secrets-to-improve-your-marketing-images/ Gkiouzepas, L., & Hogg, M. K. (2011). Articulating a new framework for visual metaphors in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 40(1), 103-120. doi:10.2753/JOA0091-3367400107 Jeong, S. (2008). Visual metaphor in advertising: Is the persuasive effect attributable to visual argumentation or metaphorical rhetoric? Journal of Marketing Communications, 14(1), 59-73. doi:10.1080/14697010701717488 Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). The metaphorical structure of the human conceptual system. Cognitive Science, 4(2), 195-208. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0402_4 Lidwell, W., Holden, K., & Bulter, J. (2015). The pocket universal principles of design (1st ed.). Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers Inc. Phillips, B. J., & McQuarrie, E. F. (2004). Beyond visual metaphor: A new typology of visual rhetoric in advertising. Marketing Theory, 4(1-2), 113-136. doi:10.1177/1470593104044089 Scott, L. M., Batra, R., & ProQuest Ebooks. (2003). Persuasive imagery: A consumer response perspective. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi:10.4324/9781410607256 Shan, C., Yu, M., & Xue, K. (2017). Effects of metaphor advertising on brand extension evaluation: Construal level as mediator. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 45(6), 967-985. doi:10.2224/sbp.5962 van Mulken, M., van Hooft, A., & Nederstigt, U. (2014). Finding the tipping point: Visual metaphor and conceptual complexity in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 43(4), 333-343. doi:10.1080/00913367.2014.920283 Zeeshan, A. (2015). Visual metaphors in language of advertising. Language in India, 15(10), 74-82. Retrieved from http://libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/login?url=https://search-ebscohost-com.libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ufh&AN=110414996&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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Reading Aloud to Build Comprehension This article discusses the power of reading aloud and goes a step further to discuss the power of thinking out loud while reading to children as a way to highlight the strategies used by thoughtful readers. Goodnight cow jumping over the moon Goodnight Moon by Margaret Wise Brown is a beloved children's bedtime story. Young children instantly relate to the struggle of the little bunny trying to get to sleep. Such stories are memorable because they move children and allow them to make personal connections that inspire them to think more deeply, to feel more wholeheartedly, and to become more curious listeners. Many of us can remember from our own experience the precious time spent sharing and talking about stories. We remember relating to the friendship between a little girl and a teddy bear named Corduroy in the book of the same name by Don Freeman. We also related to the friendship between a spider and her pig friend, Wilbur, in E.B. White's Charlotte's Web. We connected to the characters, their situations, or the settings in which the stories took place. Little did we know that when we were making such connections we were learning to think and act like good readers. Because reading aloud provides children with a model of confident and expert reading, many parents and teachers make it a vital part of their teaching practice. Helping children understand what they read This article praises the power of reading aloud and goes a step further to praise the power of thinking out loud while reading to children. It's an easy way to highlight the strategies used by thoughtful readers. Katherine Paterson, author of Bridge to Terabithia, once told a seventh-grader, "A book is a cooperative venture. The writer can write a story down, but the book will never be complete until a reader, of whatever age, takes that book and brings to it his own story." Developing into this kind of reader requires children to become conscious of the multiple comprehension strategies that allow them to deeply understand and engage with the material. - Connecting books to children's own life experience - Connecting the books children are reading to other literature they have read - Connecting what children are reading to universal concepts The first three sections of this article present current research and practices related to reading aloud. The last section shows how to apply this research to your work with children. We will discuss the important benefits of reading aloud; how to choose good books to read aloud; how to model or teach comprehension strategies as you read aloud; and examples of how to use these comprehension strategies with two sets of books. The benefits of reading aloud Reading aloud is the foundation for literacy development. It is the single most important activity for reading success (Bredekamp, Copple, & Neuman, 2000). It provides children with a demonstration of phrased, fluent reading (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). It reveals the rewards of reading, and develops the listener's interest in books and desire to be a reader (Mooney, 1990). Listening to others read develops key understanding and skills, such as an appreciation for how a story is written and familiarity with book conventions, such as "once upon a time" and "happily ever after" (Bredekamp et al., 2000). Reading aloud demonstrates the relationship between the printed word and meaning – children understand that print tells a story or conveys information – and invites the listener into a conversation with the author. Children can listen on a higher language level than they can read, so reading aloud makes complex ideas more accessible and exposes children to vocabulary and language patterns that are not part of everyday speech. This, in turn, helps them understand the structure of books when they read independently (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). It exposes less able readers to the same rich and engaging books that fluent readers read on their own, and entices them to become better readers. Students of any age benefit from hearing an experienced reading of a wonderful book. Choosing good books Children need to be exposed to a wide range of stories and books. They need to see themselves as well as other people, cultures, communities, and issues in the books we read to them. They need to see how characters in books handle the same fears, interests, and concerns that they experience (Barton & Booth, 1990). Selecting a wide range of culturally diverse books will help all children find and make connections to their own life experiences, other books they have read, and universal concepts. (Dyson & Genishi, 1994). Children use real life to help them understand books, and books help children understand real life. Choose books that invite children to respond with enthusiasm and understanding. Look for books with rich language, meaningful plots, compelling characters, and engaging illustrations (Gambrell & Almasi, 1996). - Is the book worthy of a reader's and listener's time? - Does the story sound good to the ear when read aloud? - Will it appeal to your audience? - Will children find the book relevant to their lives and culture? - Will the book spark conversation? - Will the book motivate deeper topical understanding? - Does the book inspire children to find or listen to another book on the same topic? By the same author? Written in the same genre? - Is the story memorable? - Will children want to hear the story again? "Think aloud" to model how to make connections By modeling how fluent readers think about the text and problem solve as they read, we make the invisible act of reading visible. Modeling encourages children to develop the "habits of mind" proficient readers employ. - Connecting the book to their own life experience - Connecting the book to other literature they have read - Connecting what they are reading to universal concepts - (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997) Helping children discover these connections requires planning and modeling. Parents and teachers can encourage and support thinking, listening, and discussion, and model "think-alouds," which reveal the inner conversation readers have with the text as they read (Harvey & Goudvis, 2000). Parents and teachers can point out connections between prior experiences and the story, similarities between books, and any relationship between the books and a larger concept. - To make connections between the book and your own life, think aloud as you share. When you read the beginning of A River Dream by Allen Say, for example, you can comment, "This book reminds me of the time my father took me fishing. Have you ever been fishing?" - To make connections between related books with the same author or similar settings, characters, and concepts, say "Mufaro's Beautiful Daughters by John Steptoe is an African tale that is similar to the tale of Cinderella. Both stories are about sisters – one kind and the other spiteful. Do you know any stories about nice and mean sisters or brothers? Let's continue reading to find out other ways the stories are similar." - To connect a book to a larger world or universal concept, you could say to your student, "Stellaluna by Janell Cannon helps me understand that we are all the same in many ways, but it's our differences that make us special." While fluent readers make these types of connections with ease, many readers do not. Children need to be shown this type of thinking and then asked to join in and participate in book conversations. This active involvement gives you, the teacher, a glimpse into each reader's thinking. Putting it all together We found that many children's books are based on classic or universal concepts that come up again and again: understanding ourselves, exploring relationships with families and friends, and investigating other communities, people, and ideas. These concepts help children better understand the social fabric that makes up our world. One way to begin training parents in how to use "think alouds" is to bring a selection of books with a universal theme, like friendship or family traditions, and have parents read them aloud to one another. Prompt parents to think about the comprehension strategies they are using and to make the same connections they want children to make. The following are two collections of books that lend themselves especially well to "think alouds." Read aloud collection 1: We can be anything we want to be - Concept: We can be anything we want to be. - Anchor book: Amazing Grace by Mary Hoffman - Companion book: The Wednesday Surprise by Eve Bunting - Companion book: City Green by DyAnne DiSalvo-Ryan - Age range: All Amazing Grace opens the conversation. Begin by asking an open-ended question to help the listener make a connection between the book and his or her own life experience. For example, "Grace loves to pretend to be characters from stories. When you pretend, who do you like to be?" The story then reveals that Grace wants to play Peter in her class's production of Peter Pan, but the other kids tell her she cannot – Peter's neither African American nor a girl. Model thinking out loud with a connection such as, "This reminds me of the time I was told I couldn't play soccer because I couldn't run fast enough." This helps draw the listener into the connection. Ask the listener to share his own experiences, and to predict what Grace might do next. Like many children, Grace turns to her family. Nana, Grace's grandmother, takes her to see an African American ballerina performing Juliet from Romeo and Juliet. While this reference may be lost on some children, they will relate to the line from the story, "I can be anything I want?" Children will be eager to predict the ending of the story – at the tryouts for the play, the class agrees that Grace is best – and will relate to the last line of the book, "If Grace put her mind to it, she can do anything she wants." In The Wednesday Surprise, Anna and Grandma work every Wednesday night on a surprise for Dad's birthday. At the beginning of the story, ask your student to talk about hir or her experiences of attending surprise parties, being watched by a babysitter, having a grandparent who lives nearby, or simply reading books with someone – including with you. As the story continues, model book-to-book connections. For example, "This story is about the relationship between a grandmother and her granddaughter. There were also a grandmother and granddaughter in Amazing Grace. Do you think these two stories will be alike? Let's keep reading to find out." Encourage your student to think about what reading every Wednesday night might have to do with the surprise. The story reveals that Anna is teaching her grandmother how to read. Although Dad thinks he has received all his presents, Grandma gives him the best one of all – she reads aloud the stories that Anna has taught her. Draw out the book-to-book connection: "When I read that Anna's grandmother wanted to be a reader, I think that the story is about how we can be anything we want to be. This reminds me of the story, Amazing Grace. Grace also believed she could be anything she wanted to be. Also, like that story, this one shows the relationship between a grandmother and a grandchild." Then follow i[ with an open-ended question to your student, "How is Anna's relationship with her grandmother different than Grace's?" City Green is the last book in this set. Like the others, it is well written and supports the universal concept of self-determination. When a young girl and her elderly friend create a community garden, an empty lot in an urban neighborhood is transformed into a wonderful place filled with flowers and vegetables. While many children may not have had experiences with community gardens, they may connect to the city scene and the idea of wanting the place you live to be beautiful. By this time, your student might be eager to share her thoughts on book-to-book connections. All three stories depict a grandparent figure and a young girl. All three show how the two work together to get something done. In both Amazing Grace and City Green, the characters did not believe in something, but had a change of heart. Connections between books and universal concepts are made during the reading of each story, and deepen after the last story. You might model how all three stories support the idea that we can be anything we want. "Grace wanted to be Peter Pan. Anna's grandmother wanted to be a reader. What did Marcy want to be in City Green? What would you like to be? Who will help you become what you want to be?" Read aloud collection 2: Being a newcomer - Concept: Being a newcomer is filled with challenges and memories. - Anchor book: Painted Words/Spoken Memories by Aliki - Companion book: Going Home by Eve Bunting - Companion book: The Memory Coat by Elvira Woodruff - Companion book: My Freedom Trip by Frances Park and Ginger Park - Age range: Second grade and up Painted Words/Spoken Memories is the anchor book for this theme. It is a picture book that shows two aspects of the immigrant experience, both from a child's perspective. The first story, "Painted Words," follows Marianthe or Mari, who is new to the United States, and her mother on the dreaded first day of school. Some children have personal stories of being new to this country; others have stories of being new to a classroom, school, or neighborhood. These experiences will help relate what you read to the theme. Your conversations with your student may include topics such as moving to a new home, making new friends, or learning a new language. In the "Spoken Memories" section of the book, Mari shares her life story through art. Encourage your student to share parts of his life story by modeling how to do so. "My mother used to tell me stories about what it was like to leave her home in Jamaica. Has your family always lived in this area or did they move here from some place else?" Try to be sensitive if the child is not comfortable sharing. Your student will see herself as a storyteller and immediately relate to this aspect of the book. Like "Painted Words", Going Home is about a family leaving one country to live in another. Ask your student to make this connection between the two books. This book also presents the idea that parents may call one place home, and their children, another. When Carlos and his family go to his parents' village for Christmas, he realizes the sacrifices his parents have made so their children may have better lives. Pause to listen to your student's thoughts about work, family values, and so on. Reread the lines from "Spoken Memories": "People were leaving our poor village. They were going to a new land, hoping for a better life." This line will emphasize the connection between the two books. Compared to the first two, the remaining books in this collection may be more abstract (for some children). The Memory Coat begins at the turn of the century in the characters' native country and ends in the United States. The character, Grisha, who has lost his parents, will not give up the tattered coat his mother made him before her death. Unless your student has a personal experience with immigration, it will be the coat that he or she relates to. Your student will likely make a connection between a sentimental or favorite item he or she could not part with and the character's need to hang onto the coat. My Freedom Trip is the last companion book in this collection. Unlike the other books, the characters in this book do not immigrate to the United States. They flee North Korea for a better life in South Korea. Your student may want to compare and contrast this story with the others for a richer understanding. Explore the idea that many people leave their countries or communities for a better life, and a better life does not necessarily have to take place in the United States. You can also ask, "What are the things that make life better?" Through this rich discussion, you can help your student make connections between the books and the main concept of the collection – being a newcomer is filled with challenges and memories. Developing comprehension strategies through reading aloud requires planning and setting up an environment of thinking, listening, and discussion. You will soon learn how to follow your student's lead: modeling connections, asking questions, encouraging discussion, and using literature to prompt personal storytelling. Become comfortable with slight diversions. Through conversations and diversions, children make meaning and share connections that are relevant to them. Reading aloud to children gives them the opportunity to try on the language and experience of others. It helps them make connections with their lives, and informs their view of themselves and others. Thinking aloud helps children learn how to use comprehension strategies that are important when reading independently. Sample read aloud collections to try - Chicken Sunday by Patricia Polacco - Dumpling Soup by Jama Kim Rattigan - Owl Moon by Jane Yolen - Chester's Way by Kevin Henkes - Henry Hikes to Fitchburg by D. B. Johnson - Matthew and Tilly by Rebecca C. Jones - Henry and Amy (Right-Way-Round and Upside-Down by Stephen Michael King - Ira Sleeps Over by Bernard Waber - Painted Words/Spoken Memories by Aliki - Going Home by Eve Bunting - How Many Days to America? A Thanksgiving Story by Eve Bunting - My Freedom Trip by Frances Park and Ginger Park - The Memory Coat by Elvira Woodruff - More Than Anything Else by Marie Bradby - Papa's Stories by Dolores Johnson - Amber on the Mountain by Robert Johnston - Tomás and the Library Lady by Pat Mora - Thank You, Mr. Falker by Patricia Polacco Click the "References" link above to hide these references. Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Barton, B., & Booth, D. (1990). Stories in the classroom: Storytelling, reading aloud, and roleplaying with children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Betz, A. (1998). Scholastic treasury of quotations for children. New York, NY: Scholastic Reference. Block, C.C. (1997). Teaching the language arts: Expanding thinking through student-centered instruction (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Neumann, S.B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate practices for young children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Cullinan, B.E. (2000). Read to me: Raising kids who love to read (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Scholastic. Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S. (1996). Guided reading: Good first teaching for all children. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Gambrell, L.B., & Almasi, J.F. (Eds.). (1996). Lively discussions! Fostering engaged reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Greene, M. (1994). "Multiculturalism, community, and the arts." In A.H. Dyson & C. Genishi (Eds.), The need for story: Cultural diversity in classroom and community (pp. 11-27). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2000). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse. Hearne, B. (with Stevenson, D.). (1999). Choosing books for children: A commonsense guide (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press. Keene, E.O., & Zimmermann, S. (1997). Mosaic of thought: Teaching comprehension in a reader's workshop. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Kostelnik, M.J., Soderman, A.K., & Whiren, A.P. (1999). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Moir, H. (Ed.). (1992). Collected perspectives: Choosing and using books for the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston. MA: Christopher-Gordon. Mooney, M.M. (1990). Reading to, with, and by children. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen. Rosenblatt, L.M. (1968). Literature as exploration (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Noble & Noble. Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Trelease, J. (1995). The read-aloud handbook (4th ed). New York, NY: Penguin.

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NOTE: The Second Step program described below is not the current version of the curriculum. This version of the curriculum was available for schools until 2011. See “Other Information” below to learn about the Second Step curricula currently available. Program Goals/Target Population Second Step®: A Violence Prevention Curriculum was a universal prevention program designed to reduce impulsive and aggressive behavior in children and adolescents by increasing their social competency skills. Students were taught to reduce impulsive, high-risk, and aggressive behaviors and increase their socioemotional competence and other protective factors. The program was composed of three grade-specific curricula: preschool/kindergarten (Pre-K), elementary school (grades 1–5), and middle school (grades 6–8). The curricula are designed for teachers and other youth service providers to present in a classroom or other group setting. A parent education component, “A Family Guide to Second Step®” for Pre-K through grade 5, is also available. The Second Step® elementary curriculum consisted of 15 to 22 thirty-five-minute lessons per grade level taught once or twice a week. Group discussion, modeling, coaching, and practice were used to increase students’ social competence, risk assessment, decision-making ability, self-regulation, and positive goal setting. The program’s lesson content varied by grade level and was organized into three skill-building units covering the following: In all of the units, students practiced specific behavioral skills that are meant to serve as building blocks for social problem solving, including resisting negative peer pressure, apologizing, and showing appreciation. - Empathy Training: taught young people to identify and understand their emotions and those of others. Emotional understanding, prediction, and communication are taught as core skills. - Impulse Control and Problem Solving: helped young people choose positive goals, reduce impulsiveness, and evaluate consequences of their behavior in terms of safety, fairness, and impact on others. Students repeatedly practiced generating and evaluating solutions to social problems. - Anger Management: enables youth people to manage emotional reactions and engage in decision making when they are highly aroused. Cognitive–behavioral techniques such as self-talk and attention control were emphasized in this unit. Teacher Ratings of Social Behavior Frey and colleagues (2005) found that overall there were some significant program effects detected during the first year of the Second Step® program; however many of those effects were not noticed during the second year of the program. During the first year of program implementation, among those students who had a high antisocial baseline rating, the intervention group showed significantly greater declines in antisocial behavior than the control group. Among students with a low antisocial baseline rating, intervention students showed no change in antisocial behavior, whereas control students’ antisocial behavior increased (a significant difference). However, there were no significant group differences in antisocial behavior change during year 2 of the study, regardless of antisocial baseline rating. During the first year of the program, the intervention group showed significant gains in social competence compared to the control group. There were similar significant gains observed for the intervention group during the second year as well, but they were not as substantial as the first-year gains. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses confirmed the group differences in measures of antisocial behavior and social competence in the first year, but the analyses did not confirm the group differences in social competence observed during the second year. Student Ratings of Hostile Attributions and Intentions The preliminary analyses of students’ responses to surveys that assessed attributions of hostile goals from hypothetical vignettes of ambiguous provocations found the behavioral intentions had nearly identical patterns of responses to the ambiguous and non-ambiguous provocations. There were no significant differences between groups in hostile attributions and behavioral intentions during both years. Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Analyses of the students’ outcomes when playing the Prisoner’s Dilemma game showed some significant differences between the groups. The goals chosen by the intervention group were significantly more likely to be prosocial than those chosen by the control group. Students in the control group expected greater satisfaction for the self-high outcome than intervention group students. However, the groups did not differ in the proportion of cooperative choices made between the pair of students, and there were no group differences in the outcome of the Prisoner’s Dilemma game. The intervention group students were more satisfied with the game outcome and prize division than control students. Although HLM analyses confirmed the group difference in satisfaction with the prize division, the analyses did not confirm the difference in satisfaction with the game outcome. Overall, Schick and Cierpka (2005) found significant improvements among students in the experimental group in measures of anxiety, but there were few significant differences in other measures. There were also significant differences between experimental and control group girls in some behavioral measures, but not between boys in both groups. Structured Interviews with Students At posttest, experimental students reported a significantly reduced fear of loss of control compared to the control group. However, there were no significant differences between the groups in measures of fear of being injured and fear of bad things happening. There were also no significant differences in measures of empathy, self-confidence, and self-esteem. Measures of peer acceptance showed students in the control group felt significantly more accepted by their peers than students in the experimental group. Although aggressive behaviors were significantly reduced for girls and boys in both the experimental and control groups, experimental group girls assessed themselves to be significantly more aggressive than control group girls. Parent Ratings of Student’s Behavior The outcome measures showed that parents of students in the experimental group rated their children as exhibiting significantly less anxiety/depression problems compared to ratings from parents of control group students. However, there were no other significant differences between experimental and control group parents in any other measures on the Child Behavior Checklist (including social withdrawal, social problems, attention problems, delinquent behavior, and aggressive behavior). There were also no significant differences between parents’ rating on measures of self-control, assertiveness, and cooperation/social rules. Teacher Ratings of Student’s Behavior There were no significant differences between experimental and control group teacher ratings on student’s behaviors measured by the Landau scales of social climate in the classes (LASSO), including measures of rivalry between classmates, aggression against classmates, and extent of clique formation. There was a significant decrease in the extent of discrimination against classmates, but that decrease was observed for both groups. Holsen, Smith, and Frey (2008) found mixed results when examining the outcomes of the Steg and Steg program, the Norwegian version of Second Step®. The posttest measures of social competence were significantly higher in the sixth-grade intervention group than in their comparison group. There was also a significant increase in social competence scores when examining the seventh-grade intervention group, but only for girls. For externalizing behaviors, there was a significant decrease in the measures for grade 6, but only for boys. There were no significant effects found for either sex in grade 7. There were also no significant differences between the intervention and comparison groups with regard to the self-reported measure of internalizing problem behaviors for either grade. Frey and colleagues (2005) examined the impact of the Second Step® program on students’ behavior and social cognitions. The study sample included 15 elementary schools (seven K–fifth grade schools and eight K–sixth grade schools) from three cities across Western Washington. Schools were randomly assigned to the intervention group (two-thirds of the sample) or the control group (one-third of the sample). Schools were reluctant to agree to a waitlist control design; therefore, schools assigned to both intervention and control groups received program materials and teacher training. However, control schools received these benefits for classrooms that were not included in the study sample. The final sample included 462 students in the intervention group and 436 students in the control group. There were no significant differences between the intervention and control group schools with respect to race/ethnicity. The school populations ranged from 52 to 89 percent European American, while Asian Americans and African Americans populated the next largest ethnic groups. Study participants were 48.2 percent female and between 7 and 11 years old. Students were followed for 2 school years. The program was implemented in second- and fourth-grade classrooms during year 1 of the study, and in third- and fifth-grade classrooms during year 2. Teachers were administered the School Social Behavior Scale (SSBS) that asks them to report how frequently students engage in each of 32 antisocial and 33 socially competent behaviors. Students were administered surveys that assessed attributions of hostile goals from hypothetical vignettes of ambiguous provocations. After rating the intentions of the vignette characters, students rated how likely they were to respond with physical aggression, verbal aggression, and socially competent behavior on a 5-point scale. In addition, four same-sex, same-grade children from two different classes were randomly selected to participate in eight trials of the Prisoner’s Dilemma game. Each pair would choose either a cooperative or exclusively self-interested strategy. Students were given the opportunity to earn money for a class party thrown at the end of the school year. The student’s earnings for each pair of answers were determined jointly by his or her selection and that of the other student. Charts displayed overall and for each trial how much students would earn given the four possible combinations (equal-high, self-high, self-low, and equal-low). The students were also audiotaped explaining why they selected their first and second choice and their satisfaction with the outcomes. The decision-making process of each pair was also audiotaped as they jointly selected a cooperative or self-interested strategy on each of eight trials. The outcome measures coded from the observations of the game included the number of prosocial goals; the self-reported expected satisfaction with the outcome and the self-reported actual satisfaction with the outcome of the game; the number of cooperative choices made during joint decision making; the number of positive or negative comments made during negotiations; the need for adult intervention during negotiations; and observed negotiation strategies (cooperative or coercive). Omnibus multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) were used to test for significant group differences, followed by confirmatory hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses of individuals nested within classroom. Schick and Cierpka (2005) evaluated the effectiveness of the Faustlos curriculum, which is the German version of the Second Step® program (“Faustlos” is the German word for “without fists”). The Faustlos curriculum includes 51 lessons divided into three units: empathy, impulse control, and anger management. The lessons start in grade 1 and continue through grade 3. The study used a pre–post evaluation design with a control group. Pretest data collection occurred in spring 1999 and posttest data was collected in fall 2000, when teachers had delivered 35 of the 51 planned lessons. The study examined changes on the behavioral level of students (improving social competences and reducing aggressive behavior), changes on the emotional level of students (effects on emotions correlated with aggressive behavior), and the gender-specific effects of the program. The sample included 21 elementary schools from the school districts of Heidelberg and Mannheim, Germany. Fourteen elementary schools (30 classes, 496 students) were randomly assigned to an experimental group, and seven elementary schools (14 classes, 222 students) were randomly assigned to a control group. Parents (n=718) and teachers (n=35) from both groups were administered questionnaires. In addition, two children from each class (one girl and one boy who were randomly selected and whose parents gave informed consent) were also selected for an interview (60 students in the experimental group and 28 students in the control group). A complete pre–post data set was available for 64 percent of the students, including 161 girls and 174 boys. At the time of the posttest, 17 percent of the students were 5–6 years old, 74 percent were 7–8 years old, and 7 percent were older than 8 years. There were no significant differences between the experimental and control groups, except on gender and the school qualification of mothers. The control group had more boys than girls, whereas the experimental group had more girls than boys, and the mothers’ level of education was higher in the experimental group. Behavioral problems were assessed by the students’ parents using the German version of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). The social competences of students were measured using several scales from the Heidelberg Competence Inventory (HKI). In addition, a structured interview for the students was developed based on items from different questionnaires. The interview measured students’ empathic competences, self-esteem and competences, aggressive behaviors, and anxieties. Finally, teachers were given six subscales from the Landau scales of social climate in the classes (LASSO 4–13) to assess the effects of the curriculum on the class as a whole. The data collected from the structured interviews with students, the parents’ questionnaire, and the teachers’ assessments were examined by two-factorial analyses of variance with repeated measurement (group x time). Gender-specific effects based on the students’ structured interviews were examined using three-factorial analyses of variances with repeated measurement (group x time x gender). Holsen, Smith, and Frey (2008) examined the effectiveness of the Norwegian version of the Second Step® program (called the Steg for Steg program) among students in grades 5 and 6. The study employed an age cohort design. Two sets of complementary analyses were conducted. The first was a repeated measures design. In the second analysis, children of the same age (but from different cohorts) were compared at each measurement time. Since the study schools began implementation simultaneously with fifth-, sixth-, and seventh-grade students, this made it possible to compare age-equivalent groups that had and had not yet participated in the program for a school year. For example, when fifth-grade students reached sixth-grade after one year of the intervention, their posttest data was compared with pretest data from the cohort of sixth-grade children from a time before they had received the intervention. The primary outcomes of interests included social skills and problem behaviors. Social skills were measured using the 34-item student version of the Social Skills Rating System, which was translated into Norwegian. The scale measures cooperation, assertiveness, empathy, and self-control. Student self-reports of problem behaviors were obtained with the student version of the Problem Behavior Scale. The scale consists of 13 items that measure internalizing problem behavior, externalizing problem behavior, and hyperactivity. The study included 338 students in grade 5 (age 10 at baseline), 405 students in grade 6 (age 11 at baseline), and 389 students in grade 7 (age 12 at baseline). Baseline data was collected in November 2004 and follow-up data was collected one year later in November 2005. The seventh-grade students were included only as a comparison at baseline. Approximately 670 students participated at the follow-up in 2005. At baseline, sixth- and seventh-grade students differed significantly in social competence scores. Students in different grades did not differ with respect to internalizing and externalizing behaviors. The pattern of gender differences was the same for all grades: girls reported higher levels of social competence and lower levels of externalizing problem behaviors than boys. There were no gender differences for any grade regarding internalizing problem behavior. The outcome data was analyzed using linear mixed model (LMM) analysis. LMM used correlated residual structures to account for repeated observations within individuals and provide the tools necessary to estimate fixed and random effects in one model. Effect sizes were calculated using the pooled standard deviation of the intervention and comparison groups. There were some limitations to this type of study design. There was no “true” comparison group available at posttest. The age cohort design controlled for the effects of maturation, but not for the effects of repeated measurements. Unlike the intervention group, the comparison group was measured only at baseline. Specific cost information is available on the Committee for Children Web site (a link is available under Additional References). Individual grade-level kits are available for $250–325, while a bundle of kits for grades K–5 is available for $1,250–1,500. Training requirements: training information can also be found on the Committee for Children Web site (a link is available under Additional References). An online training option is available for teachers and counselors. Languages: Family materials that can be emailed to parents are available in English and Spanish. The curriculum has been translated into other languages for implementation in countries outside the United States and Canada, including German and Norwegian. Other Information (Including Subgroup Findings) This version of the Second Step Program is no longer active. In 2011, the Committee for Children developed and released the fourth edition of the Second Step program, which includes revised content and materials to enhance student success in school, and offers new content related to teaching students skills for learning such as aspects related to self-regulation (Low et al. 2015). A revised version of the 2002 edition of the Second Step program is also included on CrimeSolutions.gov. For more information on the updated version of Second Step, please see the profiles for the Second Step for Elementary School (2011 Edition): https://www.crimesolutions.gov/ProgramDetails.aspx?ID=570 Evidence-Base (Studies Reviewed) These sources were used in the development of the program profile:Study 1Frey, Karin S., Susan Bobbitt Nolen, Leihua Van Schoiack Edstrom, and Miriam K. Hirschstein. 2005. “Effects of a School-Based Social–Emotional Competence Program: Linking Children’s Goals, Attributions, and Behavior.” Applied Developmental Psychology 26:171–200.Study 2Schick, Andreas, and Manfred Cierpka. 2005. “Faustlos: Evaluation of a Curriculum to Prevent Violence in Elementary Schools.” Applied and Preventive Psychology 11:157–65.Study 3Holsen, Ingrid, Brian H. Smith, and Karin S. Frey. 2008. “Outcomes of the Social Competence Program Second Step in Norwegian Elementary Schools.” School Psychology International 29(1):71–88. These sources were used in the development of the program profile:Carlo, Gustavo, George P. Knight, Nancy Eisenberg, and Kenneth J. Rotenberg. 1991. “Cognitive Processes and Prosocial Behaviors Among Children: The Role of Affective Attributions and Reconciliations.” Developmental Psychology 27:456–61.Committee for Children. 2010. “Homepage.” Accessed January 15, 2012.http://www.cfchildren.org/ Crick, Nicki R., and Kenneth A. Dodge. 1994. “A Review and Reformulation of Social Information–Processing Mechanisms in Children’s Social Adjustment.” Psychological Bulletin 115:74–101.Frey, Karin S., Susan B. Nolen, Leihua Van Schoiack–Edstrom, and Miriam K. Hirschstein. 2005. “Effects of a School-Based Social Competence Program: Linking Children’s Goals, Attributions, and Behavior.” The Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 26:171–200.Grossman, David C., Holly J. Neckerman, Thomas D. Koepsell, Ping–Yu Liu, Kenneth N. Asher, Kathy Beland, Karin S. Frey, and Frederick P. Rivara. 1997. “Effectiveness of a Violence Prevention Curriculum Among Children in Elementary School.” The Journal of the American Medical Association 277:1605–11.Halberstadt, Amy G., Susanne Denham, and Julie C. Dunsmore. 2001. “Affective Social Competence.” Emotional Social Development 10:79–119.Izard, Caroll E., Sarah E. Fine, David Schultz, Allison J. Mostow, and Brian P. Ackerman. 2001. “Emotion Knowledge and Social Behavior.” Psychological Science 12:18–23.Litvack–Miller, Willa, Daniel McDougall, and David M. Romney. 1997. “The Structure of Empathy During Middle Childhood and Its Relationship to Prosocial Behavior.” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 123:303–24. Low, Sabina, Clayton R. Cook, Keith Smolkowski, and Jodie Buntain-Ricklefs. 2015. “Promoting Social–Emotional Competence: An Evaluation of the Elementary Version of Second Step.” Journal of School Psychology 53:463–77.McMahon, Susan D., and Jason J. Washburn. 2003. “Violence Prevention: An Evaluation of Program Effects With Urban African-American Students.” The Journal of Primary Prevention 24(1):43–62McMahon, Susan D., Jason J. Washburn, Felix J. Yakin, and Gary Childrey. 2000. “Violence Prevention: Program Effects on Urban Preschool and Kindergarten Children.” Applied and Preventive Psychology 9:271–81.Nelson, W. Michael III, and Alfred J. Finch, Jr. 2000. “Managing Anger in Youth: A Cognitive-Behavioral Intervention Approach.” In Philip C. Kendall (ed.). Child and Adolescent Therapy: Cognitive-Behavioral Procedures. New York, N.Y.: Guilford, 16:129–70.Orpinas, Pamela, Guy S. Parcel, Alfred McAlister, and Ralph F. Frankowski. 1995. “Violence Prevention in Middle Schools: A Pilot Evaluation.” Journal of Adolescent Health 17:360–71.Social and Character Development Research Consortium. 2010. Efficacy of Schoolwide Programs to Promote Social and Character Development and Reduce Problem Behavior in Elementary School Children (NCER 2011–2001). Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://ies.ed.gov/ncer/pubs/20112001/pdf/20112001.pdfTaub, Jennifer. 2002. “Evaluation of the Second Step® Violence Prevention Program at a Rural Elementary School.” School Psychology Review 31:186–200.Van Schoiack–Edstrom, Leihua, Karin S. Frey, and Kathy Beland. 2002. “Changing Adolescents’ Attitudes About Relational and Physical Aggression: An Early Evaluation of a School-Based Intervention.” School Psychology Review 31:201–16.Wentzel, Kathryn R., and Allan Wigfield. 1998. “Academic and Social Motivational Influences on Students’ Academic Performance.” Educational Psychology Review 10:155–75. Following are CrimeSolutions.gov-rated practices that are related to this program:School-Based Bullying Prevention Programs The practice includes programs that aim to reduce bullying and victimization (being bullied) in school settings. Some interventions aim to increase positive involvement in the bullying situation from bystanders or witnesses. The practice is rated Effective for reducing bullying, bullying victimization, and for increasing the likelihood of a bystander to intervene. The practice is rated No Effects for increasing bystander empathy for victims of bullying.Evidence Ratings for Outcomes: School-Based Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) Programs | ||Juvenile Problem & At-Risk Behaviors - Bullying| | ||Victimization - Being bullied| | ||Victimization - Bystander intervention| | ||Mental Health & Behavioral Health - Empathy for the victim| Designed to foster the development of five interrelated sets of cognitive, affective, and behavioral competencies, in order to provide a foundation for better adjustment and academic performance in students, which can result in more positive social behaviors, fewer conduct problems, and less emotional distress. The practice was rated Effective in reducing students’ conduct problems and emotional stress.Evidence Ratings for Outcomes: Universal School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs for Aggressive and Disruptive Behavior | ||Juvenile Problem & At-Risk Behaviors - Multiple juvenile problem/at-risk behaviors| | ||Mental Health & Behavioral Health - Internalizing behavior| Universal school-based prevention and intervention programs for aggressive and disruptive behavior target elementary, middle, and high school students in a universal setting, rather than focusing on only a selective group of students, with the intention of preventing or reducing violent, aggressive, or disruptive behaviors. The practice is rated Effective in reducing violent, aggressive, and/or disruptive behaviors in students.Evidence Ratings for Outcomes: | ||Juvenile Problem & At-Risk Behaviors|

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According to data from the 2002 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), only 28% of fourth graders, 31% of eighth graders, and 24% of twelfth graders performed at or above a proficient (i.e., competent) level of writing achievement for their respective grade level (Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003). This Access Center resource is intended to help teachers implement writing instruction that will lead to better writing outcomes for students with and without writing difficulties. We provide research-based recommendations, activities, and materials to effectively teach writing to the wide range of students educators often find in their classrooms. There are three apparent reasons why so many children and youth find writing challenging. First, composing text is a complex and difficult undertaking that requires the deployment and coordination of multiple affective, cognitive, linguistic, and physical operations to accomplish goals associated with genre-specific conventions, audience needs, and an author's communicative purposes. Second, the profile of the typical classroom in the United States has undergone dramatic changes in the recent past. Many more students today come from impoverished homes, speak English as a second language, and have identified or suspected disabilities (Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003). This increasing diversity of the school-aged population has occurred within the context of the standards-based education movement and its accompanying high-stakes accountability testing. As a consequence, more demands for higher levels of writing performance and for demonstration of content mastery through writing are being made of students and their teachers, while teachers are simultaneously facing a higher proportion of students who struggle not only with composing, but also with basic writing skills. Unfortunately, many teachers feel ill-equipped to handle these competing pressures, in part because they lack the prerequisite pedagogical knowledge, instructional capabilities, and valued resources for teaching writing, and in part because writing curricula, which exert a strong influence on teachers' writing instruction, tend to be underdeveloped and misaligned with other curricula (Troia & Maddox, 2004). Third, the quality of instruction students receive is a major determinant of their writing achievement (Graham & Harris, 2002). In some classrooms, writing instruction focuses almost exclusively on text transcription skills, such as handwriting and spelling, with few opportunities to compose meaningful, authentic text (e.g., Palinscar & Klenk, 1992). In other classrooms, frequent and varied opportunities exist to use the writing process to complete personally relevant and engaging writing tasks, but little time is devoted to teaching important writing skills and strategies, as it is assumed these can be mastered through incidental teaching and learning (e.g., Westby & Costlow, 1991). Still in other classrooms, virtually no time is devoted to writing instruction or writing activities (e.g., Christenson, Thurlow, Ysseldyke, & McVicar, 1989). In perhaps a minority of classrooms, students are taught by exemplary educators who blend process-embedded skill and strategy instruction with writing workshop elements such as mini-lessons, sustained writing, conferencing, and sharing (e.g., Bridge, Compton-Hall, & Cantrell, 1997; Troia, Lin, Cohen, & Monroe, in preparation; Wray, Medwell, Fox, & Poulson, 2000). Yet, for students with disabilities who tend to develop or exhibit chronic and pernicious writing difficulties, even this type of instruction may be inadequate. These students need considerably more intensive, individualized, and explicit teaching of transcription skills and composing strategies that incorporates effective adaptations to task demands, response formats, student supports, and teacher practices (Troia & Graham, 2003; Troia, Lin, Monroe, & Cohen, in preparation). The box below presents several areas of difficulty for students with writing problems. Qualities of strong writing instruction - Students should have meaningful writing experiences and be assigned authentic writing tasks that promote personal and collective expression, reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social change. - Routines should permit students to become comfortable with the writing process and move through the process over a sustained period of time at their own rate. - Lessons should be designed to help students master craft elements (e.g., text structure, character development), writing skills (e.g., spelling, punctuation), and process strategies (e.g., planning and revising tactics). - A common language for shared expectations and feedback regarding writing quality might include the use of traits (e.g., organization, ideas, sentence fluency, word choice, voice, and conventions). The illustration below provides a graphic representation of the core components of effective writing instruction. Putting the pieces together: the core components of effective writing instruction All of these basic components must be thoughtfully coordinated to form a comprehensive writing program for students. Of course, these are only the basic features of strong writing instruction. Additional features, such as procedural supports for carrying out the writing process, a sense of writing community, integration of writing with other academic areas, assistance in implementing a writing program, and sustained professional development to strengthen teachers' knowledge and skills are presented in the box below. These characteristics of exemplary writing instruction are equally relevant for elementary and secondary teachers — regardless of content area focus — and their young writers. If students are expected to become competent writers, then writing instruction must be approached in similar ways by all teachers who expect writing performance in their classrooms and must be sustained across the grades to support students as they gradually become accomplished writers. - Mini-lesson (15 minutes) Teacher-directed lesson on writing skills, composition strategies, and crafting elements (e.g., writing quality traits, character development, dialogue, leads for exposition, literary devices), which are demonstrated and practiced through direct modeling of teacher's writing or others' work (e.g., shared writing, literature, student papers); initially, mini-lessons will need to focus on establishing routines and expectations; - Check-in (5 minutes) Students indicate where they are in the writing process (i.e., planning, drafting, revising, editing, publishing). The teacher asks students to identify how they plan to use what was taught during the mini-lesson in their writing activities for that day; - Independent Writing and Conferring (30 minutes) Students are expected to be writing or revising/editing, consulting with a peer, and/or conferencing with the teacher during this time; - Sharing (10 minutes) Students identify how they used what was taught during the mini-lesson in their own writing and what challenges arose. The teacher may discuss impressions from conferring with students; students share their writing (it does not have to be a complete paper and may, in fact, only be initial ideas for writing) with the group or a partner, while others provide praise and constructive feedback. Students discuss next steps in the writing assignment; and - Publishing Celebration (occasionally) Students need a variety of outlets for their writing to make it purposeful and enjoyable, such as a class anthology of stories or poems, a grade-level newspaper or school magazine, a public reading in or out of school, a Web site for student writing, a pen pal, the library, and dramatizations. Additional instructional considerations Writing workshop is an instructional model in which the process of writing is emphasized more than the written product and which highly values students' interests and autonomy. Because so many teachers use some variation of writing workshop as the fundamental structure for their writing program, the attributes of an exemplary workshop are described in Specific Characteristics of a Strong Writers' Workshop. Some of the most important attributes include explicit modeling, regular conferencing with students and families, high expectations, encouragement, flexibility, cooperative learning arrangements, and ample opportunities for self-regulation. On occasion, teachers may wish to assign topics or provide prompts for journaling or other writing activities. A list of potential prompts appropriate for late elementary and middle school grades is given in Writing Prompts. Using titles is a unique way of having students plan and write creative narratives that conform to a particular sub-genre or that have a distinctive tone. Other ways of prompting creative narratives include pictures, story starters, and story endings (these are particularly beneficial because they require a high degree of planning). Numerous persuasive topic prompts are listed because persuasive writing often is overlooked until secondary school, and because such topics can engage students in critical thinking about relevant issues. Of course, teachers will need to supplement this list with other prompts to trigger other forms of writing (e.g., exposition, poetry); many such prompts can and should be derived from the curriculum as well as students' personal experiences and interests (for suggestions, see Fletcher, 2002; Heard, 1989; Portalupi & Fletcher, 2001; Young, 2002). Breaking down different genres in writing A carefully orchestrated routine should also guide coverage of the writing curriculum. One type of routine includes genre study. In genre study, each instructional cycle focuses on a single genre (e.g., poetry) and one or two particular forms of that genre (e.g., cinquain and haiku). To develop a strong sense of the genre, a genre study cycle should typically last about one marking period. One way of thinking about the organization of genre study is to relate it to the process of growing a prize-winning rose for entry into a garden show. The first step is to plant the seed for writing by immersing students in touchstone texts (i.e., exemplary models) of the genre targeted for instruction and discussing the key qualities of those examples to illustrate the structure and function of the genre. The next step is to grow the seed idea through careful planning and small increments of drafting (much like giving a seed just the right amount of sunlight, water, and fertilizer to help it grow). Then, as any accomplished gardener will tell you, once a rose plant begins to grow, it is often necessary to prune back dead branches and leaves, add structural supports, and perhaps even graft new plants. Likewise, once a draft has been produced, it requires multiple trimmings of unworkable portions or irrelevant information; expansions through the addition of details, examples, and even new portions of text; and attention to writing conventions for ultimate publication. Displaying one's writing in some public forum to gain valuable feedback and accolades, much like a prized rose, is the culmination of all the hard work invested in the writing process and the written product. Building and assessing advanced writing components Students need to develop an understanding of the valued aspects or traits of good writing and the capacity to incorporate these traits into their writing. Developing a routine for communicating about specific writing qualities is essential to the success of a writing program. A number of resources are available to help teachers do this (e.g., Culham, 2003; Spandel, 2001). The most commonly taught writing traits are ideas, organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions. These closely resemble the dimensions on which many state-mandated accountability measures base their writing achievement assessment (i.e., content, organization, style, and conventions). An example of a scoring rubric for teachers for all of these traits is the Analytic Trait Scoring Rubric (note that voice is not included on the rubric because it is difficult to reliably distinguish it from other traits and score accordingly. However, teaching it does have instructional value). This kind of rubric is appropriate for all types of writing. Examples of genre-specific rubrics, which focus on unique aspects of a genre such as its structure, include the Story Grammar Elements Rating Scale and Guidelines for Segmenting Persuasive Papers Into Functional Elements. To help students develop a sense of what constitutes a strong example of a particular trait, teachers can have students listen to or read excerpts from an exemplar touchstone text (which could be a student writing sample) to (a) identify the primary trait evident in the excerpts and (b) identify concrete evidence for characterizing a piece of writing as strong on that particular trait. Teachers also might ask students to develop their own definition for the trait and/or the descriptors for different scores on a trait rubric by examining superb, average, and weak examples. It is better to limit the number of traits that receive instructional focus at any given time to one or two; the decision regarding which traits are targeted should be guided by the genre and form of writing being taught as well as students' needs. Writing portfolios are a valuable tool for providing students with feedback regarding how well they incorporate various traits in their writing. They also give students opportunities to reflect on the writing process and their writing accomplishments, and help them make informed choices about what pieces of writing exemplify their best work (see Writing Portfolio: Student Reflection). Portfolios also can provide a mechanism for teachers to reflect on their writing instruction and to establish individualized goals for students (see Writing Portfolio: Teacher Reflection). Accommodating all students Even when a top-notch writing program is firmly established in the classroom, some students will require additional assistance in mastering the skills and strategies of effective writing. Such assistance can be provided through adaptations, which include accommodations in the learning environment, instructional materials, and teaching strategies, as well as more significant modifications to task demands and actual writing tasks. A list of such adaptations is provided in Adaptations for Struggling Writers. Spelling and handwriting strategies Of course, elementary school teachers must explicitly teach spelling and handwriting to their students (this is not to say that secondary educators do not address these skills, but they do so to a much lesser extent). Research-based suggestions for teaching spelling and handwriting to students with and without writing difficulties are summarized in Tips for Teaching Spelling and Tips for Teaching Handwriting, respectively. Students can spend time practicing and self-evaluating their performance, with the teacher frequently checking their work (error correction is critical). Depending on how well the students do, the teacher may teach additional lessons. The students might also work with each other to study/practice and evaluate each other's work. Finally, at the end of the week, the teacher should assess how well the students have learned the elements. To facilitate the establishment of weekly routines in spelling (which is usually a focus of instruction across elementary grades), review the following activities and student handouts. The above are basic lesson formats; the content for an actual lesson is derived from the spelling patterns (either orthographic or morphemic) targeted for instruction. These teacher-directed activities are used to provide more explicit spelling instruction, as student self-study or partner activities are insufficient for many students, especially those who struggle with spelling, to learn spelling patterns and rules. Teaching composing strategies Students who struggle with writing, including those with disabilities, typically require explicit and systematic instruction in specific composing strategies. Even more emphasis should be placed on strategies that support the planning and revising aspects of the writing process, which trouble these students most. Fortunately, there have been numerous studies examining the effectiveness of various planning and revising strategies for students with and without high-incidence disabilities in multiple educational contexts (i.e., whole classrooms, small group instruction, individualized tutoring). Two excellent resources that describe this research and give advice on how to teach the many available strategies are Writing Better: Effective Strategies for Teaching Students With Learning Difficulties (Graham & Harris, 2005) and Making the Writing Process Work: Strategies for Composition and Self-Regulation (Harris & Graham, 1996). For this resource, only a few research-based strategies are presented in depth to give teachers an idea of how to implement composing strategies in their particular setting. Following are two planning strategies (one for narrative writing and one for persuasive writing) and five revising/editing strategies. For all of these, the teacher should first model how to use the strategy, then give students an opportunity to cooperatively apply the strategy while producing group papers, and finally let students practice using the strategy while writing individual papers. Throughout these stages of instruction, the teacher should provide extensive feedback and encouragement, discuss how to apply the strategy in diverse contexts, solicit students' suggestions for improvement, and directly link strategy use to writing performance. All of the strategies presented here use acronyms that encapsulate the multiple steps of the strategies. Furthermore, each strategy has an accompanying watermark illustration that serves to cue the acronym. These features help reduce memory and retrieval demands for students, particularly those with learning problems. This is a narrative-planning strategy (personal or fictional) that incorporates the basic structure of narrative (i.e., SPACE) and the steps for planning and writing a good story (i.e., LAUNCH). A prompt sheet identifies the strategy steps and can be copied for each student or reproduced for a poster display. A planning sheet allows students to record their story ideas, writing goals, and self-talk statements. First, the student should establish and record personalized writing goals: a quality goal and a related quantity goal. For example, a student struggling with word choice (one of the six traits described previously) might identify a goal to increase quality rating from a 3 to a 5 on a 6-point scale (see Analytic Trait Scoring Rubric). A related quantity goal to help the student reach this level of quality in word choice might be to include a minimum of 10 descriptive words in the story. Next, the student should generate ideas for a story and record single words or short phrases that capture these ideas (it is important to discourage students from writing complete sentences on a planning sheet, as this will restrain flexibility in planning and yield a rough draft rather than a true plan). Note that space is provided for multiple ideas for each basic part of a story — students should be encouraged to explore several possibilities for setting and plot elements to foster creativity and to permit evaluation of each idea's merit. Finally, the student should record self-talk statements, which are personalized comments, exhortations, or questions to be spoken aloud (initially) or subvocalized (once memorized) while planning and writing to help the student cope with negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to the writing process or the task. For example, a student who believes writing is hard might record, "This is a challenge, but I like challenges and I have my strategy to help me do well." The last sheet is a score card, which is used by a peer to evaluate the student's writing performance. The evaluation criteria are closely linked to the valued qualities embedded in the strategy itself (i.e., million-dollar words, sharp sentences, and lots of detail), the basic structure of a narrative, and writing mechanics. Of course, these criteria could be modified to align more with particular writing traits, and the rating scale could be adjusted to match the scale used by the teacher. At the bottom of the score card, the writer tallies the points, determines any improvement (this implies progress monitoring, a critical aspect of strategy instruction that helps students see how their efforts impact their writing), and sets goals for the next story. This strategy for planning persuasive papers incorporates the structure of persuasion (i.e., DARE) and the steps for planning and writing a good opinion paper (i.e., DEFEND). The materials for this strategy are very similar to those provided for SPACE LAUNCH; there is a prompt sheet, a planning sheet, and a score card. Note that the student is required to identify and record ideas that support the position and ideas that counter that position. In the process of doing this, the student may decide to alter the position after evaluating the importance and relevance of each idea. The student can place an asterisk next to those ideas to elaborate upon or to provide concrete supporting evidence for, which encourages further planning. These are revising/editing strategies intended to be used as checklists by individual students during an initial round of revision and editing. COPS (Mulcahy, Marfo, Peat, & Andrews, 1986) is a limited checklist and therefore is appropriate for primary grade students, but it can be used for any genre. COPS (Singer & Bashir, 1999), on the other hand, is a comprehensive checklist and thus is more suitable for older or better writers, but it is used for exposition and persuasion rather than narration. However, the items on the checklist can be modified to make it appropriate for narratives. This strategy for individual revising (De La Paz, Swanson, & Graham, 1998) involves a greater degree of self-regulation on the part of the writer than checklists and is considerably more powerful; consequently, it is very helpful for students with writing difficulties. The prompt sheet lists the three steps for strategy deployment — compare (identifying discrepancies between written text and intended meaning), diagnose (selecting a specific reason for the mismatch), and operate (fixing the problem and evaluating the effectiveness of the change). These strategy steps occur first while the student attends to each sentence in the paper, and then, during a second "cycle," while the student attends to each paragraph in the paper. A third cycle, focusing on the whole text, could be added. A minimum of two cycles is necessary to help the student attend to local as well as more global problems in the text. The diagnostic options for making meaningful revisions vary depending on the level of text to which the student is attending. The teacher will need to develop sets of diagnostic cards, color coded for each cycle, from which the student selects. This revising/editing strategy (Ellis & Friend, 1991) employs a checklist, but it does have two unique aspects. First, the student is expected to set writing goals before even beginning to write, and when finished revising and editing a paper, to determine if the student's goals were met. Second, the student is expected to work with a peer to double-check editing. As for the other checklists, the teacher can add additional items once the student attains mastery of those listed. This revising strategy (Neubert & McNelis, 1986) is appropriate for a second round of revision and editing (a third round would involve conferring with the teacher) during which students work with one another. The prompt sheet indicates that a peer editor is to first read the author's paper and mark those parts of the paper that are imaginative, unusual, interesting, and confusing. Then, the peer editor praises the author for the positive aspects and questions the author about the confusing parts. The peer makes suggestions for how the paper can be improved and gives back the original, marked copy to the author. Finally, the author addresses the confusing parts marked on the paper and, if desired, makes changes suggested by the peer editor. Whenever a student elects to not make a requested or suggested modification, the student should be expected to adequately justify that decision (this encourages ownership and responsibility). Integrating writing instruction with content area learning Teachers often feel that devoting ample time to writing instruction is problematic given the voluminous content area information that must be covered in the typical curriculum (Troia & Maddox, 2004). Simultaneously, they sometimes struggle to identify relevant and stimulating writing topics and assignments that will help students develop their expertise as writers. One way to resolve these dilemmas for older students or students with higher level writing skills is to integrate writing instruction with content area learning. One important aspect of content area learning is developing communicative competence for interacting with others who have shared knowledge about a discipline or area of study. Individuals within a discipline — such as literary critics, historians, economists, biologists, physicists, and mathematicians — possess a unique way of talking and writing about the theories, principles, concepts, facts, methods of inquiry, and so forth connected with that discipline. Thus, a common goal of content area instruction and writing instruction is to help students acquire proficiency in disciplinary writing. This does not mean, however, that less content-driven writing exercises are undesirable or unnecessary; the inclusion of disciplinary writing is simply one part of a strong writing program (see Ten Additional Attributes of a Top-Notch Classroom Writing Program). If teachers have students write regularly in content area classes and use content area materials as stimuli for writing workshop, it is more likely that students will develop the capacity to communicate effectively in varied disciplinary discourse communities and will write for more educationally and personally germane purposes. A number of methods for integrating content area reading with writing have been developed by researchers. Following is a brief description of four methods. The story impressions method (McGinley & Denner, 1987), similar to exchange-compare writing (Wood, 1986), the steps for which are presented in Story Impressions/Exchange-Compare Writing,, utilizes a cooperative learning framework. Students are assigned to a group and given roles (researcher, scribe, content editor, proofreader, and reporter) for writing a brief summary that predicts the content of a lesson or unit text based on key vocabulary provided by the teacher. Once the group has read the text, they rewrite their summary to reflect the actual content of the text and their improved understanding of the material, and discuss this revised version with the rest of the class. - Students are assigned to home groups and each person in a group is given a different source text (e.g., a magazine article about exercise and cardiovascular health, a newspaper clipping about new medical procedures and drugs that can help reduce the risk of heart attacks, a consumer brochure outlining healthy eating tips for promoting cardiac health, and a textbook chapter about the human circulatory system) to read. - Then, each student completes a double-entry journal while reading the assigned source text. This is a journal in which the student records some important piece of information from the source text on the left side of the journal page (with an accompanying page number) and a response, question, or evaluative comment on the right side. After completing their double-entry journal, students disperse to an expert group, a group where everyone else has read the same source text. Members of the expert group share their journal entries and summarize the material using a graphic organizer. - Finally, students return to their home groups to teach the other members about the content information they learned from their text and discuss how this information relates to that covered by the other texts. The double-entry journal could be expanded to a triple-entry journal by having students within the expert groups respond to each others' responses, questions, or evaluations in a third column. - In math, a class might be about to embark on a unit of study related to geometry. The teacher asks students to brainstorm all that they know about geometry and list these under the Know column. This student-generated information should be organized into categories either by the teacher or by the students with teacher guidance (e.g., shapes, angles, spatial orientation, and measurement) that will facilitate text comprehension. - Then, the teacher lists under the Want to Learn column those things students would like to discover about geometry (which helps motivate them to read the text). - After reading, the teacher records under the Learned column what the students learned through the text, with particular attention paid to information that confirmed their prior knowledge, information that was inconsistent with what was anticipated, or new information. If appropriate, new categories are added. Next, students write their summary paragraph based on the information listed in the Learned column. - Finally, students identify how they would locate missing information in the How to Find out More column (e.g., use a Web browser to search for documents related to geometry), which can help motivate additional learning. One last method for integrating content area reading with writing is the use of Writing Frames (Nichols, 1980). Writing frames help struggling writers use appropriate text organization for summarizing content area information that adheres to a basic structure (e.g., compare-contrast). The frames prompt coherent organization by providing partially completed sentences or transition words that, over time, can be faded as students become familiar with each frame. The examples provided can easily be adjusted to fit the contents of a particular source text. - Having the text on tape, CD, or in electronic file format for computer readout; - Having the struggling reader/writer work with a partner who is a better reader; or - Providing the student with a modified version of the text that is written with the same essential content but at a lower grade level. - Carefully consider with whom students are most likely to work well in a group and place them in groups accordingly; - Assign roles that are well suited for students' particular strengths (e.g., assign a student who is an accomplished speaker but a struggling writer the role or reporter); and 3. Seek professional development opportunities that focus on cooperative and peer-mediated learning. A significant number of students perform well below the proficient level of writing achievement for their grade level (Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003). The reasons for this are varied and complex. The number of exemplary writing programs are limited, and even when available they are often not adequate to meet the needs of students with disabilities. These students require intensive, individualized, and explicit teaching of various strategies if they are to improve their writing abilities. This document provides an information base for the core components of effective writing instruction, and examples of specific strategies and supports that can be used to develop a comprehensive writing program to meet the needs of all students. About the author Gene Fowler, celebrated author, editor, and journalist, epitomized the inherent difficulty of composing with his comment, "Writing is easy; all you do is sit staring at a blank sheet of paper until the drops of blood form on your forehead."

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Middle School Curriculum The core subjects of our Middle School program are Language Arts, Social Studies, Math, Science, and Spanish. Enrichment classes include Visual Arts, Music, Fitness, Service Learning, and Gardening. Students also have the opportunity to choose from a variety of electives classes offered throughout the year. The Middle School curriculum is driven by essential questions that are designed to fulfill Woodlawn’s mission: - Sixth Grade: What does it mean to be part of a society? - Seventh Grade: What does it mean to be human? - Eighth Grade: How did we get here? Sixth Grade Math Sixth graders begin the year by becoming familiar with Algebraic reasoning as they study the operations and properties of integers and the real number system. In the winter trimester, students focus on proportional relationships and percents. They study data, graphs, and functions in more depth and create various types of graphs by hand and with spreadsheet software. During the spring trimester, students solve equations and inequalities and work with the properties of 2-D and 3-D geometric figures. Seventh Grade Math: Pre-Algebra Seventh graders begin the year studying the principles of Algebra. They draw models to facilitate the transition of the concrete mathematical operations that they have learned in previous years into the abstract concepts of Algebra problem solving. Students solve multi-step equations to enable them to problem solve with percents and proportions. They investigate squares, square roots, and the properties of exponents. They study data in more depth and create various types of graphs by hand and with spreadsheet programs to represent data. In the spring, students graph lines on the coordinate plane and study non-linear functions. They investigate geometric figures in the coordinate plane and work on scaling geometric figures. Problem-solving real world applications, data analysis, proficiency with spreadsheets, and collaboration using Google Documents are all components of seventh grade Pre-Algebra Eighth Grade Math: Algebra I In Algebra I, students examine how the properties of real numbers, symbols, variables, expressions, equations, and graphs have enabled us to advance in the use of mathematical applications to get where we are today. They complete application problems where they consider change over time - the interdisciplinary theme for the 8th grade year. Students analyze graphs and learn to think critically as they look at change over time in relation to the algebraic concept of slope - as well as to the historical changes that have occurred over time. Students learn how algebraic knowledge is useful in the everyday lives of people as they make decisions. They apply this knowledge as they analyze data about how the cost of education relates to its value and they determine how to invest for college. They also examine life expectancy, both in the past and in the future. In the spring, students investigate the algebraic analysis of quadratic equations, polynomials, and radicals and learn how this analysis helps people solve problems and plan for the future. They analyze financial information and compare different investment strategies. In their final project, they model the population growth of various cities in the US and use their models to predict future population. Sixth Grade Social Studies Sixth grade students experience the “Greatest Hits of European History” to gain a sense of what life was like in societies of Europe’s past and how history has influenced European societies and world societies today. Students begin with Greek city-states, then examine the enormous reach of the Roman Empire and learn about the feudal system of the Middle Ages. Students focus on the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the Russian Revolution and see how societies dealt with these colossal societal changes. Students also learn about modern Europe, its geography, countries and culture. Sixth graders look at the two World Wars and their effect on Europe’s world view and future. Throughout the year, 6th Graders seek to better understand how different societies and individuals have come together to write the history of Europe. Seventh Grade Social Studies Seventh grade students study Asia, Africa, and the Middle East; focusing on geography, history, cultural trends and groups, key individuals, and current events. While studying these topics, we investigate how human nature and human beings shape history. Conversely, we look at how geography and cultural diffusion have shaped human civilizations. Students investigate how human beings fit within their cultures and the influence their roles have in the lives of other people. We examine how a lack of respect for, or a misunderstanding of, other cultures can lead to oppression or conflict. This understanding of stereotypes helps break through misconceptions. Finally, students evaluate how human nature, for better or worse, has impacted these nations and cultures. By looking at the past, we can draw a direct line between the events that have occurred, the motivations that led to them, and their impact on today's world. Seventh graders participate in the National History Day (NHD) academic contest where they learn about primary resources and how to conduct in-depth research in preparation for submission of a historical paper. Eighth Grade American History Eighth graders make connections to events from the past and present and study concepts such as: freedom, unity, progress, and responsibility in an attempt to answer our interdisciplinary question - How did we get here? Students also make note of common themes that emerge in history such as reform, determination, and hope. These concepts and themes are present in the primary and secondary historical resources students use, as well as in the fiction and nonfiction selections students read in class. Our study of the 19th and 20th centuries focuses on gaining a sense of place and historical context as students read and discuss main themes from novels, poetry, plays and even musical lyrics of the time. Participation in the National History Day (NHD) academic contest continues in the eighth grade year, and after in-depth research, students choose to create a documentary, exhibit, paper, performance, or website. Students culminate their American History studies by visiting Washington, DC in the spring. Sixth Grade Science In 6th grade science, students examine important elements of the natural world and consider their interconnectedness. Students begin by growing their own gardens and experience how plants are important for animal survival. Students then study Woodlawn’s own certified National Wildlife Foundation garden to learn about the relationship between plants and insects. To expand their knowledge, students visit a local park to survey the protected Monarch habitat and consider how humans might protect animal habitat. Using what they have learned, they write and design a performance piece to inform others about the benefits of insects. Throughout the year, students focus on the form and function of the eight major phyla of the animal kingdom and seven major classes of chordates, cataloging the many ways animals have found to survive on earth. In an integrated unit on bird migration, students learn about migratory behaviors of animals. Throughout the spring, students gain an appreciation of biodiversity and the complexity of ecosystems to gain a greater understanding of how they can live in harmony with the natural world. Seventh Grade Science Students begin the year with studying the chemistry of living and nonliving things to make sense of our natural world as humans. While studying chemistry, seventh graders look at the molecular structure of materials to determine how they will interact. Through the observation of chemical reactions, students learn how to determine what reactions have occurred. The chemistry unit transitions into a study of human biology with a focus on cellular dynamics, functions of the body systems and organ system pathophysiology. The year continues with the study of the life processes and how structures evolve. To culminate the seventh grade year, students study air pollution, which brings our curriculum full circle as we revisit chemistry and design green buildings to reduce air pollution. Eighth Grade Science Eighth graders uncover the answer to our essential question by investigating natural laws of physics that explain how our universe, solar system, and unique environment on Earth came about. Students examine the conversion and flow of energy through ecosystems. Throughout their science coursework, students continually explore the tools and technology that allow scientists to develop their understanding of the universe. The year culminates with an interdisciplinary project in which students incorporate principles of ecology and water management into a design in order to understand factors that affect a watershed, raise community awareness regarding negative impacts to a watershed, and develop a solution to address one of those threats or negative impacts, which can then be implemented in the local community. Sixth Grade Spanish Starting in middle school, students learn Spanish through Comprehensible Input, a teaching approach that prioritizes the acquisition of the language through as much exposure as possible. Sixth graders interact with the language through authentic resources like Spanish language novels, film, and music, as well as class-created stories and artwork. Throughout the year, students explore the cultural aspects of Hispanic society through food, family, city life, and celebrations (i.e., Chilean Independence Day and a Mexican Posada). Students learn to appreciate a culture outside of their own through a study of Hispanic Heritage Month and a project that focuses on a specific Latin American country. Students learn how to ask questions and respond appropriately as well as tell simple stories. By the end of sixth grade Spanish students are able to hold simple conversations in Spanish and write paragraphs describing their likes, dislikes, and daily activities. Seventh Grade Spanish Seventh graders continue to learn Spanish through Comprehensible Input. Students bolster their vocabulary in Spanish by reading two Spanish-language novels, Tumba and Robo en la noche. Through in-class discussions, students gain insight into many other cultural perspectives as they learn to converse about daily pastimes, the food they eat, housing, and clothing. Daily shared writing leads to solo writing and students should end the year with the ability to write about a page on their personal interests. Eighth Grade Spanish In this last year of middle school Spanish, students prepare for High School Spanish courses by cementing basic communication structures and gaining confidence in speaking in Spanish. Eighth graders begin the year by studying the conquistadores’ contributions to the New World and writing a first person narrative to be shared in our Living Museum, as well as read a novel in Spanish about the period. They then focus on the musical contributions of Latino artists during Hispanic Heritage Month. Students also look at how Hispanic populations have changed over time in this country. They continue this study by discovering the ancient cities of Mesoamerica to present day Mexico, DF, and read a second novel in Spanish. Throughout the year, students look at how past and present people and places have shaped our own society and language usage today. Sixth Grade Language Arts Guided by the essential question, What does it mean to be part of a society?, 6th grade students uncover the roots of Western literature beginning with Greek mythology. They analyze how stories reflect societies, as well as how stories have been used as criticism of flawed societies. Students read historical fiction from the medieval and Renaissance periods, the Industrial Revolution, and both World Wars. Students investigate how stories can effect change and how individuals respond to oppressive societies. They also focus on the elements of fiction, including plot, characterization, theme, point-of-view, and setting. Students work toward creating thorough, well-organized responses to literature. Developing strong paragraphs, incorporating transitions into their writing, and crafting a thesis statement are critical areas of focus in writing during the sixth grade year. Seventh Grade Language Arts What does it mean to be human? is the essential question for 7th grade and drives the literature themes. Students read works set in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. They create a variety of projects as they learn to work creatively, independently, and collaboratively. Students write short answers, long answers, letters, lists, personal essays, persuasive speeches, creative log entries, poems, profiles, short scripts, and more. They learn to do self-assessments, lead discussions in class, and share what they have learned through speeches and discussions. Students incorporate research and quotations into both literary responses and research papers. For their National History Day essays (written in Language Arts and Social Studies), students compose outlines, learn citation, and annotate bibliographies. The year culminates with a choice-based project, Mission X, and an integrated project, Small Home Big Life, where they use their writing and presentation skills to effectively share a home they have designed to a real client. Eighth Grade Language Arts How did we get here? This is the essential question for 8th grade and drives the themes for Language Arts. Students read select literature (letters, novels, stories) from early explorers, early Americans, and modern American authors. Students write imaginative letters from the perspectives of early explorers and indigenous peoples. They read and appreciate the storytelling culture of settlers through Wynema and other writings of the colonial era. Students read short stories from early America, study story structure, and then write their own stories. Students continue to study grammar, punctuation and formatting and become strong writers through rewriting multiple drafts of essays, literary analyses, profiles, short stories, journalism, and poetry. During the spring trimester, they have the opportunity to develop their own language arts project, Mission X. Students finish the year applying their writing and presentation skills to inform and persuade an audience to protect our watershed. The visual arts program at Woodlawn engages students in making, interpreting, and learning about art in a meaningful way. Students learn skills, concepts, and ways of interacting with art that fosters an understanding of their own lives and the lives of others. The various areas of art and design students may choose to engage in are typically related to what they are learning about in other subjects, or influenced by local artists and community exhibitions. While learning about art and developing skills and techniques, the students are guided by the Studio Habits of Mind: Develop Craft, Engage and Persist, Stretch and Explore, Observe, Express, Envision, Reflect, and Understand Arts Community. Working through design problems they have chosen to pursue, students practice the studio habits and document their creative process. Through self-reflection and constructive feedback, students determine when their work is ready to be displayed and decide how and where to present their original art pieces in multiple exhibitions throughout the year. Trips to local museums and galleries provide students the opportunity to analyze and interpret a variety of artworks. We cultivate an environmentally sustainable art curriculum that utilizes reclaimed and recycled materials whenever possible, and makes meaningful connections with artists and artwork that address environmental issues. Musical & Theater The middle school music and theater curriculum focuses on building students' music knowledge by fully understanding music history, theory, and covering several genres from classical to rap, from bluegrass to bebop. Music is integrated into the subject areas in each grade level as natural connections are made. In eighth grade, music and service learning are integrated as students create music for emotion and perform monthly for the residents of the Brian Center. Middle school students have the opportunity to work with upper school students and participate in the annual school musical, which is performed during winter trimester. Middle school students explore musical theater and theater performance as well as acting techniques through weekly classroom drama activities and skills practice. Students practice acting, dance and voice and this collaborative method emphasizes training of the whole actor with a deeper integration of the skills needed to develop students’ craft. Middle School Fitness Middle School Fitness teaches the value of healthy living through physical activity, appraisal of personal health, fitness and injury prevention, game skills, and the promotion of sportsmanship and self-confidence. Students explore the notion that a truly healthy person is one who understands and nurtures their mental, physical, and emotional being. Students learn techniques needed to master cooperative and competitive games such as volleyball, soccer, basketball, football, and kickball. They learn about skill-related components of fitness such as agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. Leadership qualities are enhanced through cooperative games and trust-building activities. Students continue to participate cooperatively, follow directions, and encourage other players on the field. Woodlawn School's organic vegetable and flower garden serves as an outdoor classroom for gardening and science classes where students can gain exposure to the natural world and all its processes – biological, chemical and physical. Students in sixth grade spend time in the gardens each fall and spring growing vegetables, herbs, and flowers. Students plant, weed, harvest, add compost, and have fun learning science concepts in the gardens. At the end of the growing season, students take home organic produce they have grown themselves. Woodlawn uses organic gardening methods and does not use chemical fertilizers or weed killers. Students pull weeds and enrich the soil with nutrients by adding compost. Organic gardening practices provide a wholesome environment for Woodlawn's students and teach students how to be good stewards of the earth. Understanding how to best tackle life skills can be tricky as adolescents navigate change during the middle school years. Through weekly life skills classes, middle school students discuss relevant topics. Through small and large group discussions and activities, students discover that the middle school years are a time of growth and change and can be a rewarding experience as they begin to discover who they are, what they believe in, and how important they are in this world. Peer interactions are a critical yet confusing part of adolescent development. Open dialogue in a safe environment and self-reflective writing allow students to share challenges and opportunities that they are currently facing. This journey of self-discovery at the beginning of their middle school experience naturally branches into an exploration of the multiple ways a student can be a leader. Units are presented through thematic literature, journaling, role-playing, skits, discussion, and reflection. Sixth Grade Service: Animal Advocacy The sixth grade service learning program focuses on animal advocacy. Students participate in a variety of activities that allow them to learn about domesticated and wild animals and how to advocate for animal protection and proper animal care. Students work throughout the year to understand the importance of responsible animal ownership, working to educate their community about various topics related to ethical animal treatment. They also advocate for wild animals through an integrated presentation about the wonders and benefits of insects and a performance piece about migratory birds. They partner with Piedmont Animal Rescue to learn common reasons for animal surrender and develop materials for potential pet owners that address these concerns. Students also work to support this organization by raising money selling homemade dog biscuits at Christmas in Davidson, holding donation drives, making beds and toys for animals, and creating animal care packets for current and future pet owners. At the end of the year, students choose one habit they will commit to practicing, or an organization they will commit to supporting as an advocate for animals. Seventh Grade Service: Sustainability The aim of seventh grade service is to introduce students to sustainability as a way to become positive contributors to our society. Through class discussions, readings, and field experiences, students explore a variety of environmental issues facing our local, regional, and global community. Using what they learn from these experiences, they develop educational opportunities for others so they can incorporate sustainable practices into their own lifestyles. Integrating service learning with science, language arts, and visual arts, they design and create public service announcements about creative reuse, and develop action plans to enact on our campus, and in our local community to help develop a sustainable society. Through this process, students come to recognize the positive impact they can have on our community and our environment. Eighth Grade Service: Bridging Generations The eighth grade service learning program, Bridging Generations, is designed to develop an appreciation and respect for the older adults in our society. As we grow in our understanding of the roles cast upon the aging in our society, we explore the complex world in which the “old” must learn to live. Students closely evaluate the misconceptions and labels that are sometimes tagged to older adults, and learn about the aging process, and the challenges older adults face. They learn to design and adapt activities for older adults that entertain and engage. Through reflections, class discussions, and visits to Accordius Health (formerly known as the Brian Center,) students develop a sense of empathy and concern for human beings, regardless of their position in life. The service learning activities are student driven, providing an opportunity for the development and practice of planning, organization, collaboration and presentation skills. While creating friendships and learning about history through the life stories of residents, students become more aware about the community in which they live.

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JournalismJournalism is the occupation of a diverse group of people who earn their living by writing or editing material of current interest for distribution via print or electronic media. The libertarian norms of "freedom of the press," the unofficial status of a "fourth estate," and the notion that modern society is greatly influenced by the content of the mass media all suggest an impressive and privileged role for the journalist in Canadian society. In an age of mass media administered by corporate executives and rapid advances in electronic communications, the character of journalism is by no means simple to define. The Ideal of Professionalism Journalism has always been conditioned by a series of institutional constraints: the state, the party system, the business imperatives of MEDIA OWNERSHIP, societal changes (such as urbanization, the diffusion of literacy and education), and the impact of technological innovation. These factors have interacted throughout the development of Canadian journalism to condition the standards, style, social status, and freedom of journalists. The professionalization of journalism is best understood as a historical process in which journalists responded to these various constraints with a variety of strategies to defend their group integrity. This process, however, has not amounted to a simple progression towards "freedom of the press." Instead, escape from one institutional constraint has often led to a new one, more subtle, and posing even greater obstacles to the ideal of professionalization. Journalism and the British Connection As a colony of the centralized Bourbon monarchy of France, NEW FRANCE was not allowed a printing press before 1760, in large part because French officialdom opposed establishing presses in the colony. Journalism came to Nova Scotia in 1751 in the wake of the British expedition to found Halifax, and to Québec in 1764 after the British Conquest. The character of publishing and the nature of society, however, provided little scope for journalists. Most of the population was still illiterate and newspaper circulations were small. The typical journalist was usually a publisher, editor and printer all in one. The weekly newspaper "gazettes" that developed were dependent on government printing for revenue. Journalists were subject to arbitrary arrest and they often had to post bond to ensure good behaviour. A publisher could be convicted of criminal or seditious libel merely for criticizing public officials. Upholders of the Status Quo In an age of revolution abroad and political reaction at home, the outspoken journalist was associated with rebellion, sedition and treason, an impression reinforced by the defection of Upper Canadian newspaper publisher Joseph WILLCOCKS to the Americans in 1813. Colonial elites looked upon the press as a convenience of the state, otherwise intolerable. The suppression of Le Canadien, which resulted in the imprisonment of Pierre BÉDARD and François BLANCHET in 1810 is just one example of this intolerance. Most journalists, however, accepted the state patronage, toed the official line, and served a faction of the ruling oligarchy. Howe Strikes a Blow for Freedom of Expression The libel case against Joseph HOWE in 1835 established the press as a vehicle of legitimate dissent in Canada. Impatient with the slow pace of reform, Howe used his paper, the NOVASCOTIAN (acquired in 1827), to criticize public policy and the magistrates who administered it. He was sent to jail and indicted for criminal libel. At his trial, he gave an impassioned defence of a free press and submitted evidence substantiating his allegations. Although he was clearly guilty, for the only issue of law before the court was whether or not he had published the defamatory remarks, the jury nonetheless acquitted Howe. The real and psychological threat of criminal libel that colonial regimes had held over the heads of publishers was now practically removed. The Norms of Partisan Journalism to 1914 Further augmenting journalistic independence was the growth of commerce, literacy, and the mechanization of printing. Colonial society experienced serious tensions during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that gave rise to competitive political parties. Political conflict gave scope for the newspaper as a vehicle for dissent, a ready readership for such "opinionated" journalism, and the backers necessary to supply operating capital when necessary. In this changed environment, journalism began to take on a different character. The chief offering of the mid-Victorian press was opinion, usually partisan. Partisan or not, the Victorian journalist entered his "profession" because he had something to say. It might be William Lyon MACKENZIE attacking the FAMILY COMPACT or Egerton RYERSON defending the dissenting majority of Upper Canada in his Christian Guardian. "Personal" journalism flourished on a somewhat unstable commercial footing. Individuality in journalism was often achieved at the expense of profit for the paper. Even large dailies were short-lived before Confederation. In the face of commercial uncertainties and the heat of political battle over RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT, journalists readily allied themselves with political parties. George BROWN, for example, was encouraged by the Reform Party in 1844 to start the Toronto Globe (see GLOBE AND MAIL). He employed the Globe as a party organ to expand readership and thereby to attract advertising revenue. The influence Brown gained as publisher helped consolidate his position as leader of the reconstituted Grit Reform Party after 1854, which in turn gave him tremendous editorial freedom as a journalist. Other successful newspaper entrepreneurs such as Edward WHELAN of the Charlottetown Examiner or Étienne PARENT of Le Canadien exercised influence and enjoyed editorial latitude through their combined roles of publisher-politician. The payoffs of the party connection were real enough: partisan publishers gained access to patronage, power, even office. The progressive revision of libel laws to limit the liability of journalists, the formative conventions of the PARLIAMENTARY PRESS GALLERY, and favourable postal rates for periodicals were all effected at the high tide of party journalism. Partisan journalism, however, meant biased reporting. The maverick publisher faced financial reprisals, boycotts, loss of patronage and the threat of a new party-sponsored rival. Party papers gradually began to assert their editorial independence after Confederation in 1867, leaving the norms of partisan conformity at least outwardly intact until 1914. Yet, even in the pioneer communities of the West, dependent party publishers such as Nicholas Flood DAVIN of the Regina Leader or Frank OLIVER of the Edmonton Bulletin could offer quality in their news and editorial columns. Ultimately, party journalism did not prevent the achievement of better standards. The Rise of Big City Journalism By the 1880s a revolution in the pattern of daily competition had begun. A new type of paper, the "people's journal," was developing in industrial cities to win a mass readership. Styles varied greatly, but people's journals abandoned close affiliation with political parties and emphasized not opinion but news, especially sensational news. They were challenged by revamped quality papers, such as the Montréal Gazette and the Toronto Mail, which strove to win an elite readership by offering extensive coverage of political and business affairs. The big-city dailies, usually several in each large metropolitan centre, separated the functions of reporters, desk men, city and news editors, and columnists. They thereby created in embryonic form, the basis for career journalism, which was still very hierarchical and dependent on the whims of publisher proprietors. The personnel of journalism was changing in other ways as well. By the turn of the century, the increased complexity of the newspaper enterprise had encouraged the appearance of professional editors, such as John W. DAFOE of the Manitoba Free Press. Poorly paid reporters became the workhorses of the 20th-century newspaper office, and job pressures weeded out all but careerists. At the TORONTO STAR, Joseph E. Atkinson experimented in recruiting a few university men. A few audacious pioneering women were also able to gain entry into journalism, as Kit COLEMAN at the Mail and Empire and Edouardina Lesage ("Collette") at LA PRESSE, for example, started their careers in the new "women's sections" (seeCANADIAN WOMEN'S PRESS CLUB). E. Cora HIND, agricultural specialist of the Manitoba Free Press, and Simma Holt, reporter for the Vancouver SUN, found other ways to establish reputations. Each succeeding decade seemed to produce a new crop of pioneers determined to break into the field or extend the range of female achievement as both writers and editors. They were women like reporters Gwen Cash and Lotta Dempsey and magazine editor Doris ANDERSON. The initiative in creating the original people's dailies was taken by individual entrepreneurs. Publishers were still people with something to say, and many failed precisely because they considered what they had to say more important than profits and a good business plan. Those who found a balance became the characters of their age: Hugh GRAHAM of the Montréal Star, E.E. Sheppard of SATURDAY NIGHT, Wilson Southam and Harry Southam of the Ottawa Citizen, and Joe Atkinson of the Toronto Star. Among the weeklies of the western frontier, Robert (Bob) EDWARDS of the Calgary Eye Opener (1902-22) and Margaret "Ma"MURRAY of the Bridge River-Lillooet News gained national notoriety. The growing business imperatives of newspapers altered the conventions of the old party journalism. In Montréal, the sensationalist LA PRESSE (1884) of Trefflé Berthiaume almost wiped out the old-style dailies. Party organs imitated the people's journals to survive. However, beneath the gloss and diversity of the new popular style a second, more subtle revolution was occurring, which proved more fundamental in shaping journalism as a profession: the industrialization of newspapers into big business. In the face of rising costs and severe competition, the chief imperative of all newspapers was to find the formula to maximize readership and attract the most ADVERTISING. Papers that fell behind were doomed to extinction. Between 1914 and 1931, the trend was established for the single newspaper city and the newspaper chain. Successful publishers in larger centres became associates of the corporate elite. The model of journalism based on the "independent" editor-publisher was obsolete. New Standards of Business Journalism Ironically, the greatly expanded profession of salaried journalism had only escaped its partisan master to face a new order of big business. By the 1920s big-city dailies settled down in their rationalized markets to a superficial formula of day-to-day headline journalism. The rough edges of personal idiosyncrasy were smoothed away and newspapers in similarly sized markets came to be more and more alike. In response to radio, the scoop, the stunt or the human-interest story substituted for or complemented traditional editorial identities, often depending on the personalities of editors-in-chief or publishers determined to expand their readership and, hence, their advertising revenues. In this atmosphere a new ideal of objectivity or balanced coverage defined the professional ethos of career journalists, though the ideal was honoured no more consistently than the "principled" standards of the personal journalism that it had superseded. The triumph of a business ethos at big-city dailies prompted a variety of strategies to achieve a new degree of professionalism. The Canadian Press Association and its successor, the Canadian Daily Newspapers Association (CDNA), were effective publisher lobbies that helped to rationalize the business side of newspapers. The CDNA contributed to the defence of publishers' prerogatives in such classic challenges to freedom of the press as the arbitrary Alberta Press Act of 1937 (seeALBERTA PRESS ACT REFERENCE 1938). The EDMONTON JOURNAL, published by John M. Imrie, received a Pulitzer Prize for leadership in the fight. Press councils and in-house complaints watchdogs or ombudsmen are more recent examples of industry-inspired efforts at accountability and professional standards of conduct. News services developed at the initiative of publishers, eg, CANADIAN PRESS, emerging out of a rebellion of western newspapers against the Canadian Pacific Telegraph Co. By 1923 CP had become a nationwide co-operative of member papers, controlling the rights to the Associated Press world report. CP and its rivals were influential in developing the contemporary ideal of objective reporting, as they sought to serve an editorially diverse constituency. Also conducive to professional standards after 1900 was the parliamentary Press Gallery which, by the 1920s had become a voluntary, self-governing body. Admission to the Press Gallery gave entry to a competitive "jungle" in which political reporters sharpened their investigative skills, though these remained conditioned by ingrained partisan traditions and connections. The Advent of Multimedia By the mid-20th century the tempo of change had accelerated. Journalism was transformed by the internal need of working journalists to develop new strategies to define their role and status, and by the external pressure from communications businesses to find a successful formula in the competition for advertising in an environment of rapid innovations in communications technology and seemingly endless growth in audiences. Newsreels and radio had started the process but, with the arrival of television in the 1950s, old newspaper formats no longer assured a market share of readers or of advertisers. In the resulting uncertainty, journalists found greater latitude for initiative. The PIPELINE DEBATE of 1956 served as a symbolic turning point at which the Press Gallery began to act like a public watchdog, criticizing the government from a more detached perspective. Canadian political journals (Jack Scott, Bruce Phillips, Douglas FISHER and Charles LYNCH) suddenly became "opinionated" again - but this time in an adversarial role against the politicians. Public-affairs programs on television, whether a newsmagazine such as THIS HOUR HAS SEVEN DAYS or a special documentary such as "Air of Death" (1967), were particularly prone to editorializing about perceived public wrongs. Radically changing public agendas were undermining and disorienting older professional points of reference regarding balanced coverage. Advocacy, muckraking and investigative reporting proved to be winning formulas in attracting new audiences. Instead of seeking to cajole a cadre of reliable partisan journalists in traditional fashion, successful politicians increasingly earned the advantages of catering to and manipulating the media collectively using public-relations techniques. Rising Standards and Status Technology gave greater latitude to photo, film and broadcast journalists. Technology also permitted some working journalists to attain unprecedented status. René LÉVESQUE, for example, capitalized on the novelty of television to launch himself as a media star and leading personality in Québec politics. Gordon SINCLAIR settled for media stardom and personal wealth by simultaneously pursuing careers in 3 media. The rewards in the form of enhanced professional latitude could become self-generating for elite journalists, who won a mass audience in more than one news medium through a combination of strong views, professional integrity, and impeccable writing or broadcasting skills. Jack WEBSTER, Allan FOTHERINGHAM, Barbara FRUM, Jeffrey Simpson, Bernard Derome and Judith Jasmin were representative of a whole class of modern journalists who became assets too valuable for a publisher or producer to dare censor and who often were more famous than the public figures they analysed or interviewed. The expanded opportunities for most workaday reporters did not translate into an improvement of working conditions, and even successful journalists turned to union organizations to deal with problems of poor pay and job security, irregular hours, and arbitrary management. The most successful union was the American Newspaper Guild (ANG), which signed its first collective agreement with the Toronto Star in 1949. By 1960 union rates, if not unionization, set the standards for the industry. French-Canadian journalists, following the bitter strike of French-speaking CBC personnel in 1958-59, became the militant vanguard. The radical idea of using collective bargaining to achieve editorial independence for staff members, however, was defeated in the bitter strike at La Presse in 1964 (seeLA PRESSE STRIKE). Though the 1969 contracts at La Presse and LE SOLEIL contained "professional clauses," the legal language deprived them of much substance. Declarations of editorial policy made as management initiative, eg, at the Toronto Star, described the most ambitious standards in the industry, but could not resolve the tension between working journalists and the managers of mass media organizations. A survey of Canadian journalists at major dailies in 1973 showed that 50% of those surveyed had had their copy altered significantly without prior consultation. The departure of Linda McQuaig from the Globe and Mail in a conflict over editorial interference almost a generation after that survey was symptomatic of the continuing constraints that can arise in the production of news. On the whole, however, unionized journalists took compensation in better working conditions, hours and pay, and the engagement engendered by a rapidly changing social and political agenda; it is no surprise that news reporting attracted a new generation of university graduates, including unprecedented numbers of women, into its ranks. After WWII some universities in Canada introduced courses in journalism. CARLETON UNIVERSITY and RYERSON INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (now Ryerson University) established the first full undergraduate programs, while the UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO became an innovator in specialty seminars and graduate programs oriented to working journalists. In 1968 UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL introduced the first journalism program at a Québec university. By the 1970s dozens of universities, community colleges and CEGEPs offered an array of diplomas, certificates and degrees in communications studies or journalism. The changes in educational standards were evident by 1973: over 40% of working journalists at city dailies had a university degree of some kind. By the 1960s journalists had become more self-critical of their craft. Organizations of working journalists, eg, la Fédération professionnelle des journalistes du Québec or the Institute for Investigative Journalism, provided forums for journalists to develop a common sense of professionalism, as did radical "alternative" magazines such as Content. Other quasi-professional organizations like the PERIODICAL WRITERS ASSOCIATION OF CANADA (est. 1976; now Professional Writers Association of Canada) worked more quietly to set standards and improve the leverage of freelancers in relation to publishers. A few newspapers and the CBC (after 1967) provided training programs, though these initiatives were weakened rather than strengthened by community college programs. Some newspapers initiated summer training schools for select university undergraduates and by the 1980s journalists were often granted a leave of absence to further their university studies. Pretensions of a Fourth Estate The trends in unionization, university education, and professional development contributed to a rising debate about the role of the press and its freedom. Critics developed a variety of catchphrases to rationalize a new degree of professional independence and to indict the status quo. Under the influence of communications theory, newly affluent journalists became self-conscious about bias created by "snarlwords," social class, or "pack journalism"; their ideological role as gatekeepers; and the behavioural effects of the mass media. Proposed reforms included advocacy journalism, investigative reporting, the more radical notions of an alternative press, "staff democracy," and reporter control. The New Journalism, however, was far less radical than the rhetoric would imply. Before long, more conservative critiques raised the spectre of attack journalism, where the ends of investigative journalism might justify undue licence in the means. A new generation of reporters and publishers also learned the practical chilling effects of potential libel suits. Compromise on the issue of standards between journalists and their news establishments was made possible by the technological nature of the new media environment. A journalist might in a day research the background for a feature story that in the past might have taken weeks. Efficient use of news-gathering technologies required a high degree of delegation of authority and editorial independence, at least to the more experienced reporters. The media stardom of the few set expectations for professional integrity among news staff and public alike, which proprietors and business executives ignored at the peril of their enterprises. Moreover, the market and business impact of changes in technology made it imperative to find journalistic formats that attracted the attention of a more affluent and sophisticated, but highly fickle and segmented audience. Journalism in Cyberspace At the end of the 20th century, the profession had to contend with a multitude of influences and challenges. Publishers, large and small, flocked to the Internet, eager to establish a presence to complement their print offering. The 24-hour news cycle began with no sign of ever stopping, and the profession had to adapt by becoming more flexible and time-sensitive. While deadlines still existed for the print editions, there was a constant demand for new and updated material to be made available online. In an environment of rapid technological innovation, reinforced by a liberated free-market ideology, the merger of traditional media and interactive communication technologies was literally transforming the meaning and nature of news, blurring the distinctions between advertising, news, entertainment, editorial content, and special pleading (not to mention creative writing, manipulated graphic images, and even plagiarism). In addition, journalists faced a new generation of corporate media proprietors bent on making generic information services pay and, in certain cases, making them vehicles for their own ideological priorities. Changes in the work environment and advances in technology affected the practices of the trade as well. Journalists were now called upon to blog and share the news behind the news in an effort to attract and retain an audience. The audience, however, not only wanted to access the news in new and instant ways, it also wanted to participate in reporting and share its opinion. This led to the emergence of the citizen journalists, individuals with an interest in current affairs, access to a computer and a point of view. Journalists in Canada and the world over have seen their environment change constantly, and more changes are afoot. As the 21st century enters its teen years, newspaper and broadcasting proprietors continue to struggle with selecting the right business model for their operations. They continue to review and question whether the costly infrastructure they have built and that worked so well in the past is feasible in the face of lower-cost alternatives. Such reviews often result in downscaled newsrooms, the closing of bureaus, and even cooperation with erstwhile competitors. The lowering of the barrier into journalism in the form of blogging and social networking has also led to a greater focus on the substance and accuracy of news stories by an audience eager to take a hands-on approach to reporting news, checking facts, and finding fault. Thus, journalists face more scrutiny in their reporting than ever before and "new" journalists typically focus on allegations of left or right leanings and plagiarism. Concerning the latter, a number of journalists, some well-known, have been forced to resign or, at a minimum, apologize and retract statements after having been found out by other members of the media or a zealous public. A case in point is the so-called Wafergate scandal of July 2009, in which a New Brunswick newspaper reported that Prime Minister Stephen Harper had pocketed a communion host at the funeral of former Governor General Romeo Leblanc. The media jumped on the story, but it was quickly discovered that the news had been falsely reported, with information changed after the journalists had filed their story. The newspaper was forced to apologize to the public, the prime minister, and its own reporters, and the publisher and editor were fired. While the next milestone in the ongoing transformation of the fourth estate is hard to predict, recent changes seem to bolster the chances of survival of the free-press ideal, which is by no means a foregone conclusion. Joseph Howe would have understood that the economic marketplace is not the only institution requiring risk-takers to flourish and grow.

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This course offers a historical overview and critical exploration of Indigenous media producers, writers, directors, and audiences around the globe. We will survey a wide range of mediums from film, radio, animation, video games, and new media and explore how they have been taken up by Indigenous media-makers to serve local needs and reach a wider audience. We will maintain a global perspective throughout the course, examining discourses about Indigenous peoples formulated from contact to the post-colonial era, highlighting issues of representation, modernity, and cultural continuity. In understanding how these discourses have been shaped through local assertions of cultural specificity and appeals to global Indigenous identity, the course maintains a critical interest in how Indigenous people have been defined and how they are now using media technologies to speak back and define themselves. We will also consider case studies while engaging with theoretical works that investigate the phenomenon of global Indigenous media movements. Through group presentations, we will also learn about many other Indigenous cultures, politics, and media efforts. Overarching Learning Objectives - Survey key foundational films and texts in Indigenous media studies - Learn skills for analytical reading and discussion - Apply readings and discussion to analyze and interpret media productions - Analyze media production using theories and themes from readings in class discussion and in papers - Understand Indigenous media production Weekly Discussion Post 30% You are required to write a reading response of about 250 words 10 times throughout the semester (you pick which 10 days you want to submit responses). These responses should have two paragraphs: in the first paragraph, you should summarize the readings and main points; in the second paragraph, you should reflect on the screening for the week and put it in conversation with the readings. The second part does not need to be a formal analysis but should not resort to merely saying what you liked or disliked. It should offer a sense of what was most interesting to you or surprising, and what questions you had about them. Paper copies only! Group Presentation 10% In groups of 2-3, sign up to give a 15- 20 minute presentation during one class of the semester. These presentations will inform the class on an Indigenous tribe/group around the world. Information that should be addressed in the presentation includes the region/nation where the tribe currently resides, current population, terminology, significant historical events associated with the tribe. You should also put this tribe in conversation with other Indigenous peoples we discuss throughout the semester and relate the local issues that seem important to this tribe to the global issues and aims of Indigenous peoples (i.e. modernity/technology, language, strategic traditionalism, land rights, globalization, environmental justice, intellectual property, etc.) This assignment ensures that our conversations and generalizations about global Indigenous peoples consistently returns to and negotiates the specific histories and cultures of particular Indigenous communities. On a practical level, it also enables us to at least briefly discuss Indigenous communities we would not otherwise have time to include and are not as commonly discussed in Indigenous media studies. It provides opportunity to continue conversations early in the semester about who is Indigenous and what Indigenous media refers to. It also gives students experience with researching, navigating the communication and preparation of group work, and presenting. Close Reading Assignments 30% On four dates (detailed below in the syllabus) you will write a 500-word close reading of an assigned scene or sequence from that week’s screening. Your goal in these close-readings is to interpret, not to summarize what happens in the scene. A good close reading addresses the technical aspects of the medium as well as major thematic concerns. Links to clips will be sent out on Thursdays nights; and writing assignments will be due Monday night. This assignment helps students practice writing a close reading/analysis that they will need to incorporate into their final papers. It is an opportunity to give feedback on student’s writing as well and ensures that there are scheduled occasions throughout the semester to return to the objective to develop students’ skills with research and writing about media, both through written feedback on these assignments and in class discussion about them. Attendance and Participation 10% Attendance both at screenings and in class sessions is mandatory. Instructors who do not have the ability to schedule a separate screening time will need to consider if the screenings can be assigned as homework (many stream for free or cheaply online), or if some class time will be designated for screening/showing clips. Final Paper 20% Write a 6-8 page paper on a topic of your choice that explores a film or a theme that we have discussed in class. Should include close analysis and will require sources outside of what we read this semester. This assignment gives students experience with research, developing an argument, and writing a longer paper that demonstrates what they have learned throughout the semester. Loft, Steven and Kerry Swanson. Coded Territories: Tracing Indigenous Pathways in New Media Art. University of Calgary Press, 2014. [free e-book available through Calgary Press] Global Indigenous Media: Cultures, Poetics, and Politics. eds. Pamela Wilson and Michelle Stewart. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2008. WEEKLY COURSE PLAN All the readings not listed above will be available as PDFs or through links. Week 1: Introductions - Indigenous Media. Pamela Wilson, Joanna Hearne, Amalia Cordova, and Sabra Thornton. Oxford Bibliographies Online. .Oxford University Press, 2013. This reading provides an accessible overview to the field of Indigenous media, introducing key themes of the semester that can be useful to build upon what students already know about Indigenous cultures, minority media production, etc. Week 2: What is Global Indigenous Media? - Introduction to Global Indigenous Media, “Indigeneity and Indigenous Media on the Global Stage.” - Barclay, Barry. “Celebrating Fourth Cinema.” Illusions 35 (Winter 2003): 7-11. Screening: short videos: Melissa Henry’s Horse You See (8 min.); Taika Waititi’s Two Cars, One Night (12 min.), Dustin Craig’s 4wheelwarpony (10 min.); Marcella Ernest Because of Who I Am (4 min.); excerpt from Tracey Moffatt’s BeDevil (90 min. total, but 3 chapters that an be viewed separately) The readings this week are foundational works in Indigenous media studies and will be essential for forming the basis of their understanding about the context and history of Indigenous media, as well as the growing movement and aims of Indigenous media makers. The screenings this week should reinforce students’ understanding of the heterogeneity within Indigenous media. Assignment Due: Reading Response 1 Week 3: Globalization, Media, and Indigenous Peoples - Ginsburg. “Indigenous Media: Faustian Contract or Global Village?” Cultural Anthropology 6.1 (1991): 92–112. - Ginsburg. “Native Intelligence: A Short History of Debates on Indigenous Media and Ethnographic Film.” Made to be Seen: Perspectives on the History of Visual Anthropology. ed. Marcus Banks and Jay Ruby. University of Chicago Press, 2012. - Chapter 15 Global Indigenous Media, “Rethinking the Digital Age.” Screening: Rolf de Heer and Peter Djigirr’s Ten Canoes (2006); 92 min. Assignment Due: Reading Response 2 Students will be introduced to the history of visual anthropology and its relationship to Indigenous peoples. This raises issues of commodification, cultural appropriation, and globalization that point to Indigenous media as a site for negotiating control over representation and knowledge. The Ginsburg readings also highlight issues of the digital divide and the stratified production of Indigenous media. The screening will introduce students to the modes of storytelling and appropriation of Western media conventions, as the film plays with ethnographic conventions and uses tropes such as the first person storyteller. Week 4: Politics of Interrelation - Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film. 2nd Edition. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. p. 34-51 - Rothman, “The Filmmaker as Hunter: Robert Flaherty’s Nanook of the North.” Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2014. - Pack, Sam. “Reception, Identity, and the Global Village: Television in the Fourth World.” M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture. 3.1 (2000). Screening: Flaherty, Nanook of the North (1922); 79 min. and excerpts from Massot, Nanook Revisited (1990); 60 min. this is a lot of screen time for one week! Assignment Due: Reading Response 3 and Close Reading Assignment for Ten Canoes The readings for this week should help students unpack and problematize the classic documentary Nanook of the North. It should generate discussion about whether Nanook is an Indigenous film because of Indigenous involvement, or if the exploitation of Indigenous peoples by a Western filmmaker keeps us from understanding it as an Indigenous film. What is at stake in this definition? The second film for the week, Nanook Revisited, also raises questions about intended audience and processes of recognition. Week 5: Case Study – Native American Film and Media Production - Singer, “Introduction: Thinking Indian Thoughts,” Chapter 4 “Native Filmmakers, Programs, and Institutions,” and Chapter 5 “On the Road to Smoke Signals.” Wiping the War Paint off the Lens: Native American Film and Video. University of Minnesota Press, 2001. Screening: clips from Masayesva, Imagining Indians (1992) and Chris Eyre’s Smoke Signals (1998); 89 min. Assignment Due: Reading Response 4 The readings and screening for this week demonstrate the range of styles and interests of Native American film and mediamakers. Smoke Signals is a more mainstream independent production where Imagining Indians is an experimental film. Both should lead to conversations about self-representation and negotiation with Hollywood stereotypes. Week 6: Political Activism and Cultural Expression Gaines, Jane. “Political Mimesis.” Collecting Visible Evidence. University of Minnesota Press, 1999. 84-102. Leuthold, Steven. Introduction to Indigenous Aesthetics, University of Texas Press, 1998. 1-13. Screening: Alanis Obomsawin, Kaneshatake: 270 Years of Resistance (1993); 119 min. Assignment Due: Reading Response 5 This week focuses on the relationship between Indigenous media and political activism. We will also consider the assumptions about documentary film and activism, and evaluate the efficacy of Indigenous documentaries as a global platform to inspire meaningful change. Week 7: Case Study – Inuit Film and Media Production - Raheja, “Visual Sovereignty, Indigenous Revisions of Ethnography, and Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner).” Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, and Representations of Native Americans on Film, University of Nebraska Press, 2010. - excerpts from Evans, Isuma: Inuit Video Art, Mc-Gill-Queen’s University Press, 1998. Screening: Kunuk, Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner) (2001); 172 min. Assignment Due: Reading Response 6 By viewing one of the most written-about Indigenous films, students will be introduced to a case study that was critically successful even as it challenged Western conventions. We will talk about Indigenous storytelling, aesthetics, visual sovereignty (or the idea that representations stand in for discussions about sovereignty over land, knowledge, and culture), and cultural reenactment. Week 8: Post-Colonial Identity and the Western Imaginary - Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Cinematic Representation.” Framework. 36 (1989). 68-81. - Hall, Stuart, “Encoding/Decoding.” Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, 1972-79 London: Hutchinson, pp. 128-38. - Huhndorf, Shari. Introduction to Going Native: Indians in the American Cultural Imagination. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2001. 1-18. Screening: Bowman, Navajo Talking Picture (1986); 40 min. 1491’s “I’m an Indian Too” Assignment Due: Reading Response 7 and Close Reading Assignment for Atanarjuat Bowman’s Navajo Talking Picture is viewed as one of the most problematic films because Bowman, an Indigenous woman, insists on filming her grandmother with whom she cannot communicate, but who apparently wants no part of the project. The film and reading highlight issues of Indigenous identity and appeals to authenticity. The readings, foundational works by Stuart Hall and Shari Huhndorf will invite students to grapple with the problems of self-representation and strategic traditionalism (the idea that Indigenous people strategically reclaim an essentialized traditional identity for political efforts), as well as the ways that Indigenous identity has been informed by the colonial imaginary, and to consider the relationship between Indigenous media and other minority representations. Week 9: Case Study – Maori Film and Media Production - Barclay, Barry. “A Fitting Companion”. Our Own Image: A Story of a Maori Filmmaker. University of Minnesota Press, 2015. 9–18. - Chapter 2 Global Indigenous Media, “‘Lest Others Speak for Us’: The Neglected Roots and Uncertain Future of Maori Cinema in New Zealand” Screening: Barclay, Ngati (1987); 92 min. Assignment Due: Reading Response 8 This week will explore Maori cinema. It is a good moment to invite comparison with other films and case studies we have seen so far, and to think through questions of local specificity of media development and aims vs. the narrative of the global emergence of Indigenous media. Barclay is a prominent figure in Indigenous media, both as a filmmaker and theorist. Both of the readings and the film display Maori concerns for communicating with outsiders on their own terms. Week 10: Case Study – Kayapo Film and Media Production - Turner, “Defiant Images. The Kayapo appropriation of Video.”Anthropology Today, Vol.8.6 (1992), pp. 5-16. - Carelli, Vincent, and Dominique Gallois. 1995. “Video in the Villages: The Waiapi Experience.” Center for Media, Culture and History, NYU. 7-11. Screening: Selections from Carelli, Video in the Villages. Assignment Due: Reading Response 9 This week, we will discuss Vincent Carelli’s project with the Kayapo people in Brazil. Some of the sequences are accusatory or even threatening to Western audiences. Discussion could focus on the politics of visibility, intended audience, and modes of address. The project highlights aspects of hybridity and collaboration, and invites discussion about the relationship between visual anthropology and media production. Although the readings pertain to Kayapo video production, it can be a good week to reference the Ginsburg readings from earlier in the semester. Week 11: Radio, Podcasts, and Journalism - Chapter 6 Global Indigenous Media, “Transistor Resistors: Native Women’s Radio in Canada and the Social Organization of Political Space from Below” - Chapter 7 Global Indigenous Media, “Weaving a Communication Quilt in Colombia: Civil Conflict, Indigenous Resistance, and Community Radio in Northern Cuaca” - Chapter 10 Global Indigenous Media, “‘To Breathe Two Airs’: Empowering Indigenous Sami Media” Screening: Indian and Cowboy Network’s podcast Metis in Space (2015) Assignment Due: Reading Response 10 and Close Reading Assignment (Boy) This week offers a broad survey of radio, podcasts, and TV news productions. The readings and screening for this week show us local production practices as part of a global emergence of Indigenous broadcast media, and particularly sound across four communities in three countries. It is one of the few times throughout the semester that we talk about the Sami or Indigenous peoples of Colombia, so it is an opportunity to discuss regions where media production has not been as closely studied, factors preventing its growth compared to other communities, and background on why radio and local television is typically a more cost effective form of media production. Week 12: Indigenous Animation - Chapter 4 Global Indigenous Media, “Indigenous Animation: Educational Programming, Narrative Interventions, and Children’s Cultures” - Twist, “Indigenous Animation Movement Rising, (available at: http://www.nativepeoples.com/Native-Peoples/November-December-2007/Indigenous-Animation-Movement-Rising/) Screening: Carol Geddes’ Two Winters (2004); Joseph Erb’s Messenger (2004); episode of Raven Tales (2006); Kinnie Star’s Haida Raid 3: Save Our Waters (2014) Assignment Due: Reading Response 11 Through the reading and screening this week, we will survey Indigenous animation from U.S. and Canada. The readings highlight the potential for children’s media to counter hegemonic, acculturating English language media with media presented in traditional languages. The screenings show the range of Indigenous animation from publicly broadcast morning cartoons like Raven Tales, experimental animation by Geddes, animations by Erb with Muscogee Creek children made in community youth and education programs, and political music videos like Star’s Haida Raid 3. Week 13: Indigenous Video Games - Chapter 3 Coded Territories, “A Better Dance and Better Prayers” - Lewis and LaPensee, “Call it a Vision Quest: Machinima in a First Nations Context” from Understanding Machinima: Essays on Filmmaking in Virtual Worlds. ed. Jenna Ng. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. - Guidelines for Game Analysis (available at: http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/comparative-media-studies-writing/cms-300-introduction-to-videogame-studies-fall-2011/assignments/game-analysis/MITCMS_300F11_GameAnaGuide.pdf ) Screening: Upper One Game’s Never Alone (2014); Elizabeth LaPensee’s Invaders (2015); Spirits of Spring (2014); “Skins 2.0 Documentary” (available on vimeo) Assignment Due: Reading Response 12 Drawing on conversations we have had throughout this semester, this week prepares students to extend their understanding of Indigenous media to video games. The readings introduce the goals and ideals of Indigenous video game development, strategies for “modding” and adapting current games and software to produce Indigenous content, and offers students experience with game analysis. The games we will play reflect commercial production, independent production, and community-based youth gaming programs. The readings also illustrate the gap between a tight knit community of game developers and scholars working as activists independent arenas compared to commercial production targeted to a mass global audience. Week 14: New Media - Chapter 13 Global Indigenous Media “Recollecting Indigenous Thinking in a CD-Rom” - Nakamura, Lisa “Indigenous Circuits: Navajo Women and the Racialization of Early Electronic Manufacture” American Quarterly 66.4 (December 2014): 919-941. - Chapter 7 Coded Territories, “Mediacosmology” Assignment Due: Reading Response 13 and Close Reading Assignment from Animation/Video Game Readings look at how traditional art practices and communication technologies can be preserved and built into the structure of new media technologies. The reading by Nakamura illustrates a situation where Indigenous involvement in early media production is convincingly read as exploitative on the basis that it employs narratives of traditional knowledge and culture as a skill set that justifies their labor in the production of computer circuits. This contrasts with the other readings which call for an understanding of new media technologies as an extension of traditional culture. The websites provide access to Indigenous content on the web, with Isuma as the Indigenous equivalent of YouTube. Week 15: Decolonizing Media Studies - “Introduction” and Chapter 8 “Twenty-five Indigenous Projects” from Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. Dunedin: University of Otego Press, 1999. Screening: Selections from the 1491s. Assignment Due: Reading Response 14 Smith’s book is a key work in the field that challenges the research methods and epistemological approaches to studying Indigenous peoples. She problematizes potential research agendas and illustrates what research that contributes to the larger project of decolonizing research and knowledge through work on Indigenous culture can look like. This will be useful in preparing students to write their final papers and to think about the ethics of engaging with and writing about Indigenous media production as an object of study. Previous discussions should clarify the stakes that Smith identifies. The screening provides an opportunity for a more lighthearted final note, with videos from the comedy group the 1491s on YouTube. Final Paper Due: submit electronically by 5PM on the day of our scheduled final. No final exam.

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Keeping You Informed in Year 8 As part of our aim to keep you informed, we outline here the content of the curriculum studied by students in Year 8. We hope this will help you keep track of what is being taught and assist you in understanding the school curriculum. In Term 1 of Year 8, students study a range of famous literary fiction which features animals. Term 1 assessment task: critical response to opinion statement on unseen text. This links to GCSE Language Paper 1 Question 4. In Term 2, students read a novel as a class to develop a deeper understanding of literary techniques. Students study the way characters are presented, the development of setting and how suspense is created. Key chapters will be analysed in detail to develop the students’ ability to comment on language and other features of writing. Term 2 assessment task: descriptive writing – description of a place. This links to GCSE Language Paper 1 Question 5. In Term 3, students explore poetry. During this project, students study a variety of poems linked with the theme of conflict. Term 3 assessment task: comparative analysis of two poems. This links to GCSE Literature Paper 2 Section B. During Term 4, students look at a range of non-fiction writing. Term 4 assessment task: non-fiction writing of an argumentative article based on an opinion statement. This links to GCSE Language Paper 2 Question 5 In Term 5, students study a modern play. During this project, students develop their analytical skills when interpreting language, characters and the way the play has been structured. Term 5 assessment task: analysis of language and structure in a play. This links to GCSE Literature Paper 2 Section A. Term 6 begins with exploring a range of different non-fiction stories centred on survival, leading to students producing their own survival stories. Term 6 assessment task: non-fiction writing to advise in the form of a letter. This links to GCSE Language Paper 2 Question 5. In Year 8 we use our own teaching plan built around stages that is designed to support and develop students from their ability on entry to success at GCSE. Terms 1 and 2 Students cover work on patterns, numbers and the number system, calculation, shape and space, algebraic manipulation and fractions. Terms 3 and 4 Here we look at statistics, equations, probability and symmetry. Terms 5 and 6 During these terms we study proportion, graphs and measurement. Students are required to be equipped with a scientific calculator and geometry set for every Maths lesson. These can be purchased from the mathematics department through parent pay at no profit to us. Students are assessed on 13 key skills each year. Three fortnightly tests concentrate on the same set of skills, allowing students to improve and consolidate their understanding, before moving on to a different set. In between the key skills tests, students are assessed on their ability to apply their understanding and reason mathematically when faced with longer worded questions. A couple of times a year, students sit longer review papers that help us to make predictions about the likely GCSE grade that might be achieved. Homework is set once a week for approximately 60 minutes and will be taken from various sources including online using MyMaths. In KS3 Science at Willingdon out Year 8 students will study topics in biology, chemistry and physics. Our schemes of work are based on the KS3 Hodder scheme and have key skills embedded in each topic. All topics have learning objectives for each lesson and students will complete a core and summative assessment for each topic. Year 8 areas of study C7 Periodic Table P5 Magnets & Electromagnets B6 Food & Digestion C8 Extracting metals B7 Lungs & Gas Exchange C9 Reactions of acids P7 Domestic & Static Electricity C10 Describing reactions P8 Waves and Sounds B9 Muscles and Bone C11 Earth and Atmosphere B10 Inheritance and Evolution C12 Innovative materials P10 Application of Forces B11 Drugs and Health P11 Heat Transfer P12 Exploring Space Modern Languages - French In Year 8, students will learn to recognise and produce phrases in tenses other than the present. This will include talking about what they did in the past tense and their ambitions using the near future. They will extend work from Year 7 to give opinions about a variety of topics. Students will also learn to talk about eating out and travel. Students follow the ‘Studio’ course. Students will also develop an understanding of grammar as well as an insight into French culture. Homework will be set once a fortnight. There will be a variety of tasks ranging from vocabulary learning, reading tasks, and listening tasks. They will also be set speaking and written tasks to prepare for their assessments. Assessments will be in the form of regular vocabulary tests, where spelling will matter, and more formal tests based on reading, writing, speaking and listening. They will be assessed on two skills per term: speaking/ reading and writing/ listening. MODULE 1: Youth culture: TV, cinema, the internet and reading. - Assessment 1: Speaking (talking about going to the cinema, reading and the internet) and reading MODULE 2: Paris: saying what you can do there/ what students like doing and what they did when they visited different places. - Assessment 2: Listening and writing (a description of yourself name, age, family, etc., your interests, what you like did while on holiday in a different town) MODULE 3: My identity: talking about relationships, music/ clothes and last weekend. - Assessment 3: speaking (talking about yourself, somebody, somebody you get on well/ do not get on well, what you do with them and describing an event in the past) and reading. Modern Languages - Spanish Year 8 students will follow a programme of study focusing on communication, sentence building and basic grammar to help them discover a passion for languages and giving them the basic skills in the language to be able to take it for GCSE. Students will be encouraged to use online resources to support their learning and become more independent learners. There will also be opportunities for students to do project work and to learn about Spanish and Latin American culture. During Year 8, studies include the following topic areas: - Learning the numbers, alphabet, pronunciation - Understanding teachers’ instructions - Knowing how to say the items in the classroom and school equipment Module 1: Mi Vida/My Life - Introducing yourself (name, age, how you are feeling) - Describing your personality - Talking about animals and pets - Understanding dates - Writing skills Module 2: Mi Tiempo Libre/My Free Time - Giving your opinion - Describing the weather - Talking about sports and leisure activities - Using the Present Tense to talk about hobbies - Speaking Skills Module 3: Mi Instituto/My School - Giving your opinion on school subjects - Describing your school - Present Tense (-er and –ir verbs) Homework will be set once a week. There will be a variety of tasks to practice reading, listening, speaking and writing skills as well as vocabulary lists for students to learn. Year 8 geography covers the following topic areas outlined below. Unit 1: Young Geographer of the Year A chance for students to enter a national geography competition with the potential to win a trip to the Royal Geographical Society in London. Unit 2: Food security Looking at supply and demand of food nationally, globally, and linking concepts to the rise of food banks in the UK. Unit 3: Weather and Climate This highly relevant unit considers the need for change in the face of the effects of climate change. Unit 4: Extreme environments An exciting topic where students get to look at a range of phenomenal environments. Unit 5: Resource Management Students will think about how to provide for the daily needs of people and how different countries try to meet this need. Unit 6: What shapes the land A first look at the central processes of erosion and deposition in physical geographical study. This unit links to our field trip to Eastbourne beach to experience basic fieldwork planning and techniques. Unit 7: Global Issues Another opportunity for students to lead their own learning and research some of the geographical issues facing the world today with a primary focus on the plastic revolution. The scheme of work has been designed to prepare students for the KS4 course and also introduces students to the types of command words and other transferable skills that they can expect to employ in later study. It is adapted to suit different learning styles and abilities. This layered learning approach means that students study issues in depth whilst getting to enjoy a huge variety of study which is delivered in range of forms. We also use an online Geography homework system which will be used to extend learning at certain points in the year and vary the homework options for the students. There is a unit assessment that follows each topic of study. Within each assessment, there are questions that meet three assessment criteria and test the student’s ability: a) To retain geographical knowledge and memorise key terms, facts and figures b) To be able to link conceptual understanding with resources provided and answer in paragraphs using specialist terminology, accurate grammar and logical structure. c) To be able to apply learned geographical skills to unseen data/ graphs/ maps. After each assessment is marked, the students receive their mark and follow up with DIRT (Dedicated Improvement and Reflection Time) which allows them to work on their individual areas for development. The data gathered allows us to support students going forward, to provide advice on revision techniques and arrange additional support where required. During Year 8 students will investigate the making of the modern world. Through a study of the transatlantic slave trade students will engage with themes such as racism, power and beliefs. Students will then move on to an enquiry on the changes in Britain 1750-1900. They will study the religious, social, political and economic changes of this period and consider how it affected different groups of people within society. Students will also investigate Britain’s place in the world at the turn of the twentieth century with an enquiry into how the British Empire should be remembered. Finally, Year 8 students will delve into the horrors of the trenches of World War One. Students will investigate why the war began, who fought and the impact of the conflict. During the year students will experience a variety of teaching and learning activities. Homework is used to consolidate and extend class work. Students are set a variety of tasks, appropriate to them including project work, descriptive writing and preparation for assessments. We will encourage students to carry out research to increase knowledge. Students complete four formal assessments over the year: Term 1: The English Reformation and interpretations of Mary I Term 2: The Abolition of slavery Term 3+4: Changes in Britain 1750-1900 Term 5+6: World War One Ethics & Philosophy In Ethics and Philosophy, we explore themes that emphasise concepts across and between religions (including alternative belief systems) and cover issues that impact students’ everyday life. In Year 8 these themes are; Environmental Issues and Peace and Conflict. We also undertake systematic study of the content of a particular religion which leads to a coherent understanding of what it means to belong to that religion. In year 8 we study Islam. We investigate contemporary ethical issues, focusing on the Holocaust and explore fundamental questions of human existence and right or wrong. In Year 8 such questions include- Why are people persecuted for their beliefs? Is it right to go to war? Is it our responsibility to care for the environment? Students will be set key assessments which will include: - Environmental Issues - Peace and Conflict Students will be set in single sex groups and will be set on their ability. Students will study activities from the following programme: - Mountain Biking - Table Tennis - Striking and fielding - Outdoor and Adventurous Activities - Demonstrate, apply and analyse the factors that underpin performance and involvement in physical activity and sport. - Demonstrate and apply relevant skills and techniques in physical activity and sport. - Analyse and evaluate own performance to identify areas of improvement. Drama at Willingdon Community School aims to develop students’ skills as creative individuals, independent learners, and also effective group workers. The Drama curriculum builds distinct opportunities for students to develop key skills such as communication, negotiation, compromise and self-assertion. Students are encouraged to show confidence when speaking and their vocabulary is extended when they adopt roles and characters. Students will gain an understanding of subject-specific vocabulary and will also acquire a growth mindset through reflecting on and appraising their own work and the work of others. All of these skills are again highly transferable across other subjects and into employment. The Year 8 programme of study builds on the performing and group working skills developed in Year 7 – with a focus on naturalistic and abstract performance. Year 8 Drama Crime and Punishment This scheme is based on an historical crime. It intends to prepare pupils for devising work and builds on student’s abilities to use their imagination. They will explore stereotypical assumptions, a character’s motivation, non-verbal communication and marking the moment. Physical Theatre – Metamorphosis In this scheme students will identify and employ the concept of using physicality to represent character and objects. They will work cooperatively to present the story Metamorphosis using physical theatre and abstract techniques. Our Grimm Tales scheme will enable students to develop skills in storytelling and textual analysis. They will examine how fairy tales have developed over time and how stories can be deconstructed to create new versions. Students will investigate relationships between characters in Private Peaceful, particularly Tommo and Charlie They will explore the experiences of young people at war and be able to empathise with them. They will create a performance in a Brechtian style. At the end of each topic students will be set an assessment which aims to check their understanding of the topic, as well as developing their performing and writing skills. The Drama curriculum offers a broad, coherent and rigorous course of study. It aims to inspire creativity in students. All assessments at KS3 will provide opportunities for students to make and understand drama, recognising it as a practical art form in which ideas and meaning are communicated. The assessments will prepare students with the knowledge and understanding required at GCSE. Students in Year 8 will learn to develop confidence and technical skill through a thorough investigation of painting skills in different contexts. Students will also be building upon their skills developed in year 7 and drawing and observational skills will continue to feature in the curriculum alongside painting. They will learn effective painting techniques, focusing on experiments with paint consistencies, colour mixing techniques and brush control. They will learn aspects of colour theory and how to work from observation as well as secondary sources, using their research as an effective tool to inform class work studies. Throughout the year, projects are linked to key artists and art movements so that students can develop their research and writing skills. Literacy is also focused on during the year and students learn how to analyse art works and be confident writers in expressing their observations and ideas in writing as well as analysing and evaluating their own work and that of their peers. Homework is set weekly to fortnightly; students are expected to spend a minimum of 30 minutes on homework tasks. Often the homework tasks may be ongoing as students develop a long term drawing or project which may extend over a number of weeks but will be monitored each week. Students are also required to collect research images and information about an artist or movement to support their class work project. The following explains what will be the key objectives which students will be assessed on throughout the year. - Contextual research - To develop ideas using research of historical and contemporary artists, designers and craftspeople - Media - To use a range of media, materials, techniques and processes to explore and refine your ideas. - Drawing and recording ideas - To record ideas and use a range of drawing and recording techniques (including pencil, pen, painting, printing and photography and image manipulation) - Final response - To complete a final, personal response in conclusion to the project in connection with your studies and research. Projects usually span from 1-2 terms and finish with a final piece which is assessed in class before teacher assessments. Examples of previous projects include: - Colour mixing and colour theory, focusing on the watercolour studies of Paul Klee - Landscape painting inspired by the work of David Hockney - Print making informed by ‘bugs and butterflies’ and looking at the work of E. Seguy and Damien Hirst At Willingdon Community School students study a wide range of different musical styles and genres. Music plays an important role in the daily life, with all students being encouraged to participate in music-making and fostering musical ability at the highest level. The department is a "Champion School" for Musical Futures with KS3 following this learning method. With a Vocal Group, Warriors Band, School Ensembles, Rock and Pop bands, numerous music projects with outside agencies and a wide range of specialist music staff, the Music Department is one of the busiest and liveliest departments in the school. Music is a unique form of communication that can change the way students feel, think and act. Music forms part of an individual’s identity and positive interaction with music can develop students’ competence as learners and increase their self-esteem. Music brings together intellect and feeling and enables personal expression, reflection and emotional development. As an integral part of culture, past and present, music helps students understand themselves, relate to others and develop their cultural understanding, forging important links between home, school and the wider world. In Year 8 students will cover the following topics: - Beats and Rhymes - Image Junction - Band Skills - Exploring Technology - Rhythms of the World - The Blues Assessment in music covers performance, composition and listening. East Sussex Music Services 'Wherever music takes you, start your journey with East Sussex Music' 'If your child is interested in learning an instrument, they can sign up for lessons through East Sussex Music service’ Most students learn in a group with three or four other players so that every student can benefit from learning with others and making music together. If required, we also offer individual lessons. Lessons are held weekly for 30 weeks over the school year.' Information & Communication Technology During Year 8, students will continue to develop their awareness of e-safety, use higher order data handling skills, update their multimedia website, unpick the architecture of a PC and develop their coding skills in Python and Scratch. - E safety speech - Bits, Bytes and Binary - Coding in Python - Future Technology website Design & Technology Design & Technology is taught to all Key Stage 3 students. Years 7, 8 and 9 experience three main focus areas: Product Design, Systems and Control and Food Skills. ICT is used in each module. In Year 8 we continue to develop Design and Technology capability and we build upon the skills, knowledge and understanding from Year 7. Whilst the projects may appear to result in very different outcomes, the essential core element of designing and making is evident, whatever the product. This enables students to realise that behind every product lies a common ‘design process’. It teaches students to understand, appreciate, make and evaluate products, and gives them an insight into methods of design and production. Students are taught in groups of maximum 20, (mixed gender and ability), for a period of 7 weeks in one focus area by one teacher. They then move on to the next teacher for a different focus for a similar period until three modules have been completed across the year. Each module will have regular homework set. Typical homework will include research and investigation into existing products related to the topic, identifying and carrying out customer interviews and recording feedback; learning key vocabulary and appropriate, innovative design tasks. For 2019/20 we offer the following range of modules and projects: Module 1: Students learn about prototypes, the importance of good quality and packaging. They develop their CAD/CAM skills by designing jewellery, for which a mould is made and a prototype cast in pewter. The project will involve designing and making. Students will work on practical tasks to produce a quality item. Module 2: Developing skills associated with product design and production. Research and investigation into existing products. Core skills in designing by hand, transferring the design to a digital form and independent manufacture of a commercially viable product, developing enterprise skills and creating laser cut jewellery Module 3: Focus of learning in Year 8 is about special dietary needs and the role protein plays in the diet. Students are shown how to make dishes using different proteins that are suitable for these specific needs along with advanced cutting techniques. Assessment is based on practical work, literacy, homework and a written knowledge test. Assessment for DT For each of the three modules, the assessment will be based on: - Technical knowledge Assessment for Food - Practical Skills - Theoretical work including homework - Written assessment The delivery of PSHE education at Willingdon Community School acknowledges and addresses the changes that young people are experiencing, beginning with transition to secondary school, the challenges of adolescence and their increasing independence. It teaches the skills that will equip them for the opportunities and challenges of life. Pupils are encouraged to manage diverse relationships and the increasing influence of peers and the media. PSHE education allows them to be more confident in addressing the challenges of effective learning and making a full and active contribution to society. At Key Stage 3, students build on the skills, attitudes, values, knowledge and understanding they have acquired and developed during the primary phase. PSHE education acknowledges and addresses the changes that young people are experiencing, beginning with transition to secondary school, the challenges of adolescence and their increasing independence. It teaches the skills that will equip them for the opportunities and challenges of life. Pupils are encouraged to manage diverse relationships and the increasing influence of peers and the media. PSHE education allows them to be more confident in addressing the challenges of effective learning and making a full and active contribution to society. The programme of study at Key Stage 3 and 4 follows 3 core themes as identified by the PSHE Association. The 3 themes are covered throughout terms 1-6. CORE THEME 1: HEALTH AND WELL-BEING This core theme focuses on - How to manage transition - How to maintain physical, mental and emotional health and wellbeing; - How to make informed choices about health and wellbeing matters including drugs, alcohol and tobacco; maintaining a balanced diet; physical activity; mental and emotional health and wellbeing; and sexual health - Parenthood and the consequences of teenage pregnancy - How to assess and manage risks to health; and to keep themselves and others safe - How to identify and access help, advice and support - How to respond in an emergency, including administering first aid 8. The role and influence of the media on lifestyle CORE THEME 2: RELATIONSHIPS This core theme focuses on: - How to develop and maintain a variety of healthy relationships within a range of social/cultural contexts and to develop parenting skills - How to recognise and manage emotions within a range of relationships - How to deal with risky or negative relationships including all forms of bullying (including the distinct challenges posed by online bullying) and abuse, sexual and other violence and online encounters - The concept of consent in a variety of contexts (including in sexual relationships) - Managing loss including bereavement, separation and divorce - To respect equality and be a productive member of a diverse community - How to identify and access appropriate advice and support CORE THEME 3: LIVING IN THE WIDER WORLD (Economic wellbeing, careers and the world of work) This core theme focuses on: - Rights and responsibilities as members of diverse communities, as active citizens and participants in the local and national economy - How to make informed choices and be enterprising and ambitious - How to develop employability, team working and leadership skills and develop flexibility and resilience - The economic and business environment - How personal financial choices can affect oneself and others and about rights and responsibilities as consumers At Willingdon we attach great importance to the links that exist between home and school, since we believe it is by working together that we can ensure the best possible education for your child. One important aspect of this joint effort is HOMEWORK. The school believes that homework is an essential part of learning. It can contribute very effectively to raising achievement, for the following reasons: - It gives students an opportunity to work independently, and to take responsibility for their own learning; - It helps students to recognise the link between good study habits and higher standards of achievement; - It helps teachers check that students have understood class work; - It can be used to extend work covered in class; - And it can strengthen liaison between home and school. We believe that students can best benefit from the work they bring home if they have full parental support, and it is for this reason that we have taken this opportunity to outline the school’s policy on homework and the part you can play in ensuring that your child develops and maintains good homework habits. Timing and Quantity of Homework Key Stage 3 - Years 7 – 9 Students should expect to be set homework weekly in the following subjects: English, Mathematics, Science, French and Design Technology, and at least fortnightly in Geography, History, Ethics, Art, Music and ICT. Students should therefore expect to have homework to do in one or two subjects each evening. A range of homework tasks will be set, as appropriate to individual subject areas, including written and reading tasks, learning, collecting information and objects, conducting simple experiments or making models, sketching or designing, and carrying out surveys and interviews. It is important to note that homework does not always take a written form. It is difficult to draw up a formal homework timetable with specific evenings allocated to specific subjects, since students in any one tutor group belong to a number of different teaching groups being taught a particular subject at different times of the week. We need, therefore, as teachers and as parents, to help students see the importance of planning their time sensibly, so that work does not accumulate, and deadlines are not missed. Adequate time will always be allowed for completion of work. Staff will avoid requiring homework to be done for the next day as far as possible, realising that students may have family or extra-curricular commitments on certain nights. Students in Year 7 should be spending approximately one hour per evening on homework. We do not, of course, wish to discourage students from spending more time than this if they are keen to do so, but we would not expect your child to struggle on throughout the evening with a piece of work that he or she found too difficult. We encourage students to carry out their homework tasks in a quiet place away from distractions, but recognise that this may not always be possible. Failure to complete or hand in homework. Students can be given a break-time detention or an after-school departmental detention. If the problem continues, individual departments or your child’s Director of Student Progress will inform you of the situation, and may suggest a meeting to discuss the problem. Where there are problems in a number of subjects, a student may be put on a Homework Monitoring Report until the situation improves. We hope that the above outline of our policy on homework will help you to support your child and to monitor the work that he/she brings home. If you.

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The Elements of Structure Foundations: Central Concepts In Dramatica, there are some central concepts that prove immediately useful. Presenting these up front reveals the practical side of the theory and provides a firm foundation for more in-depth explorations to come. These central concepts are: 1. The Story Mind 2. The Four Throughlines 3. The Objective Story Throughline 4. The Main Character Throughline 5. The Obstacle Character Throughline 6. The Subjective Story Throughline 7. The Grand Argument Story The Story Mind One of the unique concepts that sets Dramatica apart from all other theories is the assertion that every complete story is a model of the mind's problem solving process. This Story Mind does not work like a computer, performing one operation after another until the solution is obtained. Rather, it works more holistically, like our own minds, bringing many conflicting considerations to bear on the issue. It is the author's argument as to the relative value of these considerations in solving a particular problem that gives a story its meaning. To make his case, an author must examine all significant approaches to resolving the story's specific problem. If a part of the argument is left out, the story will have holes. If the argument is not made in an even-handed fashion, the story will have Characters, Plot, Theme, and Genre are the different families of considerations in the Story Mind made tangible, so audience members can see them at work and gain insight into their own methods of solving problems. Characters represent the motivations of the Story Mind (which often work at cross purposes and come into conflict). Plot documents the problem solving methods employed by the Story Mind. Theme examines the relative worth of the Story Mind's value standards. Genre establishes the Story Mind's overall attitude, which casts a bias or background on all other considerations. When a story is fully developed, the model of the Story Mind is complete. The Four Throughlines It is not enough, however, to develop a complete Story Mind. That only creates the argument the audience will be considering. Equally important is how the audience is positioned relative to that argument. Does an author want the audience to examine a problem dispassionately or to experience what it is like to have that problem? Is it more important to explore a possible solution or to weigh the benefits and drawbacks of alternative solutions? In fact, all of these points of view must be developed for a story to be complete. An author's argument must go beyond telling audience members what to look at. I must also show them how to see it. It is the relationship between object and observer that creates perspective, and in stories, perspective creates meaning. There are four different perspectives which must be explored as a story unfolds in order to present all sides of the issue at the heart of a story. They are the Objective Story Throughline, theMain Character Throughline, theObstacle Character Throughline, and theSubjective Story Throughline. The Objective Story Throughline The first perspective is from the Objective Story Throughline, so called because it is the most dispassionate look at the Story Mind. Imagine the argument of a story as a battle between two armies. The Objective Story view is like that of a general on a hill overlooking the battle. The general focuses on unfolding strategies and, from this perspective, sees soldiers not by name but by their function on the field: foot soldier, grenadier, cavalryman, scout. Though the general may care very much for the soldiers, he must concentrate on the events as they unfold. Because it emphasizes events, the Objective Story Throughline is often thought of as plot, but as we shall see later, plot is so much more. The Main Character Throughline For a story to be complete, the audience will need another view of the battle as well: that of the soldier in the trenches. Instead of looking at the Story Mind from the outside, the Main Character Throughline is a view from the inside. What if that Story Mind were our own? That is what the audience experiences when it becomes a soldier on the field: audience members identify with the Main Character of the story. Through the Main Character we experience the battle as if we were directly participating in it. From this perspective we are much more concerned with what is happening immediately around us than we are with the larger strategies that are really too big to see. This most personally involved argument of the story is the Main Character Throughline. As we shall explore shortly, the Main Character does not have to be the soldier leading the charge in the battle as a whole. Our Main Character might be any of the soldiers on the field: the cook, the medic, the bugler, or even the recruit cowering in the bushes. The Obstacle Character Throughline To see the third perspective, keep yourself in the shoes of the Main Character for a moment. You are right in the middle of the story's battle. Smoke from dramatic explosions obscures the field. You are not absolutely sure which way leads to safety. Still, before there was so much turmoil, the way was clear and you are confident in your sense of direction. Then, from out of the smoke a shadowy figure appears, solidly blocking your way. The shadowy figure is your Obstacle Character. You can't see well enough to tell if he is friend or foe. He might be a compatriot trying to keep you from stepping into a mine field. Or, he might be the enemy luring you into a trap. What to do! Do you keep on your path and run over this person or try the other path instead? This is the dilemma that faces a Main Character. To completely explore the issue at the heart of a story, an Obstacle Character must present an alternative approach to the Main Character. The Obstacle Character Throughline describes the advocate of this alternative path and the manner in which he impacts The Subjective Story Throughline As soon as the Main Character encounters his Obstacle, a skirmish ensues at a personal level in the midst of the battle as a whole. The two characters close in on one another in a theatrical game of "chicken," each hoping the other will The Main Character shouts at his Obstacle to get out of the way. The Obstacle Character stands fast, insisting that the Main Character change course and even pointing toward the fork in the road. As they approach one another, the interchange becomes more heated until the two are engaged in heart-to-heart combat. While the Objective Story battle rages all around, the Main and Obstacle Characters fight their private engagement. The Subjective Story Throughline describes the course this passionate battle takes. The Four Throughlines Of A Story You Know Here are some examples of how to see the four throughlines of some well known stories. Completed stories tend to blend these throughlines together in the interest of smooth narrative style. From a structural point of view, however, it is important to see how they can be separated. Objective Story Throughline: The Objective view of Star Wars sees a civil war in the galaxy between the Rebels and the evil Empire. The Empire has built a Death Star which will destroy the Rebels if it isn't destroyed first. To even hope for a successful attack, the Rebels need the plans to the Death Star which are in the possession of a farm boy and an old Jedi master. These two encounter many other characters while delivering the plans, ultimately leading to a climactic space-battle on the surface of the Death Star. Main Character Throughline: The Main Character of Star Wars is Luke Skywalker. This throughline follows his personal growth over the course of this story. Luke is a farm boy who dreams of being a star pilot, but he can't allow himself to leave his foster parents to pursue his dreams. He learns that he is the son of a great Jedi Knight. When his foster parents are killed, he begins studying the religion of the Jedi: the Force. Surviving many dangerous situations, Luke learns to trust himself more and more. Ultimately he makes a leap of faith to trust his feelings over his computer technology while flying into battle as the Rebel's last hope of destroying the Death Star. It turns out well, and Luke is changed by the experience. Obstacle Character Throughline: The Obstacle Character of Star Wars is Obi Wan Kenobi and this throughline describes his impact (especially on Luke Skywalker) over the course of the story. Obi Wan is a wizened old Jedi who sees everything as being under the mystic control of the Force. He amazes people with his resiliency and ability, all of which he credits to the Force. Subjective Story Throughline: The Subjective Story throughline of Star Wars describes the relationship between Luke and Obi Wan. Obi Wan needs Luke to help him and he knows Luke has incredible potential as a Jedi. Luke, however, needs to be guided carefully because his desires are so strong and his abilities so new. Obi Wan sets about the manipulations which will help Luke see the true nature of the Force and learn to trust To Kill A Mockingbird Objective Story Throughline: The Objective view of To Kill A Mockingbird sees the town of Maycomb with its horns locked in various attitudes over the rape trial of Tom Robinson. Due-process has taken over, however many people think this case should never see trial. As the trial comes to fruition, the people of the town argue back and forth about how the defense lawyer ought to behave and what role people should take in response to this alleged atrocity. Main Character Throughline: The Main Character of To Kill A Mockingbird is Scout and her throughline describes her personal experiences in this story. Scout is a young tom-boy who wants things in her life to remain as simple as they've always been. Going to school, however, and seeing the town's reaction to her father's work introduces her to a new world of emotional complexity. She learns that there is much more to people than what you can see. Obstacle Character Throughline: The Obstacle Character point of view in To Kill A Mockingbird is presented through Boo Radley, the reclusive and much talked about boy living next door to Scout. The mystique surrounding this boy, fueled by the town's ignorance and fear, make everyone wonder what he is really like and if he's really as crazy as they say. Subjective Story Throughline: The Subjective Story view of To Kill A Mockingbird sees the relationship between Scout and Boo Radley. This throughline explores what it's like for these two characters to live next door to each other and never get to know one another. It seems any friendship they might have is doomed from the start because Boo will always be locked away in his father's house. The real problem, however, turns out to be one of Scout's prejudice against Boo's mysterious life. Boo has been constantly active in Scout's life, protecting her from the background. When Scout finally realizes this she becomes a changed person who no longer judges people without first trying to stand in their shoes. Summary - The Grand Argument Story We have described a story as a battle. The overview that takes in the full scope of the battle is the Objective Story Throughline. Within the fray is one special soldier through whom we experience the battle first-hand. How he fares is the Main Character Throughline. The Main Character is confronted by another soldier, blocking the path. Is he friend or foe? Either way, he is an obstacle, and the exploration of his impact on the Main Character is the Obstacle Character Throughline. The Main and Obstacle Characters engage in a skirmish. Main says, "Get out of my way!", and Obstacle says, "Change course!" In the end, the steadfast resolution of one will force the other to change. The growth of this interchange constitutes the Subjective Story Throughline. Taken together, the four throughlines comprise the author's argument to the audience. They answer the questions: What does it feel like to have this kind of problem? What's the other side of the issue? Which perspective is the most appropriate for dealing with that problem? What do things look like in the "big picture?" Only through the development of these four simultaneous throughlines can the Story Mind truly reflect our own minds, pitting reason against emotion and immediate advantage against experience in the hope of resolving a problem in the most beneficial manner. Now that you've added Story Mind, Objective Story Throughline, Main Character Throughline, Obstacle Character Throughline, and Subjective Story Throughline to your writer's vocabulary, you have all the background you need to explore a whole new world of understanding: the Dramatica Theory of Story. How to Order your copy of Dramatica: A New Theory of Story Back to the Table of Contents Back to Home Page Copyright 1996, Screenplay Systems, Inc. The Dramatica theory was developed by Melanie Anne Phillips and Chris Huntley Chief Architect of the Dramatica software is Stephen Dramatica is a registered trademark of Screenplay Systems Incorporated the Dramatica Theory Home Page Try Dramatica & StoryWeaver Risk *Try either or both for 90 days. Not working for you? Return for a full refund of your purchase price! About Dramatica and Hi, I'm Melanie Anne Phillips, creator of StoryWeaver, co-creator of Dramatica and owner of Storymind.com. If you have a moment, I'd like to tell you about these two story development tools - what each is designed to do, how each works alone on a different part of story development and how they can be used together to cover the entire process from concept to completion of your novel or screenplay. What They Do Dramatica is a tool to help you build a perfect story structure. StoryWeaver is a tool to help you build your story's world. Dramatica focuses on the underlying logic of your story, making sure there are no holes or inconsistencies. StoryWeaver focuses on the creative process, boosting your inspiration and guiding it to add depth, detail and passion to your story. How They Do It Dramatica has the world's only patented interactive Story Engine™ which cross-references your answers to questions about your dramatic intent, then finds any weaknesses in your structure and even suggests the best ways to strengthen them. StoryWeaver uses a revolutionary new creative format as you follow more than 200 Story Cards™ step by step through the story development process. You'll design the people who'll inhabit your story's world, what happens to them, and what it all means. How They Work By itself Dramatic appeals to structural writers who like to work out all the details of their stories logically before they write a word. By itself, StoryWeaver appeals to intuitive writers who like to follow their Muse and develop their stories as But, the finished work of a structural writer can often lack passion, which is where StoryWeaver can help. And the finished work of an intuitive writer can often lack direction, which is where Dramatica can help. So, while each kind of writer will find one program or the other the most initially appealing, both kinds of writers can benefit from both programs. Try Both Programs We have a 90 Day Return Policy here at Storymind. Try either or both of these products and if you aren't completely satisfied we'll cheerfully refund your Complete Catalog of Products the Writer's Survival Kit Bonus Package FREE with ANY purchase! A $300 Value! step by step approach to story development, from concept to completed story for your novel or screenplay. More than 200 interactive Story Cards guide you through the entire process. Pro - $179.95 2 Exclusive Bonuses! The most powerful story structuring software available, Dramatica is driven by a patented "Story Engine" that cross-references your dramatic choices to ensure a perfect structure. Writer's DreamKit - $49.95 brother to Dramatica Pro, Writer's DreamKit is built around the same patented Story Engine - it just tracks fewer story points. So, you develop the same solid story structure, just with fewer details. Perfect for beginning writers or those new to Dramatica. Structure - $149.95 all-in-one writing environment with built-in word processor that helps you organize and cross-reference your story development materials. INCLUDES DVD SET BONUS! Writer - $99.95 brother of Power Structure includes the essential organization and word processing tools writers need the most. - Index Cards (Mac) - $19.95 index cards - add notes, titles, colors, click and drag to re-arrange. An essential tool for every writer. Magic Screenwriter - $149.95 advanced screenwriting software available, Movie Magic is deemed a "preferred file format" by the Writer's Guild. An industry standard, MMS is used by professionals and studios around the Draft - $199.95 Magic Screenwriter, Final Draft is an industry standard, used by many professional screenwriters and studios around the world. The Lines (Macintosh) - $29.95 cost automatic screenplay formatter for Macintosh includes high-end features such as interactive index cards linked to your script. Hour Writing Course - $19.95 you need to know about story structure - twelve hours of video on a single DVD - presented by Dramatica Theory co-creator, Melanie Anne Software Companion - $19.95 four hours of video demonstrations of every key feature in Dramatica, narrated by the co-creator of Dramatica. Tips Book - $19.95 170 pages of eye-opening essays on story structure, storytelling, finding inspiration and a wide variety of writing techniques. Seminar 8 DVD Set - $99.95 14 hours of video from a live two day course taught by theory co-creator Melanie Anne Phillips covering Dramatica story structure and StoryWeaver Seminar Online - $49.95 The same 14 hour program presented in streaming video that you can view online or download for a permanent copy. Theory 2 Hour Audio Program - $19.95 concept in the Dramatica Theory of Story is fully explained in this Characters of the Opposite Sex - $29.95 audio CD set that explains everything you need to know to create characters of both sexes that ring absolutely true (and maybe even gain insight into the communication problems in the real world!) Storyteller Improves Your Writing - $29.95 better writing with this series of interactive exercises. to Create Great Characters DVD - $19.95 A 90 minute video program recorded during Dramatica co-creator Melanie Anne Phillips' live in-person seminar on story structure and storytelling. vs. Passion - Audio CD $19.95 Mind approach to writing uses your own passions to create your story's structure. It focuses your efforts, clarifies the direction of your story, and triggers your imagination. with the Story Mind - Audio CD - $19.95 Learn how to psychoanalyze your story's "mind" to uncover and treat problems with characters, plot, theme, and genre. 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READING PASSAGE 1 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below. Radiocarbon Dating – The Profile of Nancy Athfield Have you ever picked up a small stone off the ground and wondered how old it was? Chances are, that stone has been around many more years than your own lifetime. Many scientists share this curiosity about the age of inanimate objects like rocks, fossils and precious stones. Knowing how old an object is can provide valuable information about our prehistoric past. In most societies, human beings have kept track of history through writing. However, scientists are still curious about the world before writing, or even the world before humans. Studying the age of objects is our best way to piece together histories of our pre-historic past. One such method of finding the age of an object is called radiocarbon dating. This method can find the age of any object based on the kind of particles and atoms that are found inside of the object. Depending on what elements the object is composed of, radiocarbon can be a reliable way to find an object’s age. One famous specialist in this method is the researcher Nancy Athfield. Athfield studied the ancient remains found in the country of Cambodia. Many prehistoric remains were discovered by the local people of Cambodia. These objects were thought to belong to some of the original groups of humans that first came to the country of Cambodia. The remains had never been scientifically studied, so Nancy was greatly intrigued by the opportunity to use modern methods to discover the true age of these ancient objects. Athfield had this unique opportunity because her team, comprised of scientists and filmmakers, were in Cambodia working on a documentary. The team was trying to discover evidence to prove a controversial claim in history: that Cambodia was the resting place for the famous royal family of Angkor. At that time, written records and historic accounts conflicted on the true resting place. Many people across the world disagreed over where the final resting place was. For the first time, Athfield and her team had a chance to use radiocarbon dating to find new evidence. They had a chance to solve the historic mystery that many had been arguing over for years. Athfield and her team conducted radiocarbon dating of many of the ancient objects found in the historic site of Angkor Wat. Nancy found the history of Angkor went back to as early as 1620. According to historic records, the remains of the Angkor royal family were much younger than that, so this evidence cast a lot of doubt as to the status of the ancient remains. The lesearch ultimately raised more questions. If the remains were not of the royal family, then whose remains were being kept in the ancient site? Athfield’s team left Cambodia with more questions unanswered. Since Athfield’s team studied the remains, new remains have been unearthed at the ancient site of Angkor Wat, so it is possible that these new remains could be the true remains of the royal family. Nancy wished to come back to continue her research one day. In her early years, the career of Athfield was very unconventional. She didn’t start her career as a scientist. At the beginning, she would take any kind of job to pay her bills. Most of them were low-paying jobs or brief Community service opportunities. She worked often but didn’t know what path she would ultimately take. But eventually, her friend suggested that Athfield invest in getting a degree. The friend recommended that Athfield attend a nearby university. Though doubtful of her own qualifications, she applied and was eventually accepted by the school. It was there that she met Willard Libby, the inventor of radiocarbon dating. She took his class and soon had the opportunity to complete hands-on research. She soon realised that science was her passion. After graduation, she quickly found a job in a research institution. After college, Athfield’s career in science blossomed. She eventually married, and her husband landed a job at the prestigious organisation GNN. Athfield joined her husband in the same organisation, and she became a lab manager in the institution. She earned her PhD in scientific research, and completed her studies on a kind of rat when it first appeared in New Zealand. There, she created original research and found many flaws in the methods being used in New Zealand laboratories. Her research showed that the subject’s diet led to the fault in the earlier research. She was seen as an expert by her peers in New Zealand, and her opinion and expertise were widely respected. She had come a long way from her old days of working odd jobs. It seemed that Athfield’s career was finally taking off. But Athfield’s interest in scientific laboratories wasn’t her only interest. She didn’t settle down in New Zealand. Instead, she expanded her areas of expertise. Athfield eventually joined the field of Anthropology, the study of human societies, and became a well-qualified archaeologist. It was during her blossoming career as an archaeologist that Athfield became involved with the famous Cambodia project. Even as the filmmakers ran out of funding and left Cambodia, Athfield continued to stay and continue her research. In 2003, the film was finished in uncertain conclusions, but Nancy continued her research on the ancient ruins of Angkor Wat. This research was not always easy. Her research was often delayed by lack of funding, and government paperwork. Despite her struggles, she committed to finishing her research. Finally, she made a breakthrough. Using radiocarbon dating, Athfield completed a database for the materials found in Cambodia. As a newcomer to Cambodia, she lacked a complete knowledge of Cambodian geology, which made this feat even more difficult. Through steady determination and ingenuity, Athfield finally completed the database. Though many did not believe she could finish, her research now remains an influential and tremendous contribution to geological sciences in Cambodia. In the future, radiocarbon dating continues to be a valuable research skill. Athfield will be remembered as one of the first to bring this scientific method to the study of the ancient ruins of Angkor Wat. Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 1-7 on you answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true FALSE if the statement is false NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage 1 Nancy Athfield first discovered the ancient remains in Cambodia. 2 The remains found in the Cambodia was in good condition. 3 Nancy took some time off from her regular work to do research in Cambodia. 4 The Cambodia government asked Nancy to radiocarbon the remains. 5 The filmmakers aimed to find out how the Angkor was rebuilt. 6 Nancy initially doubted whether the royal family was hidden in Cambodia. 7 Nancy disproved the possibility that the remains belonged to the Angkor royal family. Complete the flow-chart below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet. The Career of Nancy Athfield During her mid-teens, Nancy wasn’t expected to attend 8…………………….. Willard Billy later helped Nancy to find that she was interested in science. Her PhD degree was researching when a kind of 9………………………., first went into New Zealand. Her research showed that the subject’s 10………………………… accounted for the fault in the earlier research. She was a professional 11………………….. before she went back to Cambodia in 2003. When she returned Cambodia, the lack of 12……………………….. was a barrier for her research. Then she compiled the 13……………………… of the Cambodia radiocarbon dating of the ancients. After that, the lack of a detailed map of the geology of Cambodia became a hindrance of her research. READING PASSAGE 2 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below. Are Artists Liars? Shortly before his death, Marlon Brando was working on a series of instructional videos about acting, to he called “Lying for a Iiving”. On the surviving footage, Brando can he seen dispensing gnomic advice on his craft to a group of enthusiastic, if somewhat bemused, Hollywood stars, including Leonardo Di Caprio and Sean Penn. Brando also recruited random people from the Los Angeles street and persuaded them to improvise (the footage is said to include a memorable scene featuring two dwarves and a giant Samoan). “If you can lie, you can act.” Brando told Jod Kaftan, a writer for Rolling Stone and one of the few people to have viewed the footage. “Are you good at lying?” asked Kaftan. “Jesus.” said Brando, “I’m fabulous at it”. Brando was not the first person to note that the line between an artist and a liar is a line one. If art is a kind of lying, then lying is a form of art, albeit of a lower order-as Oscar Wilde and Mark Twain have observed. Indeed, lying and artistic storytelling spring from a common neurological root-one that is exposed in the cases of psychiatric patients who suffer from a particular kind of impairment. Both liars and artists refuse to accept the tyranny of reality. Both carefully craft stories that are worthy of belief – a skill requiring intellectual sophistication, emotional sensitivity and physical self-control (liars are writers and performers of their own work). Such parallels are hardly coincidental, as I discovered while researching my book on lying. A case study published in 1985 by Antonio Damasio, a neurologist, tells the story of a middle-aged woman with brain damage caused by a series of strokes. She retained cognitive abilities, including coherent speech, but what she actually said was rather unpredictable. Checking her knowledge of contemporary events, Damasio asked her about the Falklands War. In the language of psychiatry, this woman was “confabulating”. Chronic confabulation is a rare type of memory problem that affects a small proportion of brain damaged people. In the literature it is defined as “the production of fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world, without the conscious intention to deceive”. Whereas amnesiacs make errors of omission, there are gaps in their recollections they find impossible to fill – confabulators make errors of commission: they make tilings up. Rather than forgetting, they are inventing. Confabulating patients are nearly always oblivious to their own condition, and will earnestly give absurdly implausible explanations of why they’re in hospital, or talking to a doctor. One patient, asked about his surgical sear, explained that during the Second World War he surprised a teenage girl who shot him three times in the head, killing him, only for surgery to bring him back to life. The same patient, when asked about his family, described how at various times they had died in his arms, or had been killed before his eyes. Others tell yet more fantastical tales, about trips to the moon, fighting alongside Alexander in India or seeing Jesus on the Cross. Confabulators aren’t out to deceive. They engage in what Morris Moseovitch, a neuropsychologist, calls “honest lying”. Uncertain and obscurely distressed by their uncertainty, they are seized by a “compulsion to narrate”: a deep-seated need to shape, order and explain what they do not understand. Chronic confabulators are often highly inventive at the verbal level, jamming together words in nonsensical but suggestive ways: one patient, when asked what happened to Queen Marie Antoinette of France, answered that she had been “suicided” by her family. In a sense, these patients are like novelists, as described by Henry James: people on whom “nothing is wasted”. Unlike writers, however, they have little or no control over their own material. The wider significance of this condition is what it tells us about ourselves. Evidently, there is a gushing river of verbal creativity in the normal human mind, from which both artistic invention and lying are drawn. We are born storytellers, spinning, narrative out of our experience and imagination, straining against the leash that keeps us tethered to reality. This is a wonderful thing; it is what gives us out ability to conceive of alternative futures and different worlds. And it helps us to understand our own lives through the entertaining stories of others. But it can lead us into trouble, particularly when we try to persuade others that our inventions are real. Most of the time, as our stories bubble up to consciousness, we exercise our cerebral censors, controlling which stories we tell, and to whom. Yet people lie for all sorts of reasons, including the fact that confabulating can be dangerously fun. During a now-famous libel case in 1996, Jonathan Aitken, a former cabinet minister, recounted a tale to illustrate the horrors he endured after a national newspaper tainted his name. The case, which stretched on for more than two years, involved a series of claims made by the Guardian about Aitken’s relationships with Saudi arms dealers, including meetings he allegedly held with them on a trip to Paris while he was a government minister. Whitt amazed many in hindsight was the sheer superfluity of the lies Aitken told during his testimony. Aitken’s case collapsed in June 1997, when the defence finally found indisputable evidence about his Paris trip. Until then, Aitken’s charm, fluency and flair for theatrical displays of sincerity looked as if they might bring him victory, they revealed that not only was Aitken’s daughter not with him that day (when he was indeed doorstepped), but also that the minister had simply got into his car and drove off, with no vehicle in pursuit. Of course, unlike Aitken, actors, playwrights and novelists are not literally attempting to deceive us, because the rules are laid out in advance: come to the theatre, or open this book, and we’ll lie to you. Perhaps this is why we fell it necessary to invent art in the first place: as a safe space into which our lies can be corralled, and channeled into something socially useful. Given the universal compulsion to tell stories, art is the best way to refine and enjoy the particularly outlandish or insight till ones. But that is not the whole story. The key way in which artistic “lies” differ from normal lies, and from the “honest lying” of chronic confabulators, is that they have a meaning and resonance beyond their creator. The liar lies on behalf of himself; the artist tell lies on behalf of everyone. If writers have a compulsion to narrate, they compel themselves to find insights about the human condition. Mario Vargas Llosa has written that novels “express a curious truth that can only he expressed in a furtive and veiled fashion, masquerading as what it is not.” Art is a lie whose secret ingredient is truth. Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs, A-F. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i Unsuccessful deceit ii Biological basis between liars and artists iii How to lie in an artistic way iv Confabulations and the exemplifiers v The distinction between artists and common liars vi The fine line between liars and artists vii The definition of confabulation viii Creativity when people lie 14 Paragraph A 15 Paragraph B 16 Paragraph C 17 Paragraph D 18 Paragraph E 19 Paragraph F Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 20-21 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of the following statements about people suffering from confabulation are true? A They have lost cognitive abilities. B They do not deliberately tell a lie. C They are normally aware of their condition D They do not have the impetus to explain what they do not understand. E They try to make up stories. Choose TWO letters, A-E. Write the correct letters in boxes 22-23 on your answer sheet. Which TWO of the following statements about playwrights and novelists are true? A They give more meaning to the stories. B They tell lies for the benefit of themselves. C They have nothing to do with the truth out there. D We can be misled by them if not careful. E We know there are lies in the content. Complete the summary below. hoose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 24-26 on your answer sheet. A 24………………………. accused Jonathan Aitken, a former cabinet minister, who was selling and buying with 25……………………… Aitken’s case collapsed in June 1997, when the defence finally found indisputable evidence about his Paris trip. He was deemed to have his 26…………………….. They revealed that not only was Aitken’s daughter not with him that day, but also that the minister had simply got into his car and drove off, with no vehicle in pursuit. You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below. What is Meaning —Why do we respond to words and symbols in the waves we do? The end, product of education, yours and mine and everybody’s, is the total pattern of reactions and possible reactions we have inside ourselves. If you did not have within you at this moment the pattern of reactions that we call “the ability to read.” you would see here only meaningless black marks on paper. Because of the trained patterns of response, you are (or are not) stirred to patriotism by martial music, your feelings of reverence are aroused by symbols of your religion, you listen more respectfully to the health advice of someone who has “MD” after his name than to that of someone who hasn’t. What I call here a “pattern of reactions”, then, is the sum total of the ways we act in response to events, to words, and to symbols. Our reaction patterns or our semantic habits, are the internal and most important residue of whatever years of education or miseducation we may have received from our parents’ conduct toward us in childhood as well as their teachings, from the formal education we may have had, from all the lectures we have listened to, from the radio programs and the movies and television shows we have experienced, from all the books and newspapers and comic strips we have read, from the conversations we have had with friends and associates, and from all our experiences. If, as the result of all these influences that make us what we are, our semantic habits are reasonably similar to those of most people around us, we are regarded as “normal,” or perhaps “dull.” If our semantic habits are noticeably different from those of others, we are regarded as “individualistic” or “original.” or, if the differences are disapproved of or viewed with alarm, as “crazy.” Semantics is sometimes defined in dictionaries as “the science of the meaning of words”— which would not be a bad definition if people didn’t assume that the search for the meanings of words begins and ends with looking them up in a dictionary. If one stops to think for a moment, it is clear that to define a word, as a dictionary does, is simply to explain the word with more words. To be thorough about defining, we should next have to define the words used in the definition, then define the words used in defining the words used in the definition and so on. Defining words with more words, in short, gets us at once into what mathematicians call an “infinite regress”. Alternatively, it can get us into the kind of run-around we sometimes encounter when we look up “impertinence” and find it defined as “impudence,” so we look up “impudence” and find it defined as “impertinence.” Yet—and here we come to another common reaction pattern—people often act as if words can be explained fully with more words. To a person who asked for a definition of jazz, Louis Armstrong is said to have replied, “Man. when you got to ask what it is, you’ll never get to know,” proving himself to be an intuitive semanticist as well as a great trumpet player. Semantics, then, does not deal with the “meaning of words” as that expression is commonly understood. P. W. Bridgman, the Nobel Prize winner and physicist, once wrote, “The true meaning of a term is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not by what he says about it.” He made an enormous contribution to science by showing that the meaning of a scientific term lies in the operations, the things done, that establish its validity, rather than in verbal definitions. Here is a simple, everyday kind of example of “operational” definition. If you say, “This table measures six feet in length,” you could prove it by taking a foot rule, performing the operation of laying it end to end while counting, “One…two…three…four…” But if you say—and revolutionists have started uprisings with just this statement “Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains!”—what operations could you perform to demonstrate its accuracy or inaccuracy? But let us carry this suggestion of “operationalism” outside the physical sciences where Bridgman applied it, and observe what “operations” people perform as the result of both the language they use and the language other people use in communicating to them. Here is a personnel manager studying an application blank. He comes to the words “Education: Harvard University,” and drops the application blank in the wastebasket (that’s the “operation”) because, as he would say if you asked him, “I don’t like Harvard men.” This is an instance of “meaning” at work—but it is not a meaning that can be found in dictionaries. If I seem to be taking a long time to explain what semantics is about, it is because I am trying, in the course of explanation, to introduce the reader to a certain way of looking at human behavior. I say human responses because, so far as we know, human beings are the only creatures that have, over and above that biological equipment which we have in common with other creatures, the additional capacity for manufacturing symbols and systems of symbols. When we react to a flag, we are not reacting simply to a piece of cloth, but to the meaning with which it has been symbolically endowed. When we react to a word, we are not reacting to a set of sounds, but to the meaning with which that set of sounds has been symbolically endowed. A basic idea in general semantics, therefore, is that the meaning of words (or other symbols) is not in the words, but in our own semantic reactions. If I were to tell a shockingly obscene story in Arabic or Hindustani or Swahili before an audience that understood only English, no one would blush or be angry; the story would be neither shocking nor obscene-induced, it would not even be a story. Likewise, the value of a dollar bill is not in the bill, but in our social agreement to accept it as a symbol of value. If that agreement were to break down through the collapse of our government, the dollar bill would become only a scrap of paper. We do not understand a dollar bill by staring at it long and hard. We understand it by observing how people act with respect to it. We understand it by understanding the social mechanisms and the loyalties that keep it meaningful. Semantics is therefore a social study, basic to all other social studies. Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 27-31 on your answer sheet. 27 What point is made in the first paragraph? A The aim of education is to teach people to read B Everybody has a different pattern of reactions. C Print only carries meaning to those who have received appropriate ways to respond. D The writers should make sure their works satisfy a variety of readers. 28 According to the second paragraph, people are judged by A the level of education. B the variety of experience. C how conventional their responses are. D complex situations. 29 What point is made in the third paragraph? A Standard ways are incapable of defining words precisely. B A dictionary is most scientific in defining words. C A dictionary should define words in as few words as possible. D Mathematicians could define words accurately. 30 What does the writer suggest by referring to Louis Armstrong? A He is an expert of language. B Music and language are similar. C He provides insights to how words are defined. D Playing trumpet is easier than defining words. 31 What does the writer intend to show about the example of “personnel manager”? A Harvard men are not necessarily competitive in the job market. B Meaning cannot always be shared by others. C The idea of operationalism does not make much sense outside the physical science. D Job applicants should take care when filling out application forms. Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 32-35 on you answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement is true FALSE if the statement is false NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage 32 Some statements are incapable of being proved or disproved. 33 Meaning that is personal to individuals is less worthy to study than shared meanings. 34 Flags and words are eliciting responses of the same reason. 35 A story can be entertaining without being understood. Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-H, below. Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet. 36 A comic strip 37 A dictionary 39 A story in a language the audience cannot understand 40 A dollar bill A is meaningless. B has lasting effects on human behaviors. C is a symbol that has lost its meaning. D can be understood only in its social context. E can provide inadequate explanation of meaning. F reflects the variability of human behaviors. G emphasizes the importance of analyzing how words were used. H suggests that certain types of behaviors carry more meanings than others. 2. NOT GIVEN 3. NOT GIVEN 6. NOT GIVEN 24. national newspaper 25. arms dealers 33. NOT GIVEN

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Literacy & Writing Skills LAMusArt’s Playmaking project approached their goals with a lot of ambition and spirit. Their program was an exciting one, aimed at engaging students ages 9 – 11 in the fundamentals of playwriting over the course of 10 weeks, culminating in a full scale performance of the student written plays by adult actors. It can be extremely difficult to schedule several adult actors to appear in one place at any one time, but in Los Angeles this difficulty can be compounded. So the fact that they were able to get 11 kids plays up and running cast with professional actors is something that on it’s own should be applauded. But before we get into what they accomplished, let’s take a dive into what goals they set out to accomplish. 1) to give underserved students in their East Los Angeles communities a public opportunity to experience success and recognition through artistic expression, authorship, and performance regardless of race or gender. 2) to aid the growth and development of each student’s important life skills, including their cognitive and emotional evolution, and their creative, academic, social, and behavioral progress by way of artistic opportunities. 3) to validate each student’s unique voice by giving them an opportunity to tell and see their own stories about their respective experiences. 4) to bridge the gap between our community and the life-affirming power of the arts, which they’ve been traditionally barred from due to barriers like language, finances, and exposure. 5) to provide students with the academic attention they lack in public schools, including inclusive and enriching creative programs and better student/adult ratios. 4) to increase student learning in fundamental theater concepts and practices. Now, a number of these goals seem a bit hard to quantify. Many of which won’t be fully known until long after the student has left the program. But, you might be surprised by the results that the parents are reporting. But we’ll get to that shortly. So how did they accomplish their goals? Over the course of 10 weeks, each student kept a notebook of their weekly writing exercises, vocabulary lessons, and understanding of key concepts. Each student was able to grasp these exercises, as proven by the completion of their original plays. Although some plays were more complex than others, every student completed a play with at least two characters and a central conflict between those characters. The driving idea that was used to emphasize dramatic storytelling was “Want. Conflict. Change.” They started the course by establishing that every character must have a strong want or wish. To move the story forward, they put characters with different wants in a scene together to establish a high-stakes conflict, in which the characters want to get in the way of each other. To resolve the story, they needed a change, from either one or both characters, or an outside force. The idea of “Want. Conflict. Change.” was interpreted in different ways by each student, resulting in wildly different, but entirely vibrant and entertaining works. And having personally attended the event I can say that what resulted was a wildly surreal night of shows. Even though their concepts were simple… or often nonsensical (like the boy and his friend, and a slice of pizza) what they demonstrated was unfiltered creativity. It’s not often that playwrights get to write without self consciousness, and while it’s doubtful that they approached it without self doubt — the final product betrayed a sense of fun, unfettered imagination, and clear encouragement to tell the story they want to tell. So where are the students now and how are they doing? According to reports from the parents, the students have seen vast improvement in all areas that the program set out to address. - 100% said they would recommend the program to others; - 100% said that the elementary school their student attends does not offer a program similar to Playmaking, which tells us the program is unique and needed in the community; - 100% said their student’s literacy and writing skills developed over the 10 week course; - 100% said their student’s listening skills developed over the 10 week course; and - 100% said their collaboration and creativity skills developed over the 10 week course. Now, I’m no math teacher, but 100% returns across the board seems to me to be pretty good results. If not pretty great. But no program is without its challenges. How can this one improve? The most notable challenge was the coordination of rehearsal time for all eleven groups of adult actors and directors. It was difficult to fit adequate rehearsal time for all eleven plays into a two week period, causing them to schedule additional rehearsals with actors and a prolonged tech period in the theater space. Another challenge they faced was giving the composer sufficient time to compose an original song for each play. Because the songs and plays were not written until Play Day, the composer was unable to read the plays and lyrics until a day before the first rehearsal, giving barely enough time to compose a new piece. They believe this can be improved by having the composer present on Play Day to aid the students in writing their lyrics. This will also give the composer a better idea of what the student has in mind stylistically for their song. Completely surmountable challenges aside, this program seems to have legs that are going to carry it into the future and help improve the confidence, writing, and collaboration skills for any students involved. Connecting lessons learned in classrooms to real world applications is one of the great challenges in teaching. Teachers and administrators at Harrison High School in Evansville, Indiana have come up with an innovative new classroom model to address that challenge. What is the CFCO? They have created the Center for Family and Community Outreach (CFCO), which aims to use student skills (built around academic content) to create documents, multimedia, events, presentations, and more for over twenty non-profit organizations in their community. Educators are able to connect students with members of the non-profit community, creating a symbiotic relationship wherein the student gains valuable real-life skills and the non-profits get a free service. Not only is it easier to engage teenage minds directly if they feel a sense of involvement and contribution towards the betterment of their community, it also helps teens build invaluable skills for the transition into their adult lives. How can service learning support non-profits and drive engagement for learners? There are many service learning projects around the country, but few, if any, that drives content in the classroom around producing products for non-profits. The CFCO model has elements of numerous trends in education, such as: - project-based learning - student-centered learning - and new technology, but is truly innovative for the level of engagement it produces for students. This program has seven distinct goals. - Research the non-profit groups and social issues in students’ communities. - Hold ‘Round Table’ discussions with local experts on special topic issues using the latest online literature and information. - Tour the non-profit facilities and volunteer with local organizations and events. - Collaborate with leaders on project ideas and write formal proposals - Use project based learning and technology to design and create materials - “Pitch” their ideas through benchmarks and final presentations - Openly communicate with the community through blogging and video reflections. Importance of Community Support Students are immersed in the tangible application of skills from the classroom, and since students know what they are doing will have a real impact on their community, it is readily apparent how seriously they take it. The program has relied on a tremendous amount of community support and is currently in it’s third year of operation. Fortunately they continue to draw in new non-profit partners based on the satisfaction of their initial partners and publicity the projects have generated for the mission of non-profits in Evansville. What is the impact? So where are the teachers and students of Harrison High School now, a year into the program? Reports have come back with very positive results, including: - Students have a sense of ownership and engagement in their work as well as their community. - Non-profit data shows that the community’s organizations have much higher perception of the schools and teens’ abilities after working with the CFCO. Moving forward they plan on moving the program to a half day model, to increase student exposure, as well as continuing to nurture community involvement and contribution. With such an easily adaptable model, educators around the country should be looking to Evansville, and Harrison High School in particular. How they proceed could very well dictate how dozens of similar programs pop up in the future. Community involvement and concrete links between lessons learned in the classroom and real world applications are key in both advancing education as well as building a student body that is invested in the present and future of their community. While the saying “It takes a village to raise a child,” has been politicized as of late, I think we can all agree that fostering a child’s investment and involvement in his or her village can only lead to positive results. For more information - What is Service Learning? - NSSE Results 2013 (teachingresearcher.wordpress.com) - Creating Space for Marginalized Voices: Re-focusing Service Learning on Community Change and Social Justice (knrajlibrary.wordpress.com) - Online Student is Set on ReStore-ing Ethics (blogs.msbcollege.edu) As we wrote earlier this year, “Among the many challenges facing us in education one of our most formidable foes is the comprehension gap, across all content areas, between students of low socioeconomic status and those of high socioeconomic status.” The multi-year project Opening Classrooms to Close the Knowledge Gap‘s goal was to enhance students’ ability to develop literacy across the diverse content areas. In the first post, we shared how teachers at School for the Future in New York City had addressed students’ ability to work autonomously through Peer Assistance and Review seminars that took place after school. In this post, we’ll look at how the project worked to build a school wide culture of Teacher-Led Professional Learning Communities. A professional study group around lesson analysis To support the goal of building this teacher-led culture, School for the Future teachers engaged in a professional study group around a shared text, John Hattie’s Visible Learning for Teachers. This book challenged their thinking and pushed the teachers into incorporating many of the exercises into their own coursework. A specific example from the book gave instructors a simple three-step process to analyze their own lessons by looking specifically at the learning intentions. - What is the outcome I am tracking progress toward? - How do I track progress toward that outcome? - How do students track progress toward that outcome? In establishing the learning intentions the teachers looked at two things; skills necessary for participation in a democratic society and skills necessary for success in secondary and post secondary school. Improving feedback on persuasive writing What did teachers choose to focus on? Persuasive writing. Although the teachers understood the need to zero in on writing performance, the students were somewhat harder to reach. To assist, teachers established another simple method of tracking student progress that included a common rubric that was used on every persuasive writing task and an online grading platform accessible to students, teachers, and parents. Every participant teacher constructed a video that encapsulated how participating in the study group enhanced their professional practice. During the first year, only 11th and 12th grade teachers participated while in the second year it was expanded to include 9th and 10th grade teachers. After the first year each of the participating instructors constructed a video encapsulating what they gained from participation and how the study group improved their professional practice. In this example, Scott Chesler, Inclusion Teacher, explains the impact of the teacher led professional development community. In the videos teachers spoke how the group led them to alter how they gave feedback to students, leading the students to get to know more about themselves as writers. Teachers noted in their annual report that they are attempting this change from the bottom up rather than the top down. For example, teachers like Stephanie Van Duinen (9th grade social studies) asked students for feedback about the course and then analyzed the information. When she learned that a signifigant group of students needed more feedback, she worked with her professional learning community members to form an action plan for providing “in the moment feedback” so that students could use the information to improve their work as soon as possible. This was a highly rewarding experience as it forced me to reexamine my beliefs about my own personal practice and think not so much about my methods of teaching but about their effectiveness. -Stephanie Van Duinen, 9th Grade Social Studies Teacher School of the Future, Manhatten, NY One teacher reported that the course helped him realize that student expectations have a high effect on performance so he reimagined his course to track individual student goals, regularly meeting with the students as he coached them forward. Jessica Candlin, 11th Grade English Teacher, presented how she used commenting features in Google Docs to support enhanced feedback for student writing in the slides below. Teacher-led collaboration creates powerful connections Although there was a certain amount of trepidation when new teachers were introduced into the program during the second year, the collaboration ultimately led to powerful connections between educators. Teachers reported they could have started earlier in the year to complete the project. While it seemed like March would be an ideal start time, as most teachers have “settled” into their schedules, it made it difficult for them to get their video materials together in time for the deadline. In the future, the teacher led professional learning community will be able to draw on the important learning experiences from this project and continue making an impact on student literacy. Explore the following articles about teacher-led learning communities to learn more. - Redefining Professional Development as Teacher-Led Professional Learning – NWEA 2013 - Teachers, Learners, Leaders – ASTD 2010 - When Teachers are the Experts – Education Week 2009 Why does this matter in real life? One of the chief complaints you hear from students is “How can I actually apply what I’m learning to the real world?” And while there is no helping Algebra in that department, there are a myriad of other subjects that can benefit from a dose of real world interaction. This is what the Digital Art Afterschool Studio is doing. It’s taking a cue from larger real world curriculum programs, such as Career Oriented Curriculum and focusing on digital artistry and community involvement. What is Career Oriented Curriculum and how can it benefit students? According to District Administration, a website focused on creative solutions for school districts: “A summer job for a 16-year-old typically involves serving coffee, scooping ice cream, or babysitting the neighborhood children. Some students at Miami-Dade County (Fla.) Public Schools, however, spent their summer vacation designing a children’s Web site for the city of Miami Beach. An increasing number of students are finding themselves mingling among professionals with internships in local businesses—the culmination of a work-based learning curriculum.” These real world experiences are invaluable to students as they do two things: - Reality Check Experiences like this show the students the real life application for what they are learning. - On the Job Experience Projects like the digital after school studio create professional connections that go beyond graduation and help move our students forward professionally. One organization with a stellar track record in this area is the National Academy Foundation (NAF). Since 1982 they have worked tirelessly with teachers and schools to create and implement career-oriented curriculum. Schools that work with the NAF will frequently require an internship with a local business before allowing the student to graduate. According to NAF: “Over 90 percent of NAF students graduate from high school, and four out of five students continue to college or postsecondary education. Of those students, 52 percent earn a bachelor’s degree.” How do you do it? So how are the teachers and students at Overton High School, where the Digital Art Studio program has been in full swing for two years, applying the idea of career oriented curriculum to their specific needs? According to their proposal “The after-school Digital Arts Studio program … enables students to build professional-level skills, as they develop their artistic portfolios. … The students will be introduced to client-based projects where they are expected to develop a working relationship with the client resulting in a marketable product.” The program operates similar to a small graphic design studio. Taking place three times a week for two hours after school, students have the opportunity to really put work into a portfolio, and increase the possibility of scholarships and if a professional internship is tacked on, some AP credit. Projects are introduced from the needs of real world clients who the students and teachers reach out to. The projects can be anything from helping a local business create a print add to designing a website for a church event. This helps create crucial bridges between the school and the community around them, ultimately strengthening both. This program has had to start small, accommodating only a few students at first. The principal and instructors consult with local ad agencies to create an interview process for students to simulate a job interview. The students selected work together to create a marketing campaign to alert the community to their presence and start soliciting clients. It is their hope that this model will, after a couple years, become self-sustaining. What is the impact of a Career Oriented Curriculum? So where are the students that have already passed through this program? Here are just a few of the success stories. - Olivia Campbell, a second year participant, was awarded a full scholarship to attend University of Tennessee’s summer program for her Digital Art exhibited in the West Tennessee Regional Art competition last winter. - Darion Beasley, King Hobson, and Maurico Farmer (all second year participants) were selected as three of the thirty-three students chosen to be represented in the Frist’s Museum’s exhibition Tennessee’s Top Young Artists. - This year’s West Tennessee Regional Art Competition just released their awards and participants currently in the program won Best Graphic Design work, Best Photographic work, and placed in several other categories. - One of the program’s participants, Cesar Pita, was just offered a $66,000 scholarship, the Presidential Scholarship, from Maryland Institute College of Art in Baltimore, one of the finest art colleges. And these are just a few stories of success as this program continues to grow. It’s clear from the work that NAF does and how Overton High School applies it to their own program that career-oriented curriculum puts students at a huge advantage over their peers that do not participate. By giving students an education grounded in reality, rather than existing in the abstract on the white board, we strengthen their chances of succeeding in the real world. Forging professional connections early on only increases the chance of future employment and education. By also giving students a personal stake in how their work is perceived by the community at large we give them the opportunity to push themselves to create something they can be proud of. Learn More with these Related Links - Career and Technical Education: Research - Linking Learning to Life - Career-Oriented Curriculum Delivers Critical Skills - Proof is in: Career-oriented education works The Bigger Picture on Holistic Writing What is Holistic Writing? So what is holistic writing and how can we apply it to our classrooms? Holistic writing is about mastering the art of looking at the big picture in its entirety before even putting pen to paper. It’s starting with the sum rather than the individual parts. Plot, characterization, grammar, cadence, all of these things are extremely important to learn individually; what’s more important is learning to use them in tandem. Even if every part is working fine on its own, if they don’t fit into the larger whole, the machine doesn’t work and the writing suffers for it. By changing how we approach teaching writing, we can impact how students comprehend material. How do you do it? So what can educators do to integrate holistic writing in the classroom? - Learn and foster a new writing process: This can include cross-genre analysis of texts, incorporating new media into their writing assignments, and fostering a collaborative writing process. - Require all students to write extensively: By writing frequently and for many purposes, learners can be comfortable writing extended prose in elementary school and onward, setting them up for success in college. Schools can aid this process by making sure they hire excellent writing teachers as well as creating a curricula that fosters writing across all content areas at every grade level. How can Holistic Writing be integrated in a Chicano Studies class? Teachers at Valley High School a public school, with a predominately Latino population, were awarded a McCarthey Dressman grant to develop a Holistic Approach to Writing. This school is in a high poverty area where most students are English Language Learners and close to 90% of them receive free lunches. Valley High School Educators decided to address student gaps in literacy by taking the holistic writing approach and integrating it into their Chicano studies class. The course is about the Chicano experience in relation to the following themes: history, identity, labor, gender and culture. While this course focuses on research and writing it takes a holistic method to teaching and learning. Students create murals, linoleum prints, and spoken word along with other forms of art. Each art piece is supported by research, a works cited page and thesis. Research skills are strengthened along with the student’s writing. In addition, students are required to construct a thesis surrounding their artwork, backed up with cited research. Instead of teaching writing and research separately, research lessons were taught throughout the year. Students were evaluated both on the artwork itself and the research that went into it. What is the impact of Holistic Writing integration? While initially it served eighty students, portions of the lessons bled over into history courses as the program moved forward. Over the three year project, they will reach 600 students and over 3,000 students will view their murals. Collaboration and teacher training has been a key factor in creating curriculum for this project. In the beginning of the project, it was necessary for the teachers to research the quality of papers at the college freshman level. Using what they learned, they developed a common rubric for the California High School Exit Examination (CAHSEE). Their program has proved very effective. The Chicano studies instructor accomplished this by collaborating with the English instructor. He brought a sense of structure and form, while the English teacher helped the students understand style. According to the report, the students participating in this method have a 79% CASHEE passing rate, as opposed to the school’s average of 59%. The students have used a multi-disiplinary approach to Chicano studies including creating pieces of art (sugar skulls, day of the dead altars, murals painted with both acrylic and aerosol paints). When this method was later applied to the World History class in the second year of implementation they found the same thing happened, 79% vs 59%. The results speak for themselves. If students are given the proper tools to excel, they will. The great thing about the holistic writing approach is that its reach far exceeds that of simple literary skills. It helps create a broader lens in which the student can view the world, their work, and ultimately themselves. Learn more about Holistic Writing Writing Now – pg. 4 Addressing the Knowledge Gap Among the many challenges facing us in education one of our most formidable foes is the comprehension gap, across all content areas, between students of low socioeconomic status and those of high socioeconomic status. E.D. Hirsch, The Case for Bringing Content Into The Language Arts Block and for a Knowledge Rich Curriculum Core for All Children American Educator, Spring 2006. [T]his neglect of [content] knowledge is a major source of inequity, at the heart of the achievement gap between America’s poor and non-poor” The Importance of Literacy Skills While there are many factors that attribute to poor performance, one of the chief offenders is a lack of literacy skills. This is often noted at the college level when students are forced to take non-credit developmental education classes just to catch up to the basics. This both demoralizes the student as well as extending the amount of time they have to spend in, and thus pay for, college. By expanding literary sources, however, we expand the sphere of knowledge surrounding the content areas. Students can gain a broader context of how a given subject fits into the larger narrative of the real world. “If they want their students to learn complex new concepts in different disciplines, they [content teachers] often have to help their students become better readers…”Chris Tovani in her text Do I Really Have to Teach Reading? Peer Assistance and Review (PAR): A Teacher Development Project Teachers need to move beyond textbooks to increase their literary skills so that they can better communicate their subject to students. So how do we get a teacher to step away from the science textbook and into some Sagan or Hawking? One of the ways we can work to address the knowledge gap is through the model of Peer Assistance and Review. In order to address inequity, our featured project at The School of the Future has done just that. With a Teacher Development Grant from McCarthey Dressman, The School of the Future helped improve the overall literacy of their teachers and subsequently their students. Supports for Improved Content Literacy for Educators and Students - Collaboratively Created Curriculum Teachers in high school met after school and collaborated to develop, create, and implement a curriculum that would enhance their students’ ability to read and write in the content areas (History, Math, Science and Technology) across the 11th and 12th grade. - Shared Texts Across Content Areas The group worked together to come up with a list of shared texts across content areas. While history and science have obvious literary sources outside the textbook, with a subject like math the teachers could study the history of math and biographies of mathematicians to give a wider scope to how the content area applies to the real world. - Content Literacy Support Included was a training program for inexperienced or ineffective teachers to improve their literacy skills across their content area, specifically focusing on grades 11-12 to start. The Difference: Educator Driven Approach The difference between this program and previous initiatives aimed at teaching reading in the content areas was that previous efforts were top down administrative mandates that focused on ensuring uniformity in how reading, whereas the current effort was focused on expanding the teacher’s actual knowledge base. Past “one size fits all” approaches to teaching reading in the content areas failed to account for the fact that students read different types of texts in every content area. The unique aspect to this program is its need for a personal “buy-in” from the teachers. Not a monetary buy-in, but those teachers who want to get involved will need to be willing to pull up their sleeves and put a little more time on the table. The Impact: Students Identify and Analyze Printed and Non-Printed Texts What have the teachers accomplished with this project? During year one, five teachers (half the 11th/12th grade team) studied professional literature in their content areas to be able to implement a plan for teaching students to independently identify and analyze multiple non-fiction printed texts and non-print texts, at the student’s own instructional level, appropriate for the content of the class. Classroom visits and observations of each other in the form of Lesson Study, analysis of student growth, refinement of practice, creation of videos, continued throughout the year. In year two, participants in year one become “Anchor” teachers and shared best practices with the half of the team that was not previously involved (“Innovator Teachers”). For year three, the 11th/12th grade teacher team will mentor the 9th/10th grade team. PAR provides teachers with the opportunity to work collaboratively to improve professional development. But it is not easy; successful implementation of PAR requires commitment, time, resources, cooperation and flexibility from the teachers involved. In successful PAR projects teachers play a key role in the support, assistance and review of their colleagues. Everyone has to pull their weight for the program to be successful Teachers can look to existing program models, such as the California Peer Assistance and Review program to get some idea on how they can best start their own. Those who have experienced it emphasize that PAR models should only be used as reference tools, not as fixed templates, which could hinder the development and implementation of plans tailored to meet individual schools and students needs and goals. Learn more about PAR

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Here are the top 30 computers & technology books for teen & young adults. Please click Read Review to read book reviews on Amazon. You can also click Find in Library to check book availability at your local library. If the default library is not correct, please follow Change Local Library to reset it. : Programming is only for kids who are good at math and science. The reality: Anyone can learn how to code. Kids with an artistic bent and curious minds can give life to technology that shapes our daily experience. Don’t believe it? Give this book a try! It will prove to be the best investment for your kids. This book teaches kids how to create animations with code. No big words or scary concepts. Only step-by-step, visual programming laced with digital art, games, and storytelling projects. It is a great art and code mixer. Animation for Kids with Scratch Programming is the perfect first taste that any budding programmer could fall in love with. This book has three sections: *Section one starts with simple projects to help students learn basic programming concepts. Those projects give students hands-on learning experience in developing their own games and animations. *Section two provides students with animation techniques to fuel their creativity and imagination. It provides them tools to create more interesting animations. *Section three guides students through four complete animations, each with its own storyboard. Kids learn how to manage the complexities of development, the interactions of multiple characters, and the timing of separate events. Many of the animation techniques introduced earlier are utilized to create these projects. This book highlights the following areas: Art and Code: Art and code go together like cookies and milk. This book leads with what kids know – art, games, and story-telling. Let them discover their Aha moments while having fun. Simplicity: No kids study grammar to figure out how to talk. They learn by talking. Why should it be different with programming? No more concept overload and wordy explanations. Start coding from day one. Projects: The book guides students to create their projects step-by-step. The instant gratification gained in each project reinforces their confidence and love for learning. Use this book in classrooms or for self-learning. Techniques: This is the 1st book focusing on animation techniques in Scratch. Kids can use it as a great reference book for building their own games and animations. Storyboard: Actions and scenes have to be planned out just like in filmmaking. This book teaches kids how to use the storyboard to guide their programming logic. Before Christmas, the first five hundred copies sold will entitle the buyers with a two-hour free webinar class. In this online class, we will walk students through the first chapter. To register for the free webinar, please go to MentorsCloud.com. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers > Programming New Eden Township is more than a dungeon for Fillion Nichols. The medieval biodome community, where Fillion is serving time, is a birthright that torments his life and threatens his future. Sealed inside the experimental Mars colony, there is no escape from anyone, especially the young woman who has haunted his thoughts for nearly six years. To preserve his sanity, he focuses on one goal – decoding the mystery behind the Watson deaths. It is a mission that shatters his distorted perceptions of reality and helps rebuild the fractured elements of his life. Meanwhile, to prove his worth to the Daughter of Earth, a young nobleman ventures beyond the walls of the biodome and experiences the Outside world for the first time. But his quest takes an unpredictable turn when he meets Lynden Nichols and Mack Ferguson, who draw him into their world – a community also confined and isolated by society. The Anime Tech Movement’s computer underground is far from the rustic, honorable life the young nobleman knows. Yet, he discovers familiar elements within the high tech subculture that may sustain the home he left behind. As worlds converge, each young man faces a choice that will affect the survival of an entire community. And to save the generation they fight for, both men must defy the boundaries of everything they know. Youth cultures collide as The Biodome Chronicles continues in a compelling quest for truth, forging an unforgettable story rich in mystery, betrayal and love. Science Fiction & Fantasy > Science Fiction > Cyberpunk Make: Getting Started with 3D Printing is a practical, informative, and inspiring book that guides readers step-by-step through understanding how this new technology will empower them to take full advantage of all it has to offer. The book includes fundamental topics such as a short history of 3D printing, the best hardware and software choices for consumers, hands-on tutorial exercises the reader can practice for free at home, and how to apply 3D printing in the readers’ life and profession. For every maker or would-be maker who is interested, or is confused, or who wants to get started in 3D printing today, this book offers methodical information that can be read, digested, and put into practice immediately! Arts & Photography > Decorative Arts & Design This book is a research paper covers everything you need to know about WebRTC and the ecosystem around it to make educated decisions about launching new initiatives using this technology. Spanning over 100 pages, this book covers in a simple language what WebRTC is, what you can and can’t do with it, how the ecosystem is divided along with many vendor stories of those who adopted WebRTC. This book is useful if you are: * An entrepreneur, seeking to start a real-time communication related initiative * A product manager, trying to understand where WebRTC fits into your planning * A decision maker, who needs to make sense of the brave new world of WebRTC The book addresses the following key questions: * What is WebRTC? * What can WebRTC do, and what can’t it do? * In which browsers and environments can WebRTC be used? * What types of vendors are adopting WebRTC and how? * In which markets is WebRTC used and with what kinds of business models? The book is free of charge curtesy of Kandy by Genband who are sponsoring it. Business & Money > Industries > Computers & Technology A LitPick.com Top Choice award winner! Adam Locke’s latest stunt finally gets him expelled from the ninth grade and shipped off to a stuffy private school. When it turns out to be an undercover organization in need of fresh operatives, he and his new classmate Emma begin their clandestine training. Intrigue, danger, and adventure follow the pair around the world as they learn how to use the gadgets, technology, and tactics at their disposal. During their country-hopping education, they uncover a grave threat to their new way of life and the organization itself. Can a pair of teenagers contend with an international criminal intent on revenge? Check out book 2 of the Adam Undercover series, ‘The Consortium Directive’ coming Fall 2016. Children’s Books > Growing Up & Facts of Life > Friendship, Social Skills & School Life > Boys & Men “It’s not that our students aren’t reading and writing, but that where and what they are reading and writing is off the school radar. We can build a bridge between the literate lives of our students outside of school and the literacies we want to teach them.” –Dana J. Wilber The power of Dana Wilber’s insight is in its simplicity. Students are texting, networking, and blogging- i.e., writing and reading- all the time, everywhere, just maybe in places we aren’t necessarily paying attention to. Build on their authentic interest and motivation using the technologies they are already committed to and you’ve won half the battle. You won’t believe how engaged they are; they won’t believe they’re learning for school. In iWrite, Dana shows you how to guide students through the complexity of new literacies, including: - how to discern between media - how to account for audience and voice - how to choose appropriate genre - and how to harness what they already know to be more successful in school. Dana deftly elucidates the lives of Millennials, those students growing up around the turn of the 21stcentury, and the technologies embedded into their everyday reading and writing. She shows us how three accessible tools-wikis, blogs, and digital storytelling -can be used to scaffold learning for our students. And she demonstrates how they can help us address 10 key issues in the literacies of today’s students: - Meaning and identity - Interest and inquiry - Cognitive development Let iWrite show you how to capture students’ daily literacy practices and develop them for the kind of writing we want them to learn. Born in 1944, Mary Gorden grew up with dreams of becoming an astronaut and a scientist. But during the 1950s and 60s traditional attitudes about women in the workplace still prevailed. Mary’s searing memories of being told girls don’t” in response to her aspirations opens this compelling memoir of her journey through the groundbreaking new world of computer programming and the computer as a business tool. After she graduated from college in Wisconsin with a degree in mathematics, Mary made her way to Washington, D.C., where she began her first programming job. She then followed her heart to San Francisco in 1969 meeting her husband along the way. With her natural gifts as a logical problem-solver, Mary excelled in her programming work. Yet she was constantly pressured to leave the technical work she loved and to go into management. It was an unusual problem for a woman to have in the 1970s. Written in a no-nonsense style, Mary recounts challenging years in management and marriage––eventually discovering that she needed to leave both. She also writes about the outdoors as her passion and escape, of the intense freedom and focus to learn horseback riding and cross-country skiing, of navigating the skies as a licensed pilot, of her world travels and her love of her horses and her dogs. Over the course of her story business computing evolves from punched cards to the beginning of the internet, and opportunities for women continue to change and grow. Biographies & Memoirs > Memoirs Small business owners often begin their businesses with limited funds, focussing on urgent matters and necessities. While we understand that starting lean is critical to long-term success, we also know that there is a lot you can do to get your business growing immediately using the tools that are available so readily today! We are here to point you in the direction of success, by using inexpensive (sometimes, even FREE!) technology that can make a huge difference for your business. Computers & Technology More and more eBay sellers are gradually turning their entrepreneurial efforts on the world’s foremost online auction site into serious business enterprises. Whether they see their eBay business as a modest addition to their revenue or a potentially fulltime venture, they need expert advice on how to do it right. Filled with in-depth, easily-understood answers readers can flip to, as-needed, this is a one-of-a-kind resource for any eBay seller. Business & Money > Industries > Retailing “Virtual World Design and Creation for Teens” shows teens like you how to develop virtual 3D worlds using the simple, visual programming language, Alice. Virtual worlds can take the form of animated stories, movies, and games. This book will teach you step-by-step how to create virtual worlds, including developing your story, setting up your world, adding and animating characters, incorporating sound, and sharing your world with others. You’ll even discover how to add strategy to your worlds so they can be used as interactive stories or games. Written in clear language using hands-on projects and exercises to teach you each new skill, this book is easy to follow at your own individual pace. Computers & Technology > Programming > Game Programming Learn to Make Great Digital Photos for 5 Bucks is a tight, bright, four-color, quick reference manual for anyone who wants to learn to use their digital camera. Written by an intelligent expert of digital photography, the text is integrated with large illustrations (either photographs or software interface shots). Brief tips or warnings at page bottom address any ancillary points not covered in the basic how-to text. There’s nothing else. Readers will quickly learn the fundamentals of using a digital camera: your camera’s basic features, how to shoot in different lighting conditions, tips for different kinds of shots (portrait, landscape, close-up), basic rules all the pros know, and more than 50 tips and secrets that help get the perfect shot, or maybe just save your day. You’ll also learn what to do with your images after you’ve imported them into your computer: managing your photo files, editing and cropping, printing, and emailing them to friends and family. This book isn’t designed to be a complete reference, but an irresistible impulse buy for people who don’t normally buy books in this area–or for people who just want to learn the basics. Arts & Photography > Photography & Video > Digital Photography Google is not only the search engine of choice for millions of users, it is an immensely powerful tool for savvy businesspeople who know how to use its advanced features. “Go Google” is a comprehensive guide to everything readers need to know about Google’s myriad applications, including Google Apps, Google Docs and Spreadsheets, Google SMS, Google Base, and other services that will help businesses get organized – and get noticed. Complete with information on research tools like Google Local, Google News, and Google Alerts, this is the ultimate guide for businesses of every size. Business & Money > Marketing & Sales > Marketing > Multilevel Comencé este libro a los 17 años de edad, pero el camino ya lo había empezado mucho antes, y del camino sé que me falta mucho recorrer. ¿Por qué 30 reglas? Pues un mes tiene en promedio 30 días, y pensé lo bueno que sería tener una regla para pensar por día, y repetirla 12 veces al año. Sé que el camino del éxito es la perseverancia, pero si le sumamos un plan ¡mejor!. Martin Luther King cuando quiso transmitir lo que sentía por en su accionar dijo, “Tengo un sueño”, y esto representa el principal motivo para este libro: ¡Tengamos un sueño!. Primero soñemos donde llegar, luego vendrán los planes y los cambios, primero soñemos. Hoy en día es muy simple copiar y pegar, entre tanto Big Data con más de 500.000 artículos creados por día a través de diferentes personas de todo el mundo. En este punto nos vemos desafiados a lograr comprender la información, filtrar la más relevante y poder transformar creando algo de valor para el otro. Nos es imprescindible derribar un mito que dice que la generación de Nativos Digitales es experta por nacimiento en el uso de las Tecnologías de la Información y la comunicación (TICs). Estudios internacionales dejaron demostrado que esta generación desconocer cómo utilizar la información que los rodea para conectar ideas y generar nuevos contenidos. Las encuestas realizadas por ICILS indicaron que un 89% de los jóvenes confían en que saben cómo obtener información de internet, pero solamente el 2% logro efectivamente pasar una prueba diferenciando el contenido relevante de aquel que era falso. Podemos remontarnos al pasado y darnos cuenta que la educación desde el Siglo XIX hasta el Siglo XXI es algo que va evolucionando de una forma lenta en comparación con el resto de los avances desarrollados por la humanidad. Es por este motivo que deseo transformarla, y preparar a todas las generaciones, en los cinco continentes para adaptarse a un contexto que cambia continuamente, con un ritmo nunca antes visto. Es prioritario traer la educación a la actualidad y lograr generar un pensamiento proactivo y anticipatorio en todas las etapas de la vida. Comprender el comportamiento de una acción, de un sueño, de una compra, es el desafío que les propongo. Los invito a leer este libro y compartir sus opiniones luego. Soñar, educar, comprender, entender… ¡comencemos! Business & Money > Small Business & Entrepreneurship > New Business Enterprises The Comprehensive edition of AutoCAD and Its Applications combines the complete contents of the Basics and Advanced editions to provide flexibility in course design and teaching approaches. This package provides a complete program for teaching introductory and second-tier AutoCAD courses. Arts & Photography > Architecture > Drafting & Presentation //WELCOME TO THE JUNGLE/ The Internet…a world without rules, without boundaries. Where you can be anyone you want, whoever you aren’t. And it’s all just a click away…. Nick Annunciato wants to impress his new girlfriend’s father. So when he flies to Key West with his own father, who’s a cookbook author and chef, and his stepsister, Annie, to attend a local food festival, he places an notice on the Internet: “I’m in Key West looking for the obvious contraband.” Nick does get a response. But what he doesn’t realize is that he has unwittingly thrown himself and Annie into a dangerous swirl of murder, mayhem, and Cuban cigars. Who is the dead man missing a hand? Can Nick and Annie find the killer before he cooks up more trouble? Will this adventure be their last? Different people in different places. The one thing they have in common is a new address on the Internet: danger.com. Where all your fears come true. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure > Mystery & Thriller Drawing from fourteen years experience, author Leanne Beitel guides teens in touch typing and basic word processing skills specifically for Christian schools and/or home schools. Keyboarding for the Christian School gives clear directions and brief assignments with the following advantages:Biblical references for each unitGives screen shot examples from Microsoft Word XPCompares APA and MLA report stylesUses inspiring sample textsIncludes timings and grading chartUtilizes commonly-used proofreader’s marksText copy is formatted in 12 point Times New Roman font for readabilityKeyboarding for the Christian School is designed for time-constrained classes, skills review, or as a supplement to computer courses. A printable e-book version of this book along with Teacher Tools to create a typing course is available at https://christiankeyboarding.com Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers Computers are everywhere, running our lives, handling our social interactions, serving as the backbone of every business. And yet, how well do we understand them? How much do we know about their rise to ubiquity? We take computers for granted, but there is a fascinating wealth of ideas waiting to be explored, a rich trail of information explaining how we got to where we are now. That trail includes grand dreams, intricate puzzles, mind-stretching concepts and a cast of colourful characters. Brown Dogs and Barbers is a story about computer science. Join me on a journey through the story of computing, discover just what makes the machines tick, learn why computers work the way they do and meet the cast of characters responsible for it all. Computers & Technology > Computer Science Millions rely on computers at work and at home, and email is a convenience that many take for granted. Information technology professionals develop, create, maintain, and operate computer-related technologies. In this book, the careers profiled include: Bioinformation; Computer animator; Computer game designer; Desktop publisher; and more. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Reference When Sanjeev’s sister runs away to join her boyfriend Raj, a crewman on a cruise ship, they get word she’s been killed in a train wreck. Sanjeev goes in search of Raj, and instead finds her sister alive, but bound and gagged aboard ship. He also discovers a multi-million dollar computer chip smuggling operation and calls on Cyber.kdz to help him track down the thieves. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure > Mystery & Thriller The Internet gives us information, communication options, shopping opportunities, entertainment, and much more–all at the touch of a fingertip and much of it for free. But in exchange for these benefits, we may be losing a basic right: the right to privacy. By clicking to accept website user agreements, we often allow companies to track our activities online and to share our data with outside groups. In addition, the police and government agencies can also track people online–and this tracking is sometimes done secretly, without user agreements or search warrants. Privacy laws and the US Constitution are supposed to protect privacy in the United States, as are laws and conventions in other parts of the world. But judicial and legal systems have not kept pace with technology. And until laws catch up, users enter a legal gray area when they communicate digitally–an arena in which their most private conversations might not be protected from intrusion. Such intrusion can be dangerous: government agencies can use information obtained via digital spying to harass, arrest, or imprison citizens. Other groups can use private digital data to discriminate in banking, retail, housing, and other businesses. Around the world, critics are sounding the alarm about digital privacy. Many have called for stricter controls on data tracking. What rights do you have when it comes to privacy online? How can you be a smart cyber citizen and protect your personal digital data? These questions are at the heart of the Internet privacy debate. Teen & Young Adult > Education & Reference > Science & Technology > Computers > Internet This insightful work combines Jeff Bezos’s life story, beginning in 1964 in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with the creation of Amazon, in 1995, and its rise as the largest online retailer in the world. Bezos’s zeal and tirelessness has seen Amazon through the inevitable ups and downs that come with building a start-uptaking it from a garage and turning it into a worldwide powerhouse. Although Bezos has wide-ranging interests and investments today, Amazon remains the cornerstone of his work life, and he is determined to keep his company at the forefront of technological and commercial innovation. The narrative includes captivating sidebars on Bezos’s life and innovations, and fact sheets on his life and the company. A timeline helps readers glean pertinent facts about Bezos and Amazon quickly. Children’s Books > Computers & Technology > Internet Bren Mickler has fallen in love at first sight! Bren tries everything to catch her dream date – right down to starting an electronic dating service for her friends. She plugs everyone’s vital stats into a program she pulled off the Web, and the trouble begins. One disasterous and often hilarious match leads to another, and Bren finds that her attempts to win love actually keep her from finding it. Just when Bren thinks she’s ruined everything, the timeless message of I Corinthians 13 envelops her heart. And the verses had been there- literally right in front of her face on the TodaysGirls Web site – the whole time! Bren learns the gifts of Godly love and friendship, discovering that “the greatest of these is love.” Computers & Technology > Computer Science When P.C. and Mackenzie are invited to join Mac’s dad on a business trip in Monaco, they are thrilled. But their luxurious vacation is cut short when a serial killer thought to be long retired suddenly strikes again…in their hotel! Computers & Technology > Software > E-mail Eighteen-year-old Joshua Amandil and his best friend Kyle Frost are two computer science majors starting their sophomore year of college. All is routine until they stumble upon a projector hidden in their apartment which opens a portal to a virtual world created by the ultra-secret Spyrius Technology. Science Fiction & Fantasy > Science Fiction – High interest/low reading level books for middle- and high-school students – Attention-grabbing opener to provide immediate visual introduction to each book – Mock dialogues to present crucial vocabulary terms in context – Compelling visuals and information to help students build a background in each topic – Real-life case studies to show scientists’ problem-solving processes – Portfolio of tools, equipment, forms, and other real materials used by experts in the field – Science as Inquiry out of the classroom and into the real world – Forensic science is a hot topic, making these books the ones teens will want to read – Highlights of key historical moments in each discipline – Current events tie-ins – Career emphasis, featuring interviews with scientists in the field Computers & Technology > Software > E-mail Adam and Emma are used to being the youngest agents in the Arcanum Trivindico. Remarkable gadgets, vehicles, and advanced training continue to hone their abilities as undercover operatives. When the US government pleads for them to engage an unhackable global crime syndicate, the students are forced to abandon their unusual education. A pair of new classmates and a dangerous assignment bring questioned loyalties and sparks of romance. As they battle their way across an unfamiliar continent, each of them will be pushed to the limit to complete their mission. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Action & Adventure There is a lot of material on Scratch Programming on the Internet, including videos, online courses, Scratch projects, and so on, but, most of it is introductory. There is very little that can take students to the next level, where they can apply their Scratch and CS concepts to exciting and challenging problems. There is also very little material that shows students how to design complex projects, and introduces them to the process of programming. This book is meant to fill these gaps. In short, this book is for students who are already familiar with Scratch: its various commands, its user interface, and how it represents a variety of CS concepts such as, variables, conditional statements, looping, and so on. The book does not attempt to teach these concepts, but, it does provide a quick introduction to each concept in the free Supplement to the book. I call this an “interactive book” because it is something between a traditional book – which is static and passive – and a fully interactive online course. It does look like a book: it has a series of chapters, diagrams, a lot of text, etc. But it also contains links to online Scratch programs, code snippets, references, which the reader is expected to click and explore to fully benefit from the ideas presented. I have organized the book as a series of independent Scratch projects – each of which describes how to design and build an interesting and challenging Scratch program. Each project progresses in stages – from a simple implementation to increasingly complex versions. You can read these chapters in any order you like, although I have tried to arrange the chapters in an increasing order of challenge. Programming is a powerful tool that can be applied to virtually any field of human endeavor. I have tried to maintain a good diversity of applications in this book. You will find the following types of projects: -Simple ball games Learn the concepts: As the experts will tell you, concepts are really understood and internalized when you apply them to solve problems. The purpose of this book is to help you apply Scratch and CS concepts to solve interesting and challenging programming problems. Every chapter lists, at the very start, the Scratch and CS concepts that you will apply while building that project. Learn the design process: Besides these technical concepts, you will also learn the “divide and conquer” approach of problem-solving. This is a fancy term for the technique of breaking down a bigger problem into many smaller problems and solving them separately one by one. You will also learn the “iterative design process” for designing programs. This is another fancy name that describes the idea that something complex can be designed in a repeated idea -> implement -> test cycle, such that in each cycle we add a little more complexity. You will also learn a bit of “project management”. Project management helps you undertake a project, such as creating a complex program, and complete it in a reasonable time, with reasonable effort, and with reasonable quality. It involves things such as planning tasks, tracking their progress, etc. Audience for the book: The book is intended for students who are already familiar with Scratch. The level of challenge is tuned for middle- and high-school students, but elementary-school students who have picked up all the concepts in an introductory course might also be able to enjoy the projects presented in this book. The book would be a great resource for teachers who teach Scratch programming. They could use the projects to teach advanced tricks of programming and to show how complex programs are designed. Finally, the book is for anyone who wants to get the wonderful taste of the entertaining and creative aspect of Computer Programming. Computers & Technology > Programming > Game Programming Book by Corrigan, Jim Biographies & Memoirs How to build 4x4x4, 8x8x8 and 8x8x8 color LED cubes with several sample programs to demonstrate them. Computers & Technology > Hardware & DIY > Peripherals Madison Finn is back online, and she’s spilling all the details on her new friend, old flame, and very unexpected crush Madison, Aimee, Fiona, and the gang are ready for a new school year, but Madison knows that nothing is ever what you expect—especially when it comes to matters of the heart. Regardless of how prepared she is, the eighth grade is going to bring a bunch of awkward new experiences and some major surprises, including a new love interest—and a very confusing love triangle! Perfect for fans of the Dork Diaries, Back Online is the newest novel in the hugely popular From the Files of Madison Finn series. Teen & Young Adult > Literature & Fiction > Social & Family Issues > Friendship Best Selling Books for teen & young adults: Recommended Books for teen & young adults: Best Selling Computers & Technology Books for: Recommended Computers & Technology Books for: Last updated: Monday, December 5, 2016 9:56 AM

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By Andreina Soto Roll over the images to learn more about them! Women performed noncombatant roles during the WWI in the U.S. and in Europe. Their presence in the war, sometimes overlooked, can be observed through a wide scope of visual culture that circulated during the years of the Great War. Photographs, postcards, and propaganda show different dimensions of the female persona during this period. They were mothers, but they were also providers; they were waiting at home, but they were also in the battlefield healing the soldiers. The visual culture and printing media that circulated during the Great War reflects the imagery towards gender roles, shows the multifaceted character of the female representations, and women’s engagement in different activities at home and overseas. Giving the inextricable relation between war and gender, the following storytelling portrays and explains some of the female representations of women during the WWI based on propaganda, photographs, and videos I have selected from digital databases related to the Great War. These resources serve to explore in more depth the role of women in the early-twentieth century U.S., which opened a road to women’s involvement in the political and public life of the country. Women became the “second line of defense” that secured the moral, social, economic, and political sustaining of the U.S. in ways the male soldiers and civil men could not achieve. As Susan Grayzel sustains, World War I was the first modern war that required the full participation of both combatants and noncombatants, altering the battlefield as well as the domestic and social spaces of the Homefront in Europe and the U.S. Even though the outcome of WWI did not radically changed the place of women in society, this epoch did had a great influence in different aspects of the domestic and public life that affected women and men. As well as the image of the country and the male soldiers highlighted the cohesion of a national identity, the visual representations of the war also relied and engaged female imagery. At the same time, the war opened new opportunities for education, employment, and national service for women in the country and overseas, performing duties as nurses, stenographers, factory workers, food producers, among others. The composition of different types of visual culture using female models, especially in propaganda, reflect this transition. This is a story about female imagery – how they were envisioned during the course of the war. This project bases on the visual analysis of different photographs and printed media -mostly propaganda- produced and circulated during the course of the Great War. In order to compile and curate the images, I have used the following digital databases: - Alma Clarke Papers Collection. Bryn Mawr College Special Collections: - Manuscript Journals of Frank R. Steed US soldier in WWI France, 1918-1919, vol. 1. Digital Library, Villanova University. - Scrapbook, Home front – Atlantic City, 1918. Digital Library, Villanova University. - World War One posters. Prints and Photographs Online Catalog of the Library of Congress. Printed media and photographs had an important role in the distribution of information by the turn of the twentieth century. Their use seems remarkable during the course of the Great War in which, for example, a great scope of newspapers, commercial photographs, postcards, and propaganda circulated worldwide to keep the population informed. To construct my story about female imagery in the war, I have incorporated different types of propaganda I have found at the Library of Congress Digital Collection, a very comprehensive database to locate printed media from U.S. and overseas from the early twentieth century. I have also used printed media and photographs from the scrapbooks of Alma Clarke, Frank Steed, and the Scrapbook from the Home Front (anonymous), who offer a personal perception of the war from the angle of three different persons who, from Europe and from Home, gathered, selected, and constructed their memories into scrapbooks. The comparative examine of these sources -propaganda and scrapbooks- allows to see collective and individual perspectives based on gender, occupation, leisure activities, social interactions, and personal values. “The Second Line of Defense” goes through a main narrative, divided in four themes. Each excerpt offers a particular view or role I have defined to understand the female imagery during the WWI: Motherland, Healers, Muses, and Providers. Each excerpt is formed by a main argument presented through a comparative analysis of different visual resources. This gives the sense of an “interactive museum,” where in each gallery the user cannot just observe the visual culture but also manipulate the images and learn through the contrast between visual and writing content. Scroll down the page to read the storytelling. You can also hover over the images to learn more information about their visual content. If you wish to know about the composition of the storytelling, click here. Meanwhile, enjoy the wonderful story of the female imagery during the WWI. Motherland: Female Symbolism of National Identity In the early-twentieth century, the battlefield was considered a place solely for the male warrior to defend his nation. Nonetheless, from a century before the image of the United States had a female face that made the call and unify the people under the same national sentiment. Her name was Columbia. Roll over the images to learn more about them! Once the thirteen colonies began to acquire a greater sense of national identity, the image of Columbia emerged to personify this new spirit. The references to Columbia date back from 1697, when Chief Justice Samuel Sewall of the Massachusetts Bay Colony wrote a poem suggesting that America’s Colonies should be called Columbina, a feminization of Christopher Columbus’ last name. But it was not until late-eighteenth century that Columbia acquired a more meaningful place in the way United States depicted itself as a nation in search for independence from Britannia, the female representation of the empire overseas. Columbia appeared for the first time in a poem written by Phillis Whatley, a former slave who wrote in 1776 during the revolutionary war. Since then, the image would become a recurrent symbol that unified the country. Columbia, as well as the national embodiment of the European countries, was inspired in Roman symbols that resembled images of mythical figures. Columbia’s physical attributes and clothes gives her the image a classic goddess. Some of the representations depict her wearing a white draped garment, but during the course of the war it is also common to see her body covered with the flag of the United States. Beside Columbia, other pseudo-mythical representations took part in the way war propaganda animated combatants and noncombatants to participate in the war. The most popular image, one that remain until our days, is Uncle Sam, who displays a male representation. Move the arrows at the center of the image to the left or to the right to appreciate the similarities and differences between Columbia and Uncle Sam! Nonetheless, we can notice Uncle Sam is almost coercive to the viewer, suggesting obedience or threat if the person fails to obey the call for duty. His use to encourage enlistment in the military and working duties during the war suggests his association with the governmental institution. Meanwhile Columbia, a softer and motherly image, would embody the virtuous and protective motherland. Throughout the propaganda from the period, it is noticed how Columbia became a more powerful symbol to enact national identity, as the voice and the face of the mother -the country- who called her sons –soldiers- and daughters –noncombatant nurses, wives, and workers- to involve in the battle, to take action. The image of Columbia was used to recruit soldiers as well as to request the help of civilians to contribute with the nation by preserving food, working as volunteers, and performing other duties, such as serving for the Red Cross. Along her, other female representations named Liberty and Victory took part in the advertising that circulated during the war. Similar to Columbia, these pseudo-goddesses also use draped garments that combined white, the colors of the U.S., and physical features of classic Roman imagery. Nonetheless, these two representations also represented other meanings. Even though they suggested patriotism, their moralizing voices called the population to engage the population in different levels. For the male population, it is common to see Victory, shoulder to shoulder, holding a sword and leading the men with bravery in the battlefield. Liberty, on the other hand, called the attention of the female and the male population in the Homefront, guiding them to produce the land, to enlist the army, to volunteer as nurses. The use of these different representations highlights the power of the WWI propaganda and shows the circulation of patriotic ideas that sought to create guilt, passion, and bravery among the U.S. population. Their representations, as well as their messages, also expose how men and women played particular roles in the war, the first seeking for victory, the seconds at home, securing the nation’s freedom. Healers: Nurses in the Battlefield Columbia called men to join the battle, but she also addressed women to travel away from home and serve as nurses and nurses’ aides for the Red Cross. The posters from the period show a predominant use of female representations, an embracing and motherly image that suggests the role of nurses as healers of the physical and moral state of the men. Others images also show nurses serving civilians, they became comforters of a context broken by the destruction of the war. Several posters depict female nurses standing aside of wounded soldiers, while others depict them taking actions holding men, performing medical assistance. There are, on the other hand, photographs of women in action, such as the images preserved in the Alma Clarke scrapbooks. The relevance of the war propaganda is evidenced in Alma Clarke’s papers. In these, she used photographs along printed media to frame her experience and perception of the war. Alma and many other U.S. American women were part of the healers that aided in the physical and moral assistance of the soldiers in the battlefield. While Alma captured her memories in a scrapbook, while other healers of the war, such as the British Vera Brittain, compiled her experience in a written memoire titled Testament of Youth. Vera Brittain was a student at Oxford when she decided to train as a nursing auxiliary. Her autobiography, Testament of Youth, records her experience before and during the Great War with profound sorrow by witnessing wounded and deceased soldiers during her time serving in England, Malta and France. Her fiancé Roland and her brother Edward died in combat. Vera published her autobiography in 1933 and it became one of the most compelling stories about the effects of the war on the women and middle-class civilians in European youth population. Muses: The War in the Domestic Space “Knowing the women he loves is safe and waiting for his return becomes far more important to the soldier that the work provided by women as comrades in arms” –Susan Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War (1999). Perhaps one of the most famous role of the women during the course of the Great War that has perpetuated until our days, is the women who stayed at home, waiting for her beloved one to return. Vera Brittain depicts part of this story, using her own voice to narrate her time in Oxford thinking about her brother and fiancé before deciding volunteering as nurse. This image of the lover, the mother, and the daughter in despair served to recruit soldiers. The messages embedded in the poster argues the necessity of men to involve in battler to defend their families and lovers, as well as for the safeguard of their male honor. It is interesting to observe how these images affect the construction of men and women that lived in flesh and blood the consequences of the war in their social and family circles. Alma Clarke’s scrapbooks, for example, puts greater emphasis in the images of nurses and nuns as mothers and caretakers. Alma’s memories frame the way in she saw herself as a noncombatant in the battlefield, how the posters of recruitment from the Red Cross highlighted their role to “heal” the damages of the war. However, Alma does not emphasize the domestic space in the same way as Frank Steed or the author, probably a man, of the Atlantic City scrapbook. The vision of these persons, which we can observe through the scrapbooks, reflect the gender and work relations in the midst of the war. These men, in Europe and in the U.S., compiled almost simultaneously media representing ideal versions of female as inspirational motifs of male heroism and in leisure environments. The women portrayed by these men always look young, radiant, and smiling. These men, unlike Clarke who relied on her heroism as a nurse in the war, utilized photographs and printed media of real-life muses to create their memories. They focus on an image of female’s positive and embracing images to maintain the spirits high in the midst of a chaotic context. But even though there were women who stayed at home, their duties went beyond the romanticized idea of the lady in despair. The propaganda that circulated in the country call the attention of the housewives to honor their men and serve their country by rationing food and donating supplies for the cause of the war. These media gives the idea women should serve a sort of penitence while men are overseas sacrificing their lives for them and for Columbia. Providers: Working Women in the Homefront While the image of Muses is very popular, the recruitment campaign during the war also aimed at involving women in different duties in the Homefront. The main goal of these tasks was to provide different means: food, weapons, information. Along with the role of nurses, this imagery of women turns empowering and provided a channel of social mobility in the public sphere of the U.S. In the absence of men, women took agency and went to the factories, to the fabrics, and to the farmland. Then, women became providers, a fundamental system that secured the well-being of the soldiers and the stability of the country. In terms of resources, the most prominent scope of propaganda targets the role of women working the land, planting the seed, and preserving food. The image from the right exposes the sentiment that the battle was not isolated in Europe, but it affected the way people saw their quotidian task in the U.S. In this case, women became “the army land,” adjudicating implicit combatant roles that addressed their importance in the production of good for the civilian and military population. The image from the left, which belongs to the “Scrapbooks – the Home Front”, reasserts the role of women as providers, as the sources of the energy that would guarantee the success of the soldiers in battle. Furthermore, the images exposes the women also in a combatant role with her duty, since she is also wearing an uniform. Even though this image seems to be more patronizing than the previous, it does give an idea on how the domestic and the public sphere merged to create the female role of provider. While the production and preservation of food appears as the most constant theme of the propaganda and printed media, there were also other two roles that increased female’s involvement in the war, as providers of weapons and providers of information. These four dimensions of female imagery -Motherland, Healers, Muses, Providers- show the multifaceted character that surrounded women’s role in the early twentieth century. They also show the transitions of women from the domestic environment of the home, preserving food, to the public spheres working shoulder to shoulder, reaffirming an active position among men, occupying positions once limited in the past, and serving as examples for the nation. Women in the Great War played important roles that preserved the national sentiments in the home front and the battlefront, that healed the soldiers physically and spiritually. Most of all, these women opened new paths for the following generations, and in the same way as WWI transformed men, countries, and governments, it also changed and reaffirmed the importance of women at family, social, and economic levels. Hopefully, this storytelling exposes how fundamental the presence of this imagined and real women was for the place female population occupies nowadays! “An Auxiliary Nurse’s Scrapbook of the Great War.” Home Before the Leaves Fall. http://wwionline.org/articles/auxiliary-nurses-scrapbooks-great-war/ “Columbia (name).” Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_%28name%29#cite_note-3 Day, Elizabeth. “Testament of Youth: Vera Britain’s classic, 80 years on.” The Guardian, 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/mar/24/vera-brittain-testament-of-youth “Enclosure: Poem by Phillis Wheatley, 26 October 1775.” Founders Online. National Archives. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-02-02-0222-0002 Fox, Jo. “Women in World War One propaganda.” British Library. http://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/women-in-world-war-one-propaganda Franke-Ruta, Garance. “When America was Female.” The Atlantic, 2013. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2013/03/when-america-was-female/273672/ Grayzel, Susan. Women’s Identities at War. Chapel Hill: UNC Press Books, 1999. “Hail Columbia! with Lyrics; First American National Anthem – United States of America.” (Video.) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPlQS1pzHdA “I Wonder Who’s Kissing Her Now Sung By Billy Murray.” (Video.) Posted by WW1 Photos. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yI_-SrIvB-4 Kim, Tae H. “Where Women Worked During World War I.” Seattle General Strike Project. https://depts.washington.edu/labhist/strike/kim.shtml#_ftn15 Marks, Ben. “Women and Children: The Secret Weapon of World War I Propaganda Posters.” Collectors Weekly, 2003. http://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/women-and-children-the-secret-weapons-of-world-war-i-propaganda-posters/ “Military Nurses in World War I.” History and Collections. Women in Military Service for America Memorial Foundation, Inc. http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/rr/s01/cw/students/leeann/historyandcollections/history/lrnmrewwinurses.html Patch, Nathaniel. “The Story of Female Yeomen during the First World War.” National Archives 38 3 (2006). http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/yeoman-f.html Pitz, Marylynne. “Hail, Miss Columbia: Once a U.S. symbol she’s lost out to Uncle Sam, Lady Liberty.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2008. http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/2008/03/18/Hail-Miss-Columbia-Once-a-U-S-symbol-she-s-lost-out-to-Uncle-Sam-Lady-Liberty/stories/200803180240 Prior, Neil. “How Land Girls helped feed Britain to victory in WW1.” BBC News, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-26238755 “Theres A Long Long Trail A Winding Sung By John McCormack.” (Video.) Posted by WW1 Photos. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DczcPkogrZU “Vera Brittain. A Short Biography.” Learn Peace. http://www.ppu.org.uk/vera/ Welch, David. “Propaganda for patriotism and nationalism.” British Library. http://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism “World War I and the American Red Cross.” American Red Cross. http://www.redcross.org/about-us/history/red-cross-american-history/WWII “World War One: The many battles faced by WW1’s nurses.” BBC News, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-26838077 Pitz, Marylynne. “Hail, Miss Columbia: Once a U.S. symbol she’s lost out to Uncle Sam, Lady Liberty.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 2008 http://www.post-gazette.com/ae/2008/03/18/Hail-Miss-Columbia-Once-a-U-S-symbol-she-s-lost-out-to-Uncle-Sam-Lady-Liberty/stories/200803180240 “Columbia (name). Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_%28name%29#cite_note-3” Prior, Neil. “How Land Girls helped feed Britain to victory in WW1.” BBC News, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-26238755; Kim, Tae H. “Where Women Worked During World War I.” Seattle General Strike Project. https://depts.washington.edu/labhist/strike/kim.shtml#_ftn15 Patch, Nathaniel. “The Story of Female Yeomen during the First World War.” National Archives 38 3 (2006). http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/fall/yeoman-f.html” target=”_blank; “World War I: 1914-1918.” Striking Women. http://www.striking-women.org/module/women-and-work/world-war-i-1914-1918 “Enclosure: Poem by Phillis Wheatley, 26 October 1775.” Founders Online. National Archives. http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-02-02-0222-0002 Susan Grayzel, Women’s Identities at War: Gender, Motherhood, and Politics in Britain and France during the First World War (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press), p. 2.

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When did the Civil War End? What was the Date and Location that the Civil War Ended? When and Where did the Civil War End? Last Battle and Final Surrender of the Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his army to General U.S. Grant, President Jefferson Davis was determined to continue the fight, but Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge, the highest ranking U.S. official to ever commit treason, said that "this has been a magnificent epic, in God's name let it not terminate in farce." When did the American Civil War end? A question that is phrased many ways and is asked from casual students to diehard Civil War buffs. The conflict that claimed some 620,000 Americans, the deadliest war in the nation's history, actually did not have a single date that hostilities ceased, but rather it consisted of an order of Confederate forces surrendering to U.S. authorities. When Lee surrendered to Grant he only surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia, one army, albeit the most significant in the field, while numerous other Confederate armies continued to remain active. Confederate President Jefferson Davis, as well as his inner circle, also refused to surrender. Lee's acquiescence signaled the beginning of the end of what many called the Lost Cause, and it would soon be followed by the capitulation of other prominent generals and their commands. The Confederacy itself could not surrender, however, because, by now, Richmond, the Southern capitol, had fallen, the government officials had fled, and many of the papers and documents of the newly formed Confederate States of America had been burned. It was now in the hands of each Rebel commander in the field to surrender his respective army as news from the East reached him. Beginning with Lee, the following are brief descriptions of how each Confederate fighting force surrendered during America’s |Last Civil War Surrender? |While Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox, the Civil War raged on... General Robert E. Lee on April 9, 1865 Having arranged a truce and sent notes to Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant requesting a meeting, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee awaited his response. Shortly after noon, April 9, Grant’s reply arrived and Lee rode into the village of Appomattox to prepare for Grant’s arrival. Lee’s aide selected the home of Wilmer Mclean. Lee waited in the parlor. At about 1:30 p.m. Grant arrived with his staff. The two generals exchanged greetings and small talk, and then Lee declared the purpose of the meeting. Grant stated, in writing, the surrender terms in an order book and handed it to Lee to read. The terms, proposed in an exchange of notes the previous day, were honorable: Surrendered officers and their troops were to be paroled and prohibited from taking up arms until properly exchanged, and arms and supplies were to be given over as captured property. After Lee had read the terms and added an omitted word, he ordered his aide to write a letter of acceptance. This concluded at about 3:45 p.m. when the generals exchanged documents. Riding back to his lines, Lee was swarmed by his adoring troops from his beloved Army of Northern Virginia, many nearly hysterical with grief. Trying to soothe them with quiet phrases—you have done all your duty. Leave the results to God, were some of the words from Lee, as he rode slowly on, followed by many who wept and implored him to say that they should fight on. The next day he issued his eloquent farewell to his army. On the morning of April 11, following a spartan breakfast and tearful good-byes from his staff, the general mounted his warhorse, Traveler, and with a Union honor guard left Appomattox for General Joseph E. Johnston on April 26, Following its strategic defeat N.C., March 21, 1865, the Confederate army of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was reduced to perhaps 30,000 effectives, less than half the size of Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's Federal command. Though the Confederates had fought well at Bentonville, their leader had no illusions about stopping his adversary's inexorable march through North Carolina. When Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield's force, joining Sherman at Goldsboro, March 24, swelled the Union ranks to 80,000, Johnston saw the end approaching. Dutifully, however, he followed Sherman's resumed march northward April 10. En route the Confederate commander learned of the evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond and of Gen. Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox. This ended his long-held hope of joining Lee to oppose the invaders of the Carolinas. Arriving near Raleigh, Johnston at first attempted to have North Carolina Gov. Zebulon B. Vance broach surrender terms to Sherman. On April 12, Johnston went to Greensboro to meet with fugitive Confederate Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom he persuaded to authorize a peace initiative. Sherman was immediately receptive to peace negotiations, and on the 17th, under a flag of truce near Durham Station, met General Johnston for the first time "although we had been interchanging shots constantly since May, 1863." The 2-day conference at the James Bennett home produced peace terms acceptable to both generals. But since these intruded on matters of civil policy (for example, recognition of the existing Southern state governments), officials in Washington quickly rejected the agreement and criticized Sherman's imprudence. Disappointed, the Federal leader informed Johnston that unless more widely acceptable terms were reached, a 4-day armistice would end on April 26. That day, however, the war-weary commanders met again at the Bennett home and thrashed out an agreement confined to military matters. At once Gen-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant wired his approval, and, May 3, Johnston's once-proud army laid down its arms, closing hostilities with the largest Confederate army east of the Mississippi River. |Gen. Johnston surrenders to Gen. Sherman |General Sherman following his March through the Carolinas (About) General Sherman with Generals Howard, Logan, Hazen, Davis, Slocum, and Mower, photographed by Mathew Brady, May 1865. William Tecumseh Sherman (February 8, 1820 – February 14 1891) was an American soldier, businessman, educator, and author. He served as a general in the United States Army during the American Civil War (1861–65), receiving both recognition for his outstanding command of military strategy, and criticism for the harshness of the "scorched earth" policies he implemented in conducting total war against the enemy. Military historian Basil Liddell Hart famously declared that Sherman was "the first modern general." Lieutenant General Richard Taylor on May 4, 1865 At war’s end, Confederate Lt. Gen. Richard Taylor, son of former U.S. President Zachary Taylor, held command of the administrative entity called the Department of Alabama, Mississippi, and East Louisiana, with some 12,000 troops. By the end of April 1865, Mobile, AL., had fallen and news had reached Taylor of the meetings between Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman. Taylor agreed to meet Maj. Gen. E.R.S. Canby for a conference a few miles north of Mobile. On April 30 the two officers established a truce, terminable after 48 hours notice by either party, then partook of a "bountiful luncheon ... with joyous poppings of champagne corks ... the first agreeable explosive sounds," Taylor wrote, "I had heard for years." A band played "Hail Columbia" and a few bars of "Dixie." The party separated: Canby went to Mobile and Taylor to his headquarters at Meridian, Miss. Two days later Taylor received news of Johnston's surrender, of Pres. Jefferson Davis's capture, and of Canby's insistence that the truce terminate. Taylor elected to surrender, which he did on May 4, 1865, at Citronelle, AL., some 40 miles north of Mobile. "At the time, no doubts as to the propriety of my course entered my mind," Taylor later asserted, "but such have since crept in." He grew to regret not having tried a last-ditch guerrilla struggle. Under the terms, officers retained their sidearms, and mounted men their horses. All property and equipment was to be turned over to the Federals, but receipts were issued. The men were paroled. Taylor retained control of the railways and river steamers to transport the troops as near as possible to their homes. He stayed with several staff officers at Meridian until the last man was gone, and then went to Mobile, joining Canby, who took Taylor by boat to the latter’s home in New Orleans. Captain Stephen Whitaker on May 12, 1865 On May 12, 1865, a Confederate force consisting of Highlanders and Indians would participate in "The Final Surrender" east of the Mississippi River. The soldiers of Company E, Walker's Battalion, Thomas' Legion of Indians and Highlanders, would sign their parole papers beginning on May 12, with the last signature recorded on May 14, 1865. Col. William H. Thomas, the legion's namesake, had surrendered days earlier on May 9. Having recently fought at Hanging Dog, in Cherokee County, Capt. Stephen Whitaker and Company E, First Battalion, were stationed at Franklin, North Carolina, but were moving toward White Sulphur Springs to reinforce Thomas when they were intercepted by the General Tillson had ordered Col. George W. Kirk and the Union 3rd North Carolina Mounted Infantry to Franklin (O.R., 1, Vol. 49, part II, p. 689), and when they approached the battalion, Whitaker, having formed a skirmish line, was prepared for battle. But when he soon received word of Thomas and Martin capitulating at nearby Waynesville, Whitaker and his company reluctantly laid down their arms and surrendered. Meanwhile, on May 10, President Jefferson Davis was captured in Irwinville, GA. On May 14 the legionnaires completed their paroles and then viewed "Whitaker roll them up, tie them, place them in a Haversack, and give them to Col. Kirk's Courier. And thus at 10 o'clock in the morning of May 14, 1865, our Civil War Soldier Life ended and our Every Day Working Life began," said John H. Stewart of the Thomas Legion. With mixed emotions, the confederates had surrendered to Kirk understanding that the fight had finally come to an end, and the reality of aftermath embraced the region. |Brig. Gen. Stand Watie |Cherokee Chief and Confederate General Stand Watie Lieutenant General E. Kirby Smith on May 26, 1865 From 1862 until the conflict ended, Confederate Lt. Gen. E. Kirby Smith commanded the Trans-Mississippi Department. By early May 1865 no significant Confederate force remained east of the Mississippi River. Smith received official proposals that the surrender of his department be negotiated. The Federals intimated that terms could be loose, but Smith’s demands were unrealistic. Smith then began planning to continue the fight. Lt. Gen. U. S. Grant took preliminary steps to prepare a force to invade West Texas should that prove necessary. It did not. The war’s last land fight occurred May 12-13, 1865, at Palmito Ranch (aka Palmito Hill, Palmetto Ranch) Texas, where 350 Confederates under Col. John S. "Rest in Peace" Ford scored a victory over 800 overconfident Federals under Col. Theodore H. Barrett. But afterward the Confederates learned that Richmond had fallen and Gen. Robert E. Lee had surrendered more than a month earlier. The news devastated their morale, and they abandoned their lines. A similar decay in morale occurred throughout the department. On May 18, Smith left by stagecoach for Houston with plans to rally the remnants of the department. While he traveled, the last of the department’s army dissolved, however. On May 26, at New Orleans, Lt. Gen. Simon B. Buckner, acting in Smith’s name, surrendered this department. Smith reached Houston on May 27 and learned that his army had evaporated. Not all of the Trans-Mississippi Confederates went home. Some 2,000 fled into Mexico; most of them went alone or in squad-sized groups, but one body numbered 300. With them, mounted on a mule, wearing a calico shirt and silk kerchief, sporting a revolver strapped to his hip and a shotgun on his saddle, was Smith. Brigadier General Stand Watie on June When the leaders of the Confederate Indians learned that the government in Richmond had fallen and the Eastern armies had been surrendered, they, too, began making their plans to seek peace with the Federal government. The chiefs convened the Grand Council June 15 and passed resolutions calling for Indian commanders to lay down their arms and for emissaries to approach Federal authorities for peace terms. The largest force in Indian Territory was commanded by Confederate Brig. Gen. Stand Watie (December 12, 1806 – September 9, 1871), who was also a chief of the Cherokee Nation. Dedicated to the Confederate cause and unwilling to admit defeat, he kept his troops in the field for nearly a month after Lt. Gen. E. Kirby Smith surrendered the Trans-Mississippi on May 26. Finally accepting the futility of continued resistance, June 23, Watie rode into Doaksville near Fort Towson in Indian Territory and surrendered his battalion of Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, and Osage Indians to Lt. Col. Asa C. Matthews, appointed a few weeks earlier to negotiate a “peace with the Indians.” Watie was the last Confederate general officer to surrender his command. Sources: Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust; Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Recommended Viewing: The Civil War - A Film by Ken Burns. Review: The Civil War - A Film by Ken Burns is the most successful public-television miniseries in American history. The 11-hour Civil War didn't just captivate a nation, reteaching to us our history in narrative terms; it actually also invented a new film language taken from its creator. When people describe documentaries using the "Ken Burns approach," its style is understood: voice-over narrators reading letters and documents dramatically and stating the writer's name at their conclusion, fresh live footage of places juxtaposed with still images (photographs, paintings, maps, prints), anecdotal interviews, and romantic musical scores taken from the era he depicts. Continued below... The Civil War uses all of these devices to evoke atmosphere and resurrect an event that many knew only from stale history books. While Burns is a historian, a researcher, and a documentarian, he's above all a gifted storyteller, and it's his narrative powers that give this chronicle its beauty, overwhelming emotion, and devastating horror. Using the words of old letters, eloquently read by a variety of celebrities, the stories of historians like Shelby Foote and rare, stained photos, Burns allows us not only to relearn and finally understand our history, but also to feel and experience it. "Hailed as a film masterpiece and landmark in historical storytelling." "[S]hould be a requirement for every Recommended Reading: The Civil War: A Narrative, by Shelby Foote (3 Volumes Set) [BOX SET] (2960 pages) (9.2 pounds). Review: This beautifully written trilogy of books on the American Civil War is not only a piece of first-rate history, but also a marvelous work of literature. Shelby Foote brings a skilled novelist's narrative power to this great epic. Many know Foote for his prominent role as a commentator on Ken Burns's PBS series about the Civil War. These three books, however, are his legacy. His southern sympathies are apparent: the first volume opens by introducing Confederate President Jefferson Davis, rather than Abraham Lincoln. But they hardly get in the way of the great story Foote tells. This hefty three volume set should be on the bookshelf of any Civil War buff. --John Miller. Continued below… Foote's comprehensive history of the Civil War includes three compelling volumes: Fort Sumter to Perryville, Fredericksburg to Meridian, and Red River to Appomattox. Collected together in a handsome boxed set, this is the perfect gift for any Civil War buff. Fort Sumter to Perryville "Here, for a certainty, is one of the great historical narratives of our century, a unique and brilliant achievement, one that must be firmly placed in the ranks of the masters." —Van Allen Bradley, Chicago "Anyone who wants to relive the Civil War, as thousands of Americans apparently do, will go through this volume with pleasure.... Years from now, Foote's monumental narrative most likely will continue to be read and remembered as a classic of its kind." —New York Herald Tribune Book Review Fredericksburg to Meridian "This, then, is narrative history—a kind of history that goes back to an older literary tradition.... The writing is superb...one of the historical and literary achievements of our time." —The Washington Post Book World with such meticulous attention to action, terrain, time, and the characters of the various commanders that I understand, at last, what happened in that battle.... Mr. Foote has an acute sense of the relative importance of events and a novelist's skill in directing the reader's attention to the men and the episodes that will influence the course of the whole war, without omitting items which are of momentary interest. His organization of facts could hardly be bettered." —Atlantic River to Appomattox "An unparalleled achievement, an American Iliad, a unique work uniting the scholarship of the historian and the high readability of the first-class novelist." "I have never read a better, more vivid, more understandable account of the savage battling between Grant's and Lee's armies.... Foote stays with the human strife and suffering, and unlike most Southern commentators, he does not take sides. In objectivity, in range, in mastery of detail in beauty of language and feeling for the people involved, this work surpasses anything else on the subject.... It stands alongside the work of the best of them." —New Republic Hardtack & Coffee or The Unwritten Story of Army Life. Description: Most histories of the Civil War focus on battles and top brass. Hardtack and Coffee is one of the few to give a vivid, detailed picture of what ordinary soldiers endured every day—in camp, on the march, at the edge of a booming, smoking hell. John D. Billings of Massachusetts enlisted in the Army of the Potomac and survived the hellish conditions as a “common foot soldier” of the American Civil War. "Billings describes an insightful account of the conflict – the experiences of every day life as a common foot-soldier – and a view of the war that is sure to score with every buff." Continued below... authenticity of his book is heightened by the many drawings that a comrade, Charles W. Reed, made while in the field. This is the story of how the Civil War soldier was recruited, provisioned, and disciplined. Described here are the types of men found in any outfit; their not very uniform uniforms; crowded tents and makeshift shelters; difficulties in keeping clean, warm, and dry; their pleasure in a cup of coffee; food rations, dominated by salt pork and the versatile cracker or hardtack; their brave pastimes in the face of death; punishments for various offenses; treatment in sick bay; firearms and signals and modes of transportation. Comprehensive and anecdotal, Hardtack and Coffee is striking for the pulse of life that runs through Recommended Reading: The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (444 pages) (Louisiana State University Press) (Updated edition) (November 2007) Description: The Life of Johnny Reb does not merely describe the battles and skirmishes fought by the Confederate foot soldier. Rather, it provides an intimate history of a soldier's daily life--the songs he sang, the foods he ate, the hopes and fears he experienced, the reasons he fought. Wiley examined countless letters, diaries, newspaper accounts, and official records to construct this frequently poignant, sometimes humorous account of the life of Johnny Reb. In a new foreword for this updated edition, Civil War expert James I. Robertson, Jr., explores the exemplary career of Bell Irvin Wiley, who championed the common folk, whom he saw as ensnared in the great conflict of the 1860s. Continued below... About Johnny Reb: "A Civil War classic."--Florida Historical Quarterly "This book deserves to be on the shelf of every Civil War modeler and enthusiast."--Model "[Wiley] has painted with skill a picture of the life of the Confederate private. . . . It is a picture that is not only by far the most complete we have ever had but perhaps the best of its kind we ever shall have."--Saturday Review of Literature Recommended Reading: Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (488 pages) (Louisiana State University Press). Description: This fascinating social history reveals that while the Yanks and the Rebs fought for very different causes, the men on both sides were very much the same. "This wonderfully interesting book is the finest memorial the Union soldier is ever likely to have. Continued below... [Wiley] has written about the Northern troops with an admirable objectivity, with sympathy and understanding and profound respect for their fighting abilities. He has also written about them with fabulous learning and considerable pace and humor. Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War, by Edwin C. Bearss (Author), James McPherson (Introduction). Description: Bearss, a former chief historian of the National Parks Service and internationally recognized American Civil War historian, chronicles 14 crucial battles, including Fort Sumter, Shiloh, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Sherman's march through the Carolinas, and Appomattox--the battles ranging between 1861 and 1865; included is an introductory chapter describing John Brown's raid in October 1859. Bearss describes the terrain, tactics, strategies, personalities, the soldiers and the commanders. (He personalizes the generals and politicians, sergeants and privates.) Continued below... The text is augmented by 80 black-and-white photographs and 19 maps. It is like touring the battlefields without leaving home. A must for every one of America's countless Civil War buffs, this major work will stand as an important reference and enduring legacy of a great historian for generations to come. "This stout volume covers not only the pivotal American Civil War battles, but also the bloodiest and costliest battles." Also available in hardcover: Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War.

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Stanza theory and conventions There are four overlapping ways of handling rhymes and stanzas in European poetry, although only the easiest one has any importance in classic English poetry. Three of these techniques are usually referred to by their Provençal name, for reasons that are unclear to anybody but some long-dead Occitanic scholar. The first one is called coblas continuadas; in it, any set of rhymed endings is restricted to a single stanza and no other one; this means that any rhyming pattern is resumed in the next stanza with a different set and generally no reference to the preceding one. In a few words, each line of a stanza only rhymes with other lines within the same stanza. This is the common way of writing poems both in English and in most other modern European languages. As virtually every rhymed English poem you can quickly think of falls into this category, the Present Author refrains from bugging you with one more example, and for that you should be grateful to Him for centuries to come. The second technique is called coblas capcaudadas; with it, one or more rhymes are carried from one stanza to the following one, so that they affect two stanzas only and not the whole work. The third and even rarer one, coblas unissonantis consists in keeping the exact same rhymes the exact same positions in all stanzas. Last but not least, there is the rime en kyrielle technique, which consists in periodically repeating an entire line. It is to be noted that some of the forms we shall analyse sometimes do not fall precisely in any one of these groups, but they can usually be assimilated to them. Furthermore, two or more techniques can be combined in the same poem: a piece written entirely in rime en kyrielle would just be a silly repetition of the same thing, for example, so that the reoccurring verses are complemented by new ones which are connected to them according to one, or more, of the three other ways of arranging verses. All this may seem complicated, but the practical cases will immediately show how elementary the underlying concepts are; what actually matters is understanding that these four basic techniques, applied according to the taste of the poet, produce the endless variety of classic verse, and that the theoretical attempts at classifying hundreds of different verse forms appear to be idle and vain when compared to the more general idea. The case of the ode, which immediately follows, is by far the most prominent. Under this tattered flag are grouped an endless number of poems made of equal stanzas in coblas continuadas. Such a poem need not be always called an 'ode', and oftentimes it is not even referred to as a verse form in itself; the rules generally applied in its construction are: Belle rose porporine che tra spine sull'aurora non aprite; ma, ministre degli amori, di bei denti custodite: Dite, rose prezïose, dite, ond'è, che s'io m'affiso nel bel guardo vivo ardente, disciogliete un bel sorriso? E' ciò forse per aïta di mia vita, che non regge alle vostr'ire? O pur è perché voi siete me mirando in sul morire? Belle rose, o feritate, del sì far la cagion sia, io vo' dire in nuovi modi ma ridete tuttavia. Se bel rio, se bell'auretta sul mattin mormorando erra; se di fiori un praticello si fa bello; noi diciam: ride la terra. Quando avvien che un zefiretto bagni il piè nell'onde chiare, sicché l'acqua in sulla rena noi diciam che ride il mare. Se giammai tra fior vermigli se tra gigli vesta l'alba un aureo velo; e su rote di zaffiro move in giro; noi diciam che ride il cielo. Ben è ver, quand'è giocondo ride il mondo, ride il ciel quand'è gioioso: ben è ver; ma non san poi fare un riso grazïoso. The easiest, basest kind of coblas continuadas (and of verse in general) is the rhyming couplet. Dearly loved by rhymesters and pop singers of all ages, this metre has become so common so quickly it actually features an impressive amount of decent, good and even masterly pieces. It is impossible to track back this verse to its origins, which are certainly to be found in the transition of Latin from a quantitative to an inflected language, and maybe even before that (hints of rhyming can be seen in some perfectly classic hexameters), but it was certainly already obsolete when the first Romance poems we know were written; in spite of that, rhyming couplets enjoyed an unrivalled popularity in the late Middle Ages, when they became the metre of the French and English lai. A rhyming couplet is simply a pair of verses, usually of the same type, rhyming with each other; several of these units are arrayed, without necessarily having any logical or phonetic interruption in between. Perhaps the true masterpiece of the kind is Verlaine's 'Effet de nuit'. La nuit. La pluie. Un ciel blafard que déchiquette De flèches et de tours à jour la silhouette D'une ville gothique éteinte au lointain gris. La plaine. Un gibet plein de pendus rabougris Secoués par le bec avide des corneilles Et dansant dans l'air noir des gigues nonpareilles, Tandis que leurs pieds sont la pâture des loups. Quelques buissons d'épine épars, et quelques houx Dressant l'horreur de leur feuillage à droite, à gauche, Sur le fuligineux fouillis d'un fond d'ébauche. Et puis, autour de trois livides prisonniers Qui vont pieds nus, un gros de hauts pertuisaniers En marche, et leurs fers droits, comme des fers de herse, Luisent à contresens des lances de l'averse. English examples are found throughout all the history of British literature, from Chaucer to Eliot, and particularly in the most shallow Cavalier poets; Marlowe's translations of Ovid' Elegies are an example of a less deleterious use of the form. Couplets are used in classic European poetry basically only in English and French; they are avoided in Italian because they sound somewhat sing-songy, and Provençal authors seemed to think of them as too primitive a device. No Spanish example is known to the Present Author, who, however, from the abysms of his ignorance in the field, cannot say whether any exist. Starting from the middle of the 19th century, an increasing number of authors wrote rhyming couplets composed of verses of arbitrary length; this form, of which the best examples are perhaps to be found in Ogden Nash's work, is not strictly a type of coblas continuadas anymore. This is merely the name given by most English authors to odes made mostly of, or to couplets made exclusively of, verses with an odd number of metrical syllables (which, as already stated in chapter one, sound sing-songy). Most rock and country lyrics fit in this definition as well. This is the first prosody manual ever, and maybe the last, revealing this truth to the people. Songs are fairly common, often treat of Springtime and/or love, and tend to be demented and annoying; songs, or fragments of them, are often included in Renaissance plays in a vain effort to wake up the onlooker: even the gloomiest Webster at times resorts to this childish device as in 'The Duchess of Malfi' (albeit he manages to be anamorphic even in that, and lengthening some verses and shortening others while keeping the general effect): Hark now every thing is still The screech-owl and whistler still Call upon our Dame, aloud And bid her quick don her shroud. Much you had of land and rent, Your length in clay's now competent. A long war disturb'd your mind, Here your perfect peace is sign'd. Of what is't fools make such vain keeping? Sin their conception, their birth weeping: Epigrams are not too clearly defined as a form; they have antique origins, being already common in decadent Latin authors, particularly Seneca and Martial. Through the influence of the latter author, epigrams were introduced in English as a type of short, rhymed metre used for trenchant humour, personal attacks, and/or triviality. Prosodically speaking, epigrams generally are made of a single stanza, often a short one; as the original Latin ones are written in distichs, English ones tend to be either made of couplets of uniform verses, or of alternated patterns of one longer and one shorter verse. An example of the former type is provided by Sir John Harrington's translation of Martial's 'To one that had meat ill dressed': King Mithridate to poysons so inur'd him As deadly poysons damage non procur'd him So you to stale vnsauorie foode and durtie, are so inur'd, as famine ne're can hurt yee. Whereas the latter type is well illustrated by the Earl of Rochester's 'On Charles II': God bless our Good and Gracious King, Whose Promise none relies on; Who never said a Foolish Thing, Nor ever did a Wise One. Famous epigrams were written by John Donne and Ben Jonson; the latter was quite prone to use this otherwise polemical form for toadying, as one can see in this example. As hinted above, the ballad is basically a barbaric involution of an ode with four lines in each stanza. The various degrees of the transition (Darwin, envy me!) are apparent in some of Robert Burns' works. Its verses usually have an easy but irregular rhythm, and they often either have eight metric syllables or four beats (or both features). The second line of each stanza rimes with the fourth, while the first and third are unrhymed (or rime with each other, but that is rare); the last one is sometimes shorter than the other three, carrying only three beats (or six metric syllables, or both). Ballads are used for storytelling, usually for melancholic and corny tales about damsels and knights; well-crafted samples of this typically 18th century form sound somewhat archaic, so that the layman uses to think it originated in mediaeval ages (during which, instead, the world 'unrhymed' was never applied to poetry by any sane man). Ballads are exclusive to English and the Scottish (non Celtic) dialect; Coleridge was certainly thinking of them when writing his 'Rhyme of the Ancient Marineer', and Keats' 'La Belle Dame Sans Merci' is definitely an example. Logically speaking, this form is the simplest possible application of the concept of coblas capifinidas: it is made by a sequence of stanzas of three verses each of the same type, of which the two extreme ones rhyme with each other, while the inner one rhymes with the first (and then also with the last) line of the next stanza, thus creating a pattern of the type: Until now, in this chapter, we have mostly been frolicking around with forms one can easily use to write a list of his desiderata at the greengrocer's shop down the lane; the Present Author is actually able to do that in a pantoum as well (although He is keeping to his promise not to flaunt His skill and shan't do it here), but freely admits it takes some time and concentration. The pantoum is a peculiarly abstruse classic Malay open form that has been introduced into French poetry by Hugo, through a translation in his 'Orientales'; the metre is so difficult that, up to today there is no example in classic literature that fits exactly in its definition, which is the following: A piece in this style, and probably the most popular pantoum ever written, is Baudelaire's 'Harmonie du Soir' A more relaxed, and therefore more popular, convention rhymes the first line with the third and the second with the fourth, producing a completely different effect, but at least dramatically easying the execution to the scheme: ABAB 2C4C 6D8D ... Albeit obviously a simplification, this second definition of pantoum is used by such poets as Banville and Laforgue and, in England, by Henry Austin Dobson, whose 'In Town' is a good example of the form. A quite widespread opinion in some (allegedly) English-speaking countries pretends pantoums are only a mean by which one can write a 'poem' of 2n+4 lines while squeezing only n+4 of them out of his miserable brains: we have too high an opinion of our Reader's tastes to irk him with examples of this kind. Pantoums are used in Malay, French and English, usually for melancholy descriptive pieces; it is quite interesting to notice that the word 'pantum' in Malay doesn't indicate any form in particular, and just means 'poem'. The virelai ancien is likely the most difficult form in coblas capifinidas ever devised. It is made of a sequence of 12-line stanzas; in each of these, lines 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 11 rime with each other and have eight metrical syllables; lines 3, 6, 9, and 12 rime with each other and have four metrical syllables. The pattern is therefore One can go on like that as long as he wishes, but the shorter lines in the last stanza must rime with the longer ones in the first. The Present author is aware that this is a terrible mess, and sorry he is unable to provide you with any example, as he himself suspects none exists (although Chaucer's virelai is in coblas capifinidas and resembles our definition a bit), and that this metre is merely a speculation. Anyway, a virelai ancien, e.g., of five stanzas would have this structure: The troubadouric song is perfectly alike to an ode, and follows the same rules with one difference: its stanzas are rhymed as coblas unissonantis rather than as coblas continuadas (refer to the first paragraph), although rhyming also within the same stanza is neither forbidden nor particularly rare; also, unlike the ode, this metre is almost invariably concluded by an envoi (by several of them, at times), which is built exactly as the other stanzas, but with a number of lines removed starting from the top (the examples will clarify this point better). The term 'troubadouric song' is appropriate to the most common usage of this form in French and, mostly, Provençal, but it is not standard, and its definition as such is probably exclusive to this guide. This type of metre was the most popular one among 'trobar clus' Provençal poets around the turn of the XII century, but has found applications in French in the same age and in Italian, although very seldom, in the late mediaeval age; the involvement of English in this form was triggered by T. S. Eliot, who shows interest for it in several works. Here are some examples: Petrarca's 'Verdi panni, sanguigni, oscuri o persi' 'Ans que sim reston de branchas' by Arnaut Daniel The second part of 'The Dry Salvages' quartet by T. S. Eliot This form has been originally devised for courtly love songs, but it has occasionally been employed for lechery, war songs and political themes -- almost everything aside from descriptions. The virelai nouveau is among the rarest metres, and one of the most unclear in its definition; there certainly are French examples, and some authors seem convinced that English and Latin ones exist as well; it only shares the first part of the name with the virelai ancien, and it is an even more difficult to write. This form starts with a couplet, ends with the same (sometimes turned upside-down), and is made of stanzas that use only two rhymes, ending alternately with one line of the starting couplet or the other. Banville's 'Virelai a mes editeurs' is a good example, and Tennyson is said to have written something in this style as well. This as far as the theory goes; actual virelais generally appear as a disorderly sequences, in which the two rhymes of the first stanza are used alternately in the other ones, and the first line also concludes every even stanza, and the poem. Probably, the most famous example is 'Je chante par couverture' by C. Pisan; a more confusing specimen is this one by Deschamps. The English poem that perhaps approaches most closely the French virelai is the short piece that concludes Chaucer's The Parliament of Foules. Of course, as said before, the many English villanelles can be regarded as virelais nouveaux as well. A form of Spanish origin, the glose has found acceptance in Central and South America as well, but has never encountered much favour in other linguistic areas. It consists of two parts: a head made of a few verses (usually four), often written by someone different from the author of the rest of the piece and a tail made of as many stanzas as the verses in the head are. Each stanza is built as a normal ode's, but must end with the corresponding verse of the head: the first stanza ends with the first verse of the head, the second stanza with the second verse and so forth. There is no general rule concerning the construction of the stanzas, except that they must be in coblas continuadas. The rondeau redoublé is, clearly, a variety of this form, so the Voiture example given in the former chapter should do for a French example; an English one has been written by Porter Garnett on a quatrain by E. Fitzgerald, while Spanish glosas range from the mystical ones by Juana Inés de la Cruz to the modern 'Ritmos negros del Perú' by singer Nicomedes Santa Cruz. 'Glosa' roughly means 'explanation' in Spanish, so that this form is practically the long unfolding of a concept contained in the few lines of the head. The character of this poem is then usually religious or philosophical and the opening lines are usually deeply gnomic. Another variation on the glose (actually, a proper one turned upside-down) is the sonnet redoublé, a sequence in which the opening lines of fourteen sonnets are combined, in order, to form a fifteenth; it was popular in Elizabethian times. |Back to the Index||Buy the book||On to Nordic Prosody|

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During the Paleolithic era, from about 35,000 years ago and over the next 25,000 years, toward the end of the last major Ice Age, Cro-Magnon’s artistic expression reached a critical mass as seen in cave paintings all over Europe, Asia, Siberia, Australia and Africa – throughout the old world. The earliest known example of deliberate patterns made by ancient humans predates Paleolithic cave art by several hundred thousand years. Identified in 2014 by an international team of scientists, the zig-zag patterned shell was carbon-dated to as far back as 430,000–540,000 years ago, which discounts the possibility that it was made by either Neanderthals or modern humans. The shell was actually found in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java by the Dutch paleontologist Eugene Dubois who discovered “Java Man,” now known as Homo erectus. It took 123 years, great advances in technology, and perhaps a change of expectation and attitude about our place in the world, before we were able to entertain the idea that abstract thought and the expression of it might possibly have existed in our pre-human ancestors – and to recognize that these shell markings were deliberately made. Such deliberate markings were until then thought to be indicative exclusively of modern cognition and behavior, originating with Homo sapiens in Africa. This find was at least four times older than what was previously the oldest known etched artefact – geometric carvings in a sample of ochre found in South Africa’s Blombos Cave. This meant the shell engravings would have to have been made by our pre-Neanderthal ancestor, Homo erectus, and pushed the origin of the ability to deliberately engrave back by at least 300,000 years. In this same period these early ancestors first recognized symbolic representation: the Acheulian figurine Tan-Tan (500,000–300,000 years old), to date the oldest known hominid representation, and the Berekhat Ram female figurine from Israel, (250,000–280,000 years old), both appear to have been created by nature, but then manually modified in places. They were the first steps to creating three-dimensional portable art that would become prevalent during the Paleolithic period. These more recent findings in no way undercut the exponential growth of the art we know as Paleolithic. But they serve to remind us that the evolution of our journey to become modern human, capable of abstract symbolic thought, was a long one – it may well have taken more than 500,000 years! By about 30,000–40,000 years ago the capacity for abstract thought and symbolic representation finally became a stable and universal capacity of the human mind and one of the universal traits that we share with all other humans. It enabled us to communicate in an unprecedented way, and build the world we know today. We were the same human beings then as we are now. Prior to this time human artistic and creative abilities existed but were far less widespread. Portable representations of the human figure have been dated as far back as 502,000 BCE from Africa and 302,000 BCE from present-day Israel. But from about 35,000 years ago, and over the next fifteen thousand years, throughout the last Ice Age, Cro-Magnon’s artistic expression reached a critical mass and spread not only all over Europe, Asia and Siberia but also appeared in Australia and Africa – throughout the old world. About 45,000 years ago Cro-Magnon developed blades and spear-throwers with a considerably greater range, velocity and penetration than earlier examples so far found. Hunters could now kill large animals from a longer, much safer, distance. With these new inventions, population densities rose in some areas, with much more contact between neighbors. Hunting technologies were quite possibly shared between groups, and so methods and tools evolved rapidly as human migrations followed reindeer and bison. Over this period our ancestors invented burins to help make tools from antlers, such as bone spears and harpoons that were often beautifully engraved and carved. They crafted small bone needles from which to fashion vital, multilayered clothing for insulation and to survive the extreme temperature fluctuations. Ornamentation symbols of kinships, status and collective identity have been found from this period. Venus figurines dating from this same period have been found over an expanse of territory from the west of Europe into Russia. This suggests that people were linked across these vast distances, communicating and developing social relationships that would be advantageous at a time when food resources were limited or depleted in specific areas. Creativity in Response to Crisis As we see throughout our human journey, creative insight and actions flower in response to problems. The most intense artistic activity happened just as the Ice Age reached its most severe (approximately 40,000–15,000 years ago), then about 10,000 years ago, it virtually disappeared as the Ice Age finally ended. This leads some anthropologists to think that our early ancestors made art to help them survive the Ice Age world. If this is true, how did it do this? For early humans living in Europe 35,000 years ago, the climate must have presented extreme hardship and been quite terrifying. Within a few years their climate transformed from one very much like our own to one more like Siberia, with brutally cold winters that eventually lasted through spring and summer. Freezing temperatures prevailed with very little respite. For years, endless snow and ice simply accumulated and deepened, covering Europe with glaciers, forcing many humans to flee, die out, and, thankfully for us, some to adapt. About 20,000 BCE the landscape was glacier-dominated. A mile-high polar ice cap enshrouded Scandinavia and most of northern Europe. Elsewhere harsh conditions favored grassland that provided fodder for large grazing mammals such as mammoth, bison, aurochs, horses, reindeer and elk. Cave Paintings: Cosmic Maintenance and The First Recorded Stories Within a 25,000-year period of the Ice Age – more than twelve times the age of Christianity – extraordinary cave art covered most of Europe, from Andalusia in Spain to the Ural Mountains of central Russia. Today we know of approximately three hundred sites, but scholars suggest there must have been thousands. Hopefully some have still to be discovered. These cave paintings, engravings and carvings are the very first record we have of our ability to create two-dimensional representations of three dimensional figures. They may well be our first recorded stories. They reveal realistic portraits of the magnificent animals our early ancestors lived alongside, perhaps preyed on, and in some cases most certainly were the prey of. Some were created possibly to show how animals were tracked, or to describe herd movements that not only aided hunting, but might also have predicted climate change. Others may have been created for reasons of “Cosmic Maintenance” functioning chiefly as part of a ritual whereby human beings connect and collaborate with the spirit world to assist in keeping the world and their survival in good working order. In Chauvet Cave (southern France) dangerous animals such as cave bears, rhinoceroses, lions and even a spotted leopard are depicted. Scholars feel that these may well have been selected for their symbolic power. Cave images have been found, such as in the Lascaux Caves in southwestern France, that appear to have pockmarks made by pointed spears, possibly thrown in a ritual to “wound” the animal and so ensure future hunting success. These artists were precise observers of the animals around them. They could define an animal’s rump, back, and body with a single line. Just a few more lines, and antlers and muscles stand out. They made use of cave cracks and protuberances. Flickering torchlight, would render the illusion of movement and three-dimensionality. These images were found in deep caves that were not used for habitation or burial. Human skeletons have been found in the large rock shelters at cave entrances, but none in the caverns below. It seems much more likely that, over thousands of years, these hidden spaces were used only for ritual practices. Hand prints, both male and female, and some quite small suggest sacred areas where men and women and even children participated in rituals of initiation. Some caves appear to have been chosen for their echo quality. Bone flutes have been found on cave floors indicating that ceremonies involving music took place. As Steven Mithen writes in Thoughtful Foragers: A Study of Prehistoric Decision Making, “This art was part of modern human ecological adaptation to their environment. The art functioned to extend human memory, to hold concepts which are difficult for minds to grasp, and to instigate creative thinking about the solution of environmental and social problems.” Some scholars suggest that elements in cave paintings found around the world can be interpreted as a regular system of symbols which may have been the origins of written language. It seems very likely that at this point in history we first began to conceive of a tiered cosmos – a world below our world and one above – and to formulate rituals to encounter forces above and below the physical world that influence our life and that might in turn be influenced by us, an idea that has been with us ever since. At this point, we can say that our ancestors, not only physically but psychologically, became modern human beings. Our need to solve problems, seeking always to innovate and improve on previous solutions, together with our quest to understand the world and our place it in – our current human journey – began then. Origin of Two Dimensional Art: Re-connecting with the Spirit World So two dimensional representational art is not an innate human ability. The cave artists were reproducing the visions they saw while in a trance state. The South African archeologist and scholar David Lewis-Williams spent years studying and explaining the method and meaning of the art of the hunter-gatherer San peoples of South Africa. His work with the San included accumulating ethnological data, neurophysiological research and an in-depth study of the rock art of South Africa. In 1995, he began a collaboration with the eminent prehistorian Jean Clottes. Together they studied 12 French caves with examples of Paleolithic parietal (or rock) art dating from the earliest Gravettian (26,000–20,000 BCE) period to the ancient, Middle and Upper Magdalenian (12000–9000 BCE). Both he and Clottes were familiar with many of the known religious traditions and art of other early peoples, for example in Siberia, the Americas and Australia. They suggest that, like the images of the San and other shamanic artists, many of these Paleolithic images were created as part of a ritual that took place in the caves in which our early ancestors re-created and re-worked their out-of-body visions. The very act of painting or engraving the images evoked these same animal spirits, or transformed shaman-spirit-animals, calling them from the underworld through the cave walls into their presence. In this way their supernatural power and the experience of it became palpable and accessible to those present. Says Lewis-Williams, “People didn’t one day invent making pictures. What happened was that people were familiar with the images that their brains were producing which were being projected onto cave walls and ceilings. And they wanted to nail down and make permanent those images, those visions that they saw.” Some images seem to have been created by spitting the ochre and charcoal onto the wall. The prehistoric art specialist Michel Lorblanchet who has reproduced elements in this way, feels that this spit-painting, common among aboriginals, may have had a symbolic significance. “Human breath, the most profound expression of a human being, literally breathes life onto a cave wall. The painter projected his being onto the rock.” Moreover, the being of the shaman artist was the animal spirit. He or she was one with the image evoked. The Shamans of Prehistory Clottes and Lewis-Williams’ investigations of the caves lead them to conclude that not only their art but the layout of the caves themselves were employed to induce, control and exploit altered states of consciousness. In this way members of the community were initiated and became the world’s first ritual practitioners, priests or shamans. As archeologist Paul G. Bahn reports in The Cambridge Illustrated History of Prehistoric Art, “… some of the art in deep caves appears to be ‘public’, being easily visible in large, readily accessible chambers. However, a great deal of it is undeniably ‘private’, in small niches, or chambers only accessible through a long journey or after negotiating difficult physical obstacles necessitating climbs, crawls or tight squeezes. There are cases – as with the famous Ice Age clay bison of France’s Tuc d’Audoubert – where the very act of making the journey and of producing the images seems to have been what mattered; the artist(s) never returned to visit their work.” To increase their chances of safety and survival, these people needed desperately to make sense of everything around them. Life and death were not hidden away, packaged and sanitized as they are in the societies of most of us, but experienced by individuals every day. It seems very likely that during this early period the spirit world and its power was more – or, at least, as – present and essential as the world of everyday life. Our early ancestors were animists, they experienced a vital spirit inherent in all things everywhere: humans, animals, plants, rocks, mountains, rivers, and the weather. Robert Wright points out in The Evolution of God that “… if you asked hunter-gatherers what their religion is, they wouldn’t know what you were talking about. The kinds of beliefs and rituals we label “religious” are so tightly interwoven into their everyday thought and action that they don’t have a word for them. We may label some of their explanations of how the world works “supernatural” and others “naturalistic,” but those are our categories, not theirs.” Their different circumstances meant that they favored different mental abilities. Areas of the brain that are now taken up with vocabularies of over 20,000 words and our ability to read them were used for different capacities they needed to survive. Language then was in its infancy, but our ancestors may well have been just as comfortable with alternate forms of communication: relying much more on their senses than we do today. The ability of all the senses to observe in detail and “read” – facial expressions, the movement of grasses and animals, the night sky; to identify sounds with accuracy – a footstep, a vocal sound, a taste, a smell, and so on – would have essential implications for safety and far-reaching consequences for survival and understanding of themselves and their world. In the book The Wind is my Mother: Life and Teachings of a Native American Shaman, the contemporary Muskogee Creek Indian shaman, Bear Heart, talks of the early days of his people: “The environment was our starting point in learning as much as we could from what was around us – the seasons, the things that grow, the animals, the birds, and various other life forms. Then we would begin the long process of trying to learn about that which is within ourselves. We didn’t have any textbooks, we didn’t have great psychiatrists who lived years ago and presented theories in this and that. We had to rely on something else, and that was our senses. Rather than through scientific investigation, we sensed those things within and around us.” The ratio of Paleolithic peoples who experienced altered states of consciousness was considerably higher than at any time in our history – initially the majority of people perhaps had this capacity. Caves and the selected areas deep within them appear to have been chosen specifically to stimulate this trance state in shamanic ritual. It was obviously highly valued, and likely shared and encouraged with all members of the group. In the 1950’s the anthropologist Lorna Marshall in her monograph Nyae Nyae !Kung Beliefs and Rights noted that about half the men in a !Kung or San camp in the Kalahari desert were shamans and about a third of the women. Sharing such an important capacity is made all the more likely when we consider that egalitarianism is key to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and survival. James Suzman’s Affluence Without Abundance: The Disappearing World of the Bushmen gives an excellent example of how far people will go to ensure it. He reminds us that meat is highly valued and yet, rather than praise the successful hunter, people went to great lengths to ensure that he didn’t see himself as above everyone else. The meat was very carefully distributed according to a strict etiquette, and in a ritual called “insulting the meat,” anyone consuming it went to great trouble to be rude about it. The insults are designed to “cool his heart and make him gentle.” Deep in the caves, in darkness or flickering torchlight, Paleolithic participants in shamanistic rituals would rhythmically move and perhaps chant. They would experience oxygen deprivation (anoxia), conditions that would destabilize them and help to induce a trance state. While in these altered states, they would communicate with the spirit worlds whose transferred power enabled them to solve a variety of problems: changing the weather, foretelling the future, healing the sick, discerning what was edible, the right time to hunt specific animals, and quite possibly predicting and controlling these animals by supernatural means. What better way to survive than to seek to understand, harmonize and possibly acquire some control over these external forces, whether they be in this or the spirit world? As Karen Armstrong says in her book The Case for God “The desire to cultivate a sense of the transcendent may be the defining human characteristic.” It began the moment we became modern man. Shaman-like activities have been perpetuated by prophets and spiritual teachers throughout our history. Zoroaster spent seven years meditating in the solitude of a mountain cave. His visionary insights were stimulated by mantras, prayers and an intoxicating drink called Haoma which was thought to grant users “temporary immortality.” Max Weber in his classic book Ancient Judaism noted that many of the Hebrew prophets exhibited shaman-like behavior, “They described visual and auditory hallucinations and abnormal sensations of taste and feeling of diverse sorts. …They felt as if they were floating…or borne through the air, they experienced clairvoyant visions of spatially distant events like, allegedly, Ezekiel in Babylon at the hour of Jerusalem’s fall. …They saw hallucinatory blinding flashes of light and in it the figures of superhuman beings.” Stephen K. Sanderson in his book Religious Evolution and the Axial Age, asserts that “Christ was the most ‘shaman-like’ of all the prophets … Christianity reproduced many elements of the shamanic tradition, and this gave it great appeal. In terms of the similarities between Christ and shamans, consider the following… - Shamans often spend periods of time in seclusion undergoing intense ordeals, during which they hone their skills; Jesus spent forty days alone in the wilderness as part of his development. - Shamans have special contact with the world of spirits; Jesus was in direct contact with God the Father. - Shamans above all heal and cure; Jesus healed the sick and the lame. - Shamans enter the world of spirits and often ascend to the sky; Jesus upon resurrection ascended to the sky. - Potential shamans often undergo an initiatory ritual death from which they are resurrected; Jesus, of course, was resurrected. - Shamans in some regions, such as Australia, undergo initiation in caves; Jesus’s body was put in a tomb and he was resurrected in this tomb. - Shamans always have spirit helpers; Jesus had helpers in the form of disciples, Christ helpers in the form of angels, etc. - In their curing rituals shamans often look for the sick person’s lost soul in order to restore it to the person; Christ saves your soul from eternal damnation.” The Prophet Mohammad used to go regularly to a mountain cave called Hira, three miles north of Mecca. There in isolation he would meditate, contemplate and pray. It was in the year 610 AD, during one of these retreats, that the Angel Gabriel first appeared before him and commanded him to “Recite.” The Three Stages of Altered Consciousness Clottes and Lewis-Williams point out that although shamanic cultures are very different from one another, there are remarkable similarities that point to a basic human universal: the way the human nervous system behaves in altered states. When they looked at how people became shamans, they found that all initiates either experience altered states involuntarily (hallucinations, visions, etc.) or took certain steps to induce them. A Native American apprentice shaman might go on a vision quest, and, through hunger, pain, intense concentration and isolation from society induce a trance state where his spirit animal helper appears to him and he is filled with its supernatural potency. A South African San man or woman who wishes to become a shaman might dance with an experienced shaman until he or she achieves a trance state. Prolonged privations, isolation, sacred places, rhythmic repetitive movements, chanting, protracted dancing, hyperventilation, intense concentration and hallucinogens are the elements selected and combined in various ways, depending upon the culture, as the individual seeks to achieve a deep trance state that connects him or her to the spirit world. The spirit encountered in this state bestows a supernatural power on the initiate. It is this power that enables an individual to function as a shaman, to address and solve the problems brought to him or her. Neurophysiological studies of the trance state have shown that three overlapping stages can be identified: In stage one, people “see” geometric forms, which can be brightly colored, flicker and pulsate, enlarging, contracting and blending one with another. Second, the geometric forms are illusioned into objects of religious or emotional significance. The third state, as Clottes and Lewis-Williams describe in The Shamans of Prehistory, “… is reached via a vortex, or tunnel. Subjects feel themselves drawn into the vortex, at the end of which is a bright light. On the sides of the vortex is a lattice derived from the geometric imagery of Stage One. In the compartments of this lattice are the first true hallucinations of people, animals, and so forth.” These are described as like projected images, floating across animated surfaces, walls and ceilings. The scholars note that what the subject “sees” in this third stage is culturally determined: people see what they expect to see. A shaman might “see” an animal spirit, a Christian mystic, her favorite saint. In this third stage hunter-gatherer societies believe that a shaman’s spirit leaves his body. Often people feel they can fly and change into birds or animals – become one with their hallucination, so to speak. Quite frequently the subject descends into the underworld. According to Clottes and Lewis-Williams, “The ubiquity among shamanic groups of beliefs concerning descent into the earth may be explained by the neurologically generated sensations of the vortex that draws people into the third and deepest stage of trance, the state in which they experience hallucinations of animals, monsters, and so forth. The vortex creates sensations of darkness, constriction, and, sometimes, difficulty in breathing. Entry into an actual hole in the ground or a cave replicates and is a physical enactment of this neuropsychological experience. … But entry into a cave does not only replicate the vortex; it may also induce altered states of consciousness. The social isolation, sensory deprivation, and cold that characterize caves are important factors in the induction of trance. During the Upper Paleolithic, entry into an actual cave may therefore have been seen as virtually the same thing as entry into deep trance via the vortex. The hallucinations induced by entry into and isolation in a cave probably combined with the images already on the walls to create a rich and animated spiritual realm. A complex link between caves and altered states seems undeniable.” So shamans universally operate within a tiered cosmos. From the everyday world, they can fly to the spirits above and descend to the spirits below. This, too, is reflected in the three-tiered world of the Paleolithic caves, selected because they would help induce the states of consciousness that connected the initiates to the spirit worlds. Over thousands of years, individuals and groups of people exploited the way each cave was structured, its topography, passages and chambers to reflect this tiered cosmos – the arched roof, the ground-level gathering places of ordinary life and the narrow passageways that lead to the caverns below. Echoes of this same idea have persisted to this day in our own religious architecture. At Lascaux (15,000 BCE) the westward facing entrance has a 12° downward slope that leads to the paintings in a large cavern known as the Hall of the Bulls. At the sunset of the Summer Solstice, the sun’s rays penetrate far into the cave and reach the Hall of the Bulls where they illuminate several already awe-inspiring paintings. This is the first evidence we have of the shaman priesthood harnessing the power of the Sun, a god that in the next Neolithic era would be similarly worshipped in environments created by our ancestors for that purpose. Daniel Smith, The Conversation Given the ubiquity of storytelling, it may perform an important adaptive role in human societies by broadcasting social norms to coordinate social behavior and promote cooperation. James Q. Jacobs With recent cave art discoveries and the accurate dating of the rock paintings, our concepts of human evolution have undergone significant transformations. Ian Sample, The Guardian Neanderthals painted on cave walls in Spain 65,000 years ago – tens of thousands of years before modern humans arrived. What cultural role did this 4.4″ tall statuette of a female figure play in society over 25,000 years ago? Robin McKie, The Guardian In Chauvet and Lascaux caves 26 specific signs are used repeatedly. These markings are no mere abstract scribbles but appear to be a code that was painted on to rock by the Cro-Magnon people, who lived in Europe 30,000 years ago. Bruce Bower, Wired 60,000 year old ostrich eggshells engraved with geometric designs demonstrates the existence of a symbolic communication system among Stone Age hunter-gatherers. Paul Goldsmith, ASC and Alan P. Garfinkel Hidden away in the canyons of a top secret military base on the edge of the Mojave Desert is the largest concentration of rock art in North America. Created over thousands of years by a now vanished culture, it represents the oldest art in California. Talking Stone explores the remote canyons and mysteries surrounding these amazing images.

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My 7th grade Language Arts students will be starting the novel, Seedfolks by Paul Feischman this week. I really wanted to do something different, like my Literature Circles. However, I only have 8 students in this intervention class, and I knew I needed to make some modifications for something like this to work this year. This new collection of Seedfolks Chapter Worksheets has 13 graphic organizers (all the same, but labeled with each character’s name.) I plan on completing the first few together, and then have them work with a partner or group on others. At some point near the end of the novel, they will do one on their own for a grade. I also made 8 different pages that look like this: Each page will ask the students to list three character traits, which is a review from earlier in the year. Also, on each page, the students will have to ask one question, as if they were talking to the character in the chapter. I’m excited to see what they come up with for this box! The box across the bottom and the box on the right-hand side are different on each of the eight pages, covering a variety of reading skills including: - Making Connections - Author’s Craft - Asking Questions - Evaluating Text My plan will be to pass a different one out to each student at the start of the chapter, and then we will discuss in a literature circle type fashion. Seedfolks is based on the concept of individuals coming together to create a community garden. My lessons will be based on the concept of a community of readers. I may just call them my “Readfolks. “ As the Resource Room teacher, I have some flexibility in choosing my novels, based on my group each year. This semester, I chose The Giver. What a wonderful book!! I’ve always loved it, and after seeing the movie, I knew this was the perfect book for my 8th graders. My thematic foundation for this nine weeks is a continuation of the 2nd nine weeks: “Opinions, Choices, and Consequences.” My students are continuing to make connections between their choices and actions and the consequences of those decisions. This life lesson is one that all young adults need to learn. As we are have just began the novel, the focus is on “Adherence to the Rules” and how the rules shape the setting, affect the characters, and create conflict. The students need to understand the general rules of the society before we move on in the story. In the first few chapters of the novel, students have been making observations and inferences and analyzing the text to predict and determine the conflict in the novel. Through the close-reading and analysis of The Giver, students will actively use reading strategies that will enhance their comprehension of the literature. The strategy I am using is called “Notice and Note.” It comes from the book Notice & Note: Strategies for Close Reading by Kylene Beers & Robert E. Probst. This is a strategy I read about over Christmas break. The strategy prompts students to seek 6 different signals from the author. Over the course of the novel, students will learn to use these signposts independently as they read. The Signposts include: - Contrasts and Contradictions - Again and Again - Memory Moments - Words of the Wiser - Aha Moment - Tough Questions I did not purchase the book which was a little pricey. Between Pinterest and some general research I was able to piece things together and find a way to make the strategy work for my students. So far, so great. I can’t think of a more perfect book to introduce this strategy. The first three chapters alone are full of examples of Contrasts and Contradictions, Again and Again, and Memory Moments. It has been very exciting watching my students’ hands shoot up in the air as I read something that needs to be marked. Right now, as a class, they have a lot of questions: What is going on in this community? Why are there so many rules? Who made up these rules? Why don’t the people think it’s strange? When does this book take place? Is this our future? Some students caught on very quickly and only needed a day to understand the signposts, which I introduced one at a time. (We’ve only covered the first three so far.) Others are having a little more difficulty, but through guided practice and a lot of discussion, I see more and more students participating with confidence. I typically read a short passage from the chapter out loud. When I see several students marking their books, I pause and we talk. One thing I’ve noticed is my students aren’t highlighting EVERYTHING like they typically do. They are searching and listening for specific pieces of information (the signposts) which helps them really focus on what’s happening in the novel. As I hand out assignments for community work or dwelling work (more on this later), I remind students to look at the annotations they’ve already made in their books because that is where they will likely find the answers to important questions. If you are in need of something simple and applicable to all novels, “Notice and Note” may be a strategy that works for you. Do you use Notice and Note in your classroom? Have you purchased the book? Is it worth the pricetag? I would love to hear your thoughts! To improve reading comprehension, I will often ask students to make connections to their own lives. This simple handout works for any text. (See the links at the end of this post.) I have edited this handout several times to get the responses I want. Four things I’ve learned about this activity that are worth sharing: 1. Avoid any sort of question that allows students to find a loophole. Does this text remind you of anything in your own life?” Is this text similar to anything you’ve read before? What does this text remind you of from tv, the news, or Channel One? My students were quick to figure out they could write “No,” “Nope,” “Yes”, or “Nothing really” as an answer. 2. Require students to give a specific example from the text. Otherwise, you’ll get answers like these: “She did the same thing I did.” “When I had a dog.” “Yesterday on Channel One they said the same thing.” 3. Two out of three isn’t bad. For some of my IEP students, I allow them to choose two of the three connections. This allows them to have a choice and is a slight modification that still requires them to think about what they have read. 4. It’s important for students to share their responses. Sharing can be a whole group discussion, a pairing of students, or a rotation. Allowing students to share does two things. First, it sends the message that their connection is important. Secondly, it gives others an opportunity to look at things from a different perspective or spark their own connection if they had trouble. PDFs for you to download: Making Text Connections – This is the basic template following the ACE model. Making Text Connections with LINES – This is a modified version for students who need the lines to write on. The prompt is slightly different. This is the version my Alternate Assessment students received. How do you get students to make a personal connection to a text? What do you do if your students aren’t big readers and don’t have a lot of texts to connect to? How do you explain text-to-world? (This is so difficult for my class!) Share your thoughts in the comments! When I was working on my master’s degree online I remember reading an entire article and thinking “What did I just read?” I also do that when I’m reading my 7th graders’ Social Studies book! I know my students zone out, exhaust themselves with decoding, or simply struggle with comprehension itself. Not a new strategy, but new-to-me, I introduced a modified version of Say Something for my Resource Room. Here is how my version goes: Phase 1:To introduce this strategy, I chose an article in a Scholastic magazine. “Use your right hand and cover the first part of the text. That is approximately how much I am going to read to you before I stop. This is a reasonable chunk of text. When I am done reading you will have to Say Something. 1) Ask a question. 2) State a fact. 3) Make a prediction. If you cannot do any of those three things, I will have to read it again, until you can.” With only ten students, this is doable and everyone gets to Say Something. I modeled this with several chunks of text. It only took one time of me rereading for all the students to be able to comment. Phase 2: Have students read a small chunk with a partner and respond. Again, modeling may be necessary. Phase 3: Have students read a small chunk silently and then, as a class, ask them to respond. This strategy really forces the reader/listener to be engaged and think about what is being read. Knowing that they will have the opportunity to discuss and share after reading just a short selection keeps them interested as well. I don’t use all the suggested prompts for my Resource Room, but I think I could introduce more response options over time. I just wanted to keep it simple as we started. Did I explain this well enough? Let’s try it! Say Something in the comments! You know how you get coupons online or via text and they burn a hole in your pocket? A few weeks ago I had a 50% off for Joann‘s. Our local Joann’s is small and lacking in everything. However, there is a larger store up north and my friend and I often make a stop there when we get together. How excited I was to find this bulletin board display in the teacher aisle! Cool motivational posters based on Guinness World Records. Each poster has a brief blurb at the bottom about the record. Having just finished up my iPad training, it all hit me super fast! This will be a great kick-off to the year. I have a huge bulletin board in the back of the room and these posters are definitely conversation starters. I can introduce the iPads with some QR codes and simple writing prompts with Show Me or Explain Everything. And….the best part? It naturally leads right into our first novel, When Zachary Beaver Came to Town. The whole story revolves around the “fattest boy in the world”, Zachary Beaver, and the effect he has on two young boys one summer. While I am just starting to put a plan in place, I thought I would share some of the ideas I have come across. As we know all too well, the first few weeks of school never go exactly like you think they will. Writing and Language - Use these images for great journal prompts or story starters. - Adapt these lesson ideas created for ESL learners to meet the needs of your students. (Reading, grammar, speaking, and writing activities – I plan to use them all!) - Try these four free samples for reading comprehension. - Downloaded an 18 page free sample PDF of the 2013 Guinness book and put it in iBooks/Subtext. For use with the iPads - Check out the Augmented Reality feature in the 2013 edition (I know my students will love this.) - This web quest isn’t quite updated to the current Guinness site but the activities are still good. Teamwork and Cooperative Learning - This Goal-Makers, Record-Breakers lesson plan has students plan for their own sports related record-breaking ideas. (I feel like there needs to be a disclaimer like “Don’t try this at home!”) - Maybe geared a little more towards STEM courses, this Strong Structures lesson plan would be another good cooperative activity. Lastly, a short promo for the book: To go along with my Prezi, I decided to create mini-lessons for the five text structures. The plan was to spend one day on each, using the Prezi as an intro, taking notes in the Text Structure Flip Book I created, and then doing corresponding activities. The activities took me a little longer than five days but ended up making a great unit. I used many of the graphic organizers from a PDF I found online (Comprehension and Text Structure Graphic Organizers) I also used many of the nonfiction reading selections from www.readworks.org. Here are some highlights from each mini-lesson. Students used a graphic organizer that really helped them think spatially as they described our classroom. I gave students the option of describing their bedroom if they wanted to. Compare and Contrast For this lesson students rotated in groups to three different stations. Each station had a nonfiction selection from ReadWorks.org. I picked a variety of Lexiles and highlighted some text features like footnotes, headings, bold words, and captions. At each station they had to record three details showing similarities and differences. I used the questions that come with the selections the following day as a review of test taking strategies on the SMART Board. Cause and Effect I used the cards and activity that begins on page 29. I cut the cards and students picked one from the bag. They then wrote their “cause” statement on their paper. I played some music and students walked around until the music stopped. They plopped down and wrote one “effect” on the paper. We repeated this process about 5 or 6 times and each time the students had to read all of the effects listed and come up with something different. I loved the creativity of some of their responses and they loved walking around and writing on their classmates papers. Sequence or Process Writing For sequence writing, I used three nonfiction selections spread out over a few days. We completed these individually just like we would the OAA – I read the directions and questions, they read the selection, and I repeated the directions (per their IEP accommodations). This provided some practice and forced them to pay attention to detail and read headings. - The Scientific Method 600L - Scientific method questions - Colorful Crayons 630 - Crayons questions - Magellan Was First 790 - Magellan questions Problem and Solution I turned this mini-lesson into a speaking/listening/social skills lesson where students had to rotate with small groups to 6 different “problems.” For each problem they had to come up with a good solution and they had to use a signal word from the list on the Prezi in their response. After reading some of their solutions, I realized we needed to work on some of our social skills so I will be coming back to this activity later this week. The final activity was a matching activity and part of the PDF file. Wow! That is a lot of information. I hope I provided enough information to show the variety of the lessons. The last thing I wanted to do was bore them with a bunch of worksheets but with the OAA coming up tomorrow I wanted to be sure to cover a lot. And on THAT note….I should probably wrap this up and relax a little before the fun starts tomorrow! If you happen to be in Ohio, or are taking any sort of achievement tests this week….Good luck! It’s all downhill from here! Each week my Resource Room students have to complete a reading passage and comprehension questions at their specific ability level. This ranges anywhere from Beginning-Low to Intermediate-High. I like to use stories from ReadTheory. Students are expected to complete these one page readings independently. The last few times we did this activity, I made them circle the text that supported their answer. This forced them to go back, locate the “evidence” and confirm their answer. I’m happy, and not suprised, to say their scores have drastically improved since I starting enforcing this rule. To get the most out of this leveled reading I created an additional activity which students have been completing in groups. On the first page, students have to identify: On the second page I decided to throw in some grammar/language and vocabulary. Note the small boxes in the right hand corner of each. This is where I can modify the assignment for each student. I put a number in each box to tell them how many nouns, verbs, and adjectives they need to find. I do the same for the vocabulary words. This activity takes them quite awhile and is very challenging for this group of students. I direct them to their journal notes or the Part of Speech bulletin board to figure out what they are looking for. It takes about 20-25 minutes for most groups to complete it. This provides me with some time to circulate and talk to all the students and note what they are having trouble with. It also gives me time to point out things like capitalization of names and cities. The way I designed this, it can work with any short story. If you think of any ways to improve or to add additional skills let me know. - Summarizing Short Stories: Story Elements and Conflict (allaccesspassblog.wordpress.com) I found out yesterday I will be teaching a multi-grade level Language Arts Resource Room this fall. I will have a dozen 6th, 7th, and 8th graders for 84 minutes a day 1st and 2nd period. And as this is the first year of this class, I have to come up with the curriculum and materials! Here are 10 of my first 100 thoughts: - I still get to teach my own class! - The first class of the day? This could be good…or bad. - How do I fill 84 minutes? - How do I teach 3 grade levels at the same time? - How will 8th graders and 6th graders get along? - I’ve never taught 7th grade! - There are so many possibilities! - Where do I start? - I can’t wait to start figuring it out! I will admit, I spent 30 minutes grumbling/stressing/freaking to Admiral Bodee on the phone (he reminded me I like challenges like this) and then another hour grumbling/stressing/freaking to Captain Algebra who is on vacation. Then I painted my nails, took a drive to the pharmacy, cleared my head, took a deep breath, and I got down to business. My first goal was to find a series of printable resources that could be used as bell ringer or transition activities. I am not a huge fan of worksheets, but with 84 minutes I know I will need to break class up with group work, independent work, and whole class activities. I plan to use the things I found in a variety of ways. For example, I like to take worksheet content and put one question per page on a SMART Notebook file. Then students use dry erase boards to show their work. No paper and pencil needed. Here are the jewels I found this afternoon all on one related site: English for Everyone – This website has almost 40 categories with tons of free printable worksheets. With answers! There are beginning, intermediate, and some advanced levels. English Maven – This specific site takes about half of the above categories and includes interactive activities that could be used on individual computers or the SMARTBoard. Some are exactly the same as the worksheets in terms of questions. Some are different. You do not have to register to use it. ReadTheory – The link will take you to the BETA page with a big “Coming Soon” at the top. At the bottom is a link to the current webpage for reading comprehension resources. There are three levels (Beginning, Intermediate, and Advanced) and all of the stories can be completed online or printed out. It includes short stories at all three levels and informational selections for the beginning levels. It just did a spot check, but it looks like there is audio for all the stories through the low-intermediate level as well. My next mission: To find a novel that none of them have read in previous years that is appropriate. I’m thinking around a 4th grade reading level??? Do you teach a multi-grade level class? Do you have any great online resources for Language Arts? Can you recommend any novels? For the past three years I have taught Language Arts 8 in a Resource Room setting. Working with students with decoding and reading comprehension skills below grade-level, I am forced to modify the materials and curriculum used by the other Language Arts teachers. Choosing reading material isn’t always easy – it must be high interest and low readability. I feel like I have a pretty good choice of novels and selections from the text book that cover everything I need to cover. The four novels I read during the school year are *With the exception of Stargirl, the general education teachers at my grade level use these exact same novels. However, with the adoption of the Common Core, I am faced with a decision. All because of increased lexile bands. According to the Common Core State Standards Initiative, the lexile levels will increase for each grade level band. 6th-8th graders who were previously reading in the 860L–1010L range but will now be expected to read in the 955L–1155L range. While the jump is not earth shattering for high ability readers, it is significant for students with reading disabilities. Look again at the novels I use with my students with disabilities: According to the lexile levels, only one of these books falls into the new range for 8th graders. In fact, three of these books are apparently in the range for 2nd and 3rd graders! If you haven’t read The Outsiders or The Giver, there are definitely some scenes that are not appropriate for 7-8 year olds. (I do understand the the Common Core is not recommending students at that grade level read these particular books, but you must get what I am saying.) So does that mean that we ditch the books that have been middle school “classics” for years? The content is appropriate and the literary elements are there. I’ve seen these books make non-readers read because of the story lines. I’ve seen non-readers take these books home or ask if they can keep a copy because they love them. I’ve had students say that their parents are now reading these books because they’ve raved about them so much. In my mind, these books are keepers! My frustration is in the fact that some people think that these novels, because of their lexile levels, must be thrown out. How can I justify not using three of the four books I have built my curriculum around? Especially when these novels are perfect for the students I work with. At this point, I plan to use these novels and supplement with increasingly more difficult text as my students are able to handle it. Supposedly, we will be getting some software that will allow us to determine a student’s reading range. This should be helpful in writing the IEP and planning instruction, but will I be allowed to use these novels with 8th graders? That answer will hopefully come when we receive additional training in the Common Core later this summer. How do you feel about the new lexiles and the Common Core? Would you discard a classic novel that is grade appropriate because of its lexile? How will you select your novels as your district adopts the Common Core?

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Making meaning is central to children’s emergent literacy development. Comprehending texts and expressing ideas using various media are capacities that children develop gradually throughout early childhood and formal schooling. This learning focus page explores: - how most texts are multimodal: - allowing children to use multiple literacies to make meaning - for example visual, musical, kinaesthetic, digital, as well as emergent reading and writing: - children’s emergent reading comprehension - emergent written expression and how these can be developed and supported by educators. They become aware of the relationships between oral and visual representations, and recognise patterns and relationships… Young children begin to explore written communication by scribbling, drawing and producing approximations of writing. Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework (2016) Outcome 5 This learning focus concerns the process of meaning making within the four resources model (Freebody and Luke, 1990), where children engage in making meaning from texts, and create meaning within their own texts. This learning focus differs from exploring and creating texts, which is concerned with the functions and purposes of texts; that is how they are used (as per the four resources model: Freebody and Luke, 1990). The importance of making meaning and expressing ideas in texts Emergent reading comprehension and written expression are dependent on children’s developing capacities (Fellowes and Oakley, 2014): - first and foremost, children’s meaning making of images and other symbol systems (art, music, dance, and play/drama) (Wright, 2012) - various oral language skills including concept development and vocabulary, grammar, and narrative comprehension - emergent literacy skills (scaffolded by adults) like concepts of print, early phonological awareness, early letter-sound awareness (phonics), and knowledge of text types (genres). The first and second of the above capacities are considered to be more innate to children (Piaget, 1923, 2009): The human child is endowed with ingenuity and symbol-making propensities to go beyond reality as immediate experience. By using the symbol systems of art, music, dance, and play/drama, children manipulate images and concepts, thus joining with others who share a culture…Wright (2012, p. 2) In contrast, emergent literacy development requires a combination of child-led, guided, and adult-led learning to build these important capacities (VEYLDF Practice Principle: Integrated Teaching and Learning Approaches). Making meaning and expressing ideas through texts is an important learning focus because of the crucial role that educators play to bring the texts to life. Educators can achieve this during reading and writing experiences, by scaffolding children’s emergent reading comprehension (making meaning from texts) and emergent written expression (expressing ideas through texts). Meaning can be conveyed in multiple modes (written language, spoken language, visual, audio, gestural, and tactile and spatial systems of meaning) (Kalantzis, Cope, Chan, and Dalley-Trim, 2016). Multimodal texts are those that combine two or more of these modes to create meaning, for example picture books, films, posters, web pages and oral storytelling. As small children, we lived in a multimodal world. We discovered that art was a language with as much communication power as speech. Later we learned, like oral language, that the arts could act as a bridge to reading and writing and that music and movement had the same potential for contributing to our expression of meaning and self. Crafton, Silvers and Brennan (2017, p. 68) Some argue that as informational communication technologies develop and change communication, literacy can no longer be thought of as just a language-based phenomenon (Jewitt, 2008, p.241). Therefore, children’s engagement with multimodal texts is valued and fundamental to meaning making even without the reading comprehension or written expression of “traditional literacy” (reading and writing). The engagement with and creation of multimodal texts is critical to children’s development in and of itself, but also as important precursors to their reading and writing development (Saracho, 2017; Puranik and Lonigan, 2011). Symbols, signs, and texts Researchers interested in how meaning making systems work discuss how all texts (be they visual, musical, written, verbal or otherwise) contain signs and symbols that can be interpreted to make meaning. Children become attuned to these symbols, as they: …recognise the function and value of visual elements and use them to symbolise meaning, for example using colour in painting to express emotions. VEYLDF (2016) Outcome 5 Visual literacy is the capacity to make meaning from still and moving image texts, including picture books, art, non-fiction books, posters, comic strips, animations, film clips, web pages, advertisements, graphic novels, and more (Callow, 2013). Some examples of signs/symbols in texts are: - artwork that conveys different emotions through the use of colour, darkness - music that uses volume and a combination of instruments to express a sense of power - video footage that uses slow motion at a crucial point in the story, to convey a sense of importance or anticipation - body language and movement that communicates (for example, a sense of feeling proud and excited) - descriptive language in a story that represents a character as scary. By paying attention to and highlighting the linguistic, visual (and multimodal) aspects of texts during emergent literacy experiences, educators can support children to engage with texts using multiple modes of communication. Archie and the Bear is fictional picture storybook with much of the meaning of the story communicated through illustrations. The author uses size, perspective, colour, and texture to communicate the emotions and relationship between the characters. Meaning making and reading comprehension A useful definition of comprehension for early childhood purposes is provided by Fellowes and Oakley (2014, p. 297): …we define comprehension as a complex, dynamic and strategic process that involves the reader using prior knowledge about the world, about language and about texts to construct and extract meaning from texts. Through reading experiences with adults, children begin to independently make meaning, tuning into symbolic systems. Using book reading as an example, these systems develop from: - the tactile (touch and feel, interactive books) - auditory (bells, whistles, crackles on books) - and visual (illustrations, photos) - to the verbal (reader telling story) and written (interpreting letters and beginning to recognise words). This use of the “signs” within texts to make meaning is acknowledged in the VEYLDF, as children: …learn to recognise how sounds are represented alphabetically and identify some letter sounds, symbols, characters and signs. As children continue to build their skills in reading printed text from left to right and top to bottom (in English language households), they use information in context from pictures and other sources to assist in making meaning. VEYLDF (2016) Outcome 5 Here the developmental milestones for emergent reading comprehension are provided, along with an explanation of the types of comprehension, and ways of facilitating comprehension while reading with children. Emergent reading comprehension - key developmental milestones The following ages and stages are a guide that reflects broad developmental norms, but does not limit the expectations for every child (see VEYLDF Practice Principle: High expectations for every child). It is always important to understand children’s learning and development as a continuum of growth, irrespective of their age. Adapted from Owens (2015). Early communicators (birth - 18 months): - enjoy shared book reading - enjoy nursery rhymes and songs - may attempt to sing or chant rhymes/songs - may pretend to read while others are reading. Early language users (12 - 36 months): - learn to recognise name in print - recognising environmental print and its meaning - enjoy reading with adults - may engage (independently) in “reading-like behaviours” with familiar books/texts, using memory of the print, and recognition of concepts using pictures - make meaning from texts with scaffolding by adults. Language and emergent literacy learners (30 - 60 months): - make meaning from texts with adult support, and independently by using context of illustrations and other media - towards age five, start to recognise certain high frequency words in context (i.e. with picture, or as part of a rhyme), and use these to help make meaning along with other contextual information. Types of comprehension In early childhood, three kinds of comprehension are discussed (literal, inferential and evaluative), with the literal being the primary type of comprehension for young children. Literal comprehension is understanding what is being communicated directly in a text (i.e. the who, what, when, where, how, why). Children use their emergent literacy skills (as well as other symbol systems) to make literal meanings from what is being communicated in the text by the author. Some question stems that educators can use to check for literal comprehension include: - what can you see on this page? - tell me about what is happening here........? - show me the … - what is........? - what happened.........? - how did.........? - how far.........? - how many.........? Inferential comprehension involves children finding clues and hints within the text. It requires children to use their prior knowledge and the available information in the text to make an inference (informed guess) about what is being communicated by the author. Some question stems that educators can use to facilitate and scaffold inferential comprehension include: - what do you think happened? - what do you think will happen next? - why did........? - why is........? - why do you think that.......? - can you explain........? - what caused........? - what do you think ........ means? - why is ........ important? Evaluative comprehension involves children thinking outside of the text and considering the bigger picture. It asks children what they think of the features, characters, actions, situations, endings of a text; what their favourite, or least favourite parts/characters/features are, and why. Some question stems that educators can use to facilitate and scaffold inferential comprehension include: - do you think.......? - do you like.......? - why do you think........? - what would happen if.........? - how do you feel about.........? - why do you like/not like........? - if you were........what would you do? Because emergent reading comprehension (and meaning making in general) is complex, it relies on the development of multiple sets of skills. Fellowes and Oakley (2014, p. 295) remind us of the importance of the: … knowledge of the syntax [grammar] and vocabulary of the language (in this case, English), which children initially gain through oral language experiences… Facilitating comprehension of texts is therefore supported by engaging children in rich learning experiences to develop their oral language. In line with Freebody and Luke’s (1990) Four Resources model, code-related emergent literacy skills are also important to develop. Finally, the discussions that educators engage children in before, during, and after reading/viewing texts are also important: It is extremely beneficial to talk about the meanings of the texts read aloud and to help children notice and think about features of the language used. Fellowes and Oakley (2014, p. 295) The main pedagogical strategies for talking about texts with children in early childhood settings include: - activating and using prior knowledge - asking and answering questions - summarising and synthesising. See the teaching practice reading with children (emergent literacy) for explanations of these pedagogical strategies. Drawing as written expression Writing is a complex form of communication. A key developmental transition is when children realise that speech/language can be written down, and that marks on a page, or strokes on a keyboard communicate a message (Mackenzie, 2014). The Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework (VEYLDF, 2016) takes a broad view of the ways that children engage in emergent written expression: Children are effective communicators. Their communication and self-expression take many forms including sharing stories and symbols from their own culture, re-enacting well-known stories and using creative arts, such as drawing, painting and sculpture, drama, dance, movement and music to communicate with others. VEYLDF (2016) Outcome 5 In this toolkit, children’s drawing is a primary form of written expression that precedes and encourages the development of conventional writing at the commencement of formal schooling. This view is supported by numerous early childhood literacy researchers: Dyson (1986), for example, recognised that children’s drawing was an integral piece to children’s emergent literacy practice, one of many symbol systems afforded to young children in their efforts to become textual meaning-makers. Dyson’s work is encompassed by a more refined view of literacy that … consider[s] how children come to use different symbol systems, or modalities, as a way of communicating meaning. Sunday (2017, p. 87) Australian research by Mackenzie (2011) has also highlighted the importance of drawing as written expression. Facilitating children’s drawing experiences are opportunities to engage in the earliest forms of written expression, as well as learning about the artform of drawing: If teachers encourage and value drawing they can build a bridge between children’s prior-to-school experiences, a current system of meaning making and the new system of writing. Mackenzie (2011, p. 338) This research shows that as well as facilitating oral language, drawings can act as an anchor for children’s ideas as they begin to experiment with letters and engage in emergent writing activities (Mackenzie, 2011). Drawing is an important facilitator of written/visual expression that enhances and encourages the emergence of later (more traditional) forms of writing, towards the commencement of formal schooling. In this way writing becomes a parallel means of meaning making rather than a replacement for the drawing and talking they already do so well when they arrive at school. Mackenzie (2011, p. 338) Taking this view of drawing as a central way of scaffolding children’s written expression, the following key developmental milestones for written expression are provided, as well as links to relevant teaching practices (writing with children, fine arts – emergent literacy). Emergent written expression Key developmental milestones The following ages and stages are a guide that reflects broad developmental norms, but does not limit the expectations for every child. It is always important to understand children’s learning and development as a continuum of growth, irrespective of their age. The following is adapted from Mackenzie (2014) and Mackenzie and Scull (2015). It should be noted that determining a “sequence” of emergent writing skills is not always possible (Mackenzie, 2011), and that these milestones vary considerably between children and depend significantly on the writing opportunities that children have been provided. Early communicators (birth–18 months): - notice others’ writing - start to engage in mark marking. Early language users (12- 36 months): - engage in mark marking with various tools(pens, pencils, textas, crayons, paints, and electronic devices) - engage in mark making in an intentional, exploratory way, which often resembles scribbling - learning that marks and print have meaning, and carry messages. Language and emergent literacy learners (30 - 60 months): - start to show awareness that writing is different to drawing - start to create drawings that are meaningful to them - begin to show signs of mark making in a straight line (linearity), and right-to-left (orientation) patterns - start to produce drawings with separate letter-like characters included - in ages 3-4, beginning to: - produce clearer letter forms - write random letters - use invented spelling to annotate drawings or write messages - towards school commencement, beginning to: - write own name - use some conventional spelling and writing forms Children increasingly use conventional … writing, and simple punctuation. Over time, children learn to use and create simple texts about familiar topics and choose the content, form and vocabulary within their writing. As their skills advance, they accurately spell words that are frequently used and make use of known spelling patterns to make plausible attempts at spelling unfamiliar words. VEYLDF (2016) Outcome 5 Facilitating drawing and incorporating elements of print Based on research by Mackenzie (2011, 2014), Puranik and Lonigan (2011), and Sunday (2017), the following methods for facilitating children’s emergent written expression are provided. These include facilitating fine arts experiences including drawing, painting, sculpture, or multimedia text creation, and encouraging children to experiment with elements of printing their work. Fine arts – emergent literacy offers more detailed information. Other methods, covered in detail in the writing with children teaching practice page include: - setting up drawing as written expression experiences - educator annotation of drawings, paintings - facilitating children’s letter-sound experimentation during drawing and writing - scaffolding children’s mark making, scribbling, drawing and emergent writing to “write their own name”. Writing with children. Theory to practice In early childhood, the line between literacy and art is deliberately blurred, as Wright (2012) explains: The arts allow us to create a symbolic world and to ‘shape and reshape, revise and revision’ our own ‘hidden and subjective’ lives… They are a vehicle by which we can express our growing awareness of ourselves and the worlds in which we live. Wright (2012, p. 2), citing Abbs (2003, p. 13) McArdle and Wright (2014) see the arts as children’s first literacies/languages: “their primary way of seeing and knowing the self in the world” (p. 22). This justifies why it is important to understand texts as multimodal. Within the Four Resources model, emergent literacy is said to arise through a combination of different practices and resources that allow learners to make meaning and express ideas through texts (Freebody and Luke, 1990). For reading comprehension, these are the ability to: - break the code of texts: Text decoder - participate in the meanings of text: Text participant - use texts functionally: Text user - critically analyse and transform texts: Text analyst. Similarly, Harris, McKenzie, Fitzsimmons and Turbill (2003) built upon this model to map out four sets of writing practices to parallel the four reading practices. Written expression abilities are to: - encode communication into written and visual language: Text encoder - compose meaning into texts: Text participant - create texts for social purposes: Text user - construct underlying values, beliefs and views into texts: Text Analyst. Fellowes and Oakley (2014) recommend that these various roles of readers and writers can be taken on by even young children, when they are heavily scaffolded by educators. They also recommend creating a “dialogic environment” for the open discussion of texts and their meanings: … A setting in which there is sustained and meaningful dialogue among children and educators to allow co-construction of meaning. It is very important that educators not only talk but listen to young children’s talk about the meaning they make. Fellowes and Oakley (2014, p. 298) Similarly, Mackenzie (2011) argues that drawing is an ideal scaffold and outlet for facilitating rich engagement and construction of texts. Drawing (as another form of communication) can provide an effective, and important connection between the kinds of expression that children use in early childhood settings (meaning making using multiple media), and those expected in the early years of school (emergence of formal writing). Mackenzie (2011, p. 324) asserts that: For many children drawing is both child’s play (Norris, et al., 1998) and a substantive mental activity (Sheridan, 2002); a socially meaningful activity and a constructive process of thinking in action (Cox, 2005) which allows access to real and imaginary worlds (DuCharme, 1991). Drawing is ‘spontaneous, aesthetic, expressional, and graphic’ (Neu and Berglund, 1991) and holds the potential for rich expression and complex learning (Oken Wright, 1998). Research evidence has shown that when engaging with texts, children in early childhood use very similar comprehension processes as older children (van den Brock, Kindeou, Kremer, Lynch, Butler, White and Pugzles Lorch, 2005). This supports the view that educators should engage children in meaningful discussions about texts to support their literal, figurative, and evaluative comprehension. For written expression, when children as young as three years old are provided with drawing and writing materials, and engaged in writing experiences, their interest and skills in emergent writing will develop (Puranik and Lonigan, 2011). The researchers suggest that educators encourage children to make marks, scribble, and engage in free drawing/writing, and that scaffolding children to make a mark; to begin to write their own name; to highlight the letter-sound patterns in their name are useful strategies for older children. Mackenzie’s (2011) work shows the important role of drawing in developing this emergent written expression (discussed above). Concerning reading comprehension, in line with the four resources model (Freebody and Luke, 1990), research has shown that oral language and code-related skills (phonological awareness and phonics) are key skills underlying success in children’s emergent and later reading comprehension (see Hjetland et al., 2017, for review). Similarly, research evidence shows the importance or oral language and code-related skills for emergent and later writing success (Mackenzie and Hemmings, 2014). See the other learning foci in interacting with others, and emergent literacy for more information. Links to VEYLDF Outcome 2: community Children become aware of fairness: - begin to understand and evaluate ways in which texts construct identities and create stereotypes. Outcome 3: wellbeing Children take increasing responsibility for their own health and physical wellbeing: - respond through movement to traditional and contemporary music, dance and storytelling of their own and others’ cultures - engage in increasingly complex sensory-motor skills and movement patterns - combine gross and fine motor movement and balance to achieve increasingly complex patterns of activity, including dance, creative movement and drama. Outcome 5: communication Children engage with a range of texts and get meaning from these texts: - view and listen to printed, visual and multimedia texts and respond with relevant gestures, actions, comments and/or questions - sing chant rhymes, jingles and songs - take on roles of literacy and numeracy users in their play - begin to understand key literacy and numeracy concepts and processes, such as the sounds of language, letter–sound relationships, concepts of print and the ways that texts are structured - explore texts from a range of different perspectives and begin to analyse the meanings - actively use, engage with and share the enjoyment of language and texts in a range of ways - recognise and engage with written and oral culturally constructed texts. Children express ideas and make meaning using a range of media: - use language and engage in symbolic play to imagine and create roles, scripts and ideas - share the stories and symbols of their own cultures and re-enact well-known stories - use the creative arts, such as drawing, painting, sculpture, drama, dance, movement, music and story-telling, to express ideas and make meaning - experiment with ways of expressing ideas and meaning using a range of media - begin to use images and approximations of letters and words to convey meaning. Children begin to understand how symbols and pattern systems work: - use symbols in play to represent and make meaning - begin to make connections between, and see patterns in, their feelings, ideas, words and actions, and those of others - develop an understanding that symbols are a powerful means of communication and that ideas, thoughts and concepts can be represented through them - begin to be aware of the relationships between oral, written and visual representations - begin to recognise patterns and relationships and the connections between them - listen and respond to sounds and patterns in speech, stories and rhyme - draw on their experiences in constructing meaning using symbols. Children use information and communication technologies to access information, investigate ideas and represent their thinking: - identify the uses of technologies in everyday life and use real or imaginary technologies as props in their play - use information and communication technologies to access images and information, explore diverse perspectives and make sense of their world - use information and communications technologies as tools for designing, drawing, editing, reflecting and composing - engage with technology for fun and to make meaning. Experience plans and videos For age groups: early communicators (birth - 18 months): For age groups: early language users (12 - 36 months): For age groups: language and emergent literacy learners (30 - 60 months): For age groups: language and emergent literacy learners (30 - 60 months). Learning foci and teaching practices Bruner, J. S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Harvard University Press. Callow, J. (2013). The shape of text to come: How image and text work. Primary English Teaching Association (Australia) (PETAA). Crafton, L. K., Silvers, P., and Brennan, M. (2017). Creating a critical multiliteracies curriculum: Repositioning art in the early childhood classroom. In M. J. Narey (Ed.), Multimodal perspectives of language, literacy, and learning in early childhood (pp. 67-86). Springer, Cham. Fellowes, J., and Oakley, G. (2014). Language, literacy and early childhood education, 2nd Edition. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. Freebody, P. and Luke, A. (1990) Literacies programs: Debates and demands in cultural context. Prospect: An Australian Journal of TESOL, 5, 7–16. Harris, P., Fitzsimmons, P., McKenzie, B. andTurbill, J. (2003). Writing in the primary school years. Tuggerah, NSW: Social Science Press. Hjetland, H. N., Brinchmann, E. I., Halaas Lyster, S. A., Eriksen Hagtvet, B., and Melby-Lervåg, M. (2017). Preschool predictors of later reading comprehension ability: A systematic review. The Campbell Collaboration. Jewitt, C. (2008). Multimodality and literacy in school classrooms. Review of Research in Education, 32, 241–267. Kalantzis, M., Cope, B., Chan, E., and Dalley-Trim, L. (2016). Literacies. Port Melbourne, VIC, Australia: Cambridge University Press. Mackenzie, N. (2011). From drawing to writing: What happens when you shift teaching priorities in the first six months of school? The Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 34(3), 322-240 Mackenzie, N. (2014). ‘Transitions to school and emergent writers’ In B. Perry, S. Dockett, and A.Petriwskyj (Eds), Transitions to school — International research, policy and practice (pp. 89-102). London, UK: Springer, Dordrecht. Mackenzie, N. M., and Hemmings, B. (2014). Predictors of success with writing in the first year of school. Issues in Educational Research, 24(1), 41–54. Mackenzie, N. M., andScull, J. (2015) Writing, in S. McLeod and J. McCormack (Eds.), Introduction to speech, language and literacy. South Melbourne, VIC, Australia: Oxford University Press. McArdle, F., and Wright, S. K. (2014). First literacies: Art, creativity, play, constructive meaning-making. In G. Barton (Ed.), Literacy in the arts: Retheorising learning and teaching (pp. 21–37). Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Owens, R. E. (2015). Language development: An introduction.9th Edition. Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited Piaget, J. (1923, 2002). The language and thought of the child (Vol. 10). Psychology Press. Puranik, C. S., and Lonigan, C. J. (2011). From scribbles to scrabble: Preschool children’s developing knowledge of written language. Reading and Writing, 24(5), 567–589. Saracho, O. N. (2017). Parents’ shared storybook reading–learning to read. Early Child Development and Care, 187(3–4), 554–567. Sunday, K. E. (2017). Drawing as a relational event: Making meaning through talk, collaboration, and image production. In M. J. Narey (Ed.), Multimodal perspectives of language, literacy, and learning in early childhood(pp. 87-105). Springer, Cham. Van den Brock, P., Kindeou, P., Kremer, K., Lynch, J., Butler, J., White, M.J., Pugzles Lorch, E. (2005). ‘Assessment of comprehension abilities in young children’ In S. G. Paris and S. A. Stahl (Eds.), Children’s Reading: Comprehension and Assessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Victorian State Government Department of Education and Training (2016), Victorian Early Years Learning and Development Framework (2016) (VEYLDF).Retrieved 3 March 2018. Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2016) Illustrative Maps from the VEYLDF to the Victorian Curriculum F–10. Retrieved 3 March 2018, Vygotsky, Lev S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology,5(3): 6–18. Wood, D., Bruner, J., and Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Applied Disciplines, 17(2), 89-100. Wright, S. (2012). Children, meaning-making and the arts. 2nd edition. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia. Mackenzie, Scull and Munsie (2015) Writing Analysis Tool. Available at:. Charles Sturt University, Monash University. This tool provides a set of rubrics to analyse children’s writing from Early Childhood through to Primary school, across the following domains: Text Structure, Sentence structure and Grammatical features, Vocabulary, Spelling, Punctuation, and Handwriting/Legibility. Becoming a Writer – A Digital Story

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This section explores the benefits of engaging children in reading experiences and the infinite opportunities this presents for developing language and emergent literary experiences. When we read with children we work to co-create understandings of texts and how they relate to our world. For an exploration of how emergent literacy learning foci (e.g. concepts of print, phonological awareness and phonics) can be embedded within this teaching practice, see: Reading with children (emergent literacy) The benefits of reading with children for language development The benefits of reading with children of all ages for their language (and general) development cannot be overstated. Reading with children allows for engaging, authentic and language-rich interactions. When they are read to by educators, children are supported to: - learn new concepts and vocabulary - learn new grammar in an authentic way - hear clearly articulated sounds and words - hear about new ideas, concepts, places, people, cultures and situations - learn about how texts work, and how we use language to communicate in more - sophisticated ways. Children engage with a range of texts and get meaning from these texts: [they] view and listen to printed, visual and multimedia texts and respond with relevant gestures, actions, comments and/or questions. - VEYLDF (2016) Reading experiences allow for small group and individual interactions, supporting and strengthening relationships between educators and children, having fun, and enriching children’s learning and their lives. Texts for different ages When choosing a book, think about: - the age, interests, understanding and language skills of children - what language (sounds, vocabulary, grammar) you would like to highlight and embed - within the book reading experience - how the characters, events, and messages within the story will appeal to children - the length of the book. For an overview of types of children’s literature (including ICT texts) in the learning focus, see exploring and creating texts. All children’s literature should: - engage children emotionally - invite involvement - provide opportunities for interaction by educators to increase children’s understanding of the book - be aesthetically pleasing and use interesting illustrations/photographs. Other suggested features of children’s literature suitable for different ages and levels of learning and development include: Early communicators (birth - 18 months) - light and sturdy so they can be held by the infant - colourful bright pictures that are clear and identifiable - textures/flaps/cut-outs/puppets/mirrors/sound makers to make reading more interactive - nursery rhymes and songs with repetition and rhythm - stories that are relatable - stories that have repetition. Early language users (12 - 36 months) - simple stories with a beginning, middle and end - a few characters – people, animals, toys - not too long, but interesting storyline - repetition and catchy phrases children can join in with - opportunities to predict what will happen next - non-fiction texts introducing concepts like colours, numbers, shapes, categories - rhymes, poems or songs (longer than for early communicators) - engaging pictures or photographs. Language and emergent literacy learners (30 - 60 months) - longer and more intricate stories - non-fiction texts about everyday routines, feelings, or introducing new concepts - rhymes, poems or songs (longer than for early language users). Adapted from: Birckmayer, Kennedy and Stonehouse (2008); Campbell (2009) Pedagogies for developing language during reading experiences In this section, we will discuss how reading experiences can be opportunities to embed interacting with other foci (e.g. sounds, vocabulary, grammar, stories and narratives, and higher order language). During this kind of reading experience, the role of the educator is to use the text as a stimulus for exploration, description, discussion, and storytelling. Dialogic reading (Whitehurst et al., 1988) or interactive read alouds (Barrentine, 1996) are approaches to reading with children which allow for dynamic and active engagement with the text to develop children’s language. Key features of dialogic reading and interactive read alouds include: - not expecting children to sit and listen to an educator reading a book from beginning to end - asking questions and making comments - following children’s interests in parts of the book, encouraging them to point, label - comment and describe what they are seeing - encouraging children to answer questions, comment, and share their reactions and feelings during the reading - facilitating active meaning making throughout the reading experience by engaging children using comments, descriptions, invitations to interact, and questions - building children’s background knowledge of the words used and the context of the book before reading the text, and consolidating it after reading - discussing the text before, during, and after reading. These reading pedagogies allow educators to interact with children during reading experiences in a child-centred, responsive, and intentional way. Key questions to engage children Asking open and inviting questions is an effective strategy for engaging children in the reading experience. Here are some key question types to ask during book reading (or storytelling) (Sipe, 2008): - Factual questions: - check which facts from the story the children remember, for example: ‘Where does the Lion live?’ or ‘Who ate the bears’ porridge? - check whether children are understanding the story, for example: ‘How do you know that?’, ‘But who was it this time?’ - invite children to reflect or interpret - For example: ‘What do you think is happening here?’, ‘How do you think the Lion is feeling?’, or ‘Oh no! What’s happening now?’ - use open questions to encourage children to share their ideas - For example: ‘What else could she do?’ or ‘What do we think about that?’ - Predicting questions: - encourage children to consider what might happen next - ‘What will the Lion do now?’ ‘What do you think is going to happen?’ Bring the book to life - clearly pronounce the words of the story - include all the parts of the narrative (setting, characters, plot, resolution) - create emotional suspense by emphasising certain words and phrases, and by using pauses. - use your voice to support children to make meaning - use changes in your pitch (voice highs and lows), tempo (speed), and rhythm - show changes in the emotions of characters - use pitch and speed to build suspense and enhance the story meaning. Gestures, body language and facial expressions: - point to the book and use gestures to emphasise ideas in the text - use animated facial expressions that match with the emotions within the book. - enhance the reading experience by using different-sounding voices, movements and gestures to voice different characters. (Fellowes & Oakley, 2014, p. 91) Highlighting oral language during reading experiences While reading with children, educators can take the opportunity to highlight various aspects of language, in order to develop children’s ability to interact with others. Educators can choose any text that: - appeals to children - facilitates interaction and engagement - provides opportunities for embedding vocabulary, concepts, grammar, and text understandings (fiction and nonfiction). Examples of ways of highlighting learning foci for interacting with others are listed below. Making meaning and expressing ideas Choose books with engaging pictures and print, to allow for multiple opportunities to: - engage nonverbally (e.g. eye contact, gesture, joint attention (Patterns of Australia by Bronwyn Bancroft). Some books you choose may have only a small amount of print and more illustrations making it easy for younger children to identify pictures and concepts: - An Australian ABC of Animals by Bronwyn Bancroft. Read books based on familiar stories to allow children opportunities to closely comprehend the text, and re-enact the story in play afterwards: - e.g. Goldilocks and the Three Bears illustrated by Anna Walker. - Encourage children to say sounds from the book along with you - Emphasise the sounds of animals, vehicles, or nature from the books, and encourage children to imitate these sounds - Clearly pronounce the words you are reading at an even and steady pace, allowing time for children to hear and process each word - Allow pauses between some words to allow children to join in and attempt “reading” some words. Concept development and vocabulary Use concept books to work on concept development: - Colours of Australia by Bronwyn Bancroft Books that explore different concepts in detail can spark discussion and introduce new vocabulary: - highlight new vocabulary and concepts in picture books, and encourage children to find objects, actions, people, and animals they know - use open questions like: ‘Tell me what you can see…’ Books with engaging and detailed illustrations allow children to explore and describe what they see. Educators can facilitate children’s engagement with new vocabulary and concepts. - Read books which provide multiple descriptions or qualities of characters, objects or events - Where is the green sheep? by Mem Fox has a range of different kinds of sheep (including blue, red, bath, bed sheep etc.) - Daddy Kiss by Margaret Allum lists different kinds of kisses: Introduce prepositions (location words) using books like, We're Going on a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen, and Up and Down by Oliver Jeffers. We went snorkelling at Turquoise Bay. At Tunnel Creek we waded through an underground river. We stood in the shallows at Monkey Mia to see the dolphins. We flew over the Bungle Bungles in a helicopter without any doors. We hiked between the round red domes of Kata Tjuta. We floated down Katherine Gorge, below towering ochre cliffs. From Are We There Yet? By Alison Lester. Text and illustrations © Alison Lester, 2004. Published by Viking For example: There Was An Old Lady Who Swallowed A Fly by Pam Adams. - Read books with longer and more complex sentences - Use books that play with numbers and plurals, like One Sheep, Two Sheep by Patricia Byers: Stories and narratives Use books with relatable characters and storyline, to help children make meaning from the story. - plans and attempts - resolutions within stories - what the story was about - what happened in the end. eg. Go To Sleep, Jessie! By Libby Gleeson Jessie is screaming. Every night she does this. Ever since she moved into my room. ‘Be quiet,’ I say. ‘Go to sleep.’ Jessie keeps screaming. ‘If you stop screaming,’ I say, ‘I’ll let you hold T-Bear.’ I climb out of my bed and pass him to her. Text copyright © Libby Gleeson 2014, Illustrations copyright © Freya Blackwood 2014 Published by Little Hare, an imprint of Hardie Grant Egmont Explanations and sharing information Use concept books to introduce topics for discussion, (Big Machines by Lissa James.) For older children, use non-fiction texts to explore ideas and concepts on any topic: - Swirl by Swirl: Spirals in Nature by Joyce Sidman - Down, Down, Down: A Journey to the Bottom of the Sea by Steve Jenkins - Island: A Story of the Galápagosby Jason Chin - Moonshot: The Flight of Apollo 11 by Brian Floca Higher order language Read books with similes and metaphors, like Growl Like a Tiger by Alison Lester: - I can quack like a duck, on a bright sunny day cluck like a hen, that’s ready to lay. - I can rumble like a lion if I’m tired and grumpy growl like a tiger when I’m wide awake and jumpy. Growl Like a Tiger by Alison Lester, first published by Allen & Unwin, Australia in 2012 Use books that are humorous and discuss what makes them funny, e.g. from Ivy Loves To Give by Freya Blackwood: - Ivy loves to give. - Sometimes her presents are the wrong size, - don’t sit properly, - taste funny, - or feel strange. Theory to Practice Bruner’s (Bruner; see Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976)concept of “scaffolding” is an important idea underpinning how reading with children works. This means that children learn new language from more capable peers or adults, by engaging in shared reading experiences (Vygotsky, 1967). The two pedagogies included in this section are dialogic reading (Whitehurst et al., 1988) and interactive read alouds (Barrentine, 1996), which are supported by theories of language learning. Both approaches to reading with children allow for dynamic and active engagement with the text to develop children’s language. Reading with children is also an opportunity for telling stories, which allows us to use language to “create possible and imaginary worlds through words” (Bruner, 1986, p. 156). When children engage in reading experiences with adults, the ‘magic’ (or literary response) comes from the interaction between the written word (text), additional media (e.g. props, costumes, sound effects), the storyteller and the audience. The storyteller and the additional media they use play a big role in bringing a story to life. We can think about how these four factors can affect children’s meaning making when engaging in book reading experiences. We can also change these elements to embed language strategically into the experience. Numerous studies demonstrate the importance of reading with children for their current and later oral language development (Curenton & Craig, 2011; van Druten-Frietman et al., 2016; Mol et al., 2008, 2009; Zevenbergen & Whitehurst, 2003; Wasik, Hindman &Snell, 2016). Fisher, Flood and Lappand Frey(2004) found that clear learning intentions, selecting engaging books, and encouraging independent exploration and discussion of books before and after reading experiences are effective strategies. Piasta et al. (2016) reviewed literature that supports that educators' use of language stimulation strategies during dialogic reading and found it particularly beneficial to their language-learning. For narrative books, educators should choose texts that: - have believable characters but should not be stereotyped - [are] straightforward to help preschool children understand the story; and (3) use the characters’ language, conversations, and ideas that reflect the situation. - Saracho (2017, p. 561) citing Galda, Sipe, Liang, and Cullinan (2014). For information books, educators should choose texts that: - [are] accurate and readable - have a simple format with attractive illustrations - present information that represents scientific knowledge. - Saracho (2017, p. 561) citing Galda, Sipe, Liang, and Cullinan (2014). Language stimulation for further information. Links to VEYLDF Outcome 1: identity Children develop knowledgeable and confident self-identities: - use their home language to construct meaning - develop strong foundations in both the culture and language/s of their family - the broader community without compromising their cultural identities. Outcome 2: community Children become aware of fairness and begin to understand and evaluate ways in which texts construct identities and create stereotypes. Outcome 5: communication Children engage with a range of texts and get meaning from these: - view and listen to printed - visual and multimedia texts - respond with relevant gestures - actions, comments and/or questions - sing chant rhymes, jingles and songs - take on roles of literacy and numeracy users in their play - begin to understand key literacy and numeracy concepts and processes, such as the sounds of language, letter–sound relationships, concepts of print and the ways that texts are structured - explore texts from a range of different perspectives and begin to analyse the meanings actively use, engage with and share the enjoyment of language and texts in a range of ways - recognise and engage with written and oral culturally constructed texts. Children express ideas and make meaning using a range of media to share the stories and symbols of their own cultures and re-enact well-known stories. Children begin to understand how symbols and pattern systems work and begin to make connections between, and see patterns in, their feelings, ideas, words and actions, and those of others: - develop an understanding that symbols are a powerful means of communication and that ideas, thoughts and concepts can be represented through them - begin to be aware of the relationships between oral, written and visual representations - begin to recognise patterns and relationships and the connections between them - listen and respond to sounds and patterns in speech, stories and rhyme. Children use information and communication technologies to access information, investigate ideas and represent their thinking: - use information and communication technologies to access images and information, - explore diverse perspectives and make sense of their world - engage with technology for fun and to make meaning. Experience plans and videos For ages - early communicators (birth - 18 months): For ages - early language users (12-36 months): For ages - language and emergent literacy learners (30-60 months): For ages - language and emergent literacy learners (30-60 months) Links to learning foci and teaching practices: Bruner, J. S. (1986, 2009). Actual minds, possible worlds. Harvard University Press. Barrentine, S. J. (1996). Engaging with reading through interactive read-alouds. The Reading Teacher, 50(1), 36–43. Birckmayer, J., Kennedy, A., & Stonehouse, A. (2008). From Lullabies to Literature: Stories in the Lives of Infants and Toddlers. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Campbell, R. (2009). Reading Stories with Young Children. England: Trentham Books Limited. Curenton, S. M., & Craig, M. J. (2011). Shared-reading versus oral storytelling: Associations with preschoolers’ prosocial skills and problem behaviours. Early Child Development and Care, 181(1), 123–146. Duke, N.K. and Pearson, P.D. (2002). Effective reading practices for developing comprehension (Chapter 10), In A.E. Farstrup &S.J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about reading instruction Third Ed(pp. 205-242), Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Galda, L., Sipe, L. R., Liang, L. A., & Cullinan, B. E. (2014). Literature and the child (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Fellowes, J., & Oakley, G. (2014). Language, literacy and early childhood education, 2nd Edition. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., & de Jong, M. T. (2009). Interactive book reading in early education: A tool to stimulate print knowledge as well as oral language. Review of Educational Research, 79(2), 979–1007. Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., De Jong, M. T., & Smeets, D. J. H. (2008). Added value of dialogic parent–child book readings: A meta- analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7–26. Piasta, S. B. (2016). Current understandings of what works to support the development of emergent literacy in early childhood classrooms. Child Development Perspectives, 10(4), 234–239. Saracho, O. N. (2017). Parents’ shared storybook reading–learning to read. Early Child Development and Care, 187(3–4), 554–567. Sipe, L. R. (2008). Storytime: Young children's literary understanding in the classroom. Teachers College Press. van Druten-Frietman, L., Strating, H., Denessen, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2016). Interactive Storybook-Based Intervention Effects on Kindergartners’ Language Development. Journal of Early Intervention. Victorian State Government Department of Education and Training (2016) Victorian early years learning and development framework, Retrieved 3 March 2018, Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (2016) Illustrative Maps from the VEYLDF to the Victorian Curriculum F–10.Retrieved 3 March 2018 Vygotsky, Lev S. (1967). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology, 5(3): 6–18. Wasik, B. A., Hindman, A. H., & Snell, E. K. (2016). Book reading and vocabulary development: A systematic review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 37(4), 39–57 Whitehurst, G. J., Falco, F. L., Lonigan, C. J., Fischel, J. E., DeBaryshe, B. D., Valdez Menchaca, M. C., Caulfield, M. (1988). Accelerating language development through picture book reading. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 552–559. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Applied Disciplines, 17(2), 89-100. Zevenbergen, A. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2003). Dialogic reading. A shared picture book intervention for preschoolers. In A. Kleeck, S. Stahl, & E. Bauer (Eds.), On reading books to children: Parents and teachers (pp. 302–320). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum

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Story Writing Examples For Class 10 Writing A-Z's narrative writing lessons provide the resources teachers need to help students create original fiction and nonfiction stories. Featuring all new weekly reading comprehension worksheets, provided free for teachers and parents to copy for their kids. 1) MENTOR TEXT: “The Scarlet Ibis”by James Hurst is a great story for teaching students to make inferences and analyze textual details. In this piece, we'll share some ESL writing prompts and ESL essay topics for five different kinds of essays. It is a topic that involves creative writing. (An Example of an Informal Letter) Format of Informal Letter. Titles are another important part of the short story. Seed Story Worksheet 3121 - Write a story to accompany the pictures. Learn about what college writing classes are available and. Ninth and Tenth Grade Writing Standards Writing standards for ninth and tenth grades define the knowledge and skills needed for writing proficiency at these grade levels. Good narrative essays have a touch of poetics. The following is an example of an individual presentation assignment and a group presentation. LinkedIn Profile Summary Examples (Best in Class) Use stories and anecdotes to keep things human and engaging. Story writing allows students to give wings to their imagination and develop their writing skills. She asks her mother for permission. The following guideline will help you to accomplish this objective. Bloom’s Taxonomy Book Review Questions. 7x7x7 Find the 7th book from your bookshelf (or digital library). English Language Articles Articles about learning, using and teaching the English language, including advice, tutorials, opinions and lesson plans from various authors and contributors. Stories that start with 'The' and 'A' will be listed as if the title starts with the next word. Some points will be given and students will be required to write a story in complete sentences. Because of pressure to teach bell-to-bell, many classrooms now start with bell work—short exercises that students complete while the instructor handles attendance and other administrative chores. Write a story about this field trip. Students watch a sample of artistic video clips online and respond through creative writing while using the vocabulary words they are currently studying. Newspaper Writing Report Examples (PDF) How to Write an Interview Report with Examples; Journalists would normally be the one to conduct the interview for their general report. Story Writing Worksheets. Tips for writing a great short story are based on the primary elements of fiction, no matter the length, character, plot, or theme. Six Word Stories. The solved sample papers are created as per the latest CBSE syllabus and curriculum keeping in mind the latest marking schemes. If only one person talks then it is a monologue. These solutions cover both the English books of CBSE Class 10 English - Footprints without Feet and First Flight. Students write individual stories and use the Self-Assessment Checklist to assess and enhance the quality of their writing. The purpose of a creative writing exercise is to spark a thought, idea, or story in your mind, so you can quickly and easily start writing and practice. While writing this letter you should use formal langua. Chopin’s Artistry in “The Story of an Hour” To be in conflict with traditional society’s beliefs is difficult for many to do; however, author Kate Chopin fights that battle to bring readers some of the most thought provoking literature that a person can get their hands on. Third Grade Writing 15 A set of authentic writing samples that are indicative of typical third grade development. This is a list of genres of literature and entertainment, excluding genres in the visual arts. Here, you can see the CBSE Class 10 English Important Questions with Answers, class 10 exam pattern, marking scheme, and preparation tips etc. Presentation Assignment Example. These assignments and practice tests have been prepared as per syllabus issued by CBSE and topics given in NCERT book. Henry; The Bet by. Buy cbse question bank class 6-12, cbse sample papers for Class 10,12 for 2020 Exam, ncert solutions, cbse Support books Reference Help guide for Math English Social Science Accountancy Previous year question paper. Persuasive Writing. 1 Sample Dialogue1. If so, consider this site as a central resource for sparking and igniting writing ability in all students. Writing Samples This collection of grade-level writing samples provides teachers of English Language Learners with examples of student writing at each proficiency level. Story writing is an art. Discover the eNotes. Rearrange the following jumbled words/phrases to make meaningful sentences: (3 marks) (Board 2014, Set QUD9VQW). Word problems build higher-order thinking, critical problem-solving, and reasoning skills. Now the setting of a story is the location and the time in which your story takes place. Prepared by teachers of the best CBSE schools in India. There is no limit to the number of hierarchical levels in a map. Please note: Though this section features lecture notes for the majority of class sessions, notes are not available for every single session. Write My Class Essay Trusted by Students across the globe since 2009. This interactive sample is designed to give you a way to examine an example of a well-formed Précis and to explore commentary about it. They provide a very useful springboard to help children launch themselves into a story. We provide high quality, online courses to help you learn the skills needed to achieve your goals. What Is Narrative Writing? Narrative writing , simply speaking, is a writing skills which is commonly used in writing a story, which includes a set of characters in a particular setting, who encounters different conflicts, and finds ways to resolve such conflict. Write a creative stories to describe what's happening in these. CBSE Class 10 English Article Writing. The page is loaded with English short stories for kids, essay writing techniques, English short paragraph writing, paragraph examples, children stories, sample essay, creative writing skills, essay examples, academic writing, topics to write about, college essay examples, magazine. (Intermediate +, 10-20 minutes) Give students the following sentences on the whiteboard or on an overhead projector. Free various types of educational resources for kids correct sentences, identifying pictures, choose the correct, learning English for kids, and online exercise -Array. Fun English Games for Kids. So how do you write a story in 45 minutes? This video shows you two examples of work d. com: Empowering Academic, College, and Career Success. One-Page Readings. These photos will then need to be placed in the appropriate display program (e. Writing creative short stories is an art. The 10 tips below is designed to give you assistance and encouragement as you start down the path to writing life story — memoir. There are several revision worksheets and easy to understand notes. Writing an Author Bio – Examples of Professional Bios by Freelance Writing Not only is it useful to know what you need to include in an author bio, it is also useful to see examples of how your vital information should look. Nov 07, 2017 · CBSE Class 8 English Story Writing Story writing for class 10 examples pdf. The off the wall, rapid fire, life of the party, grown up class clown who has the ability to write jokes, great set pieces and funny lines and is hilarious 24/7, but if his or her life depended on it, couldn't come up with a story and write a script. Detailed, Step-by-Step NCERT Solutions for Class 7 English solved by Expert Teachers as per NCERT (CBSE) Book guidelines. You’ve been writing the narrative essay for years. Online has become another leg in our life. 55 Story Writing Prompts for Kids. with plenty of flexibility for what an. I plan on writing a short story of my original character, Deacon Helm, the brave outlaw in the 1890s. It could be about a competition, an exhibition or inauguration to take place in near future or any other activities especially in school like an excursion. For many writers, the short story is the perfect medium. At the end of 1 minute, say, “Now begin writing” Monitor students and encourage as needed At 90 seconds, say, “You should be writing about …” When the 3 minutes is up, say “Thank you. That didn't hurt his hand so much either. Contents1 CBSE Class 8 English Story Writing1. Write an expression to represent the number of adult tickets sold. d : to cover, fill, or fill in by writing wrote ten pages write a check. Lesson plan; Research the duties, salary, job outlook, education, etc. CBSE Sample Papers for Class 12 English. and I recently asked a random sample of high school teachers from across the United States to tell us about writing instruction in their classrooms (Kiuhara, Graham, & Hawkin, 2009). Writing Paragraph Prompts: Using the Four Essential Elements. Presentation is determined by the report that is given in front of the class. Feel free to add some romance to a supernatural story, or frame a family tale in …. Good dialogue intrigues, informs, moves a story along. They might share their writing and song choices with the class. Firstly divide your matter into 3 sections: * Introduction. NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English - In this article we have included all the details regarding NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English. Story Writing Game for Kids This great story writing game for kids will help teach children how to create the right atmosphere when planning stories based around a chosen topic. Comentario por juannma — febrero 14, 2013 @ 10:48 am | Responder My best holiday was when I went to malyisa with my wife for honeymoon befor seven years. Whether you're trying to start a new story, or struggling with writer's block in the middle of one, ideas may seem difficult to come by. There is the art form, "short stories," which comes complete with characters, plot, description, and style. Online classes draw together writers from across the globe. Talk about the five different story scenarios. Board Exam 2019: CBSE board exam for class 10 English paper is scheduled on March 23, 2019. Downstairs, there are five rooms in this floor, there is a hall, and a dinning room, on. The hardest part of this lesson is deciding who can share their story first. Select a Graphic Organizer from the following list of links. Main six Points that has to be taken care of while writing a letter are:-. Dialogue writing exercise. Follow the writing process to create writing in different genres; Identify unique characteristics of the genre: myth, folktale, folklore, and fairy tales Have volunteers write examples on the chalkboard. I think you might find these points useful while writing a story in your English exam, which were instructed to us by my English teacher: * When you first read the set of cues given in. CBSE Sample Question Papers for Class 11 English Set D with Answers are now available for download in PDF format. · Start out with the big picture: tell us the name of the country, state, city, or even planet where you book takes place. In your story, you can have your class go anywhere you wish. Let's see how a diary entry is made and see a sample of diary entry. Writing Skill - Story Writing CBSE Study Materials for classes 6 to 12 on various topics related to students support materials. When writing is taught in schools, writing instruction often takes a backseat to phonics, handwriting skills, and reading comprehension. Tell them to write someone's name at the top of their paper, i. -Hand out the worksheet “Autobiography Assignment” and discuss with students. Strum, Lakesha, and the rest of the class. CBSE Syllabus of Class 10 English Language and Literature 2019-20 contains all the topics of this session. Please note: Though this section features lecture notes for the majority of class sessions, notes are not available for every single session. Definition: Story writing is an art. The off the wall, rapid fire, life of the party, grown up class clown who has the ability to write jokes, great set pieces and funny lines and is hilarious 24/7, but if his or her life depended on it, couldn't come up with a story and write a script. Group Story Writing. The Story of My Life; Three Men in a Boat; Gulliver’s Travels; ASL. Writing can be so much fun when you get lost in your writing and get into a flow. Six Word Stories. It is a work of imagination that is written in easily understandable grammatical structure. Learn the lessons and do these exercises to score high marks in your CBSE class 10 English paper. Your donation will help Stone Soup continue to inspire creative kids round the world. CBSE Class 10 sample papers of Science subject for board exam 2020 and for the previous years' exams are provided in this article. View Sample Reflective Essay #1. Com email account, so select as many as you wish. Try out the free samples and find out for yourself how you too can motivate your pupils to learn English. 7 Informal Letter Writing Practice Questions CBSE Class 8. Inferences Using Literature is a 73 page set that has everything you need to help your students master making inferences. First, read through the Précis at least twice. Table of Contents. Write an expression to represent the number of senior tickets sold. Writing - How to write English texts :: Learn English online - free exercises, explanations, games, teaching materials and plenty of information on English language. Short Story Day Africa is celebrated on 21 June, the shortest day in the Southern Hemisphere. It may seem silly to begin a list of steps on how to write a short story with a tip to "write the story," but let me explain. SAMPLE LESSON FOR SHOW NOT TELL SHOW NOT TELL Quick Explanation: To create an interesting story, the writer needs to show not tell the reader about people, places, and things they are writing about. Important questions are useful for the […]. Here are some examples of common themes: Love. Story Writing Worksheets. Download CBSE Class 10 Hindi Worksheet (10) in pdf, questions answers for Hindi, CBSE Class 10 Hindi Worksheet (10) - Practice worksheets for CBSE students. At the beginning of each class period, we will journal in our brain teaser folders. Short Story Ideas. Q-1 You are Veena/Vinod ,the cultural secretary of R. Use the questions you have asked in Step 3 as a guide to help the child plan the story. What does a solid dot on the graph of a step function. The Children’s Art Foundation (parent company of Stone Soup) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization whose purpose is to promote children’s creativity. What we were has become history. This was a wonderful class, the best I’ve taken, even though I wasn’t there in person! Joyce is an inspiring teacher who makes you feel like your stories matter and guides you toward identifying which narratives to tell and how best to tell them — very few writing classes delve into the mechanics in this way and I really appreciated it. CBSE - ENGLISH - IX AND - X. Taking a writing class, for example, may not seem exciting, but it could help you toward your long-term goals. Contents1 CBSE Class 8 English Story Writing1. SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR WRITING ARTICLE WRITING, SPEECH WRITING, AND EMAIL WRITING ARTICLE WRITING. End where your story ends. The list is endless. 💡 Would you like to see how WriteShop Junior teaches 3rd-6th grade kids to plan a story?. OBJECTIVE Students will think about literary devices and elements in preparation for a short story writing assignment. Although I really don't enjoy doing it or grading it, once a week in my class we work on a meaningful sentence with a chosen word. Free Notes for 5th Class English Story Writing. India Today Web Desk Hindi class 10 board exam. Grades 9 - 12 | Lesson Plan. Writing samples produced with the teacher’s assistance are appropriate for instruction, but should not be used as assessment samples. Book Response - The students will write their own personal responses to the book they have been reading as a class. Consequences For Breaking Class Rules September 1, 2010 by enpsteacher It may seem cruel to enforce consequences on children, but a classroom without structure and boundaries is far crueler. These ICSE Board Sample Papers are useful to understand the pattern of questions asked in the board exam. If necessary, give students a mini-lesson on the formatting of dialogue, or give them a copy of the dialogue to use as a model. How to write product descriptions that sell 1. Teacher-a role model 6. This is just a character study we had to do in my creative writing class and I decided to share it out with others, like how I will do with other assignments I've had to do. An essay is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument — but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a paper, an article, a pamphlet, and a short story. For example, say your story is about a game of football being played. You can add your own. Introduction: A Story is a narration of a set of fictions event used to convey a moral message. It is a topic that involves creative writing. I’ll answer two of the writing prompts right here – favorite ice cream, VEGAN 🙂 and one thing I would tell the world, encourage and love one another, life is too precious to be any other way! Lisa Pellegrene www. OBJECTIVE Students will think about literary devices and elements in preparation for a short story writing assignment. Write a story about this field trip. Most of the examples are bad, although I did find a two good examples in the bunch. Check out our free English resources related to writing, featuring a range of online ideas for ESL lesson plans. Write an expression to represent the number of senior tickets sold. Smaller than that it’s a task, more than week(s) of work is Epic or Theme. Write an expression to represent the number of adult tickets sold. Students may be asked to write a story for AQA GCSE English Language Paper 1 Question 5. For example, let's say I want to develop a college student persona for a short story that I am writing. New Delhi Sub: Application for the post of an Editor Dear Sir, With reference to your advertisement (a) on ‘The Times of India’ dated 16th March, 20XX, you (b) needs English Editors. View sample questions and directions students will encounter on test day, illustrating key changes to the new SAT® Suite of Assessments Math tests. Megan Krause lays down the do's, don'ts and specific examples on how to write a lead to grab readers' attention from the get-go. Online has become another leg in our life. For example, let's say Peter Pan sings a song for his project: writes instead of types the lyrics, which contain creative versus that explains how to vaguely solve an equation, and then sings the song flawlessly in front of the class. Short on money and time for a creative writing classes? No problem. 800 Free eBooks for iPad, Kindle & Other. Six Word Stories. in in order to help students to obtain excellent marks in their board examination. We will practice strategies for accessing memories and generating ideas, explore a variety of story structures, practice the use of specific and sense detail, and further develop our abilities to write in scenes. The individual presentation assignment explains that students will give two presentations over the semester on a topic of the student's choice. Practice CBSE sample papers to perform well in CBSE board. Remind your class, that in writing a personal narrative, to remember the following:. scoring at least 8 out of 10 for all the components within the grading criteria on the final writing assignment. Students write stories to go along with these fun cartoon pictures. The stories I have heard within these walls could fill a book, but there is one particular case that has caused me to lose sleep. Selecting and Submitting Writing Samples. Love stories. Since 2003, our team of American educated writers, with advanced degrees in the field, have written custom research papers for students and professionals across the globe. Explain to the class that they have just assisted you in writing a personal narrative. Check out our persuasive essay samples to get acquainted with this popular form of essay. o People, places, and things can be described using one or more of the five senses. Until then, let's enjoy some examples from the masters. SOLVED EXAMPLES. But a sad story about a man losing his wedding ring is very different from a sad story about a family losing a child. This statement opens with the engineer describing a formative experience—visiting a meat packaging plant as a teenager—that influenced the writer to work in the health and safety field. A letter a written message to a person as it consists some matter. It really was effective in clarifying what to write when you can’t cut and paste your work! And saved a lot of time as I had lots of time for writing rather than getting the ideas tumbling over each other. Novels can even be excerpted and used as short stories to entice 10th graders to read the entire novel. CBSE Sample Question Papers for Class 11 English Set D with Answers are now available for download in PDF format. If you are looking for help with your essay then we offer a comprehensive writing service provided by fully qualified academics in your field of study. If that sounds overwhelming, write every other week or once a month instead. Ballads tell of an event. We include story writing for class 10 and story writing in English for class 9. Teachers control interactive slides that contain writing prompts, and the entire class responds to each prompt. Time4Writing Online Writing Courses Support 9th and 10th Grade Writing Standards Time4Writing is an excellent complement to ninth and tenth grade writing curriculums. The people have started to see another world. Summary Of The Story of My Class 12th Chemistry 2016 Chapter Summary CBSE Syllabus 2019-20 Class 10th Notes Class X Class 11th Ncert Solutions physics sample paper Class 12 Latest E-book Syllabus 12 Novel Maths syllabus Cbse Science English. CBSE Class 10 English Main Course Book Writing with Grammar Story Writing. You may remember Duke from the story I did on him called, "Future Social Media Renaissance Man," on Lorelle on WordPress or the one on…. Writing a Book Writing an Autobiography 3. As the fourth and most dynamic Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr. Why You Should Use. c : to spell in writing words written alike but pronounced differently. A good sample autobiography can take several forms. List five new words you learned in the book. Writing isn't easy, and writing a good story is even harder. Thank you so much for helping me pick out a short story for my class. The next day when you were going to your school you helped an old woman. Whether you're writing a lead for a news story or blog post, learn more about the nuances of hooking your audience. Find this month's featured stories above. Example of the lighting in the scene with the agents The essay plan below is for a hypothetical essay question about the film ‘The Matrix’ and the film’s setting. If you change your mind, unsubscribing later from your Account Settings area is quick and easy. Stories that start with 'The' and 'A' will be listed as if the title starts with the next word. Take for example the famous writer Ernest Hemingway. Tell them to write someone's name at the top of their paper, i. A letter a written message to a person as it consists some matter. 30 Free Essays & Stories by David Foster Wallace on the Web. Read the passage twice or thrice carefully. Definition: Story writing is an art. I will try to add a few short stories every month. With the remaining 20 minutes, complete the secondary activity. Select a feature story from the newspaper and then compare and contrast it with the style of a short story. Don't think how to write a short story outline as we are provide story writing tips for beginners with short story examples for high school and story writing topics. Tell the story of a scar, whether a physical scar or emotional one. B-26, Sector-20 Noida 18th March 20XX The General Manager Full Marks Pvt Ltd. english; Formal Letter Topics Not started Informal Letter Topics Not started E-mail Topics Not started Diary Entry Topics Not started Notice Writing Topics Not started Message Writing Topics Not started Debate Topics Not started Speech Topics Not started Story Completion Topics Not started Book Review. The next day when you were going to your school you helped an old woman. How do you write a motivational speech? The main things to keep in mind when writing any speech are your audience, subject and purpose. Table of Contents. They didn't need much coaxing from me; they knew how to plan a story—and they wrote because it was fun!. Get Story Writing , Comprehension and Composition Chapter Notes, Questions & Answers, Video Lessons, Practice Test and more for CBSE Class 10 at TopperLearning. These assignments and practice tests have been prepared as per syllabus issued by CBSE and topics given in NCERT book. Class Story Center Set-Up Materials: 3-ring binder 3-hole punch 20 or more copies of worksheet on page 2 or 3 How it works: A student begins the class story by writing several sentences. 9 Sample Written Expression Curriculum Measurement Probes 13 10 Reading Fluency Skills 21 11 DIBELS 22 1 Curriculum-Based Measurement Reading Fluency Probe Example 23 13 Basic Reading Skill 27 14 DIBELS 28 15 Research-Based Phoneme Segmentation Probes 28 16 Word Recognition Skills 31 17 Example of Curriculum-Based Measurement of Basic Reading 32. Free Lesson Notes for ESL Adult Beginners. Lesson plan; Research the duties, salary, job outlook, education, etc. Miscellaneous Creative Writing and Language Arts Worksheets. Short stories are essential to any English student's education, and they are easily taught and studied. The best model question papers issued by CBSE help student to understand the question pattern in the coming board examination. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I" A Sample Structure I. 5) Personal Stories. A common English usage misconception is that a paragraph has three to five sentences; single-word paragraphs can be seen in some professional writing, and journalists often use single-sentence paragraphs. A rubric is a scoring guide that helps teachers evaluate student performance as well as a student product or project. Put the notice in a box. The list is endless. Don’t use a $10 word when a $1 word will do, says @mikeonlinecoach. However, writing about a deeply personal event for a class is the same as writing it for the public because lots of other people may see this if you are doing any sort of peer editing in the class. Miscellaneous Creative Writing and Language Arts Worksheets. But a sad story about a man losing his wedding ring is very different from a sad story about a family losing a child. However, anyone can develop this art by gradual practice. Learning how to write strong reviews takes time and not a little effort. The cow essay in english for class 5 how to reference a movie in an essay apa write an essay on demonetisation in india, how to write a conclusion paragraph for a comparison essay, tips on essay writing for high school, salient features of essay good manners essay in english for class 8 nursing essay on wound care? Essay on social media craze. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I" A Sample Structure I. CBSE Class 10 English Language & Literature mock papers are prepared by expert teachers. This will help them to identify their weak areas and will help them to score better in examination. Reflective Journal Writing Tips for Students. It will make for a great class discussion. The following is an example of an individual presentation assignment and a group presentation. Reviewing class officer speech examples online can also provide you with ideas for writing and organizing a standard campaign speech. CBSE Class 10 English Story Writing; CBSE Class 10 English Article Writing; CBSE Class 10 English Letter Writing; Unseen Passages for Class 10 CBSE English; The Diary of a Young Girl Summary CBSE Class 10 En The Story of My Life by Helen Keller Summary CBSE ncert exemplar class 10 maths solutions; ncert exemplar class 10 maths; HC Verma. Online creative writing school offering novel writing, short story writing and general fiction writing using an interactive online conferencing program. CBSE Class 10 English Grammar Sentence Reordering. There are many topics such as - 1. So how do we bring the spark back into writing for them? What can we secondary teachers offer in terms of fresh and exciting writing prompts and assignments? Here are 10 writing prompts for high school students to get them excited about writing in the. Click below for Class 10 all subjects to download solved sample papers, past year (last 10 year) Class 10 all subjects question papers with solutions, pdf printable worksheets, NCERT Books and NCERT solutions for all subjects Class 10 based on syllabus and guidelines issued by CBSE (NCERT). It not only organizes your thoughts and acts like your personal life document, it also acts as a therapeutic outlet. Public school, Alkapuri,Vadodara. But we say Lots of love, /Love, with close friends and relatives. Over the course of a good agile project, you should expect to have user story examples written by each team member. Com welcomes writers of all interests and skill levels. Until then, let's enjoy some examples from the masters. Good! Now let’s see the top ten writing tasks for the ESL class and which categories they fall under. class garden. It will help you to be updated with the question patterns and marking scheme. QnA , Notes & Videos. Diary entry: Maintaining a diary for organizing your thoughts, emotions, and plans is a great habit. For example, a Kindergarten class celebrating their 100th day of school, a centennial celebration, $100 bills, life lessons from a centenarian, etc. CBSE Class 7 English Writing Skills Story Writing. letter to the editor of a newspaper (articles mainly from the MCB topics) 2. 1a : to form (characters, symbols, etc. ICSE English Language Previous Year Question Paper 2015 Solved for Class 10 ICSE Paper 2015 ENGLISH-I Answers to this Paper must be written on the paper provided separately, You will not be allowed to write during the first 15 minutes. masterclass. Get the coolest story writing ideas for preteen stories and popular teen books - write the best inspirational stories, best fantasy books, best love stories, best mystery books, thriller and adventure stories, funny stories, and much more. How should you organize it? How long should it be? Some of these questions will be answered by your principal or the student council sponsor, but general speech writing tips also apply to writing a campaign speech. The purpose of a creative writing exercise is to spark a thought, idea, or story in your mind, so you can quickly and easily start writing and practice. Note: Use the ideas mentioned above for guidance. Writing a Letter. Select a type of story (for example, a mystery or a newfangled fairy tale). Check out our free English resources related to writing, featuring a range of online ideas for ESL lesson plans. How to Write an In-Class Essay; When you start writing an autobiography, first of all you should introduce yourself and start with a story. Use the questions you have asked in Step 3 as a guide to help the child plan the story. This is also known as the sample space. dialogue can add to a piece of writing. We know that this story is about three brother pigs who built different types of houses to keep the big bad wolf away. Writing Story Pictures. One year, for example, I had them write science fiction stories describing travel to another planet in our. SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR WRITING ARTICLE WRITING, SPEECH WRITING, AND EMAIL WRITING frog and the nightigale which is on the syllabus of Class X CBSE. Remind your class, that in writing a personal narrative, to remember the following:. NCERT Solutions for Class 10 Maths, Science, SST, Hindi, and English (2019-20) are solved by experts of LearnCBSE. It is rather to learn to use image, emotion, and insight in a creative way that avoids the beginning writer's tendency to wordiness. Increasing levels of pollution 5. See our narrative essay samples to learn how to express your own story in words. Each Quill Lessons activity provides a lesson plan, writing prompts, discussion topics, and a follow up independent practice activity. Writing and Graphic Organizer Samples using an overhead projector or document camera. Hi Tasha, We have touched on all of these issues on the blog numerous times, but for this collection of questions, we only highlighted those asked in a way that most naturally led to argumentative writing. CBSE Class 10 English Important Questions with Answers - The candidates of class 10 who are going to enroll for the CBSE board exams must check this page. A writer is a person who uses written words in different styles and techniques to communicate ideas. They provide a very useful springboard to help children launch themselves into a story. The Institute for Excellence in Writing (IEW) equips teachers and teaching parents with methods and materials which will aid them in training their students to become confident and competent communicators and thinkers. Equations that are written in slope intercept form are the easiest to graph and easiest to write given the proper information. Included are writing activities, creating word webs, and discovering traditions passed down in families. If you have a very large class, it may be better to split the students into teams of 3 or 4. In order to score the good marks, one must be aware of Article Writing Format CBSE. The whole is a part and the part is a whole. Teaching english as a foreign language is challenging, yet rewarding career path. Some of them are sad, some are funny, and some are both. It does take practice and not everyone will be an expert but if you follow the guidelines below you should be able to create effective news items without too much stress. Checklist to the class-generated stories in order to teach students how to assess writing quality. Comentario por juannma — febrero 14, 2013 @ 10:48 am | Responder My best holiday was when I went to malyisa with my wife for honeymoon befor seven years.

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The term “Canadian Literature in English” refers to that which is written in what is now territorially Canada or written by Canadians abroad (see also Literature in French). Writers have described Canada in many ways;for example, as a French or English colony, a “fifty-first state,” a Pacific Rim country, an Arctic giant, a friendly territory or an uninhabitable wilderness. Canadian literature has often had to deal with such differences in attitude, not just because many Canadian authors were born elsewhere and brought outsiders’ expectations with them, but also because popular attitudes often perpetuated stereotypes of Canada. Three pervasive stereotypes portray Canada as (1) a physical desert, (2) a cultural wasteland and (3) a raw land of investment opportunity and resource extraction. These distortions have created an audience for stereotypes, which Canadian writers sometimes reinforced by writing romantic adventures of the frozen North, in which everything local was savage or hostile and “civilization” was imported. But over time, they sought to record local experience and to use literature to shape their own culture rather than to imitate or defer to the presumptions of another society. Insofar as Canadian culture continues to be shaped by a range of languages in use and by wide variations in geography, social experience, Indigenouscultures, immigrationpatterns and proximity to Europe, Asia and the USA, the “Canadian voice” is not uniform. Nevertheless, however much their aesthetic practices and political commitments may differ, Canadian writers bring many shared perspectives to their representations of nature, civility and human interaction, whether at home or abroad. Some critical approaches to Canadian literature have attempted to identify national or regional characteristics in literature. Other criticism (see Literature in English: Theory and Criticism) has fastened on language and formal strategies, theories of knowledge and meaning, ethics (variously defined) and the politics and psychology of race, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, identity and environment. “Canadian literature” does not therefore restrict itself to a particular set of topics, terms or even Canadian settings, nor does any set of topics and terms constitute a required ingredient in a Canadian book. Motifs and Patterns Although the national character is not always the subject of Canadian literature, the culture’s social attitudes and values can be seen in the language and forms it uses (seeLiterature in English: Language and Literary Form). For instance, communication is often achieved through tone as much as through direct statement. Irony is a dominant mode, litotes (the negative positive: not unappreciated) is a common speech pattern, trickster (rather than hero) figures recur, and a sense of humour (understatement, parody, mimicry, wry satire) punctuates much serious literary work. Some commentators have interpreted Canadian tendencies toward literary indirectness politically and psychologically, finding in it a sign of national insecurity and a group feeling of inferiority. Others argue that indirectness is a healthy demonstration of the culture’s ability to adapt an inherited tongue to its own purposes. Irony, for example, can undercut as much as apologize, and the quiet demeanour of an onlooker figure in a narrative can effectively undermine positions of ostensible power. Several specific narrative patterns recur in Canadian writing, especially evident in fiction and life writing: (1) a community walls itself off from the wilderness (the “garrison mentality”); (2) a person leaves the homeland, adjusts to the new world, then finds the new “homeland” to be “alien”; (3) a person born in Canada feels like a permanent stranger in his or her own home; (4) people arrive in the new home only to find that they are excluded from power; (5) a person attempts to recover from the past the secret or suppressed life of a previous generation; (6) a woman struggles to come to terms with her own creativity and the inhibitions of her cultural upbringing (often told as conflict between colony and empire); (7) an apparently passive observer, surrounded by articulate tricksters and raconteurs, turns out to be able to tell both their story and his or her own, often ironically; (8) an adventurer turns failure into a form of grace; (9) a child grows up to inherit a world of promise, or a world of loss, frequently both at once; (10) a subjective historian meditates on place and memory; (11) characters celebrate space and wilderness, usually after a struggle to learn to accept that the wilderness provides spiritual therapy only on its own terms; (12) characters, adrift in a maze of words or a fog of ambiguity and anonymity, shape “acceptable fictions” into a workable life. Writing about their society, many writers of short fiction, thenovel, autobiography or memoir, biography, poetry and drama have recurrently portrayed particular historical figures, both to reveal their intrinsic interest and implicitly to suggest how they epitomize certain cultural attributes or qualities of character. Such figures include Samuel Hearne, Louis Riel, Susanna Moodie, Sir John A. Macdonald, Emily Carr and William Lyon Mackenzie. In the retelling, sometimes transposed from their own time into the present, each possesses a vision but remains an ordinary human being, one with frailties, not a conventional hero. Characteristically, Canadian writing resists the binaries associated with perfectionism (right-wrong, good-evil, hero-villain ), embracing notions of multiple alternatives, working pluralities, multivoicedness and negotiated or evolving resolution instead. In narrative, violence generally functions as an instigation of action and as a penultimate event rather than as a solution or act of closure. Repeatedly, individual rights balance against community responsibilities. In more recent drama, poetry, and prose—even in much popular genre writing (see Popular Literature in English)—open endings predominate over conventional strategies of closure, inviting readers/listeners to participate in the play of alternatives and possibilities. Settings often possess a symbolic dimension. CatholicQuébec recurrently figures in anglophone writing as a land of mystery, attractive but enthralling and morally dangerous; Ontario as an enigmatic blend of moral uprightness and moral evasiveness; Atlantic Canada as a repository of old values; the North as a land of vision; the Prairies as a land of isolation and acquisition; and the West Coast as a dream of the future in which people often mistakenly believe. Europe often appears as the home of refinement, deceit, and discrimination; the United States as a land of crass achievement and tangible success; and Africa as the embodiment of all that seems “other” to Protestant rationalism. In recent writing, Latin America and Asia (both East and South) are frequently configured as sites of political entanglement, which is expressed through inheritance and family ties or embodied in the complexities of larger communities. Within Canada, the land itself is recurrently associated with power, whether as property, region, a hostile force, a godly gift, the basis for resource extraction, the site of communication, the contested territory of competing cultural claims, the border or the ecological medium in which human life integrates with all other living beings in Nature. Although most Canadians live in cities, until recently writers used rural and small-town settings more frequently than urban ones, and to the degree that they adapted conventional adventure and pastoral formulas to Canadian settings, they seldom questioned unstated assumptions about status and race. From early on in Canadian literature, however, essayists (see Essay in English) and travel writers (see Travel Literature) analyzed and challenged as well as celebrated Canadian political life. Often, women writers used fiction and autobiography to reveal social divisions within Canada that male adventure writers ignored or underplayed, and to suggest reforms. Recent writing by both women and men focuses more directly and fully on urban life as well as on social issues (ethnicity, gender, poverty, health, education) that transcend setting. “Regional” writing also conveys political stances. The term is used in two ways: to refer to places ruled by a real or imagined centre, and to configure the variant parts that make up a collective unit or community. By rejecting a single definition of “Canada,” writing about regional distinctiveness sometimes declares separatist claims on identity and power and in other instances asserts the viability of a nation with a plural character (seeRegionalism in Literature). Increasingly, Indigenous writers and writers who draw on backgrounds other than western European ones have examined the political opportunities of Canadian pluralism, but also the social limitations of local convention. A rough chronological guide to changes and developments in Canadian writing should not be equated with a simple chart of “progress”; each age (Colonial, Early National, Interwar and Postwar, Contemporary) reveals differing conventions, preoccupations and accomplishments. Hence, as fashions and critical tastes change over time, so do determinations of value and significance. Canadian literature in English can be said to begin in the early 17th century with Jacobean poetry in Newfoundland; in the decades that followed with numerous explorers writing narratives of contact (seeExploration Literature); or in the mid-18th century with the epistolary fiction of the English garrison community in Québec. After 1776, in the Loyalistsettlements of Upper Canada and the Maritimes, many writers turned to political verse satire (see Humorous Writing in English; Literature and Politics). Newly founded newspapersand magazines(see alsoLiterary Magazines in English) became venues for political commentary, both conservative and reform-minded, as well as for literary expression, which in the 19th century generally followed Romantic, Sentimental and Orientalist fashions in Britain. Some scathing satire emerged in Nova Scotia. Novels and dramas followed historical romance and Gothic paradigms, as did most long poems. Mid-19th century autobiographies set in present day Ontario provide insight into daily life: Susanna Moodie’s Roughing It in the Bush (1852), Catharine Parr Traill’s The Backwoods of Canada (1836) and Anna Brownell Jameson’s Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada (1838) highlight British women’s various attitudes toward settlement, while the Nishnaabe missionary George Copway’s memoir The Life, History and Travels of Kah-ge-ga-gah-Bowh (1847) both celebrates Christianity and emphasizes the value of Indigenous law, land use and religion. Short personal sketches of persons and places formed the basis for much travel writing and for the short fiction that emerged as a new genre during the 19th century. Folksong and folktale survive, but Native oral literature received scant literary attention until the later 19th century. In the years leading up to Confederation and during the five decades following, much attention turned to literacy and political organization. Schools and universities opened, as did several Carnegie Libraries, part of a network of public libraries across North America financied by the fortune of Pittsburgh steel magnate Andrew Carnegie. Writers celebrated their newfound nationalism and were drawn variously to such enterprises as the Mechanics’ Institutes, the Institut Canadien, the Royal Society of Canada, the Canada FirstMovement and Imperial Federation (see Imperialism). Philosophical and scientific writing flourished, encouraging thoughtful discourse across language lines. Travel (within Canada and abroad) encouraged other kinds of contact, and with it both impressionistic and reportorial writing. By the end of the 19th century, writers like Edith Maude Eaton (Sui Sin Far) addressed racism against Chinese North Americans, while proponents of Women’s Suffrage and Prohibition wrote stories and essays that focused on issues of social change. Many other social assumptions nevertheless remained largely unexamined. While attention turned to First Nations’ oral tales, writers treated them (despite the emergence of First Nations writers publishing in English) as “simple” texts, suitable in translation (if expurgated) mainly to entertain children. Tales and poems about “Indians,” such as Duncan Campbell Scott’s “The Onondaga Madonna” (1894), largely assumed that First Nations people were “a dying race” and their several complex cultures unsophisticated. Poet and performer E. Pauline Johnson (Tekahionwake) drew on her Mohawk and British heritage to challenge these stereotypes and address the relationship between Indigenous peoples and Canadians. Nevertheless, the romance of the “Indians” was matched by a continuing romance of Empire. Ontario- and Maritime-based Canadian culture remained dominantly Celtic and anglocentric. Early creative narratives from the Prairies and the West Coast, while recurrently probing the real-life travails of immigrants and the exigencies of farm and forest management, were largely overshadowed in the popular imagination by Ontario romances of Presbyterian conversion. By the early 20th century, many Canadian books won widespread international popularity, notably L.M. Montgomery’s Anne Of Green Gables (1908), a humorous tale of an orphan’s life in Prince Edward Island. C.G.D. Roberts’s and E.T. Seton’s seemingly realistic animal tales provide other examples, as do the comic sketches of Stephen Leacock , which parodied literary stereotypes and dealt ironically with social platitudes. In poetry, the Confederation group (William Wilfred Campbell, Bliss Carman, Archibald Lampman, Charles G.D. Roberts, Duncan Campbell Scott and Fredrick George Scott) produced the most important writings of the late 19th century; committed to closely observed details, they variously reshaped how the lyric represented nature, winter and the Canadian landscape. Interwar and Postwar Cultural and social attitudes changed during and after the First World War. One creative generation was lost but another emerged, objecting both to imperial assumptions of militarism and the language associated with it (see The First World War in Canadian Literature). New magazines affirmed the independence of Canadian thought. New prizes were established to recognize Canadian literary accomplishment. In the fiction of the 1920s, while some popular family chronicles continued to affirm conventional class distinctions, antiwar novels and class critiques began to appear, a trend magnified during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Many writers focussed on uprooted or marginalized individuals and the troubled lives of non-English-speaking immigrants. Novelists championed industrial workers’ rights and sought fresh, more direct forms of speech, spurning the sentimental romance in favour of a more “realistic” (some called it a more “violent”) vocabulary. American literary practice—and the international avant-garde of postwar Paris—drew writers such as John Glassco and Morley Callagham; the short story genre thrived, espousing forms that resisted narrative closure. Young writers also rejected received social values by mounting left-wing agitprop drama, writing dramas that satirized nationalist pageantry, publishing erotica, finding inspiration in the Group of Seven painters, and embracing the modernist dicta of the poet T.S. Eliot and others. Chief among emerging Canadian poets at this time were those associated with the “McGill” (or “Montreal”) Group, especially F.R. Scott for his commitment to social justice and Abraham Klein for his passionate embrace of his Jewish heritage. Over succeeding decades Dorothy Livesay became the voice of socialist feminism and Scott, with the poet-critic A.J.M. Smith, became an influential anthologist, shaping the early teaching of Canadian literature. In the wake of the Second World War came a mix of propaganda, pacifist rhetoric, parodies of military ineptitude, and a new wave of progressivist writers, by turns humanist, anticlerical, community-minded and intellectually anarchist. Notable names include Irving Layton, Earle Birney, Gabrielle Roy (who remains one of the best- known francophone writers in translation), P.K. Page and George Woodcock. In the 1940s and 1950s, social policies were being drafted that would shape a Canadian sense of community for decades to come. New Literary Periodicals demanded a sharper, more locally grounded language. Radio technology also served this end. Public radio, established in 1932, led to a wave of cross-country spoken-word broadcasts, talks, dramas, readings of short stories and children’s programs, all reconfirming the sounds of Canadian speech as a literary medium, especially from 1943 on. Novelists such as Hugh MacLennan and Sinclair Ross urned again to local settings, rendering the prairies, the Maritimes and Montreal as sites of personal and political trauma. Critics now praise more highly the innovative stylistic practice of Ethel Wilson for her insights into women’s lives; Malcolm Lowry for his symphonies of despair and transient joy; Sheila Watson for her rendering of life as an elliptical mythology; and in a career that would last for half a century, Mordecai Richler for his frank and animated cultural politics. Contemporary: Three Generations Several social developments markedly changed Canadian society in the years following 1960. The large “baby-boom” generation matured, with the vocal “X” and “Y” generations following; immigration policies were altered to allow greater numbers of new citizens from Asia, Africa and Latin America; startling technological developments (from radio to the Internet) collapsed notions of space and sped up communication. All these changes had an impact on literary topics and techniques. Cross-border and cross-cultural contacts validated notions of cultural “hybridity” as a social norm, challenging conventional definitions of “ethnic purity” and “fixed identity.” Family biographies shifted focus from single lives onto lives-in-context. Multimedia presentations challenged conventions regarding the unity of literary form. Bilingual texts, triptychs (in fiction and drama), and discontinuous narratives in fiction and poetry all deliberately disrupted conventional linearity as a literary technique. Numerous integrated (but discontinuous) collections of short fiction appeared called sequences, cycles or “composite narratives.” Some of the major writers of these decades had just been emerging in the 1950s: Richler and two of the world’s foremost authors of short fiction, Alice Munro and Mavis Gallant, whose stories embed more than announce, reveal more than parade. They would be joined by Alistair MacLeod , Clark Blaise and numerous others. The number of Canadian universities, small presses, accessible academic and literary periodicals (from Canadian Literature to Geist), courses in Canadian literature and creative writing schools also increased, in part because of the recommendations of the Massey Commission and the emergence of the Canada Council in the 1950s. Further government policies led to such social developments as the Charter Of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, but a sudden shift to policies that favoured fiscal restraint and cultural cutbacks occurred in the early 21st century and have persisted; the publishing industry, libraries, public media and scholarship were all affected. New technologies opened up opportunities for local (and frequently more innovative) publishing (including experiments in syllabic and concrete poetry, mixed-media presentations, performance poetry and other formats), yet they did not guarantee access to publicity and sales. Coteries came and went; so did scores of journals and papers. Newspapers faced hardships, and some stopped publishing print editions; this was due in part to a readership that had shifted to online news sources. Publishers of formula fiction remained monetarily successful. Some writers of mystery and science fiction achieved international stardom and praise for their literary achievements, as in the case of William Gibson’s Neuromancer (1986), Nalo Hopkinson’s Brown Girl in the Ring (1998) and Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam trilogy (2003, 2009 and 2013). But publishing houses that had thrived in the 1960s when American control over the information industry was resisted faced closure in the 2010s with the increasing influence of electronic publishing and multinational corporations. The CBC’s annual Canada Reads contest, which began in 2002, pits a selection of books against one another, each with its own celebrity endorsement. The event promotes Canadian writing and emphasizes the importance of a reading public yet simplifies literature and contributes to a competitive literary culture. Likewise, a plethora of prizes, often with corporate sponsorship, began to construct literature as spectacle. Many bookstores nevertheless closed. Throughout the decades from 1960 onward, while there has been some evidence of a literary return to older forms of expression and fundamentalist redefinitions of ethics, writers more characteristically in each generation embraced social justice and reformist causes: for women’s rights (see Women’s Movement), for gay and lesbian equality (See Homosexuality), against colonialism and against increasing poverty. Children’s literature, an enterprise that flourished at this time, ranging from nonsense verse to problem-centred novels for young adults, addressed some of these same issues of race, gender, alcohol, drug abuse and social identity. Science writing, social history, life writing, environmental inquiry and other forms of “creative nonfiction” also frequently combined discovery with protest. Critiques of social arrogance in one decade (foreign wars, napalm, racism) morphed into critiques of other disparities in the next (discrimination by sex, gender, ethnicity, economics). Margaret Atwood embraced the new nationalism of the 1960s and 1970s (with the Centennial celebrations in 1967) but later tempered her observations in dystopias such as The Handmaid’s Tale (1985), which challenges government control over women’s bodies. Robertson Davies’s Jungian novels expressed one pervasive understanding of myth and psychology; Robert Kroetsch’s poems and tales deconstructed such conventions and rerooted the epic in everyday vernacular experience. Language and literary form again became subjects for analysis and theoretical discussion, as in the work of Marshall McLuhan and Northrop Frye, as well as territories for dispute, as when Nicole Brossard’s critiques of French grammar influenced feminist writers in English, or when, in much of 21st-century fiction, conventional vulgarities became normative (and therefore potentially radical, culturally upsetting) speech. The Writers Union of Canada formed in 1973, reflecting writers’ numbers and endeavouring to help deal with the challenges they face. Other writers addressed cultural, social, and political alternatives in Canadian society, some of which were longstanding, others deriving from more recent changes in population, technology, language and communication. Many of these writers sought a balance between criticism of social practice (racism, passive dismissal, restrictive legislation) and celebration of social potential. A great number of Métis and First Nations writers have provided important commentary, variously critiquing colonialism and celebrating Indigenous life. More specifically (although authors address multiple topics in each work), Maria Campbell’s Half-Breed (1973), Lee Maracle’s Bobbi Lee (1973) and Jeannette Armstrong’s Slash (1985) depict journeys toward political consciousness; Ruby Slipperjack’s Honour the Sun (1987), Richard Van Camp’s The Lesser Blessed (1996), and Eden Robinson’s Monkey Beach (2000) represent childhood and adolescence; Thomas King’s The Truth about Stories (2003) highlights the value of Indigenous creation stories; Marie Clements’s Burning Vision (2003) and Drew Hayden Taylor’s Motorcycles and Sweetgrass (2010) consider environment and land use; Tomson Highway’s Kiss of the Fur Queen (1998), Joseph Boyden’s Three Day Road (2005) and Richard Wagamese’s Indian Horse (2012) address the residential school system, which has been further investigated in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2008–15). The poet Robert Bringhursttranslated some of the great classic Haida oral tales, Al Purdy created poetry out of the rhythms of ordinary speech, Jack Hodgins turned Vancouver Island idiosyncrasy into a comedy of human aspiration, George Elliott Clarke and Wayde Compton called attention to Black writing in Canada, and increasing numbers of writers (including Rohinton Mistry, Michael Ondaatje and Wayson Choy) drew on their Asian heritage both to reflect on adaptations to difference and to dramatize the challenges and rewards of a fractured or shared history. Developments in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, including the North American Free Trade Agreement, the “war on terror,” and climate change awareness underscored global interconnectedness. While regions and places continued to provide inspiration for contemporary fiction, as in David Adams Richards’ Mercy Among the Children (2001) and André Alexis’s Pastoral (2014), stress was often laid on globalization’s impact on specific locales, as in Alistair MacLeod’s No Great Mischief (1999) and Lisa Moore’s February (2009). Environmental concerns were made central in Hiromi Goto’s The Kappa Child (2001), Ruth Ozeki’s A Tale for the Time Being (2013), Thomas King’s The Back of the Turtle (2014), and Rita Wong’s Forage (2008) and undercurrent (2015), which share concerns about the global ramifications of overconsumption, waste disposal and polluted water. With a similar planetary focus, Margaret Atwood’s MaddAddam trilogy (2003, 2009 and 2013) explores the frailty of national borders in the wake of climate change. Globalization notwithstanding, literary interest in the nation-state persisted. Canadian writers’ attention to the United States increased after the September 11th terrorist attacks and Canada’s subsequent involvement in the “war on terror.” Dionne Brand’s encyclopedic Inventory (2006) and Douglas Coupland’s apocalyptic narrative Player One (2010) respond to the violence generated by terrorism and war. Historical narratives have provided an alternative way of engaging with Canada’s southern neighbour: Patrick DeWitt’s The Sisters Brothers (2011) and Alix Hawley’s All True Not a Lie in It (2015) reinterpret myths of the American west, whereas characters’ movement between American and Canadian settings in Guy Vanderhaeghe’s A Good Man (2011) suggests that the two countries have a shared history, in some respects at least. Perspectives on contemporary human migration, in the form of refugees and illegal immigrants, is provided in John Vaillant’s The Jaguar’s Children (2015) and Lawrence Hill’s The Illegal (2015), thereby giving pause to literal and metaphoric borders, as well as the complex and multiple networks that connect people, places, environments and countries in a globalized era.

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NOTE TO TEACHERS Please click on the PDF link below to download the Teacher’s Guide. As with all great works of literature, there are some challenges associated with the use of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings in the classroom. Along with classic books such as Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and Alice Walker’s The Color Purple , Angelou’s work has drawn attention from critics advocating censorship, who claim that it is too graphic for student use. Angelou’s unguarded depiction of rape and sexual abuse, and her treatment of topics such as racism and teenage pregnancy, placed the work at the top of the American Library Association’s list of banned books, where it still remains today. Although this presents some obstacles for teachers, the attempted censorship of the book only serves to illuminate its most important themes: namely, the power of literature and the power of our own voices, as well as the greater theme of freedom in all of its varieties, and the struggles we undertake in order to preserve it. Teachers who wish to use I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings in their classroom should possess a solid awareness of the subject matter it contains. They should also be prepared to confront the challenging issues the book presents by engaging students in an active examination of these issues, rather than downplaying the book’s controversial attributes. Taking this approach in the classroom can yield tremendous rewards. An exploration of such dynamic topics can re-invigorate the classroom by inviting students to participate in an active form of learning. In opening up these topics for discussion, students do more than witness someone else’s story; they engage in a process of reflection, formulating and sharing their own thoughts. They learn to value their story and to develop and find confidence in their own voices. Throughout I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , we witness Maya and her brother reading voraciously, and through their interaction with literature, they are educated and empowered. Angelou also makes note of the tremendous influence of Mrs. Bertha Flowers, who acts as a mentor not only by sharing books, but by encouraging a young Angelou to give voice to her ideas. With the same principles of mentoring applied in the classroom, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings can have a similar effect on your students, inspiring them to find their own voices. Finally, while the book certainly possesses a distinct sense of time and place throughout, teachers (who will no doubt note the book’s historical and cultural significance) should resist the urge to reduce their lesson to a study of the book from a purely historical perspective. The work certainly has many cultural and historical merits, but the primary challenge for teachers today lies in helping students recognize how the book applies to their own lives. Challenge them to ask: Why has this book had such a lasting impact? What significance does I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings hold for me? In fact, these are questions which should not only be asked in consideration of Angelou’s works, but in our confrontation with all works of literature. How does literature reflect, challenge, or define notions of our identity, our culture, our history, and our philosophies? Encouraging this line of questioning will help your students truly connect with the book, allowing the work to enter their lives in a way they might not have expected. ABOUT THE BOOK In 1969, Random House published I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , an autobiographical work of literature which instantly catapulted its author, Maya Angelou, to fame. The book, which told the story of the first 17 years of Angelou’s life, broke records for the unprecedented time it spent on the New York Times bestseller list, and cemented its place in literary his- tory by challenging stale conventions attributed to the genres of memoir and autobiography. It was the first and most successful of six autobiographical works written by Angelou, honored with a National Book Award nomination in 1970, and countless accolades throughout the decades that followed. The book reveals the story of Angelou’s development from a child into a mother at age 17, and presents an unrestrained look at the many challenges she faced during that time. Within the dynamic retelling of the events of Angelou’s own childhood lies a candid exploration of the issues facing American youth. Although I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was written 40 years ago, it remains fresh and relevant for today’s readers with Angelou’s story giving voice to universal concerns. The book speaks about contemporary issues with which many students continue to be confronted today: the effects of emotional, sexual, and intellectual development; the complexity of familial relationships, the struggle to overcome racism and prejudice in its various forms; and the journey towards knowing one’s self. Remarkably, even while addressing topics of such enormous significance, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings remains accessible and captivating, a pleasurable read. This winning combination of features, which has propelled the book’s success in both the popular and literary realm, has made it a natural candidate for use in the classroom and accordingly, the text has been adopted for use in high schools, colleges, and universities around the world. One of the book’s greatest accomplishments has been its ability to redefine and refresh the genre of autobiography, a particular point of interest for scholars and critics. By acting as both narrator and protagonist, Angelou is able to generate a memoir with the feel of a novel, transforming her story into something that extends beyond herself. She heightens this feeling by employing fictional devices such as dialogue, character development, unified themes, and motifs. Today, the question of how autobiography can be defined has transcended the literary realm, finding its way into other venues as well. It is a significant and timely question, which pertains not only to the definition or re-definition of literary genres, but which ultimately leads us to a consideration of identity and truth. “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings liberates the reader into life simply because Maya Angelou confronts her own life with such a moving wonder, such a luminous dignity.” —James Baldwin “A beautiful book—an unconditionally involving memoir for our time or any time…Maya Angelou is a natural writer with an inordinate sense of life and she has written an exceptional autobiographical narrative.” —Kirkus Reviews ABOUT THE AUTHOR MAYA ANGELOU was a poet, autobiographer, and activist, among other roles throughout her career. She was born Marguerite Ann Johnson on April 4th, 1928, in St. Louis, Missouri. The name Maya was given to her by her older brother, Bailey Jr., who referred to her in his youth as “my-a-sister,” a moniker which was later shortened to “Maya.” After her parents divorced, Maya and her brother resided with their paternal grandmother and crippled uncle in Stamps, Arkansas, where they bore witness to the racism and prejudice that plagued the American South. Angelou turned to literature at an early age, studying a wide range of books which inspired her to begin writing works of her own. In addition to the composition of many volumes of poetry, Angelou chronicled her life in a series of six autobiographical works, which included her most lauded and controversial work, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . She was convinced to tell her story by the author James Baldwin, whom she met after joining the Harlem Writers Guild in the 1950s. Angelou allowed her voice to be heard not only in her writing, but also through her political and social activism. During the 1960s, Angelou served as the Northern Coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference under Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. She also assisted Malcolm X in his work and was deeply affected by the subsequent assassinations of both men. In addition to her work in literature and poetry, and her involvement in social activism, Angelou was also engaged in theater, film, and music. She worked on adaptations, produced, directed, wrote, and composed musical scores. She earned a Tony Award nomination for her role in the play Look Away , and three Grammy Awards for her spoken word albums. Angelou’s literary works also garnered significant attention and praise. Her 1971 volume of poetry Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ’Fore I Diiie was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize, and in 1993, she recited her poem, “On the Pulse of Morning,” at President Bill Clinton’s inauguration. Angelou has served on two presidential committees. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Arts in 2000 and the Lincoln Medal in 2008, and was the recipient of countless honorary degrees. Maya Angelou passed away on May 28th, 2014, at the age of 86. Author Website: www.mayaangelou.com TEACHING IDEAS I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a versatile text which can be utilized in a variety of class- room settings. If you are considering the book for use in literature or English classes, you might begin by exploring genre. The work is often identified as autobiography or autobiographical fiction, with many scholars and critics proposing that there is a distinction between the two. Consider if there is a difference between memoir and autobiographical fiction. What about semi-autobiographical fiction or works which include the “based on a true story” disclaimer? Alternatively, you might wish to discuss the critical reception of the book. For instance, despite the book’s many merits, the work has also been criticized for its aesthetic characteristics. Discuss why Angelou’s work has received this response and allow your students to present their own conclusions. In order to answer these questions, it will be helpful to break the book into its formal elements—structure, plot, narration and voice, characters, setting, etc.—and analyze them. Discuss the style of the book. How does it relate to Angelou’s role as poet? Finally, remember that while the book can certainly serve as your primary text, it can also be used profitably in conjunction with other texts. Consider the work as a coming- of-age story or bildungsroman, or examine the book within the context of Southern literature. Alternatively, you might choose to address the historical and cultural context of the work by studying its role as a social device or impetus for cultural change. If you take this approach, you may wish to look at the book within a tradition of American protest literature. This approach might be adopted in literature classes, but would also be a fitting and dynamic approach for history students, or those studying the American South in particular. Consider how the work addresses racism and identity. Explain the significance of scenes such as the Joe Louis fight and the scene where readers find Uncle Willie hiding in a potato bin. How do these scenes tie in to larger historical and cultural issues? Those interested in teaching the text from a sociological standpoint might wish to consider how the various groups of people in the story relate to and identify with one another, or how they fail to do so. How do the different races interact? Does Angelou want us to form judgments about races as single entities? Or is there something else that she is getting at? How do the characters of varying generations interact? Finally, what do we learn about social class? In each of these instances, you would do well to focus primarily on character. Are the characters in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings flat characters or round characters? Do the characters serve a function beyond themselves, symbolizing something greater? The book is also a valuable resource for those studying psychology and human development . I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings covers tough issues such as the effects of rape and the trauma resulting from abuse; sexual development and gender issues; identity; and the impact of relationships between family members, friends, teachers, and students. DISCUSSION AND WRITING 1. The text presents us with many variations of Maya’s name, culminating in a pivotal scene wherein Mrs. Viola Cullinan refers to Angelou as “Mary,” instead of “Marguerite.” What is the significance of this scene? How does Maya react? Are her actions justified? Explain. 2. Where does the title of the book come from and why is it significant? Where do we find this image of the caged bird applied in the story both literally and figuratively? 3. Following her rape, Marguerite becomes silent. Why does she refrain rom speaking? What allows her to find her voice again? 4. What impact does literature have on Maya and her brother? Where in the story do we witness its effects? 5. Analyze the style of the book. Consider its structure as a whole, as well as the sentence structure and Angelou’s use of metaphor and simile. How does the style of the book relate to Angelou’s role as poet? Is the style characteristic of other autobiographical works? Why or why not? How does this affect our response to the story? 6. Why does Angelou devote an entire chapter to the Joe Louis fight? How do the characters in the book react to the fight? Why is it significant? What do we learn from this scene? 7. Is Maya’s view always accurate? Is she a reliable narrator? Why or why not? Consider the perspective of the story. Is it told solely through the eyes of the young Marguerite? Or is an older, wiser Angelou also present in the book? How does the narration affect our reception of the text? 8. How does Angelou’s own story reflect the social conventions and concerns of the day? Does it also reflect today’s social conventions and concerns? Explain. 9. Consider the role of truth in literature. Is it fair to say that the book is an autobiography, or is autobiographical fiction a more accurate categorization? What defines a work as autobiography and what distinguishes a work as fiction? Does Angelou’s use of literary devices such as dialogue, characterization, and cohesive themes change the categorization of the book? 10. Analyze Maya’s development through- out the story. How does the Maya at the conclusion of the story compare to the young Marguerite that we meet at the start? How has she changed? To what can these changes be attributed? 11. Why does Angelou include the opening church scene as an introduction to the book? Why would she choose to lead with this, and how does this scene tie in with the story as a whole? 12. Consider the structure of the book. Why do you think that Angelou chose to divide the book into so many chapters? Are the chapters lengthy or concise? How might the structure of the book tie in with common themes of the text such as memory? 13. Is Maya’s portrayal of her parents accurate or should we be wary of it? Consider her descriptions of them and her reactions to both parents. 14. How does I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings address racial stereotypes? What is Maya’s view of “whitefolk” and how do the so-called “whitefolk” perceive African Americans? What do we learn about racism and prejudice? 15. In Chapter 23, Maya says “we survive in exact relationship to the dedication of our poets.” What does she mean by this? What does it say about the importance of literature? 16. In Chapter 27, what is the relationship between African Americans and the Japanese inhabitants of the city? What does Angelou attribute this to? 17. In Chapter 29, Daddy Clidell introduces Maya to con men. Maya says that “the needs of a society determine its ethics.” What do you think she means by this? Do you feel that she is correct? Discuss. 18. What are some of the themes of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ? How can we identify them as such? How do these themes unify the text and help to create a cohesive whole? BEYOND THE BOOK (SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES) 1. Discuss an event that you consider to have been a critical part of your growth and development. How has your perception or understanding of this event changed (or remained the same) as you have grown older? How did this event help to define who you are? 2. In 2008, Angelou’s family history was explored on the PBS series African American Lives 2 . Explore your own family history. Create a work (a story, a video, a piece of art, etc.) which documents this history. 3. Throughout the story Angelou references many works of literature which have inspired her. Does I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings share anything in common with these works of literature? Are we able to see their direct influence in her own work? For instance, do the characters in Angelou’s story and the stories she read as a youth share a similar fate or confront common obstacles? Does the subject matter of the work compare? Or the form and style? Choose one work and analyze its relation to I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings 4. Consider the book within the framework of the history of banned books. Why has this book been the subject of censorship? How does it compare to other banned texts? Consult the American Library Association website at www.ala.org/ala/aboutala/offices/oif/ bannedbooksweek/bannedbooksweek. cfm for suggested projects associated with Banned Books Week. How does Angelou’s book confront issues of voice, freedom, and censorship? 5. Read Angelou’s original poem, “Those Who Burn Books,” written for Random House’s RHI magazine at www.randomhouse.com/highschool/ rhi_magazine/pdf3/Angelou.pdf. What can be determined about the author’s position on the banning of books? What does Angelou suggest censors are fearful of? Why would censors be fearful of allowing students to read about these issues? What other authors and works of literature does Angelou reference in the poem, and what do these works share in common? TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION • Censorship • Freedom • Identity • Joe Louis • Ku Klux Klan • Pregnancy • Racism • Rape •Segregation OTHER BOOKS BY MAYA ANGELOU I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1970) Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water’Fore I Diiie (1971) Gather Together in My Name (1974) Oh Pray My Wings Are Gonna Fit Me Well (1975) Singin’ and Swingin’ and Gettin’ Merry Like Christmas (1976) And Still I Rise (1978) The Heart of a Woman (1981) “Why I Moved Back to the South” (1982) Shaker, Why Don’t You Sing (1983) All God’s Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986) “My Grandson, Home at Last” (1986) Poems: Maya Angelou (1986) Now Sheba Sings the Song (1987) I Shall Not Be Moved (1990) “On the Pulse of the Morning” (1993) Wouldn’t Take Nothing for My Journey Now (1993) The Complete Collected Poems of Maya Angelou (1994) “A Brave and Startling Truth” (1995) Even the Stars Look Lonesome (1997) Phenomenal Women (2000) A Song Flung Up to Heaven (2002) “Amazing Peace: A Christmas Poem” (2005) “Mother: A Cradle to Hold Me” (2006) “Celebrations: Rituals of Peace and Prayer” (2006) Letter to My Daughter (2008) OTHER BOOKS OF INTEREST The following list contains suggested works which can be studied profitably alongside I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings . Included are works which share similarities in formal characteristics such as style, character, and plot, as well as works which share a historical and cultural significance. The list also references some of the works known to have influenced Angelou, which she mentions in the book. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , Mark Twain The Collected Poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar The Collected Works of Shakespeare including The Rape of Lucrece The Color Purple , Alice Walker Complete Tales of Poems of Edgar Allan Poe Go Tell It on the Mountain , James Baldwin Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , Harriet Jacobs Invisible Man , Ralph Ellison Jane Eyre , Charlotte Bronte To Kill a Mockingbird , Harper Lee The Mill on the Floss , George Eliot Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass , Frederick Douglass Plum Bun: A Novel Without a Moral , Jessie Redmon Fauset Uncle Tom’s Cabin , Harriet Beecher Stowe The writings of W. E. B. Du Bois Wuthering Heights , Emily Bronte ABOUT THIS GUIDE’S WRITER This guide was produced by JENNIFER BANACH, a writer from Connecticut. A member of the Association of Literary Scholars and Critics, Banach has written on a wide range of topics from Romanticism to contemporary literature for publishers such as Random House, EBSCO, and Oxford University Press. She was the Contributing Editor for Bloom’s Guides: The Glass Menagerie and Bloom’s Guides: Heart of Darkness , edited by Harold Bloom for Facts on File, Inc., and the author of How to Write about Tennessee Williams . Currently, Banach is at work on How to Write about Arthur Miller and How to Write about Kurt Vonnegut , also to be edited by Harold Bloom for Facts on File, Inc., and Understanding Norman Mailer for the University of South Carolina Press.

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You can tell a person by their deeds and actions, and the way they treat others. At our school, our three core school values are kindness, respect and perseverance. We have a Maori version too but remember that translating the Maori core value back into English can have an impact on meaning. This week I was in one of the junior classes and for their writing the children were describing our school values. Each day the teacher modelled one value using shared writing strategies. In addition she provided the children with sentence starters to help them frame their writing and support them depending on their abilities. Then the children went and wrote their own version. What the children wrote about our school values left such an impression on me that I thought I would also have a go but write them from a teacher perspective. So what I have done is put the values together and used the Maori version to help strengthen the English value. At Newmarket School kindness is one of our school values We teach our children the importance of being kind. As teachers we model being kind with our words and actions. We show empathy for each other by choosing the words we use when we are together and are conscious of the impact of our words. We are role models for our children and for each other by upholding a high standard of what we say and how we say it. We show kindness by taking pleasure and pride in our team work and produce great lessons that our children remember. We show kindness by building relationships with our children and their families and take the time to greet them using eye contact and remember their names and where they come from. Kindness is important because kindness is central to who we are at Newmarket School. We value people above all things and in doing so, we are ourselves uplifted. The very act of talking and writing about kindness encourages our children and us to be kinder. Let us make kindness visible. We can smile at people and ask how they are. We can make an effort to connect and act in kindness. We can practice being approachable by being gentle with words and actions. Kindness sits at the heart of well being. At Newmarket School respect is another one of our school values. We teach our children the importance of being respectful with a focus on manners. As staff we highlight respect beginning with greeting each other, our children and their parents whenever we see them. This year we have spent the year unpacking belonging and what this looks like in learning. The concept was developed by our student curriculum leaders. As a staff member of Newmarket school I am conscious of my rights as a person and also my responsibility to our children, my colleagues and our families. One major responsibility we have with our children is to build that reciprocal relationship with their families. At Newmarket school we have a history of creating shared experiences for our children. Their favourite event, as was highlighted by our leaving year six children, is our annual camp. This major event sees a huge input from our families and staff to ensure a safe and memorable event for our children. Respect is important because it serves to strengthen each member of our school group. Our third Newmarket School value is perseverance. We teach our children that perseverance is about never giving up, giving things a go, trying one’s best. However we must also remember that perseverance is also about duty and not just the playground grind. It is more like service and for us at Newmarket School it is about acknowledging our historic motte, ‘Not self but service.’ Perseverance is about knowing our heritage through storytelling and sharing our story. Again this was an area highlighted by our curriculum student leaders in their planning for learning for 2019. Our children wanted to know more about our school’s history. Perseverance is important because it is about guardianship and looking after our surrounding environment sustainably. It is about building a legacy for future learners. It is about leaving our school in a better place. Overall in today’s climate of learning, it is important for schools to have a core set of values that underpin all that they do and are communicated clearly with all involved. Often when we design learning ,we focus on what we can see and yet the greatest learning space is the space between the ears. When we focus on values, we focus on actions and again we focus on what we see and yet the greatest action is how we treat others. When I first approached our teachers with the idea, I suggested that in order for the project to work, they themselves must also create a migrant story about themselves or a family member. They must also use book creator to craft their story so they could experience that challenges their learners might have with the app. I shared my own journey to New Zealand that could be used as a model by both teachers and children. I applied for and gained book creator ambassador status and this opened up further ideas for collaboration. Another idea was for each teacher to share the code to their class library so that all teachers could learn from each other. This they did. Teachers used Seesaw to communicate with families. Most of the images came in this way for the children. Some teachers created a page in Google Docs and saved the families links there. That was so the children were then able to access their images. For art the children created patterns from countries that they associate with and this was also included in their books. They also included a reflection on the art process. All in all, the unit of work was successful. We learned so much about who we all are, belonging, and the diverse cultures that make up our school. Our families gave us positive feedback because the children came home and asked so many questions that conversations around family photo albums were animated and exciting. In addition several families needed to contact extended families overseas for further clarification for some information. When the books were completed, we printed out one paper copy for each child and also shared the digital copies with families in a hidden link via Seesaw. As an added bonus, I was also able to cocreate a story book with some of the children about the area that we live in. They created all the images using the new drawing tool. The book is called ‘The Patupaihere of Tāmaki Makaurau’ and retells the story of how the mountains appeared in Auckland. Where to next: I cannot stress enough the importance of going through the learning yourself first as a teacher. Two parts of the learning included: ‘How to write a recount’ and ‘How to learn to use Book Creator’. In addition, be really clear about driving the learning deeper and I do this using SOLO Taxonomy. Finally remember to leave time to reflect on the process. I can hear Ginny now, “Where is the SOLO Taxonomy rubric?” Over the past few days I noticed a surge in twitter followers. As in previous years I spotted they appeared to be coming from Stockton University. Today when I followed a group, one immediately responded with I was then able to direct message Mason and ask, how come I was being followed by students from the university. Here was his response: “Hi! There is a class where we are learning how to create PLN and other global learning techniques! I also believe your Twitter header is in our textbook and your page is a great one to follow!” I asked for a screen shot of the page and straight away, it was the entry from ‘The Global Educator’ by @JulieLindsay Aw such a small world. Mason shared the hashtag they were tweeting with #GEN2108. To be honest, the discussion made my day. This past year, I have been feeling a tad disconnected from twitter especially after losing wikispaces. This past month I had felt really disconnected when I received the youtube message that I am no longer able to live stream a Google Hangout. So yes tools come and go, but human connections is what helps keep us grounded. And Mason, @masonstockedu thanks for reminding me about acknowledging when I get followers. Good luck with your studies and tag me when you blog. She was already teaching at Newmarket School when I arrived and I had the good fortune of relieving in her class for the first term in 2009. It had been a while since I taught 5 year olds and coming down from senior students I might have spoken a bit stronger with the children than I intended. But Jane was there to subtly remind me about other people’s children. That first year I was reintroduced to Smarty Pants by Joy Cowley, one of Jane’s favourite children’s authors, and my senses were flooded with crazy 5 years olds interpretation of being a smarty pants. Those MASSIVE drawings took up the whole wall. I was also reminded about giving the 5 year olds extra time to have their breaks. Jane ensured that they began eating five minutes before the school bell rang. The week we had swimming, she asked me to lead like a mother duck. Those of you who know me know I walk really fast. I got halfway down Broadway before realising I had left Jane, the extra parent helpers and the children around the corner still coming up Nuffields street. When I got back to her, she shook her shoulders, smiled and said “ that is why we leave a little earlier.” Jane found out I was keen to learn about Tui’s and so she brought me old books to help me with my Global Project. We spend several sessions talking about Tuis and it was through Jane that I found out that Tuis don’t generally walk on the ground because they have curved claws from hanging onto branches. I also found out about their brush tongues through Jane. I wrote about Jane before when I wrote about our schools history and how she alluded me to the fact how huge it was. It is because of Jane that I began collating images and historical artefacts about our school. It was through Jane that I found out about ‘Ti Tutahi’. After she retired, Jane continued to work at our school supporting our children with reading. She always told me how amazing the children were and could stretch them through a passion. She would go out of her way to look for science books, insects books, story books, that would fit the level of the children she was working with. She had two sons of whom she was immensely proud. Sometimes she would ask me if I had caught up with their lives on Facebook. That always made me giggle because I spent several years trying to get her to turn her teacher laptop on. However she discovered the ease of the smart phone for keeping in communication. I would sometimes bounce her tidbits of information that she could watch on youtube or read on her smart phone. She would respond in kind with photos of the grandchildren. Just last week I had rediscovered Emere’s speech on the environment and had thought how I must share that with her. Jane had such an interesting life and she knew so many people. I remembered when the Prime Minister and Governor General visited to talk to our students about leadership. I often wondered if it was her connections that helped our case for a visit. She used to tell me about her life as a young wife for Hone Kaa. How the presbytery was the stopping in place for the various movements that passed through over the years. She was interviewed by our children about her part in the springbok tour and I remembered what an incredible impact that was for the children to hear from someone who was there. Jane hated photos and being photographed with a passion and had a way of sneaking away. But over the years I did manage to get a couple. When we set up the historic photos outside the hall, I even managed to sneak one of her in there. You do have to look for it. Ah Jane I am going to miss our talks. No one else quite gets those Tui’s like you do. I think of all the service you gave Newmarket School, all the families you have been a part of the dinner tables conversations, and how you helped leave the school in a better place. I know you will continue to read my blog from where ever you are. I have been using book creator on and off for a few years since @Allanahk introduced me to it. This year I began using it again but instead of an app on an iPad, I have been using it on chrome and absolutely love the new features. Last term I worked with the year 3 students at our school and wanted to publish their science learning into a book. Which I did. Here is the link to see all the science books collated together as one large book. I really like book creator because of the way I can control how the book looks. My favourite part of book creator is being able to use it with my learners. This term I have a writing project and book creator is at the centre. I think it is the ideal tool to showcase the children’s writing. As I investigated more about the tool, I found out that Book Creator headquarters is in Bristol, England. You can find out more about them here on their linked in page. My journey to New Zealand begins a little before the day we left. Some of the earlier footage shows me between the age of four years old to 10 years old. There is even a really short clip of me in New Zealand washing dishes with my sisters. I would have been about 4. My story is helped because my father had a movie 8 camera and so the memories of our journey were captured in movie form. Our travel story began at Faleolo Airport in Apia Samoa. The year is early 1973. I was born in Samoa during the year of independence. My father was a New Zealander who travelled to Samoa for overseas experience. He met my mother whose father was Danish and whose mother was Samoan. They fell in love, married and had a family there. They lived together in Samoa for 14 years and had four daughters. I was number three. Kathie was the eldest. Dad nicknamed her ka’avale because her initials spelt Kar. Then Astrid, who was known as Aiskulimi, named by my great grandmother, myself Sonya, named after my godmother and finally Biddy nick named after my paternal grandmother, shortened from her real name of Brigitte. My early years in Samoa were idyllic and I often view those early times with rose tinted glasses. I was able to grab some of those moments of sea swimming, of visiting grandparents each weekend, visiting Savaii and always seemed to be surrounded by cousins and extended family. I love Samoa, my culture, my language and my people. My childhood memories of Samoa are like a long summer holiday by the beach. The sun is always shining and the sounds of everyday life and life smells like the umu, ground oven fires, are vivid. The trees and grass are always vividly green and the sea and amazing colour. My narrative began the year I turned 10 and our family had an enormous adventure. We were moving to New Zealand for good. We would leave behind an extensive extended family with heaps of cousins and we would also leave behind maternal grandparents and childhood friends. So this day began at the airport. I was there with my mum, dad and three sisters. We had special outfits made for the journey. Us ladies were all dressed identically in pants suit with a white blouse. The three younger ones wore green. My hair was blonde and short. My eyes were grey more than blue. At the airport, all the extended family were there with us. Included in the farewelling family was my great aunty Else who was visiting my Grandpa. She lived in San Francisco. In the video there are snapshots of aunties and uncles and of course the cousins. Unfortunately I had to cut a lot of dad’s movies because of quality. Memories I have of that day was the weight of wearing shell necklaces. Also being given American dollars and at the time the total of $5.00 seemed like a fortune. The most I had ever held previously was $1.00 Samoan money. The biggest conflict we had as a family was deciding what was important enough to take with us. I do not remember much of the decision making, but can remember packing and packing and repacking. Mum had to downsize the house contents. I remember the wooden packing boxes, but little else. The treasures I brought with me were my doll collection, my stamp collection, my Langelinie Danish blue plate and my Hans Christian Anderson book of fairy tales. I cannot remember packing clothes but I must have included clothing. Another conflict was saying goodbye to everyone we knew. Saying goodbye to grandpa and nana was the hardest because they were such a huge part of our lives. After saying goodbye to all the family who had come to the airport to farewell us, we flew to Nadi, Fiji. I believe we overnighted there. My main memory of Fiji was being sick with my first migraine and my older sister Astrid taking care of me. She held my hair from my face while I was sick and she massaged the back of my neck. She kept wetting the flannel because I was so hot. Our next stop was Auckland where we paid a toll to cross the harbour bridge and we stayed with my Uncle Einer and family. Those memories included picking and eating strawberries for the very first time. My aunty Sigrid whipped creme and again this was my first experience. We played and got to know our New Zealand cousins and those early visits remained such an important part of our extended family relationships. This family had a massive pohutukawa tree growing right in their back yard. Then dad hired a car for the journey south. The car seemed enormous in memory but the video shows not that large. In the car we had our luggage and we all piled in. The memories of that trip included the sounds of the lamp posts whooshing past, like the sound of helicopter blades, We travelled really fast compared to how we would travel on the pot holed roads in Samoa. We saw hundreds and hundreds of sheep. Their noise sticks in my mind and there was a lot of open farmland. Our next stop was Foxton where we stayed with my Aunty Shirley, my dad’s older sister and her family. We had fish and chips. I had never eaten that before either. From Foxton we travelled to Wellington and we must have crossed the ferry but I have no memories of that part of the journey or of travelling down the south island to Christchurch. My next memories were of the motel we stayed at while our house was being finalised. We watched Coronation street and I could not understand what the actors were saying because of the strong accents. Coronation street is an English programme. We visited my paternal grandfather and he took my little sister and me down to feed the ducks on the Avon river. Soon we moved into our new home and I remember thinking how small the new house was. There was not much land and the neighbouring houses were really close together. There was the most incredible vegetable garden with several fruit trees growing. The fence supported a massive grape vine with three varieties of grapes. We spent the rest of the summer making friends with the neighbouring children. They were curious about us and us of them. They all spoke so fast that I was continually challenged to understand them. I had grown up in the Samoan language and all of my previous schooling had been in Samoan. Even though we spoke English when dad was around, my English was not as strong as my Samoan language. Another memory I have is the telephone. In Samoa we had to call the operator but in New Zealand we could dial using a rotary dial phone. Then school began for the new year and I was placed in standard three. (Year 5). My teacher was Mr Syme. I was the oldest in the class because in Samoa I was the generation that began school at six years old. For the rest of my school life I was always the oldest pupil in the class. During my first week at school, I received an absolute growling because I had run on the verandah. I knew I was in trouble because of the teacher yelling at me. I had no idea what he said, but all I knew I was in big trouble. Luckily my own teacher rescued me and explained what I had done wrong and spoke with the growling teacher. I was terrified. My other memory of school was being asked to read aloud in class. I read the word guinea pig as gunner pig and all the children laughed. My second year of school was much better. I had a really nice teacher called Mr Marshall who helped me heaps with my maths. So I think at that time my maths was not the best. He used to read to us everyday and let us draw. He also played softball with us regularly at lunchtime. The school seemed so rich with a large swimming pool and we had class lessons every day. My other memory of that pool was ice on the water before we got in. We would swim with the ice if we went in first for the day. The school had flushing toilets and they even had toilet paper. In Samoa we had to take our own toilet paper. The classrooms had windows and the desks were individual. So there was a lot to get used to. One was having lunch at school. Lunchtime at school always felt wrong and really weird because we were not used to that. The school days seemed so long too. In Samoa we began at 8.00am and finished at 1.00pm. I spent many lunchtimes in the library because I felt so odd and the other children would continuously ask me questions. I played softball and was really good at catching long balls. I learnt the violin which was an instrument my oldest sister Kathie played. One of my biggest challenge at school was learning the children’s names. The names were so different to what I had been used to. Names like Carmel, sounding like camel. Robert, Stephen and Nicola are some names I remember. The other difference was the school we attended was a state school and in Samoa we had attended a Catholic school. Dad bought us each a second hand bike and I was soon riding to and from school. That first year, Canterbury had heat waves and chickens died on the farms. Then that winter we had snow and got a week off school. I had never seen snow before. I biked to and from school regardless of the weather. I biked when it hailed and I biked when it snowed. The winter season was always so cold. I wove a scarf on the school loom that I wore to keep my nose and ears warm and I made myself some gloves from sheepskin. I have no idea where the sheepskin came from but those gloves saw me right through to high school. In those days we did not wear hats at school. Years later I found out that we had moved to New Zealand for two reasons. One was to be closer to my fathers aging parents and the other was so that we could have a good education and go to the local university. Dad continued to travel back to Samoa for his work while we stayed in New Zealand with mum. When he returned he always brought island food and letters from Samoa. This was before the internet. On some journey he brought us tape recorded messages and so we could hear our grandparents and cousins voices. The food was a challenge. I remember eating cauliflower for the first time and at how disgusting it was. The coffee was instant and we were used to bean coffee back in Samoa with heaps of sugar. I missed eating taro and having fresh tree ripened bananas. The store bought bananas took a lot of getting used to, if we could get them. Other than that we were able to buy rice and eat similar food to what we ate in Samoa. We hung out for palusami and ground oven cooked taro when dad came back. My father’s father passed away in the second year we were in New Zealand. I am glad we were able to spend some time getting to know him. We all had a good education and a couple of us went to university. Before I know it, I have lived in New Zealand for over forty years. The years have flown by and I now love New Zealand and call New Zealand home. But Samoa will always be my first home. I still visit Samoa when I can and have taken my own sons back for visits. I still speak Samoan and recently learned how to master chop suey like how my grandmother made it. I have learned to make palusami using spinach leaves, but the taste is not quite the same. I learned to love cauliflower when I discovered that it needed serving with cheese sauce. Sometimes I do wonder about what might have happened if we had remained in Samoa. I wonder what my life would be like now. I wonder if I should have returned and brought my sons up in Samoa when I had the opportunity. I also wonder what I would take if I moved to another country. Like the bird in my proverb, I already was grown and had all my markings when I left Samoa. Coming to New Zealand to a new environment does not change who I am. What the new environment does is add to my story. For you reading this: Are you a migrant, or a descendent of a migrant? What is your story? If you write one, can you please share your story with me? Those of you who know me will understand why this reflection is endorsing Hapara Workspace and how fabulous it is for leading professional learning. I have all my badges for Hapara and here is my Hapara Champion Trainer certificate to confirm that I have completed all three levels of training. I love using Hapara Workspaces for learning and this year I added all our Newmarket School teachers as learners in Hapara Workspace. As part of my Champion Trainer Certification I built a workspace for teachers. However I did not build this from scratch. I took our 2018 PLG workspace that our ISL and I collaboratively created, made a copy and then ensured that it was framed with Visible Learning Concepts in that all the goals and rubrics were clear and explicit for each section. Our current workspace ensures that our Newmarket School teachers can learn from the In School Leaders (ISL) in our school and they can do so on their own time, without the need for face-to-face meetings or substitutes. Our workspace allows us to experiment with leading professional learning in our school. Each section is packed with resources including readings and videos to help explain the focus of each professional learning strategy. Each part has a landing page so that everything is one click away. Each part has an assignment that we ask teachers to do to help drive their own learning deeper. These have been framed using a SOLO Taxonomy rubric co-constructed with the ever fabulous Pam Hook. For us as ISL and ASL in our school we can quickly pull up examples of our teachers professional learning and lessons that are active in the workspace. Within our workspace, my favourite section for 2019 is our newest section. We asked our teachers to ‘To video teaching a targeted strategy which gives attention to student learning.’ and to share the link on Hapara. This part has been really exciting because by the end of term 2, all of our teachers had carried out videoing a mathematics lesson and nearly all had shared it on Hapara. My principal asked us how did we manage to get our teachers to do this. My response was, transparency using Hapara Workspace. The goals and the rubric were clear. Also our ISL expected it to happen and continually reinforced this during staff meetings and team meetings. I took many of the ideas from the Hapara trainer course and incorporated these into our workspace. I have to give a shoutout here for our fabulous Senior Management Team at Newmarket School. They were the first to line up to complete their Champion Educator Certificates using Hapara for teaching and learning. They would never ask us to do something that they were not prepared to do themselves. Also for our teachers at Newmarket School because just about all of them have completed the Hapara Champion Course. Just waiting on a few more then I will get a Hapara Grelfie, ‘Group Selfie’. I also give a shout out to our ISL leaders @Nikki_From_NZ and @BelindaHitchman who lead professional learning in our school and were the first to get their maths lessons videoed and shared with their teams. Talk about Teacher Agents at Newmarket School. They make things happen. What a fabulous evidenced example of teachers preparing to share their learning with their peers and to give and receive feedback. I wonder if I can push our teachers just a little further and see if they are willing to take up the Hapara Champion Scholar course. This second course focuses on pedagogy and looks deeply at learning from student perspective. This course also ensures that learning is really transparent for the learner with goals and forms of assessment really clear on their workspaces. They need to be aware that they will get feedback on their workspaces from their peers in the course. I also wonder if our teachers would be keen to video and share a writing lesson. Imagine the resources being created for our future teachers by our current amazing teachers.

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The post-Reconstruction period in the South, which witnessed the rise of the Jim Crow system, marked a time when American race relations are thought to have reached their nadir, with whites pursuing efforts to reassert hegemony over blacks on every front, from disfranchisement to school segregation. The term Jim Crow is believed to have originated between 1828 and 1831, when Thomas Dartmouth Rice, considered the “father of minstrelsy,” developed a song-and-dance routine that mimicked an old, crippled slave named James Crow, This routine became immensely popular, and by 1838 the term Jim Crow had become synonymous with “Negro.” By the late nineteenth century the term, as used principally, by southern whites, had come to refer to a system of racial segregation and discrimination that was beginning to take hold in the South, a system designed to perpetuate the subjugation of African Americans that had occurred under slavery. Firmly locked in place throughout the South by 1915, Jim Crowism had two cardinal features. One was the legalized separation of the races, which, under slavery, was not necessary because the master/slave relationship implied white supremacy and because the control of slaves was actually best maintained by a large degree of close master/slave contact. Once blacks were freed, however, their social status was unclear, and the white desire to continue to “keep blacks in their place” necessitated a new physical and social distance between the races. Thus, after Reconstruction, states and local communities passed laws that segregated blacks in virtually every aspect of public and social life (schools, trains, restrooms, water fountains, parks, dance halls, barbershops, penitentiaries, restaurants, theaters, hospitals, asylums, institutions for the blind and deaf, cemeteries). As early as 1870, Tennessee, regarded as having pioneered in effecting Jim Crow legislation, passed a law prohibiting interracial marriages. The second feature of Jim Crowism was the disfranchisement of African Americans. But, this disfranchisement was gradual. Initially, whites opposed to black political equality did not always bother to disfranchise blacks; sometimes they simply used bribery, violence, intimidation, and ballot-stuffing to record black votes for the Democratic Party. In fact, there were enough black voters between 1877 and 1901 to enable eleven black southerners (all Republicans) to sit in Congress. In 1890, however, Mississippi became the first state to effectively disfranchise African Americans, using a literacy test (it required an interpretation of the state constitution) and a poll tax as its methods. Other legal methods used in the South were the grandfather clause and white primary; extralegal methods included violence and terror (for example, lynchings, riots) and the denial of credit and, employment to blacks. By 1915 the combined use of such methods had effectively stripped southern blacks of the franchise. Efforts to eliminate black suffrage were basically inspired by the desire to remove the possibility that blacks would use any political strength to oppose the second-class citizenship status to which they were being relegated. The destruction of the Republican Party in the South thus became imperative. Another concern of those opposed to the franchise for southern blacks involved the rise in the 1880s of the Populist movement in the South. Essentially representing small white farmers against monied interests, its general desire for a more equitable distribution of wealth was reflected in such specific demands as the regulation of railroad rates, building of farmers’ cooperatives, cheap money, and decreases in taxes. Its principal organization, the Southern Farmers’ Alliance (SFA), despite restricting its membership to whites, believed that poor black and white farmers shared economic interests. Such sentiment helped lead in 1886 to the formation of a black SEA affiliate, the Colored Farmers’ Alliance and Cooperative Union, which, with 1,250,000 members, was perhaps the largest black organization of its time. This biracial cooperation of farmers spilled over into politics arid resulted in some black support for the People’s (Populist) Party (organized in 1892), making the black vote pivotal in some elections. This development greatly alarmed the Democrats, prompting them to negate it through the elimination of African American suffrage. Democrats also raised the specter of disfranchising poor whites farmers if the Populists continued their efforts at wooing African American voters. In response, Populist leaders (for example, Thomas E. Watson of Georgia, Benjamin “Pitchfork” Tillman of South Carolina, and K. Vardaman of Mississippi) not only capitulated to the demands of the Democrats, but became the South’s shrillest and most virulent race baiters, in the process aiding those subsequent white efforts that virtually eliminated the black southern vote. This disappointing experience with the Populists made some blacks suspicious of political coalitions with whites for decades to come. An increase in violence against African Americans, especially lynchings, accompanied the rise in Jim Crowism. During the 1890s, lynchings occurred with greater frequency than in any other decade. In 1892, for example, 161 blacks were lynched in the South, the highest yearly total ever (3,446 blacks were lynched between 1882 and 1964). The epidemic of race riots that swept the nation in the early twentieth century added to black feelings of insecurity. Perhaps the most sensational instance of white lawlessness during this period took place in Atlanta, Georgia, in September 1906. Lashed into a fury of race hatred as an outgrowth of earlier efforts to disfranchise blacks, the city was paralyzed for four days as white mobs set out on a general destruction of black property and lives. Four African Americans were killed and many injured. Helping to provide a philosophical justification for wholesale white terrorism was Social Darwinism, the pseudo-scientific application of Darwin’s evolution theories to human society. Thus, distinguished white scholars in the biological and social sciences argued that the Negro was the least intelligent of all racial groups – – a separate species next to the ape. Drawing on the notion of “survival of the fittest,” they also asserted that the evolutionary process had actually stopped for blacks who, in the face of an increasingly scientific, technical, and industrialized world, would become extinct. At a more popular level, anti-black, racist thinking was promoted through such works as Charles Carroll’s The Negro a Beast (1900); Thomas Dixon’s The Clansman (1905), which served as the literary basis for D. W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation (1915), a blatant cinematic appeal to white racism and sexual fantasies/fears about black men; Robert ShufeIdt’s The Negro: A Menace to Civilization (1907); and Edgar Rice Burroughs’s novel Tarzan (1914), which became a movie series in 1918. The ascendancy after Reconstruction of the idea of “the white man’s burden,” the mission of whites to “civilize” (rule) the darker and inferior peoples of the world, served to support southern racist sentiment. This belief in whites as “civilizers” coincided with the rise of European imperialism, especially in Africa (the 1884- 85 Berlin Conference partitioned the continent), and the emergence of the United States as an imperial power itself, mainly as a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898 (through which its major acquisitions were Puerto Rico and the Philippines). Two key decisions by the Supreme Court added to the difficulties that blacks faced during the post- Reconstruction period. In 1883 the Supreme Court invalidated the 1875 Civil Rights Act, contending that the Fourteenth Amendment did not apply to discriminatory acts by individuals or local governments. Even more far-reaching was its Plessy v. Ferguson ruling in 1896, which upheld a Louisiana law requiring separate railroad coaches for blacks. This ruling established the “separate but equal” doctrine that became the key legal sanction for Jim Crow laws. One of the ways in which African Americans, especially the masses, responded to the rise of Jim Crowism and the “nadir” period was migration. In this sense their movement was a form of protest, one that, to the extent it involved movement out of the South, was opposed by leaders like Frederick Douglass, who felt that the salvation of blacks rested in struggling to achieve their citizenship rights in the South. The exploitive conditions of sharecropping and the violence attendant to political activities were the main motivating factors for this movement. One area to which blacks moved in large numbers was the rural Midwest. Through the Exodus of 1879, the first significant movement of blacks out of the South, approximately six thousand migrants from Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Tennessee, and Kentucky, trekked to Kansas, where they established, in one instance, an all-black community, Nicodemus (1879). Roughly a decade later, in 1890, about seven thousand blacks from Arkansas, joined the “rush” to Oklahoma. Black migration to Oklahoma, which occurred when the black-town idea was attracting considerable interest, also led to the founding of all-black towns (including Langston in 1891 and Boley in 1904), some established with the intent of forming the nucleus of an all-black state in the West. After Reconstruction five thousand other African Americans headed West to become cowboys, participating in the great cattle drives that linked Abilene, Texas, and Dodge City, Kansas. A second post-Reconstruction black migration pattern was the movement to cities, both southern and northern. New Jersey cities such as Newark were among those in the North that attracted such migrants. One migrant from North Carolina, Timothy Drew, or Noble Drew Ali, established in Newark in 1913 the Moorish Science Temple, the first major expression of the Islamic faith among black Americans. Drew eventually moved this religious group to Chicago, and from it emerged the Nation of Islam of Elijah Muhammad. Atlantic City, with only fifteen blacks in 1870, experienced the most phenomenal influx of blacks during this period as a result of its growth as a resort center that offered many service jobs traditionally filled by blacks (maids, cooks, butlers, porters). By 1910 it had roughly ten thousand African Americans, the largest black community in New Jersey. Movement of southern blacks to New Jersey during this period also added one more all-black community: Whitesboro. Probably the last community of its kind established in the state, it was named after George H. White of North Carolina, who left Congress in 1901 as the last black congressman of the post-Reconstruction period. A group of African Americans decided to leave Wilmington, North Carolina, after a race riot in 1898, and White helped them find and purchase land in Cape May County in 1899. Emigration to Africa also continued to appeal to some southern blacks. During the period about four thousand left the country and settled in Africa, principally Liberia. Several groups were responsible for organizing these repatriation efforts: they ranged from the American Colonization Society, to the International Migration Society of the AME Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, to Chief Sam, an alleged Ashanti chief, who in 1915 carried a few hundred blacks from Oklahoma to the Cold Coast (Ghana). These emigration activities provided a continuum for interest in emigration to Africa that was to appear more markedly shortly thereafter in Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association. Black American leadership adopted essentially two divergent responses to Jim Crowism. Until 1910 the prevailing response was accommodationism which deemphasized the pursuit of social and political equality for southern blacks. It’s standard-bearer was Booker T. Washington, who as the founder of Tuskegee Institute in 1881, was from the time of his famous 1895 Atlanta Cotton Exposition speech (1895 Atlanta Compromise) until his death in 1915 the acknowledged leader of black Americans. (Frederick Douglass, the previously acknowledged leader, died in 1895.) Muting his criticism of Jim Crowism and the terror and violence against southern blacks that accompanied it, he counseled that through self-help, character development (work ethic, frugality, temperance), property accumulation, and industrial (vocational) education blacks would elevate themselves and eventually obtain their citizenship rights. Establishing the National Negro Business League in 1900, Washington held up the self-made black businessman as the model for the struggling masses. His principal antagonist was W.E.B. DuBois. A founder of the Niagara Movement in 1905 and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909, DuBois was the most outspoken advocate of full integration and militant protest against white racial injustices. He stressed such measures as demonstrations and litigation. In contrast to Washington’s glorification of the black capitalist, DuBois argued that the talented tenth, an elite corps of educated blacks, would guide the future course of African American people. He thus stressed an academic education for blacks, one that emphasized the dignity of the mind — the importance of intellect in human affairs. The debate between Washington and DuBois over the type of education African Americans should receive – – industrial education versus academic education — was in particular played out in New Jersey through the establishment in 1886 of the New Jersey Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth. Located in Bordentown, its founder, the Reverend Walter A. Rice, an AME minister, was a Washington disciple; the school, reflecting its emphasis on vocational training, came to be called the “Tuskegee of the North.” Also giving impetus to its establishment was a 1881 New Jersey law that prohibited forcing blacks to attend segregated schools, but allowed the continuation of the long-standing tradition of establishing such schools if they were chosen voluntarily by blacks. By far the most celebrated and famous of the state’s all-black schools, “Bordentown” was closed in 1955 as a result of the 1954 Supreme Court decision making racially segregated public schools unconstitutional. Throughout its existence it was New Jersey’s only wholly state-supported Jim Crow school. Between the late 1870s and the early twentieth century the modern black community was born; the structure and shape assumed by the community during this period have lasted essentially to the present day. Free blacks and former slaves became politically and culturally fused, black institutions were built on an unprecedented scale, blacks became more urban and increasingly residents of all-black neighborhoods, and blacks undertook greater self-help initiatives in order to survive the de facto and dejure debasement received from all levels of white society. Among the social and economic changes was a decline in the size and status of an entrepreneurial class (such as caterers and skilled artisans) dependent on a white clientele and the emergence of a class of professionals (such as doctors and lawyers) and businessmen (such as undertakers and storekeepers) that catered largely to the black community. African Americans also established certain kinds of enterprises for the first time. The most notable of these were banks (the first two were founded in 1888), realty associations, and insurance companies (the first was established in Mississippi in 1889, and the North Carolina Mutual Insurance Company, currently the largest black insurance company, was established in 1905). Moreover, as blacks became more literate the black press flourished, and new organizations like the Greek-letter fraternities were founded (Alpha Phi Alpha in 1906 was the first). It was, however, the fraternal orders that enjoyed perhaps the most phenomenal success; through their “mutual aid” function, many served as incipient insurance companies. In the forefront of this growth were the Odd Fellows, the Masons, and the Knights of Pythias. In the religious realm the most striking development was the rise in the 1890s of pentecostal churches (Holiness, Sanctified), of which the Church of God in Christ, founded in Memphis, became the largest. It was through such churches, located mainly in the rural South, that certain slave religious practices rooted in African traditions (for example, shouts, hand-clapping, foot-stomping, and jubilee songs) were continued and expressed in forms of worship that included spirit possession, improvisatory singing, and the use of drums and other percussive instruments. Finally, the nation’s two oldest civil rights organizations were formed during this period. The previously mentioned NAACP, established in 1909 by blacks and white Progressives, used mainly litigation to win equal rights for African Americans. The Urban League was formed in 1911 to address the problems (notably employment and housing) that newly arrived black southern migrants encountered in northern cities. African American women were very much in the vanguard of the struggle of the race against discrimination and oppression. Ida B. Wells-Barnett led anti-lynching campaigns and joined DuBois and others in organizing the NAACP. Mary Church Terrell established the National Association of Colored Women (NACW) in 1896 to protest disfranchisement and lynching. NACW’s formation gave impetus to the founding in 1915 of the New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs, the oldest statewide New Jersey black women’s organization. The Federation’s founder and first president, the Reverend Florence Spearing Randolph, was an AME Zion minister who, beginning in 1925, guided the growth and development of the Wallace Chapel AME Zion Church in Summit. Black women also had a presence in entrepreneurial activities. One outstanding example was Madame C.J. Walker, a native of Louisiana. Her cosmetology business, which catered to black women, began in 1905 in Saint Louis and moved in 1910 to Indianapolis, where its manufacturing plant ultimately employed three thousand persons. By the time of her death in 1919, Madame Walker had amassed a fortune of a million dollars. A second notable woman was Maggie Lena Walker of Richmond, Virginia. Having successfully managed a black mutual benefit society, in 1903 she founded and became president of the Saint Luke Penny Savings Bank; she was thus the nation’s first black woman bank president. The bank she established, which absorbed the other black banks in Richmond and became the Consolidated Bank and Trust Company, is the oldest continuously existing black- owned and black-operated bank in the nation. Both Walkers were known for their liberal contributions to African American philanthropic causes. Although the emergence of Jim Crowism in the South and numerous acts of violence against blacks explain why the years between 1878 and 1915 are considered the nadir in American race relations, the modern black community also begins to take form during these years. Nationally, free blacks and former slaves come together to expand black institutional life as part of an effort to cope with the rising tide of racism. Materials and Preparation Students should read either chapters 19-23 in The African American Experience: A History (“Miners, Farmers, and Cowhands, 1849-1880,” “African Americans in the New South, 1877-1910,” “Living in the Jim Crow World, 1877-1910,” “Advances in Education, the Arts, and Sciences, 1877-1910,” and “The Civil Rights Struggle, 1900-1941”) or chapters 25-29 in African American History (“Segregation Upheld,” “Blacks Pushed Aside,” “Industry and the Black Worker,” “A School is Born,” and “The Liberation Movement”). Students should read the excerpt from Washington’s address at the 1895 Atlanta Cotton Exposition and the excerpt from Dr. W.E.B. DuBois’s article “The Talented Tenth”. Students and the teacher should read pages 45-54 in Afro-Americans in New Jersey: A Short History. The teacher should read chapters 14, 15, and 20 in From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans (“Philanthropy and Self-Help,” “The Color Line,” and “The American Dilemma”). Each of the activities that follow will take one class period. - Describe the key features of Jim Crow after it evolved as a system in the South. Lead the students in making a list of the areas of public and social life in the South that were segregated. Have the students indicate which form(s) of segregation they believe to have been the most harmful and most humiliating and why. Students, for example, might conclude that disfranchisement was the most harmful, while the refusal of service in public accommodations was probably the most humiliating. Or they might think that being forced to attend an all-black school was more onerous than being denied the vote. - Evaluation: Have the students imagine they are late-nineteenth century journalists. Ask them to write a 500- word newspaper article about what they believe is the most humiliating Jim Crow practice in the South. - Explain the ways in which blacks responded to the harsh conditions of racial segregation in the South from 1878 to 1915. Ask students to imagine they are blacks living in the South between 1878 and 1915. How would they respond to the racial segregation they faced? Would they speak out against laws of racial segregation and disobey them as did Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the 1950’s and 1960’s? or would they simply keep quiet and obey the laws and customs of the Jim Crow system? Would they try to leave the South? In responding to these questions the students should bear in mind the prevalence of anti-black violence during this period. For example, tell students that the greatest number of African Americans lynched in one year, 161, occurred in 1892. - Evaluation: Have students research and write a 500-word essay that identifies three all-black communities (including Whitesboro) that were established between 1878 and 1915. The establishment of these communities should be seen in the context of black migration as a response to the difficulties of life under Jim Crowism. - Differentiate between the approaches used by Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois in fighting racial injustice. Point out to the students that these men differed, among other things, in the kind of education they advocated for black youths. Washington favored an education that prepared blacks to work with their hands, to learn a craft or trade such as masonry, plumbing, or carpentry from which they could ultimately start a business. DuBois, on the other hand, favored a classical education that would create the “talented tenth” from which the leadership of the black race would emerge. In light of conditions in the South at the end of the nineteenth century, have students indicate which of these approaches best served the needs of the black race. Divide the class into two groups, one representing the industrial education championed by Washington and the other the academic education desired by DuBois. Each group should present the merits of its type of education. In presenting their positions, have the groups read the excerpt from Washington’s famous address at the 1895 Atlanta Cotton Exposition and the excerpt from DuBois’s views on the “talented tenth”. This will enable each group to be more familiar with its own position and that of the opposing group. Also have both groups discuss the implications for southern black migration and protest of Washington’s repeated exhortation to “Cast down your bucket where you are.” - Evaluation: Have the students write a play in which the main characters are Booker T. Washington and Dr. W.E.B. DuBois. Have the two men debate the issue of how best to educate black youth. - Have students read Norman L. Crockett’s The Black Towns (1979) and prepare a 500-word book report on it. - Take students on a trip to Whitesboro, an all-black community established in 1899 in Cape May County. - Show students the film Booker T. Washington, a documentary that treats the life of the outstanding race leader and educator who founded famed Tuskegee Institute (30 minutes). It can be obtained from The Black Filmmaker Foundation, 375 Greenwich Street, New York, New York 10013 (212-941-3944). - Show students the film Two Dollars and A Dream, which explores the life of Madame C.J. Walker, whose success in producing and marketing cosmetic products for black women made her one of the most successful businesswomen of the early twentieth century (56 minutes). It can be obtained from the Filmmakers Library, 124 East 40th Street, New York, New York 10016 (212-808-4980). - Take students on a trip to Bordentown to visit the grounds of the old Bordentown School (New Jersey Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth). Known as the “Tuskegee of the North,” it was New Jersey’s most important educational institution for black students. Noble Drew Ali (nee Timothy Drew). A North Carolinian who migrated to Newark, where in 1913 he established the Moorish Science Temple, black America’s first major Muslim group. W.E.B. Dubois. A founder of the Niagara Movement and the NAACP, this advocate of militant protest against racial injustice was the foremost black American intellectual from the 1890s until his death in 1963. Florence Spearing Randolph. An ordained minister who helped build the Wallace Chapel Zion Church in Summit, she organized in 1915 the New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs, the state’s oldest women’s organization. Mary Church Terrell. She established the National Association of Colored Women in 1896 to protest disfranchisement and lynching. Henry McNeal Turner. Bishop of the AME Church (1880-1892) and member of the Georgia legislature during Reconstruction (1868-1870), he was the leading advocate of emigration to Africa during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Madame C.J. Walker. Based on her formula for treating the hair arid skin of black women, she became one of the most successful business women of the early twentieth century, amassing a fortune of a million dollars. Maggie Lena Walker. A successful businesswoman in Richmond, Virginia, she was the first black woman to become president of a bank. Booker T. Washington. The founder of Tuskegee Institute, he was the acknowledged black leader from 1895 until his death in 1915. Ida B. Wells-Barnett. A fearless journalist who initiated the early antilynching campaign and helped found the NAACP. George H. White. The founder of Whitesboro, he served in Congress from North Carolina until 1901; at his departure he was the last black congressman of the post-Reconstruction period. Annotated Bibliography and Suggested Reading - Bogle, Donald, 1973. Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks. - A study that examines the stereotypical and defiant black entertainers who performed in the movies and on the stage from the 1890s to 1970. - Cronon, Edmund David, 1955. Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. - The first major biography of the founder and leader of the largest black mass protest movement ever established in the United States. - Dickson, Bruce, 1989, Black American Writing From the Nadir: The Evolution of a Literary Tradition, 1877- 1915. - This book, in treating the work of writers like Frances E.W. Harper, Charles Chestnutt, Pauline Hopkins, Paul Laurence Dunbar, W.E.B. DuBois, and James Weldon Johnson, as well as a wide range of Iesser-known writers, sheds new light on the genesis of the mood that was expressed in the Harlem Renaissance. - DuBois, W.E.B. 1903. The Souls of Black Folk. - In providing a view of America’s race problem at the dawn of the century, Dubois writes about his belief in racial “twoness” and the black elite’s vanguard role in creating change for the race. - Frederickson, George. 1981. White Supremacy. - This is a groundbreaking comparison of the rise of racist dogma and policy in Jim Crow America and South Africa. - Harlan, Louis. 1972; 1983. Booker T. Washington, 2 vols. - Definitive biography of the southern black leader, showing the breadth of Washington’s influence. - Katz, William Loren. 1971. The Black West. - Illustrated, pioneering narrative of the role African Americans played in settling the American West. Black heroic accomplishments are highlighted. - Lewis, David Levering. 1993. W.E.B. DuBois: A Biography of Race, 1868-1919. - The award-winning first volume of a projected two-volume biography by a noted historian who places DuBois in a global setting. A model of narrative scholarship and the most detailed study yet of the great black scholar’s impact. - Logan, Rayford Whittingham. 1954. The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877-1901. - An excellent study of the political, social, and economic difficulties that black Americans experienced during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. - Meier, August. 1963. Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915. - This study explores the major trends in the thinking of black leaders of the period and focuses in particular on the contrasting positions of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois on a variety of issues. - Meier, August, and John H. Franklin, eds. 1982. Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century. - This outstanding collection of studies by white and black scholars includes the major male and female leaders of early-twentieth-century African American life. - Meier, August, and Leon Litwack, eds. 1988. Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century. - This collection of biographies of African American activists of the nineteenth century is notable for its inclusion of rarely publicized leaders. - Morton-Neverdon, Cynthia. 1989. Afro-American Women of the South and the Advancement of the Race, 1895-1925. - A history of the major attempts of black women in five communities (Atlanta, Hampton, Tuskegee, Nashville, and Baltimore) to educate and improve the health of blacks, stamp out vice and immorality, and effect a rise in racial consciousness during the early part of the twentieth century. - Rabinowitz, Howard. 1978. Race Relations in the Urban South, 1865-1890. - The author explores the southern black’s attempts to avoid rural reminders of slavery through migration and industrial, commercial, political, and self-help opportunities in the southern city. White reactions are also examined. - Redkey, Edwin S. 1969. Black Exodus. - A fine study of African American internal movements and back-to- Africa efforts of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. - Shapiro, Herbert. 1988. White Violence and Black Response. - A far-reaching study of racial tensions and their physical results. The author looks back into American history and demonstrates the varieties of black responses to white violence, from accommodation and avoidance to militant assertiveness. - Williamson, Joel. 1984. The Crucible of Race. - This volume examines the psychosexual, cultural, economic and political roots and dynamics of American racism during the Jim Crow period. - Woodward, C. Vann. 1974. The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd ed. - Woodward explores the de facto and de jure worlds of the beginnings of racial segregation in the late nineteenth century. - Bundles, A’Lelia. 1991. Madame C.J. Walker: Entrepreneur. - Part of the Black Americans of Achievement series. - Crockett, Norman L. 1979. The Black Towns. - This study examines five all-black towns established between 1879 and 1904: Nicodemus, Kansas; Mound Bayou, Mississippi; Langston, Oklahoma; Cleat-view, Oklahoma; and Boley, Oklahoma. The rationale for such communities as articulated by their founders and supporters is also provided. - Dunbar, Paul Laurence. 1902. The Sport of the Gods. - This story is about the Hamiltons, a close-knit black family that moves from the South to New York City in the mid-1890s after the father has been unjustly convicted of a crime and sent to prison. The city exacts its toll on the family. The son, Joe, falls in with a fast crowd, becomes an alcoholic, and goes to prison for murder. When the father’s innocence is discovered, he is freed and he rescues his wife and returns to their small southern home town. - Durham, Philip, and Everett L. Jones. 1965. The Negro Cowboys. - A vivid account of the black cowboys and pioneers who migrated west before and after the Civil War. - Klots, Steve. 1994. Ida Wells-Barnett: Civil Rights Leader. - Part of the Black Americans of Achievement series. - Lester, Julius. 1972. Long Journey Home. - This book of historical fiction consists of six short stories featuring such characters as a runaway slave (Louis), a black cowboy (Bob Lemmons), and a couple separated by slavery (Jake and Mundy). - McKissack, Frederick and Patricia McKissack. 1990. W.E.B. DuBois. - This biography emphasizes the dedication, determination, disappointments, and triumphs of the great African American writer, educator, historian, sociologist, and journalist who was an intellectual and one of the most important civil rights leaders of the twentieth century. - Ritchie, Andrew. 1986. Major Taylor. - This is the dramatic story of Marshall Walter “Major” Taylor, who, against enormous odds, in 1899 became a world champion cyclist and the first black American athlete to win a national title. - Schroeder, Alan. 1992. Booker T. Washington: Educator. - Part of the Black Americans of Achievement series. - Stafford, Mark. 1990. W.E.B. DuBois: Scholar and Activist. - Part of the Black Americans of Achievement series. - Washington, Booker T. 1900. Up From Slavery: An Autobiography. - This autobiography traces the upward path of its author from his slave origins to his position as the foremost African American leader and educator of his time. Booker T. Washington– Excerpts from an address at the Atlanta Cotton Exposition (1895) W.E.B. DuBois– “The Talented Tenth” . Digitized by Deborah Mercer and Edith Beckett of the New Jersey State Library. Copyright 2003 by the New Jersey Historical Commission, New Jersey Department of State. All rights reserved. Please direct questions and comments to Deborah Mercer. Updated:Friday, September 19, 2003

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Cyberlearning spans in-school and out-of-school learning — and these days, a lot of meaningful learning is taking place outside of classrooms. Amateur designers, students, and artists are teaching themselves and each how to make their own electronic toys, program flying robots, or manufacture custom-designed parts with 3D printers and desktop milling machines. Families are doing science together through making backyard instruments to collect local environmental data and share their data online with other global citizen scientists (Anastopoulou et al., 2011; see Cornell Lab of Ornithology). Kindergarteners to senior citizens are combining traditional physical materials like paper, yarn and fabric, together with digital materials like electronics and sensors to create new homespun fashions, to design useful products, and to pursue their interests. (Buechley, Peppler, Eisenberg, & Kafai, 2013; Peppler & Glosson, 2013.) Important learning is also taking place in public libraries where librarians invite youth to author digital stories, produce new media, and publish personally-relevant stories while museums are hosting workshops to reach different audiences (IMLS, 2014; NYSCI, 2013). These learning experiences prove to be highly influential in the choices that youth make about further education, career pathways, and participation as citizens. In contrast to traditional classroom learning, informal learning is often: - interest-driven: learners engage based on their interests, not an externally mandated curriculum. - learner-centric: adults help as guides, facilitators, coaches, and mentors, but the role is to support the learner, rather than to regulate the content, pace, and progress - playful in approaches: informal experiences tend to engage participant’s imagination, encourage exploration, allow tinkering, celebrate teamwork, and take failure in stride, unlike traditional didactic school experiences - multigenerational: participants often include be children, parents, and senior citizens learning side by side - intrinsically assessed: outcomes tend to be tangible and readily appreciated by the participants, with less reliance on formal, standardized tests as outcomes Informal learning institutions like museums with both structured and unstructured activities by themselves don’t guarantee a meaningful learning experience. Today’s informal learning more often also emphasizes: - active engagement: the physical space provides unique affordances for doing, not just collections to be viewed - building materials: the glass between the learner and the artifact is gone, learners are expected to construct not just appreciate - multiple representations: learners are encouraged to engage with an idea through multiple media, such as storytelling, sketching, constructing, simulating, visualizing, role-playing, discussing socially - learning trajectories: the informal experience is less contained to a specific space and time, but may span multiple visits or connect to home, to community, or to school. The movement among “Makers” is one prominent example of today’s approach to informal learning and an important arena for cyberlearning advances. Making is “a class of activities focused on designing, building, modifying, and/or repurposing material objects, for playful or useful ends, oriented toward making a ‘‘product’’ of some sort that can be used, interacted with, or demonstrated. Making often involves traditional craft and hobby techniques (e.g., sewing, woodworking, etc.), and it often involves the use of digital technologies, either for manufacture (e.g., laser cutters, CNC machines, 3D printers) or within the design (e.g., microcontrollers, LEDs)” (Martin, 2015). Makers are people who openly share tools, knowledge, and materials who value learning and creativity over profit and social capital (Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010). From creating new artifacts, hacking software, or repurposing objects, makers are highly motivated, interest-driven learners that seek out new experiences and actively share what they learn in a community. Informal settings, such as science museums, increasingly host making experiences and digital technology is frequently used to enhance the opportunities for learning in these experiences. Martin (2015) provides a comprehensive synthesis of making and argues against a tool-centric approach to bringing making into classrooms. He contends that in order to understand the promise of making in education, educators need to appreciate all three interconnected elements of making-“(1) digital tools, including rapid prototyping tools and low-cost microcontroller platforms, that characterize many making projects, 2) community infrastructure, including online resources and in-person spaces and events, and 3) the maker mindset, values, beliefs, and dispositions that are commonplace within the community” (p. 31). This kind of informal learning aligns well with educational research about authentic, active education that happens in a social community. Education research has shown that meaningful learning is situated in authentic practices using inquiry-based approaches to solve relevant problems, sharing skills in a community of others, and making meaning through activity and action (Wenger, 1998). Whether using physical or digital materials, learning is mediated by multiple media representations and facilitated through direct experiences and interactions mentored by disciplinary experts, more expert peers and novices in a social community of practice (Lave, 1991). Episodic and distributed, learning is interest-driven, serendipitous, sometimes sustained with access to a network of human and technical resources in their community. Technology is playing a big role in the maker community to enhance informal learning and to better connect informal with formal learning. The maker community leverages online information extensively from using tutorials, online forums, open shared code libraries, social media, and digital video platforms that connect different aged learners to contribute, discuss ideas, share tips, and self-publish instructional videos. Maker communities also use digital fabrication and a network of physical spaces like community workshops, FabLabs, and tech shops, that allow use of shared manufacturing tools to realize their digital imagined and physically implemented projects. These spaces host novice friendly software for programming, computer-aided design, and digital media production. These same tools and software enable control of microprocessors that are used by robotics clubs to get more fluent in coding and learn computer science concepts and computational thinking. Within blended learning environments, smart phones offer digital access to content and limitless knowledge via ubiquitous, wireless access to the Internet while makers meet in physical communities, festivals, and faires to build, experiment, and test their designs. Physical computing devices ranging from programmable maker technologies like Arduino, servo motors, 3D printers, to computer-controlled milling machines help foster new ways to learn through collaborative computer-aided design, online research, and documentation (Halverson & Sheridan, 2014; MakerEd, 2014; Martinez & Stager, 2013). However, for technology use to reflect cyberlearning ideals, technology must be more than resource in a learning activity: it must enable the design of activities that connect to what we know about how people learn and thus enhance learning. Thus, a cyberlearning approach to maker activities does not over-emphasize the materials used or the thing made. A focus on the materials or things can sometimes lead to cookbook recipes, narrow instruction, and standardized expectations, ending up in an experience not much different from poor schooling. A cyberlearning view emphasizes the transactions among students, materials, and the social setting — and how those transactions provide students opportunities to explore, investigate, test, and refine their knowledge and abilities. Technologies provide more than a resource for building when they enable students to better represent concepts, to gather data and analyze it, to share knowledge with peers, to discuss theories and construct explanations, to critique and suggest improvements, and to reflect on their own learning. Cyberlearning projects in informal learning can also go beyond maker experiences, too: - Mobile devices can provide a layer of augmented reality as learners explore an important physical space - Museum exhibits can invite visitors to learn via new modes of interacting with the setting and visualizing phenomena - Sensors and cameras can enable citizen science investigations Several aspects of learning theory are particularly useful to cyberlearning in informal settings for studying and understanding individual learning and learning that happens in a shared, public environment or social community. More specifically: - Constructivism and constructionism provide long-standing ways to conceptualize learning through doing. - Identity is concerned with how learners’ sense of who they are and who they can become is shaped through opportunities to explore their interests, values, commitments, and convictions in relation to their participation and engagement with others, new ideas, activities, and phenomena. Further, youth are drawn to expressing identity through new, social media. - Embodied cognition considers how doing and experiencing in a bodily way leads to learning and connects with learning that may later become more de-contextualized and abstract, and can often involve tangible interfaces. - Collaborative learning or more broadly, social learning, provides traditions for designing effective learning experiences for groups and for analyzing social interactions for insights about learning Cyberlearning is poised to contribute to transforming STEM education by using learning theory and technology to enhance powerful grassroots movements in informal learning and develop entirely new informal experiences. Cyberlearning research is needed both to contribute to design, but also to document how people learn in these new experiences and how learning is improved. Further, cyberlearning is well-positioned to connect these informal advances to issues in school learning. For example, schools are looking to the maker community for ideas about how to teach science and design solutions to problem-based challenges. Teachers see making as way as to support inquiry, project-based learning, authentic problem-solving, and deeper discussions (Honey & Kanter, 2013). Educational leaders see the potential to engage greater numbers of underrepresented groups in STEM-related activities including encouraging more girls and women to pursue computer science to help develop a more diverse technological workforce (Fried & Wetsone, 2014). Design and theory development. Because making is both a highly collaborative and mobile activity, making opens up new possibilities for exploring how different mobile technologies and apps can be used to support design work and documentation of individual and group projects. Using digital cameras, smart phones, and tablet computers, students self-document their work, monitor their progress, and contribute to online portfolios. New challenges and research opportunities arise in the assessment of design-oriented projects that are collaborative in nature, multi-disciplinary, and process-driven, accomplished intermittently or intensely over weeks and months with the help from multiple peers and educators. Connections to other Contexts. A great promise of cyberlearning is that learning will be more connected across informal and formal spaces, such as science museums and schools. Much design research is needed to make this promise a reality, as the culture of school and the cultures of informal learning do not easily mix. It is unlikely to be a good idea to require informal spaces into produce standardized outcomes like achieving a particular curricular goal but also unrealistic to expect that schools can become as interest-driven as informal environments are. Considerable challenges of describing and documenting the learning that occurs in each setting in useful ways for other settings are likely to emerge. Research Methods. Making is also driving changes to what is being researched and how research is accomplished. Researchers are exploring new ways to advance theories of social learning, interest, and motivation. The objects and artifacts created by learners serve as a reflection of their different selves, providing rich avenues for researchers to study identity formation and identities in practice (Ching & Foley, 2013; Tan, Calabrese-Barton, Kang, & O’Neill, 2013). With learning happening in physical, online, and blended learning environments, new research methods are being created to study these complex STEM-rich environments to examine new literacies, representations, dialogue, design-based learning, and collaborative teaming (Halversen, 2013; Ito, 2009; Litts, 2015). Measurement and Assessment. Making akin to design-based learning is spurring new embedded assessment tools and cyber-enabled research tools to capture moment-to-moment, emergent learning in out-of-school settings. Rather than using high-stakes tests as measures of learning or teacher-graded work, teachers use digital portfolios, scaffolded peer critique, and documentation support to assess project-based learning from collaborative teaming, solving design challenges, and learner-centered making. Learning analytics and online traces are being used to capture multi-modal interactions, online behaviors, participation, and activity over long periods beyond school hours. Digital videos with high storage capabilities archive months and years of video data empowering researchers to conduct longitudinal, ethnographic studies to analyze-in-depth collaborative inquiry, learning conversations, and teaching practices (see Gutwill, Hido, & Sindorf, 2015). Individuals are not only evaluated for changes to their understanding of STEM disciplinary knowledge, but their inquiry processes, empowerment, and resourcefulness (Dixon & Martin, 2014; Brahms, 2014). Other researchers and their developers are exploring how to design better instructional supports, physical computing materials, programming languages, and design tools to support the development of computational thinking, data literacy, and modeling expertise (Blikstein, 2013.) Professional Development. New models of professional development are needed to prepare peers, coaches, mentors, tutors, facilitators and other adults who support learners in informal spaces — and may be working with cyberlearning technologies in doing their work. Similarly, new approaches to professional development are also needed to meet the needs of teachers who want to learn how to better facilitate maker activities and to assess maker-style projects. For example, MOOCs and web-based video chats can offer mentors and/or teachers a way to join professional learning communities to discuss issues of practice, and learn ways to assess learning that happens in blended learning environments. Lack of Diversity in the Maker Movement. Making is meant to bring playful designing and fabrication quite literally in the hands of the learner and is believed to be a democratizing force. However, it suffers from a serious lack of diversity, and underrepresentation of women in minorities. While Kneese & Rosenblat (2014) think this issue simply mirrors general Silicon Valley disparities, Lilypad inventor Leah Buechley believes that MAKE magazine has propagated an exclusionary culture in their choice of featured projects (mostly robots and vehicles) and makers (white men/boys). Clearly taking making into all schools and classrooms will help level the playing field. Challenges Shared with Other Cyberlearning Areas. As learner engagement in spaces is captured digitally, issues about privacy and data security arise, along with new IRB issues. Likewise, as students create their maker artefacts, issues of copyrights, attribution, etc. can arise. Technological barriers to the flow of information across settings can arise (incompatibility between informal settings and school learning management systems, for example). As institutions tend to reflect societal issues, gaps in equity across gender, race, and other demographic characteristics may persist if not addressed. Examples of NSF Cyberlearning projects that overlap with topics discussed in this primer (see project tag map). Making learning tangible - Broadening Participation for Remote Communities: Situated Distance Telepresence Mentoring through Embodied Communications - Synthesis and Design Workshop: Principles for the design of digitally-distributed, studio-based STEM learning environments - EXP: Paper Mechatronics: Advancing Engineering Education Through Computationally Enhanced Children's Papercrafts - EAGER: Making with Understanding - EXP: BodyVis: Advancing New Science Learning and Inquiry Experiences via Custom Designed Wearable On-Body Sensing and Visualization More posts: making-learning-tangible - DIP: Next Generation WeatherBlur: Expanding Non-Hierarchical Online Learning Community Models for Citizen Science - DIP: Collaborative Research: STEM Literacy through Infographics - DIP: ScienceKit for ScienceEverywhere - A Seamless Scientizing Ecosystem for Raising Scientifically-Minded Children - DIP: Potential for everyday learning in a virtual community: A design-based investigation - CAP: Towards Inclusive Design of Serious Games for Learning More posts: citizen-science - CRII: Cyberlearning: Lived Science Narratives: Meaningful Elementary Science through Wearable Technologies - Data-Driven, Human-in-the-Loop Support for Facilitating Participatory Learning Activities - EXP: Bridging Learning in Urban Extended Spaces (BLUES) 2.0 - EAGER: Collaborative Research: Virtual STEM Buddies for Personalized Learning Experiences in Free Choice Informal Learning Settings - EAGER: Collaborative Research: Designing Digital Rails to Foster Scientific Curiosity around Museum Collections More posts: informal-learning Martin, L. (2015). The Promise of the Maker Movement for Education. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER), 5(1). Informalscience.org web site, run by the Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) Make: Do-it-yourself projects, how-tos, and inspiration. References and key readings documenting the thinking behind the concept, important milestones in the work, foundational examples to build from, and summaries along the way. Anastopoulou, S., Sharples, M., Ainsworth, S., Crook, C., O’Malley, C., & Wright, M. (2011) Creating personal meaning through technology-supported science inquiry learning across formal and informal settings. International Journal of Science Education. Bevan, B., Bell, P., Stevens, R., Razfar, A. (Eds.) 2013, XIV. LOST Opportunities: Learning in Out-of-School Time. Explorations of Educational Purpose, Vol. 23. Springer-Verlag. Blikstein, P. (2013). Digital fabrication and ‘making’ in education: The democratization of invention. FabLabs: Of Machines, Makers and Inventors, 1-21. Blikstein, P. (2013). Multimodal learning analytics. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK ’13), Dan Suthers and Katrien Verbert (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 102-106. Buechley, L., Peppler, K. A., Eisenberg, M., & Y. B. Kafai (Eds.), Textile messages: Dispatches from the world of e-textiles and education (pp. 17–28). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing. Ching, C. & Foley, B. Constructing the Self in a Digital World. 2014. Cambridge University Press. Dixon, C., & Martin, L. (2014). “Make to relate: Narratives of, and as, community practice.” In Polman, J. L., Kyza, E. A., O’Neill, D. K., Tabak, I., Penuel, W. R., Jurow, A., S., O’Connor, K., Lee, T., & D’Amico, L. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS) 2014. Boulder, CO (pp. 1591-1592). Dubrov, A. (2015). Democratizing the maker movement. Huffington Post. Fried, B. & Wetstone, K. (2014). President Obama at the White House Maker Faire: Today’s D.I.Y. is tomorrow’s ‘made in America [White House blog post]. Gutwill, J., Hido, N., Sindorf, L. (2015) Research to Practice: Observing learning in tinkering activities. Curator: The Museum Journal, 58 (2), 151-168 Halverson, E. R. (2013). Digital art making as a representational process. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 22(1), 121-162. Halverson, E. R., & Sheridan, K. (2014). The Maker Movement in Education. Harvard Educational Review, 84(4). Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111-127. Honey, M., & Kanter, D. E. (Eds.). (2013). Design, make, play: Growing the next generation of STEM Innovators. Routledge. Institute of Museum and Library Services. (2012). Talking Points: Museums, Libraries, and Makerspaces. Ito, M. (2009). Hanging Out, Messying Around, and Geeking Out. MIT Press. Kafai, Y. B. (2006). Constructionism. In K. Sawyer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Kafai, Y. B. & Burke, Q. (2014) Connected Code: Why Children Need to Learn Programming. MIT Press. Kafai, Y. B., Peppler, K. A., & Chapman, R. (2009) (Eds.). The Computer Clubhouse: Constructionism and Creativity in the Inner City. New York: Teachers College Press. Kafai, Y. B., & Peppler, K. A. (2011). Youth, technology, and DIY: Developing participatory competencies in creative media production. Review of Research in Education, 35(1), 89-119. Kafai, Y. B. & Resnick, M. (1996) Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking, and Learning in a Digital World. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kneese, T., Rosenblat, A., & Boyd. D. (2014). Technologically Mediated Artisanal Production. Open Society Foundations’ Future of Work Commissioned Research Papers. Kuznetsov, S., & Paulos, E. (2010, October). Rise of the expert amateur: DIY projects, communities, and cultures. Paper presented at the ACM NordiCHI Conference, Reykjavik. Lave, J. “Situating Learning in Communities of Practice” In Resnick, Lauren B. (Ed); Levine, John M. (Ed); Teasley, Stephanie D. (Ed), (1991). Perspectives on socially shared cognition, (pp. 63-82) Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. Learning Labs in Libraries and Museums: Transformative Spaces for Teens. (2014) Association for Science-Technology Centers & Urban Libraries Council, Washington, DC. Martin, L. (2015). The Promise of the Maker Movement for Education. Journale of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER), 5(1). Martinez, S. L. & Stager, G. S. (2013) Invent to Learn: Making, Tinkering, and Engineering in the Classroom. Constructing Modern Knowledge Press National Research Council (2009). Learning science in informal environments: People, places, and pursuits. Washington, D. C.: The National Academies Press. New York Hall of Science (NYSCI). 2013. Making meaning. New York Hall of Science: Queens, NY. Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism (pp.1–11). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Peppler, K., & Glosson, D. (2013). Stitching Circuits: Learning About Circuitry Through E- textile Materials. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 22(5), 751-763. Science Education Special Issue: Research on Learning Science in Informal Contexts. Sheridan, K., Halverson, E. R., Brahms, L., Litts, B., Owens, T., & Jacobs-Priebe, L. (2014). Learning in the making: A comparative case study of three makerspaces. Harvard Educational Review, 84(4). Tan, E., Calabrese Barton, A., Kang, H., & O’Neill, T. (2013) Desiring a career in STEM-related fields: How middle school girls articulate and negotiate identities-in-practice in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 50(10):1143-1179. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. (2009, April 29). Remarks by the president at the national academy of sciences annual meeting. Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge University Press. Vossoughi, S. and Bevan, B. Making and Tinkering: A Review of the Literature. Vossoughi, S., Escudé, M., Kong, F., & Hooper, P. (2013). Tinkering, learning & equity in the after- school setting. Paper presented at Fablearn 2013: Digital Fabrication in Education Conference. October 27, 2013; Stanford, CA. Recent Dissertations on Making Brahms, L. J. (2014). Making as a learning process: Identifying and supporting family learning in informal settings (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh). Litts, B. K. (2015) Making learning: Makerspaces as learning environments. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison Publications from NSF-funded Cyberlearning Projects Halverson, E., Sheridan, K. (2014). The Maker Movement in Education. Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 84(4), pp. 495-504. Lee, S. A., Bumbacher, E., Chung, A. M., Cira, N., Walker, B., Park, J. Y., Riedel-Kruse, I. H. (2015). Trap it!: A Playful Human-Biology Interaction for a Museum Installation. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2593-2602). Seoul, South Korea: Human Factors in Computing Systems. Hossain, Z., Jin, X., Bumbacher, E. W., Chung, A. M., Koo, S., Shapiro, J. D., & Riedel-Kruse, I. H. (2015). Interactive Cloud Experimentation for Biology: An Online Education Case Study. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 3681-3690). New York, New York: Human Factors in Computing Systems. Blikstein, P. (2013). Digital fabrication and ‘making’ in education: The democratization of invention. FabLabs: Of machines, makers and inventors, pp. 1-21. Eisenberg, M., Oh, H., Hsi, S., & Gross, M. (2015). Paper mechatronics: A material and intellectual shift in educational technology. In Proceedings of Interactive Collaborative Learning 2015 International Conference (pp. 936-943). Florence, Italy: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Cogger, S. (2015). Doing the Data Walk. The Science Teacher, vol. 82(2), pp. 43. Burghardt, D., & Hecht, D. (2016, March). Wise guys & gals: Boys & girls as wisengineering STEM learners. Poster session presented at the 2016 Advancing Informal STEM Learning (AISL) PI Meeting, Bethesda, MD. Hanko, K., Lee, S., & Okeke, N. (2015). What Makes a Great Museum Experience and How Can Technology Help? Informal Learning Review, Vol. 130, pp.13-18. Primers are developed by small teams of volunteers and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Hsi, S. & Grover, S. (2015). CIRCL Primer: The Cutting Edge of Informal Learning: Makers, Mobile, and More!. In CIRCL Primer Series. Retrieved from http://circlcenter.org/the-cutting-edge-of-informal-learning/ After citing this primer in your text, consider adding: “Used under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).”

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Preliminary. How To Study And Judge Literature TWO ASPECTS OF LITERARY STUDY. Such a study of Literature as that for which the present book is designed includes two purposes, contributing to a common end. In the first place (I), the student must gain some general knowledge of the conditions out of which English literature has come into being, as a whole and during its successive periods, that is of the external facts of one sort or another without which it cannot be understood. This means chiefly (1) tracing in a general way, from period to period, the social life of the nation, and (2) getting some acquaintance with the lives of the more important authors. The principal thing, however (II), is the direct study of the literature itself. This study in turn should aim first at an understanding of the literature as an expression of the authors' views of life and of their personalities and especially as a portrayal and interpretation of the life of their periods and of all life as they have seen it; it should aim further at an appreciation of each literary work as a product of Fine Art, appealing with peculiar power both to our minds and to our emotions, not least to the sense of Beauty and the whole higher nature. In the present book, it should perhaps be added, the word Literature is generally interpreted in the strict sense, as including only writing of permanent significance and beauty. The outline discussion of literary qualities which follows is intended to help in the formation of intelligent and appreciative judgments. SUBSTANCE AND FORM. The most thoroughgoing of all distinctions in literature, as in the other Fine Arts, is that between (1) Substance, the essential content and meaning of the work, and (2) Form, the manner in which it is expressed (including narrative structure, external style, in poetry verse-form, and many related matters). This distinction should be kept in mind, but in what follows it will not be to our purpose to emphasize it. GENERAL MATTERS. 1. First and always in considering any piece of literature a student should ask himself the question already implied: Does it present a true portrayal of life--of the permanent elements in all life and in human nature, of the life or thought of its own particular period, and (in most sorts of books) of the persons, real or imaginary, with whom it deals? If it properly accomplishes this main purpose, when the reader finishes it he should feel that his understanding of life and of people has been increased and broadened. But it should always be remembered that truth is quite as much a matter of general spirit and impression as of literal accuracy in details of fact. The essential question is not, Is the presentation of life and character perfect in a photographic fashion? but Does it convey the underlying realities? 2. Other things being equal, the value of a book, and especially of an author's whole work, is proportional to its range, that is to the breadth and variety of the life and characters which it presents. 3. A student should not form his judgments merely from what is technically called the dogmatic point of view, but should try rather to adopt that of historical criticism. This means that he should take into account the limitations imposed on every author by the age in which he lived. If you find that the poets of the Anglo-Saxon 'Beowulf' have given a clear and interesting picture of the life of our barbarous ancestors of the sixth or seventh century A. D., you should not blame them for a lack of the finer elements of feeling and expression which after a thousand years of civilization distinguish such delicate spirits as Keats and Tennyson. 4. It is often important to consider also whether the author's personal method is objective, which means that he presents life and character without bias; or subjective, coloring his work with his personal tastes, feelings and impressions. Subjectivity may be a falsifying influence, but it may also be an important virtue, adding intimacy, charm, or force. 5. Further, one may ask whether the author has a deliberately formed theory of life; and if so how it shows itself, and, of course, how sound it is. INTELLECT, EMOTION, IMAGINATION, AND RELATED QUALITIES. Another main question in judging any book concerns the union which it shows: (1) of the Intellectual faculty, that which enables the author to understand and control his material and present it with directness and clearness; and (2) of the Emotion, which gives warmth, enthusiasm, and appealing human power. The relative proportions of these two faculties vary greatly in books of different sorts. Exposition (as in most essays) cannot as a rule be permeated with so much emotion as narration or, certainly, as lyric poetry. In a great book the relation of the two faculties will of course properly correspond to form and spirit. Largely a matter of Emotion is the Personal Sympathy of the author for his characters, while Intellect has a large share in Dramatic Sympathy, whereby the author enters truly into the situations and feelings of any character, whether he personally likes him or not. Largely made up of Emotion are: (1) true Sentiment, which is fine feeling of any sort, and which should not degenerate into Sentimentalism (exaggerated tender feeling); (2) Humor, the instinctive sense for that which is amusing; and (3) the sense for Pathos. Pathos differs from Tragedy in that Tragedy (whether in a drama or elsewhere) is the suffering of persons who are able to struggle against it, Pathos the suffering of those persons (children, for instance) who are merely helpless victims. Wit, the brilliant perception of incongruities, is a matter of Intellect and the complement of Humor. IMAGINATION AND FANCY. Related to Emotion also and one of the most necessary elements in the higher forms of literature is Imagination, the faculty of making what is absent or unreal seem present and real, and revealing the hidden or more subtile forces of life. Its main operations may be classified under three heads: (1) Pictorial and Presentative. It presents to the author's mind, and through him to the minds of his readers, all the elements of human experience and life (drawing from his actual experience or his reading). 2. Selective, Associative, and Constructive. From the unorganized material thus brought clearly to the author's consciousness Imagination next selects the details which can be turned to present use, and proceeds to combine them, uniting scattered traits and incidents, perhaps from widely different sources, into new characters, stories, scenes, and ideas. The characters of 'Silas Marner,' for example, never had an actual existence, and the precise incidents of the story never took place in just that order and fashion, but they were all constructed by the author's imagination out of what she had observed of many real persons and events, and so make, in the most significant sense, a true picture of life. 3. Penetrative and Interpretative. In its subtlest operations, further, Imagination penetrates below the surface and comprehends and brings to light the deeper forces and facts--the real controlling instincts of characters, the real motives for actions, and the relations of material things to those of the spiritual world and of Man to Nature and God. Fancy may for convenience be considered as a distinct faculty, though it is really the lighter, partly superficial, aspect of Imagination. It deals with things not essentially or significantly true, amusing us with striking or pleasing suggestions, such as seeing faces in the clouds, which vanish almost as soon as they are discerned. Both Imagination and Fancy naturally express themselves, often and effectively, through the use of metaphors, similes, and suggestive condensed language. In painful contrast to them stands commonplaceness, always a fatal fault. IDEALISM, ROMANCE, AND REALISM. Among the most important literary qualities also are Idealism, Romance, and Realism. Realism, in the broad sense, means simply the presentation of the actual, depicting life as one sees it, objectively, without such selection as aims deliberately to emphasize some particular aspects, such as the pleasant or attractive ones. (Of course all literature is necessarily based on the ordinary facts of life, which we may call by the more general name of Reality.) Carried to the extreme, Realism may become ignoble, dealing too frankly or in unworthy spirit with the baser side of reality, and in almost all ages this sort of Realism has actually attempted to assert itself in literature. Idealism, the tendency opposite to Realism, seeks to emphasize the spiritual and other higher elements, often to bring out the spiritual values which lie beneath the surface. It is an optimistic interpretation of life, looking for what is good and permanent beneath all the surface confusion. Romance may be called Idealism in the realm of sentiment. It aims largely to interest and delight, to throw over life a pleasing glamor; it generally deals with love or heroic adventure; and it generally locates its scenes and characters in distant times and places, where it can work unhampered by our consciousness of the humdrum actualities of our daily experience. It may always be asked whether a writer of Romance makes his world seem convincingly real as we read or whether he frankly abandons all plausibility. The presence or absence of a supernatural element generally makes an important difference. Entitled to special mention, also, is spiritual Romance, where attention is centered not on external events, which may here be treated in somewhat shadowy fashion, but on the deeper questions of life. Spiritual Romance, therefore, is essentially idealistic. DRAMATIC POWER. Dramatic power, in general, means the presentation of life with the vivid active reality of life and character which especially distinguishes the acted drama. It is, of course, one of the main things to be desired in most narrative; though sometimes the effect sought may be something different, as, for instance, in romance and poetry, an atmosphere of dreamy beauty. In a drama, and to some extent in other forms of narrative, dramatic power culminates in the ability to bring out the great crises with supreme effectiveness. CHARACTERS. There is, generally speaking, no greater test of an author's skill than his knowledge and presentation of characters. We should consider whether he makes them (1) merely caricatures, or (2) type characters, standing for certain general traits of human nature but not convincingly real or especially significant persons, or (3) genuine individuals with all the inconsistencies and half-revealed tendencies that in actual life belong to real personality. Of course in the case of important characters, the greater the genuine individuality the greater the success. But with secondary characters the principles of emphasis and proportion generally forbid very distinct individualization; and sometimes, especially in comedy (drama), truth of character is properly sacrificed to other objects, such as the main effect. It may also be asked whether the characters are simple, as some people are in actual life, or complex, like most interesting persons; whether they develop, as all real people must under the action of significant experience, or whether the author merely presents them in brief situations or lacks the power to make them anything but stationary. If there are several of them it is a further question whether the author properly contrasts them in such a way as to secure interest. And a main requisite is that he shall properly motivate their actions, that is make their actions result naturally from their characters, either their controlling traits or their temporary impulses. STRUCTURE. In any work of literature there should be definite structure. This requires, (1) Unity, (2) Variety, (3) Order, (4) Proportion, and (5) due Emphasis of parts. Unity means that everything included in the work ought to contribute directly or indirectly to the main effect. Very often a definite theme may be found about which the whole work centers, as for instance in 'Macbeth,' The Ruin of a Man through Yielding to Evil. Sometimes, however, as in a lyric poem, the effect intended may be the rendering or creation of a mood, such as that of happy content, and in that case the poem may not have an easily expressible concrete theme. Order implies a proper beginning, arrangement, progress, and a definite ending. In narrative, including all stories whether in prose or verse and also the drama, there should be traceable a Line of Action, comprising generally: (1) an Introduction, stating the necessary preliminaries; (2) the Initial Impulse, the event which really sets in motion this particular story; (3) a Rising Action; (4) a Main Climax. Sometimes (generally, in Comedy) the Main Climax is identical with the Outcome; sometimes (regularly in Tragedy) the Main Climax is a turning point and comes near the middle of the story. In that case it really marks the beginning of the success of the side which is to be victorious at the end (in Tragedy the side opposed to the hero) and it initiates (5) a Falling Action, corresponding to the Rising Action, and sometimes of much the same length, wherein the losing side struggles to maintain itself. After (6) the Outcome, may come (7) a brief tranquilizing Conclusion. The Antecedent Action is that part of the characters' experiences which precedes the events of the story. If it has a bearing, information about it must be given either in the Introduction or incidentally later on. Sometimes, however, the structure just indicated may not be followed; a story may begin in the middle, and the earlier part may be told later on in retrospect, or incidentally indicated, like the Antecedent Action. If in any narrative there is one or more Secondary Action, a story which might be separated from the Main Action and viewed as complete in itself, criticism should always ask whether the Main and Secondary Actions are properly unified. In the strictest theory there should be an essential connection between them; for instance, they may illustrate different and perhaps contrasting aspects of the general theme. Often, however, an author introduces a Secondary Action merely for the sake of variety or to increase the breadth of his picture--in order to present a whole section of society instead of one narrow stratum or group. In such cases, he must generally be judged to have succeeded if he has established an apparent unity, say by mingling the same characters in the two actions, so that readers are not readily conscious of the lack of real structural unity. Other things to be considered in narrative are: Movement, which, unless for special reasons, should be rapid, at least not slow and broken; Suspense; general Interest; and the questions whether or not there are good situations and good minor climaxes, contributing to the interest; and whether or not motivation is good, apart from that which results from character, that is whether events are properly represented as happening in accordance with the law of cause and effect which inexorably governs actual life. But it must always be remembered that in such writing as Comedy and Romance the strict rules of motivation must be relaxed, and indeed in all literature, even in Tragedy, the idealization, condensation, and heightening which are the proper methods of Art require them to be slightly modified. DESCRIPTIVE POWER. Usually secondary in appearance but of vital artistic importance, is the author's power of description, of picturing both the appearance of his characters and the scenes which make his background and help to give the tone of his work. Perhaps four subjects of description may be distinguished: 1. External Nature. Here such questions as the following are of varying importance, according to the character and purpose of the work: Does the author know and care for Nature and frequently introduce descriptions? Are the descriptions concrete and accurate, or on the other hand purposely general (impressionistic) or carelessly superficial? Do they give fine variations of appearance and impression, such as delicate shiftings of light and shade and delicate tones of color? Are they powerfully sensuous, that is do they appeal strongly to the physical senses, of sight (color, light, and movement), sound (including music), smell, taste, touch, and general physical sensation? How great is their variety? Do they deal with many parts of Nature, for example the sea, mountains, plains, forests, and clouds? Is the love of external beauty a passion with the author? What is the author's attitude toward Nature--(1) does he view Nature in a purely objective way, as a mass of material things, a series of material phenomena or a mere embodiment of sensuous beauty; or (2) is there symbolism or mysticism in his attitude, that is--does he view Nature with awe as a spiritual power; or (3) is he thoroughly subjective, reading his own moods into Nature or using Nature chiefly for the expression of his moods? Or again, does the author describe with merely expository purpose, to make the background of his work clear? 2. Individual Persons and Human Life: Is the author skilful in descriptions of personal appearance and dress? Does he produce his impressions by full enumeration of details, or by emphasis on prominent or characteristic details? How often and how fully does he describe scenes of human activity (such as a street scene, a social gathering, a procession on the march)? 3. How frequent and how vivid are his descriptions of the inanimate background of human life--buildings, interiors of rooms, and the rest? 4. Does the author skilfully use description to create the general atmosphere in which he wishes to invest his work--an atmosphere of cheerfulness, of mystery, of activity, or any of a hundred other moods? STYLE. Style in general means 'manner of writing.' In the broad sense it includes everything pertaining to the author's spirit and point of view--almost everything which is here being discussed. More narrowly considered, as 'external style,' it designates the author's use of language. Questions to be asked in regard to external style are such as these: Is it good or bad, careful or careless, clear and easy or confused and difficult; simple or complex; terse and forceful (perhaps colloquial) or involved and stately; eloquent, balanced, rhythmical; vigorous, or musical, languid, delicate and decorative; varied or monotonous; plain or figurative; poor or rich in connotation and poetic suggestiveness; beautiful, or only clear and strong? Are the sentences mostly long or short; periodic or loose; mostly of one type, such as the declarative, or with frequent introduction of such other forms as the question and the exclamation? POETRY. Most of what has thus far been said applies to both Prose and Poetry. But in Poetry, as the literature especially characterized in general by high Emotion, Imagination, and Beauty, finer and more delicate effects are to be sought than in Prose. Poetry, generally speaking, is the expression of the deeper nature; it belongs peculiarly to the realm of the spirit. On the side of poetical expression such imaginative figures of speech as metaphors and similes, and such devices as alliteration, prove especially helpful. It may be asked further of poetry, whether the meter and stanza structure are appropriate to the mood and thought and so handled as to bring out the emotion effectively; and whether the sound is adapted to the sense (for example, musical where the idea is of peace or quiet beauty). If the sound of the words actually imitates the sound of the thing indicated, the effect is called Onomatopoeia. Among kinds of poetry, according to form, the most important are: (1) Narrative, which includes many subordinate forms, such as the Epic. (2) Lyric. Lyric poems are expressions of spontaneous emotion and are necessarily short. (3) Dramatic, including not merely the drama but all poetry of vigorous action. (4) Descriptive, like Goldsmith's 'Deserted Village' and Tennyson's 'Dream of Fair Women.' Minor kinds are: (5) Satiric; and (6) Didactic. Highly important in poetry is Rhythm, but the word means merely 'flow,' so that rhythm belongs to prose as well as to poetry. Good rhythm is merely a pleasing succession of sounds. Meter, the distinguishing formal mark of poetry and all verse, is merely rhythm which is regular in certain fundamental respects, roughly speaking is rhythm in which the recurrence of stressed syllables or of feet with definite time-values is regular. There is no proper connection either in spelling or in meaning between rhythm and rime (which is generally misspelled 'rhyme'). The adjective derived from 'rhythm' is 'rhythmical'; there is no adjective from 'rime' except 'rimed.' The word 'verse' in its general sense includes all writing in meter. Poetry is that verse which has real literary merit. In a very different and narrower sense 'verse' means 'line' (never properly 'stanza'). CLASSICISM AND ROMANTICISM. Two of the most important contrasting tendencies of style in the general sense are Classicism and Romanticism. Classicism means those qualities which are most characteristic of the best literature of Greece and Rome. It is in fact partly identical with Idealism. It aims to express the inner truth or central principles of things, without anxiety for minor details, and it is by nature largely intellectual in quality, though not by any means to the exclusion of emotion. In outward form, therefore, it insists on correct structure, restraint, careful finish and avoidance of all excess. 'Paradise Lost,' Arnold's 'Sohrab and Rustum,' and Addison's essays are modern examples. Romanticism, which in general prevails in modern literature, lays most emphasis on independence and fulness of expression and on strong emotion, and it may be comparatively careless of form. The Classical style has well been called sculpturesque, the Romantic picturesque. The virtues of the Classical are exquisiteness and incisive significance; of the Romantic, richness and splendor. The dangers of the Classical are coldness and formality; of the Romantic, over-luxuriance, formlessness and excess of emotion. [Footnote: All these matters, here merely suggested, are fully discussed in the present author's 'Principles of Composition and Literature.' (The A. S. Barnes Co.)]

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The following questions are from the Sentence Elimination Pattern that are very popular in Verbal Ability for CAT. Sentence Elimination questions often feature in the CAT. Given 4 options, you are asked to choose the one that does not fit in. The other three sentences will make a cogent paragraph. Let us look at some examples below. Make sure you go through these CAT Questions from Sentence Elimination to have an idea on how to solve these! If you would like to take these questions as a Quiz, head on here to take these questions in a test format, absolutely free. A. By Ptolemy V’s reign in 205 BC , Egypt was in open revolt and the Rosetta stone was one of many that Ptolemy commissioned as a piece of political propaganda in 196 BC, to state publicly his claim to be the rightful pharaoh of Egypt. B. These Greek rulers could neither speak the language of the people nor read hieroglyphs, and this fuelled resentment amongst the population. C. Beginning with the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, Greek was the language of the governing elite in Egypt. D. Without the Rosetta stone, we would know nothing of the ancient Egyptians, and the details of their three thousand years of history would remain a mystery. A. You will know that it has because you will start experiencing aha moments with respect to that problem. B. Once you admit that your unconscious mind is the source of whatever brilliance you possess, you can take steps to extract the maximum possible benefit from your association with it. C. What you must instead do is interest your unconscious mind in working on a problem by working on it with your conscious mind D. What you will quickly discover is that it can’t be ordered about. A. Cognitive science, however, tells us that students need to develop these different ways of thinking by means of extended, focused mental effort. B. NO matter what happens in the relatively brief period students spend in the classroom, there is not enough time to develop the long-term memory structures required for subject mastery. C. A traditional science instructor concentrates on teaching factual knowledge, with the implicit assumption that expert-like ways of thinking about the subject are already present. D. To ensure that the necessary extended effort is made, teachers need to engage students in thinking deeply about the subject at an appropriate level, monitor that thinking and guide it to be more expert-like. A. This is nothing remotely like "nature fighting back." This is merely nature operating exactly the way we know it operates, the way it has been operating here for some three and a half billion years B. Very simply, all too often we've acted as though we could make these small, fast breeding creatures extinct down to the very last member, the way we might do with elephants or pandas C. We can say, "Yes, it's true that we drive a couple hundred species to extinction every day, but there are tens of millions --hundreds of millions--between us and catastrophe." D. But of course this constitutes a fundamental misunderstanding of biological realities. What we've done in actual fact is make ourselves the chief agent of natural selection in these enemy species. A. What we call “fundamentalism” has always existed in a symbiotic relationship with a secularization that is experienced as cruel, violent and invasive. B. Historically, wherever secular governments were established to separate religion and politics, a counter-cultural movement developed in response, determined to bring religion back into public life. C. In the developing world, secularization usually came with colonial rule; it was hence seen as a foreign import and rejected as profoundly unnatural. D. All too often an aggressive secularism has pushed religion into a violent riposte. A. In the entire body of Harappan and other Indus art and sculpture there are no monuments erected to glorify warfare and no depictions of war or conquered enemies. B. It is speculated that the rulers might have been wealthy merchants, or powerful landlords or spiritual leaders, who showed their power and status through the use of seals and fine jewelry. C. Decorated with animal motifs, many of the seals, the most commonly found objects in Harappan cities, are inscribed with short pieces of the Indus script. D. It appears that the Harappan and other Indus rulers governed their cities through the control of trade and religion, not by military might. A. Besides generating buzz, a season-based reality show does as well as a top-five show in terms of viewership. B. The key, then, is for channels to find bankable reality formats and milk them till the cows come home. C. Then again, they have realized that the easier way to gain ad revenue to cover costs is by luring advertisers to a fail-proof, steady-TRP format like reality TV. D. The nearly 15% year-on-year rise in production cost levels for reality shows has networks rattled. A. In China, for example, World Bank money has not been so important quantitatively, yet the Chinese generally credit the bank for having helpful blueprints and information. B. While most of US$800 billion invested in infrastructure in developing countries each year comes from domestic sources, the provision of infrastructure financing by multilateral development institutions globally is important. C. By contrast, their greatest failures have come from funding grandiose projects that benefit the current elite, but do not properly balance environmental, social, and development priorities. D. Multilateral development institutions have had their most consistent success when they serve as “knowledge” banks, helping to share experience, best practices, and technical knowledge across regions. A. Forecasts say that in just two years, the total quantum of e-waste generated around the world will be 50 million tonnes. B. In China, for instance, 73.9 million computers, 0.25 billion mobile phones and 56.6 million televisions were sold in 2011. C. Close to 90 per cent of the world’s electronic waste — worth nearly $19 billion — is illegally traded or dumped each year, to destinations half way across the world. D. While Europe and North America are by far the largest producers of e-waste, Asia’s cities are fast catching up as consumers of electronic goods and as generators of e-waste. A. There is a special intimacy to poetry because, in this idea of the art, the medium is not an expert's body, as when one goes to the ballet: in poetry, the medium is the audience's body. B. In such movement the image fully becomes an intellectual and emotional complex because it dramatically exists both in the space of description and in the time of musical structure. C. The luminous details in poetry must not only be precise, they must also be rendered so as to elicit and reward a dynamic sense of movement. D. Poetry is a centaur. The thinking word-arranging, clarifying faculty must move and leap with the energizing, sentient, musical faculties. A. In 400 BC, Leonidas' 300 Spartans died at Thermopylae in Greece while their countrymen vied at Olympia. B. Troops were forbidden to enter the sacred Olympic precinct; but they were there in 420 B.C. when a Spartan attack was feared. Spartans had been banned from competing. C. And yet, Spartan-like, America was represented at the Games while she was still fighting in Vietnam. D. Civilization has advanced since then and—commendably — Olympiads of 1916, 1940 and 1944 were cancelled due to worldwide conflagration. A. A mixture of vagueness and sheer incompetence is the most marked characteristic of modern English prose, and especially of any kind of political writing. B. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. C. Prose consists less and less of words chosen for the sake of their meaning, and more and more of phrases tacked together like the sections of a prefabricated hen-house. D. As soon as certain topics are raised, the concrete melts into the abstract and no one seems able to think of turns of speech that are not hackneyed. A. Rowling’s declarations on Twitter on what she “always thought” of a particular character are not only newsworthy, but a cause for pride. B. Rowling seems eager to retain an influence on how we understand her books by revealing ostensibly new information about her characters. C. Rowling’s chances for being a diverse author lie in the future, not the past. D. Whether these character points were announced to readers via Twitter or alluded to within the Potter books, however, the meanings that we as a diverse international community of readers wish to take from them trump Rowling’s intentions as an author. A. Consumers prefer reliability when it’s available, and giving the state’s imprimatur to legalized gambling goes a long way toward ensuring that. B. Legalizing gambling would only ramp up the incentive to find new ways to fix games. C. In Britain, betting shops were legalized in 1961, and giant gambling companies, like William Hill and Ladbrokes, watch out for suspiciously prescient bets. D. Taking gambling into the light makes the marketplace more hostile to cheaters. A. Since birds are the modern descendants of dinosaurs, they are likely to have once had teeth instead of beaks. B. However, 100 million years ago a diverse range of non-avian dinosaurs spouted all manner of plumage, and like modern birds, doubtless made a great deal of use of them, even if they could not fly. C. This fact became known way back in 1861 when paleontologists discovered a bird fossil, about 150 million years old, now classified as Archaeopteryx, which had teeth. D. Researchers have now published details of how avian edentulism occurred in one common bird ancestor more than 100 million years ago. A. We don't actually do two, or three or 10 things at once, we just switch from one to another to another. B. Multitasking makes us demonstrably efficient, increasing cognitive performance. C. Each time we shift attention, there is a metabolic cost we pay in glucose. D. Some brain activities are more expensive than others, and switching attention is among the most expensive. A. Muhammad Ali’s rejection of the Vietnam War was thus a rejection of war itself as a viable means of solving human problems, real or perceived. B. In refusing the draft, Ali thus also refused to believe that national boundaries somehow categorically divided human beings into “us” and “them”. C. Violence is the tool of the hegemon; by eschewing it you are already challenging the means through which hegemony is legitimized. D. The best way to stand up to power and injustice is to be steadfast in your resistance while shunning violence. A. There are few more emotional ways to view history than through the lens of a camera. B. To take photographs is to hold one’s breath when all faculties converge in a face of fleeing reality. C. They are not about dialing for quotes or quick sound bites. D. Photographs convey the ultimate journalistic credo: to be present at the site of action at the right time, and alive to capture the fleeting moments that transform our lives. A. If we are not to make grievous mistakes in the name of good things such as fighting corruption or tackling crime, then we, the people, must reflect. B. The problem is not of manipulation or political ambition; it is the willingness with which otherwise sensible citizens allow themselves to follow the Piper. C. If we realize that it is our sentiments that are disturbed, not our security, perhaps we will see the issue with greater equanimity. D. It is in the nature of democratic politics for ambitious politicians to use emotions to climb up the ladder of power. A. As global warming speeds up the melting of these glaciers, this weight is lifting, and the surface slowly is springing back. B. Though the average hiker wouldn't notice, the Alps and other mountain ranges have experienced a gradual growth spurt over the past century or so. C. These glaciers are giant scrapers that carve out valleys and carry away rock debris on ice conveyor belts, sculpting mountains. D. For thousands of years, the weight of the glaciers atop these mountains has pushed against the Earth's surface, causing it to depress. A. India is self-sufficient in strategic armaments – nuclear weapons and delivery systems, including advanced and accurate ballistic and cruise missiles, and nuclear-powered submarines. B. By focusing militarily on Pakistan and ignoring China’s challenge, India inspires little confidence about its judgment, resolve, and prospects as a consequential power in the extended region. C. While India wishes to stand up to China and emerge as the other nodal power in Asia, this ambition is undermined by diffidence and skewed capabilities. D. But paradoxically, India has become the world’s largest importer of conventional weaponry, leaving its foreign policy hostage to the whims and interests of vendor states. A. Automotive interests have consciously shaped a vision of the streets as places where cars belong. B. Indeed, the twenty-first century's apex predator is the automobile. C. A fatal collision is an everyday phenomenon— the kind of death, it seems, that is always expected. D. Cars prowl the streets, growling in revving ravenousness. A. Farmers need to be encouraged to grow more pulses not simply because demand is projected to rise by roughly 50 per cent between now and 2024. B. The Subramanian committee has rightly noted that the worst case scenario for farmers is weak government procurement combined with continuation of stock-holding and export restrictions. C. Volatility in production and prices of pulses, the committee's report has shown, is far higher than that for cereals, and this is neither in the interests of the producers nor the consumers. D. Pulses also help in soil rejuvenation and naturally fixing atmospheric nitrogen, without consuming much water. A. German scientists analyzing the 3300-year-old bust have found evidence suggesting that a royal sculptor at the time may have smoothed creases around the mouth and fixed a bumpy nose to depict the 'Beauty of the Nile' in a better light. B. The new rendering at the entrance of the Egyptian city of Samalut attempts to re-create the strangeness of the Amarna style. That is probably best done in a museum instead of on a highway, where it might scare people. C. The miracle of the Nefertiti bust in Berlin is that it combines the realism of the Amarna style, as it is known, with a feel for grace and harmony to create one of the world’s great icons of beauty. D. By getting the colossally awful sculpture of the ancient queen pulled down, Egyptians have shown the way forward. We need to topple art that’s an insult to our public spaces. A. Though the “mother of all laws”, the Constitution is external to society and has a largely exhortatory relationship to it. B. This is not a defect — the Constitution is required to reflect the republic in the best possible light, and is at its most majestic when doing so. C. However, this also means that the Constitution is unable to directly confront obstinate realities like caste that flout its fundamental tenets, because acknowledging caste amounts to confessing that the republic is more desire than reality. D. Right from the Preamble, where it presumes that “we, the people” are indeed a unified and homogenous collectivity, the Constitution treats hoped-for outcomes as though they were established facts. A. The imaginary worlds of fiction serve as means to escape the ties and the ennui of the real world and indulge vicariously in an alternate reality. B. Reading fiction trains people in this domain, just as reading nonfiction books about, say, genetics or history builds expertise in those subject areas. C. The defining characteristic of fiction is not that it is made-up but that it is about human, or humanlike beings and their intentions and interactions. D. The solitary act of holing up with a book is actually an exercise in human interaction. A. Sea ice acts as a blanket on top of the ocean, protecting the water from incoming solar energy and atmospheric heat. B. This effect accelerates overall warming, which in turn melts more land ice and drives up sea levels. C. Although the sea ice is shrinking, it does not add to water levels as it melts because it is already part of the ocean’s mass. D. As that frozen coating disappears, its white surface is no longer there to reflect sunlight back into the atmosphere—so the ocean absorbs much more solar energy. A. Party politics is all too often merely the surf, spray and scum of the ocean that is society – it’s the prevailing undercurrents, the slow shifting of tectonic plates, that count in the long run. B. Emmanuel Macron’s victory in France’s legislative elections is the consummation of a political revolution which started with his triumph in the recent presidential election. C. While on the surface the dominance of Macron’s party – founded less than two years ago – is a huge transformation of the political landscape in France, the low turnout suggests that this is skin deep. D. In France, growing abstention is the powerful current that risks, eventually, pulling the country under. A. Since Plato at least, we have held that subduing our passions to the iron rule of reason is our supreme aspiration; it is the ideal for human cognition. B. If human beings can indeed be described as rational animals, it is due to the fact that humans, of all animals, are the only ones capable of irrational thoughts and action. C. Ironically, we think that the more we are like Star Trek's unfeeling alien Mr. Spock, the more human we really are. D. We delight in pretending that our most prized and most humanly attribute is our forebrain, which houses, we also pretend, our capacity for rational thought. A. Inflation, which increases nominal but not real wages, is assumed to trick workers into accepting a lower remuneration for their services; it is thus an indirect wage cut that helps prevent an increase in unemployment. B. An economic concept that serves as the linchpin for monetary policy makers is that wages are quite inflexible in a market economy, so unemployment is bound to shoot up whenever workers refuse to accept lower wages. C. The stagflation of the 1970s proved quite convincingly that high unemployment and high inflation can very well co-exist, and given that wages may not be as rigid as many economists assume, any effort to micromanage the economy may well be a fool’s errand. D. While framing monetary policies, central bank chiefs keep this inverse relationship in mind, trying to maintain a non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment, which is the unemployment rate at which inflation too is just under control. A. Sprinters cock the lead knee high and drive the foot into the track with a stiffened ankle—a punch delivered with high velocity and a sudden stop. B. The swiftest runners achieve top speed by swinging their legs more rapidly than slow runners while repositioning their limbs between takeoff and landing. C. What faster runners do better is apply a more powerful force to the ground through their foot, and, just as critically, do this in a briefer contact period. D. Both swift runners and slow runners take roughly the same time when airborne to move their legs back into position for the next stride. A. If the regions, peoples and nations currently demanding more freedom seem to be driven by “cultural nationalism”, that in turn is driven by technological change plus global competition. B. Information-rich societies reward the development of human capital; so, the ability to study in your first language, participate in a rich national culture and create unique local selling points for incoming foreign investment is more important than ever. C. The mixture of austerity, corruption and political sclerosis at the center has limited the reality of regional democracy and pushed autonomous regions such as Catalonia to fight for self-determination. D. Above the problems of economic failure and racial polarization, the positive factor driving progressive nationalisms, from Scotland to Catalonia, is technological change. A. Commonwealth enthusiasts believe that the Commonwealth has supposedly vast potential, which could be augmented further with a little additional funding, yet membership will always remain cheaper than the EU, and not only in terms of the UK’s direct financial contribution. B. But given the fact that there are huge variations in the levels of trade conducted by individual member states, it is difficult to see what we can actually learn from an average figure for “Commonwealth advantage” between two notional Commonwealth states. C. In this light, the Commonwealth is the international relations equivalent of a homeopathic remedy – a cadre of staff so small as to be almost invisible when dissolved across a body comprising 2.4 billion people, which nevertheless does or could achieve miraculous results. D. Somehow, this Commonwealth of the future will cost less than the EU in terms of the vast number of hours required to negotiate its treaties and other formal agreements; it will not require members to make significant concessions in return for some collective good; and it will have only the most rudimentary of mechanisms to enforce its will. A. Museums are not neutral spaces, where objects exist without context; they do more than allow us to engage with history and art. B. They are forms in and of themselves, which, to varying degrees, enable and propagate missions and legacies through design and architecture. C. Try as some museums might to go unnoticed as simply the pedestal or wall on which history and art work hangs, there is no escaping the weight of the objects and stories told within their architecture. D. A museum of modern art in Cologne isn’t so different from a museum of modern art in Chicago – you see the same major-canon artists, arranged in more or less the same way. A. In the breakneck pace of decolonisation, nations were thrown together in months; often their alarmed populations fell immediately into violent conflict to control the new state apparatus, and the power and wealth that came with it. B. If there are so few formerly colonised countries that are now peaceful, affluent and democratic, it is not, as the west often pretends, because “bad leaders” somehow ruined otherwise perfectly functional nations. C. On the premise that the colonial epoch had not permitted the growth of indigenous economic institutions, the new states were encouraged, largely by the West, to entrust economic modernization to parastatal corporations administered by inexperienced bureaucrats. D. Many infant states were held together only by strongmen who entrusted the system to their own tribes or clans, maintained power by stoking sectarian rivalries and turned ethnic or religious differences into super-charged axes of political terror. A. The stereotype that creativity is enhanced by a mood disorder is dangerous, both for those with mood disorders and those pursuing creativity: it could keep them from seeking treatment if they believe treatment would diminish their creative ability. B. However, there are differences that might vary systematically between the groups: for instance, people who have achieved real creative success typically face the stress of being in the public eye, while the average person does not. C. Most people chosen to be included in the creative groups are successful writers or artists, while those in the less-creative group are typically average people living nearby to wherever the study is taking place. D. Just that component could account for any number of differences in the instance of mood disorder, given that stress is a major cause for the onset of mood disorders. A. Many of those who are racked with self-doubt often seek confirmation of their distorted self-perception. B. This seems logical as those with a negative self-image would be just the ones who would want to overcompensate. C. The reason for their behaviour is the desire for coherence: if others respond in a way that confirms their self-image, then the world is as it should be. D. In some cases, individuals actually provoke others to respond negatively to them, in order hear their own bleak view of themselves. A. In fact, compared to other mammals, humans are actually naturally adapted for a relatively low protein intake, requiring protein to make up just 10% of our daily calorie requirement. B. Over the past 50 years, research has consistently found that whenever we tinker with our natural protein needs, it can have adverse consequences, at all phases of our lives. C. This became associated with an increased risk of developing chronic diseases such as cancer in later life, forcing the formula to be adapted to have a lower protein content. D. Human breast milk is quite low in protein: when cow’s milk formula was first used to create an artificial replacement for breast milk, the excessive protein content was found to cause accelerated growth rates in early life. A. On the sliding scale of attribution that art historians use – painted by; hand of; studio of; circle of; style of; copy of – each step takes the artist farther from the painting. B. If a fake is so expert that even after the most thorough examination its authenticity is still open to doubt, is it not as satisfactory a work of art as if it were genuine? C. Leaving straight forgeries aside, any discussion about the “authenticity” of an artwork opens suddenly, like a trapdoor, into the murk of semantics. D. Added to this is the unease about overpainting: Salvator Mundi had been worked over so many times and so heavily, critics argue, that it is less by Da Vinci than by his restorers. A. Letters let us write words while emoji let us write gestures. B. Emoji are so widely used that they are rightly called the lingua franca of the world. C. They are the equivalent of gesticulating to add emphasis. D. While they convey a writer's intentions, emoji are not a language in themselves. A. In laughing along, the target of the joke shows that he’s a good sport, thereby completing the ritual. B. Ridicule can actually reinforce a group when the target is confident of their in-group status. C. By laughing together at each other and at themselves, the rest of the group show their membership. D. Laughing at someone is among the strongest markers of social exclusion in human connection. A. In its “I Want to Be Recycled” campaign, Keep America Beautiful urges consumers to reduce their plastic footprint by imagining the reincarnation of shampoo bottles and boxes post recycling. B. Keep America Beautiful has, for decades, publicly opposed or marketed against legislation that would increase producer responsibility for plastic waste management. C. In fact, its greatest success has been to shift the onus of environmental responsibility onto the public while simultaneously becoming a trusted name in the environmental movement. D. A corporate greenwashing front, it has built public support for a legal framework that punishes individual litterers, while imposing almost no responsibility on plastic manufacturers. A. Researchers found that the stone tools of H. erectus were made from stones lying around at the botton of a hill, for instance, rather than from the better-quality stones found uphill. B. In contrast, H. sapiens and Neanderthals, who came later, put in the effort to find good stone for the tools they made and even transported these stones over long distances. C. Excavations from the Arabian Peninsula indicate that the species Homo erectus failed to put in enough effort to create good quality stone tools which were crucial to their survival. D. This lackadaisical attitude, coupled with the inability to adapt to a changing environment, was what, according to these researchers, contributed to the population's demise. A. The political nature of the target modifies the standard economic constraints, encouraging local governments to generate whatever additional economic activity is required so that, along with the economic activity of the private and real-estate sectors, the target is reached. B. The fact is that Chinese GDP will be unaffected by a trade war with the U.S., no matter how severe, because the government will do whatever it takes to meet its growth targets. To see the conflict’s true toll, one should look at rising Chinese debt instead. C. Thus, while GDP numbers may tell us something about the government’s priorities, they’re a poor measure of the underlying performance of the economy, for, as long as China has debt capacity, and the government is willing to use it, China can achieve any GDP growth target it wants. D. In China, the government sets the GDP growth rate early in the year at a level thought adequate to accommodate its social and political objectives, among which is to keep unemployment low. A. Expertise is not an isolated event: rather, it changes when the social context changes. B. Even exceptional players who find themselves in a different team with many other exceptional players, may find themselves playing below par. C. In team sports, this includes supporting staff such as physical therapists and managers. D. A network of high performing athletes and support staff provides a rich social platform for professional excellence. A. Additionally, many native species are only found in the snag forest habitat of dead and dying trees created by high-severity wildfire. B. Decades of science have shown that forest fires are an essential part of Western U.S. forest ecosystems and create highly biodiverse wildlife habitat. C. Despite this steadily accumulating evidence, the government has posited that more active management of forests could help prevent future fires. D. Many native animals thrive in the years and decades after large intense fires, including deer, bats, woodpeckers, and songbirds as well as spotted owls. A. Coastal wetlands can even grow in height as sea level rises, protecting communities further inland. B. Salt marshes and mangrove forests store flood waters and protect coasts from hurricanes and storms. C. Continuously removing and storing atmospheric carbon, wetlands act as 'carbon sinks' that help mitigate climate change. D. In addition, wetlands make ecosystems and human communities more resilient in the face of climate change. A. Moreover, as temperatures rise, information technologies will work less efficiently, starting off a vicious cycle. B. As much of the physical infrastructure that undergirds the internet is right next to the coast, rising seas can seriously imperil the internet. C. The world’s data centers already have roughly the same carbon footprint as the global aviation industry. D. The internet, the primary vector of information about climate change, is increasingly a vector of the problem itself. A. As every language has evolved in a specific geocultural niche, it has different ways of talking of and codifying the world. B. To learn another language, we must suspend our habit of glossing over differences, which distorts our understanding of others and of ourselves. C. The work of learning new ways of talking – new sounds, grammars and storytelling techniques – stretches and builds the mind. D. Therefore, it is not possible to achieve fluency in another language without learning its speakers’ perspectives. A. The biggest fallout of NPA accumulation, particularly in the public sector banks, is that industrial credit growth rate has plunged in the last few years. B. Without doubt, there are cases of bad loans where the debt repayment problems have been caused by diversion of funds. C. Non-performing assets (NPAs) or bad loans in the Indian banking system have arisen primarily for reasons beyond the control of public sector bank management. D. But the bulk of the problem has been caused by unexpected changes in the economic environment: timetables, exchange rates, and growth rate assumptions going wrong. CAT® (Common Admission Test) is a registered trademark of the Indian Institutes of Management. This website is not endorsed or approved by IIMs. 2IIM Online CAT Coaching A Fermat Education Initiative, 58/16, Indira Gandhi Street, Kaveri Rangan Nagar, Saligramam, Chennai 600 093

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California State University, Wildlife Education and Attitudes Toward [Barbara Wilkinson received her M.A. in Educational Psychology from California State University, Northridge, in spring 1997. She is interested in innovative educational programs about wildlife for children of all ages and wrote her thesis on multimedia wildlife education.] Wildlife education enables children to understand the importance of including animals in their view of the Earth. Wildlife education "should result in positive changes in knowledge, attitudes, awareness, and actions toward wildlife" (Morgan and Gramann, 1989). "Since attitudes encompass both feelings and beliefs, they have both affective and cognitive components. Feelings and beliefs are generally directed toward decision-making, and therefore are important elements of perception" (LaHart, 1978). Perceptions influence the way individuals evaluate the external world. An examination of the sources where children are learning about wildlife can determine whether this type of education is Most academic sources, in general, focus on the knowledge component of education. "Learning about animals in school appears to be so divorced from direct encounters with animals in their natural habitats that little basic understanding and lasting knowledge results" (Kellert and Westervelt, 1983). Encyclopedias and related books include factual information with some drawings or pictures, but are presented in a rather uninteresting way for children. Literature and newspapers are less focused on factual, identifying information about animals, but most children's storybooks personify animals. They do not educate about real animals in their natural habitats. Newspaper coverage of wild animals, except those focusing on human based events, is minimal to Our opportunity for exposure to wild and international animals is limited to visiting a zoo. Although the primary reason cited for visiting a zoo is for the educational benefit of children, Kellert (1980) has shown that the resulting knowledge scores were not significantly different from those of non-visitors. Morgan and Gramann feel that "zoological parks, classrooms, and wildlife sanctuaries are places where animals often are 'merely exposed' to onlookers" (1989). Even owning a pet only slightly raises knowledge scores (Kellert, 1980, Ascione, 1992). However, those who belonged to wildlife and/or environmental organizations or who watched animal-related television programs had significantly higher knowledge scores then any other group studied. Therefore, wildlife-oriented activities appear important in the development of knowledge (Westervelt and Llewellyn, 1985, LaHart, 1978, and Eagles and Muffitt, 1990). It may be that regular learning about wildlife in their natural habitat results in higher knowledge scores than more isolated learning experiences such as visiting a zoo. Learning about animals in their natural habitat may result in higher knowledge scores than would lessons on animals in school, consisting mainly of animals in the classroom or experiments in science class, which can result in limited knowledge about a few Kellert conducted a five phase report for the United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. From 1977 through 1983, knowledge and attitudes towards animals were evaluated using survey and interview style questioning. Responses from children and adults from the United States were evaluated regarding knowledge and attitudes towards domestic and wild animals. Knowledge was assessed from a score on a true/false test of factual information on a wide variety of animals. Attitudes were determined by like-dislike responses to a list of animals. The attitudes were broken into categories, described by the following nine types: naturalistic, ecologistic, humanistic, moralistic, scientistic, aesthetic, utilitarian, dominionistic, and negativistic. These attitudes were defined as follows. - Naturalistic is the primary interest and affection for wildlife and the outdoors. - Ecologistic is the primary concern for the environment as a system, for interrelationships between wildlife species and natural habitat. - Humanistic is the primary concern and strong affection for individual animals, principally pets. - Moralistic is the primary concern for the right and wrong treatment of animals, with strong opposition to exploitation or cruelty towards animals. - Scientistic is primary interest in the physical attributes and biological functioning of animals. - Aesthetic is primary concern in the artistic and symbolic characteristics of animals. - Utilitarian is primary concern for the practical and material value of animals of the animal's habitat. - Dominionistic is primary interest in the mastery and control of animals typically in sporting situations. - Negativistic is primary orientation for an active avoidance of animals due to indifference, dislike or fear. In Phase V of this study, Kellert and Westervelt (1983) focused on the attitudes of children from second through eleventh grades. A general tendency was found, for all the children surveyed, to feel mainly anthropomorphic attachments for individual animals such as pets or "lovable" animals, the humanistic attitude. The humanistic orientation is to hold certain animals, especially pets, in high regard but not animals in general. This attitude remains in spite of very different experiences with animals at the different grade levels. Younger children were more likely to have live animals in the classroom and to go on trips to see animals. Older children were more likely to have conducted experiments on animals. Further, "no significant difference was found in the knowledge scores of children who did and did not learn about animals in school" (Kellert and Westervelt, 1983). Phase III of this study showed that the pervasive nature of this attitude is also present among adults, especially females and those living in cities. A resulting consequence is that "this challenge to wildlife programs will become even more real as society becomes more urbanized and more young people and females assume policy-making positions" (Westervelt and Llewellyn, 1985). Eagles and Muffitt, using the same definitions as the previous study, surveyed the attitudes of Canadian children from 12 to 14 years old. The attitude scales were also adapted from Kellert, with changes to make the questions easier for the children to understand. Like the United States study, they found the most common attitude among the Canadian children towards animals was humanistic. The authors also found that attitudes of those children who read about wildlife had higher naturalistic and scientistic scores, compared with non-readers who had higher utilitarian scores. Those children who watched television wildlife programs had significantly higher scores in those attitudes "valuing wildlife in its natural environment" (Eagles and Muffitt, 1990). These findings suggest that those children who are interested in watching or reading about animals also have attitudes carrying higher regard for animals. Some children read or watch fictional stories about wildlife, including those considered classics. Fictional stories written about animals have changed over the years to reflect our changing attitudes towards them. Oswald (1995) stated that "the definition of animal hero in realistic animal fiction generally changed from wild animals that were heroic for surviving against all odds to domesticated animals that were heroic for rescuing humans from wild beasts." Human characters have become central to the novel and the greatest level the animal can attain is to have a relationship with the most humane character. The author feels that this increase in romantic and unrealistic descriptions of animals in fiction is due to a reduction in accessibility to wilderness areas and wild animals. She concludes that there is a serious problem when this over romanticizing occurs in children's novels because they may come to expect real animals to act as the fictional characters do and therefore "may be disappointed and disillusioned by real animal behavior" (Oswald, 1995). Ascione (1992) showed in his review of the literature that children's attitudes about animal-related issues can be enhanced either by a focused classroom presentation or by reading materials and media presentations. The author suggests using the National Association for Humane and Environmental Education's curriculum guides, which are integrated into classroom lessons throughout the school year. They include role playing and creative writing. The purposes and goals of these guides is to "assist children in developing compassion, a sense of justice, and a respect for all living things" (Ascione, 1992). This wildlife education must go beyond information about animals because knowledge about animals and attitudes towards them have only a low correlation. Merely providing information about an animal increased knowledge but did not promote more positive attitudes (Morgan and Gramann, 1989, LaHart, 1978). A research review article by Kameron (1973) on how individuals perceive the world concluded that "a person's world view is a result of the 'real world' and attitudes, beliefs, and experiences. Knowledge was not considered as an independent variable" (LaHart, 1978). Morgan and Gramann (1989) found the combination of message based and non-message based approaches provided significant increases in positive attitudes. Unfortunately, some subject matters such as wildlife issues are difficult to implement non-message based approaches. The authors suggest that when we are unable to incorporate non-message based approaches such as modeling, "attitudes might be enhanced by using a message that focuses on those aspects of a target species that are most salient to an audience" (Morgan and Gramann, 1989). For example, show the audience a picture of an elephant picking up a stick with its trunk and explain that their trunk is used much like a human hand. Kellert (1981) found that interest in local animals is greater than either national or international animals. African animals, classified as both international and non-domestic, would therefore be assumed to have low status among Americans. Yet the African elephant represents one of the most familiar and popular animals in the United States. In the Kellert and Westervelt study, it ranked eleventh out of 33 animals on the children's rank order of animal preference and ninth among adults (Kellert and Westervelt, 1983). Both Cynthia Moss and Ian Douglas-Hamilton observe elephants in the wild and write about their experiences. Their books contain a large and varied selection of photographs. Oria Douglas-Hamilton wrote The Elephant Family Book, which describes these animals at a level appropriate for elementary school children. According to photographer Mitsuaki Iwago, the lion is the most popular animal among the sightseers on an African safari. His work concentrates on lions and his books include observations about the lions he photographs. Angelika Hofer and Gunter Ziesler's book, The Lion Family Book, illustrates these animals' lifestyle for younger children. Telling stories about wildlife, with photographs showing the animals, directed toward younger children may facilitate the interest in animals that is present in those older children who belong to wildlife organizations and watch wildlife The appropriate and most influential age for children to be exposed to animal education has been estimated by several researchers. Westervelt and Llewellyn (1985) found that environmental education programs are most commonly found in grades 11 and 12, which is after attitudes toward wildlife have been firmly established. "Attitudes toward consumptive and non-consumptive uses of wildlife appear to be well formed by the time young people reach eighth grade" (LaHart, 1978). When describing the developmental progress of the second through eleventh graders, Kellert and Westervelt found that second through fifth graders were characterized by changes in affective and emotional concern for animals. And "in general, the transition from fifth to eighth grade appeared to signify basic changes in intellectual and cognitive understandings of animals" (Kellert and Westervelt, 1983). "Several authors suggest that at this age [10 - 12 years old], students are actively searching for more information about animals, their attitudes toward animals are still forming, and therefore excellent opportunities exist for fostering an appreciation for the natural world" (Westervelt and Llewellyn, Interactive Multimedia Instruction In addition to literature, magazines, and television programs, interactive multimedia computer programs are also available for children as learning tools. Computers are currently available in most schools and are being purchased and installed in more schools across the country every year. Currently, the computer labs in schools are mainly used to teach programming, for example to use Macintosh's LOGO program to create a picture. "Some students, who had developed an expertise in programming, believed that their teachers were not knowledgeable enough or that their computer classes were too elementary" (Beyond Technology's Promise, p.103). When computers are used as learning tools, "most students thought learning is more exciting with computers ... a majority of students stated that they learn 'better' using a computer" (Davidson and Ritchie, 1994). Children use home computers mainly for playing games. Educational software designers have recognized the attraction to games, and have responded by incorporating a game-like format to their programs. As a consequence, "they permitted children to obtain winning scores by playing the game in a rapid, repetitive, mindless fashion that precluded learning the material the program had been fashioned to present" (Lepper and Multimedia instruction can include features to attract and hold attention, provide students with lesson information, and contain features to facilitate learning the material. Norman believes that the electronic classroom goes beyond computer labs to provide "a unique potential for the interactive and collaborative learning of any subject" (1994). The program being evaluated by the author includes interactive screens, animation, and computer access to assignments and readings. Designers must integrate learning principles with multimedia capabilities for effective instruction. To accomplish this goal, "programmed instruction requires the highly disciplined application of learning techniques such as shaping, fading, priming, and prompting" (Bostow et al, 1995). Further, the authors assert that "someone must organize the interchanges between student and machine into a sequential series of small steps, each small step being a component leading to the desired terminal performance" (Bostow et al, 1995). These interchanges must predict and address ideas that are difficult, resulting in the illusion of the computer answering questions posed by the student. The interactive multimedia instruction can create an exploratory environment where the student plays an active role in the learning process. Arnone and Grabowski compared program control, learner control, and learner control with advisement for learning and curiosity in first and second graders. The program control condition provided a linear path through the lesson. Under learner control condition, the user could choose from multiple paths through the lesson. Students who had control over sequencing, pacing, and remediation, combined with advisement to use the "stop and think" option scored higher and spent more time on task than under the other conditions. In addition, the authors feel this condition resulted in higher scores because it provides the most interaction between student and computer. The learner control with advisement condition also "generated the most questions and the most independent ideas" (Arnone and Grabowski, Rosenzweig sees electronic media as "extremely good at condensing large amounts of data in small amounts of space"(1993). This and the wide variety of media available for his subject matter prompted him to convert a history book into an electronic book which included audio, film, and pictures, combined with non-linear search features, using Hypercard and Macintosh. The same hardware and software combination was selected when an electronic guide at the Museum of Dion in Greece was developed in 1993. These authors selected the Macintosh because of its reliability and friendly interface and Hypercard because it is the first and most widely used multimedia authoring tool. Hypercard and Macintosh provide a relatively simple authoring tool to create learning environments in a wide array of settings. An advantage to multimedia authoring tools is the ability to include pictures and audio so children can look at and hear about the animal simultaneously. Researchers have said that lessons using two modalities increases learning. Small et al. (1993) conducted four experiments comparing recall of information about animals with and without pictures of the animals. Their results showed that the pictures facilitate recall whether the information is present in the prose and the picture or only in the prose. This effect does not exist for information in the picture, but not addressed in the prose. The picture was even helpful when the information in the prose was not obviously illustrated in the picture, so long as the picture was relevant to the prose. The effect was present for familiar and unfamiliar animals, which is important because children may be familiar with some of the animals and not others. Many suggestions have been made to assist designers intending to make their programs more user-friendly. Dessipris et al. (1993) suggest inserting a help button on each screen, and conducting a pilot study looking for screens on which users hesitate due to feeling lost, then making changes to ease the navigation. Rosenzweig (1993) provides his students with over 200 excursions, or side trips, that elaborate on some fact or idea from the main text. The use of "quicktime" has enabled him to incorporate films into some of these excursions. Schweir and Misanchuk, in their book Interactive Multimedia Instruction, outline the many ways to approach lessons that are available in this media, such as simulations and tutorials. In creating education tools, objectives and learning styles must retain their importance, while elements such as aesthetics, ease of navigation and help segments must also be given consideration. Educating children about wildlife reaches beyond learning facts about animals to an appreciation, affection, and respect for these living creatures. Much of what we teach children passes on the attitudes and values of the society. As we become more urbanized, our personal experiences with animals becomes more isolated, much of the time being limited to domesticated pets. The pervasive attitudes towards animals is described by researchers as humanistic, which singles out pets and "lovable" animals as recipients of affection while showing little appreciation for wildlife in general. Without firsthand experiences with wildlife, much of urban America has come to depend upon wildlife organizations, publications, and television programs to educate forthcoming generations. In the 1990's, children are becoming enamored with computer technology. The popularity of computer games, internet, and equipment is reaching children at a younger age. The advancing technology is resulting in more user-friendly computer programs. Also, there is a trend for computer programs, such as the internet, to be exploratory in nature. This format transfers very well to educational programs in general and to wildlife programs in particular. Photographs, movies, audio recordings of animal sounds and narration can breathe life into these animals. In addition to factual information, stories with pictures can add an element of familiarity and identification for these little known animals. With knowledge and understanding, children can come to appreciate the animal's unique qualities. This requires time and effort, so the learning tool must capture the children's interest and provide continued curiosity throughout the lesson. "More ambitious and imaginative efforts are required as the eventual condition of wildlife will, of course, depend on the future commitment and concern of today's children" (Kellert and - Arnone, M. P. & Grabowski, B. L. (1992). Effects on children's achievement and curiosity of variations in learner control over an interactive video lesson. Educational Technology Research & Development, 40 (1):15-27. - Ascione, F. R. (1992). Enhancing children's attitudes about the humane treatment of animals: Generalized to human-directed empathy. Anthrozoos, 5 (3):176-191. - Bostow, D. E., Kritch, K. M., & Tompkins, B. F. (1995). Computers and pedagogy: Replacing telling with interactive computer-programmed instruction. Behavior Research Methods, Instruction, & Computers, 27 (2):297-300. - Davidson, G. V. & Ritchie, S. D. (1994). How do attitudes of parents, teachers, and students affect the integration of technology into schools? A case study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 373 710) - Dessipris, N. G., Pandermalis, D., Zambelaki, M., & Vassiliadou, Y. (1993). The electronic guide at the Museum of Dion. Information Services & Use, 13:313-322. - Douglas-Hamilton, O. (1990). The elephant family book. New York: North-South Books Inc. - Eagles, P. F. J. & Muffitt, S. (1990). An analysis of children's attitudes toward animals. Journal of Environmental Education, 21 (3):41-44. - Giacquinta, J. B., Bauer, J. A., & Levin, J. E. (1993). Beyond Technology's Promise. New York: Cambridge University - Hofer, A. & Ziesler, G. (1988). The lion family book. New York: North-South Books Inc. - Iwago, M. (1995). In the lion's den. California: Chronicle - Kellert, S. R. (1979). Public attitudes toward critical wildlife and natural habitat issues, phase I. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. - Kellert, S. R. (1980). Phase II: Activities of the American public relating to animals. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. - Kellert, S. R. & Berry, J. K. (1980). Phase III: Knowledge, affection and basic attitudes toward animals in American society. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. - Kellert, S. R. & Westervelt, M. O. (1981). Trends in animal use and perception in twentieth century America: Phase IV. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. - Kellert, S. R. & Westervelt, M. O. (1983). Children's attitudes, knowledge and behaviors toward animals: Phase V. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service. - LaHart, D. E. (1978). The influence of knowledge on young people's perceptions about wildlife. The Florida State University, College of Education. - Lepper, M. R. & Cordova, D. I. (1992). A desire to be taught: Instructional consequences of intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 16 (3):187-208. - Morgan, J. M. & Gramann, J. H. (1989). Predicting effectiveness of wildlife education programs: A study of students' attitudes and knowledge toward snakes. Wildlife Society Bulletin, - Moss, C., & Colbeck, M. (1992). Echo of the elephants. New York: William Morrow & Co. Inc. - Nelson, W. A. (1994). Efforts to improve computer-based instruction: The role of knowledge representation and knowledge construction in hypermedia systems. Computers in the Schools, 10 - Norman, K. L. (1994). Hypercourseware for interactive instruction in the electronic classroom. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 26 (2):255-259. - Oswald, L. J. (1995). Heroes and victims: The stereotyping of animal characters in children's realistic animal fiction. Literature in Education, 26 (2):135-148. - Rosenzweig, R. (1993). Digitizing the past: A history book on CD-ROM. Information Services & Use, 13:35-40. - Schweir, R. A., & Misanchuk, E. R. (1993). Interactive multimedia instruction New Jersey: Educational Publications, Inc. - Small, M. Y., Lovett, S. B., & Scher, M. S. (1993). Pictures facilitate children's recall of unillustrated expository prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85 (3):520-528. - Westervelt, M. O. & Lewellyn, L. G. (1985). The beliefs and behaviors of fifth and sixth grade students regarding non-domestic animals. Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of

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STAR Ideas: Simple, Technology Application Resource Ideas How can I use technology applications in simple, yet powerful ways? The only software I have on my computer is Microsoft Office, how can I use this in my classroom? How can I create simple, motivating activities that will engage my students in learning? Photo libraries such as CalPhotos, the NOAA Photo Library and American Memories Collection Finder provide wonderful resources for student projects. A photograph can generate enthusiasm, motivate reluctant learners, and provide alternative perspectives on a topic. The following page contains ideas for getting started with simple activities you can do using the software you already have in your building such as Microsoft Office and Inspiration. Many of the activities below contain links to photos that can be helpful in developing activities. Repurpose a Website Repurposing refers to using a resource in a way it was not originally intended. For example, you might use a science website to discuss a social issue. Or, use the photographs from a history site as part of a writing activity. Or, you might use the visuals from a website for a vocabulary assignment. Apply the information (i.e., text, graphics, video, audio) from a website for a new purpose. - Use the photos for discussion starters. - Use the photos in a quiz. - Use the photos in a sequencing activity. - Ask students to write text or create oral narration to go with photos. - Use the content as a story or report starter. - Rewrite the information at a lower reading level. When you repurpose a website, be sure to get permission if you plan to share it online. If you just plan to use it in your classroom, you should still cite the resources you used. Our Community. Use photographs from local government websites for an "our community" virtual field trip. For example, go to City of Quincy or Virtual Quincy, IL. Also use maps from Yahoo Maps, MapQuest, or Google Maps and Google Earth (must download software) (Grades K-3) Our Government. Use photographs from the federal goverment to create a question game about our goverment. Use KidZone Illinois, Kid Gov (Grades K-6) or USAGov (Grades 7-12) to locate specific agencies and resources. Who are these people? Why are they important? What are these symbols? Why are the important? (Grade K-8) Birdhouses. Repurpose ideas from the Birdhouse Project. For example, ask students to read the events from a specific birdhouse cam project. Then, sequence the photos from another birdhouse in PowerPoint or Word and ask students to write narration. Other ideas can be found at Journey North such as bald eagle, caribou, hummingbirds, manatee, robin, whooping crane, gray whale, and Monarchs. Go to the CIESE Real-Time Data or Escrapbooking: Data site for other ideas. (Grades K-8) WWII Primary Sources. Repurpose posters, photographs, and historical documents from the WWII Project at the National Archives. Find project ideas at the Digital Classroom at NARA. Also consider other time periods in US history. (Grades 5-9) Author Exploration. Locate an author or illustrator using the Teacher Tap: Author and Illustrator Resources page. Repurpose photographs from various sites to provide a brief biography of the author. (all ages) Science in Our World. Use SciNetPhoto website to explore since over that past thirty years. Topics including energy, medicine, technoloyg, portraits, and features. Ask students to start with questions they have about the photo. Then write a paper based on the photo. (Grades 5-9) Using photos you've taken or gathered from the web, create a short (4-5) slide PowerPoint springboard activity as a motivating introduction to a new unit. - Use photos illustrating the concept or idea. - Use photos to stimulate meaningful questions. - Use music to draw interest to a subject. A PowerPoint slide show that... - introduces a letter of the alphabet in a visual way such as ball, bat, basket for the letter B. Use the Pics4Learning objects photos. (Grade K) - introduce color words using food, or flowers (Grades K). - introduce weather words using Weather Photography, Pics4Learning weather and Freefoto weather photos (Grades K-1). - introduce transportation words using Freefoto transport photos (Grades K-2). - introduce food words using Pics4Learning food, Freefoto food/drink words (Grades K-2). - introduce parts of the body words using Pics4Learning. (Grades K-2) - introduce plants words using Pics4Learning. (Grades K-2) - introduce insect words using Pics4Learning (Grades K-2). - introduce animal words using Nature Gallery, Pics4Learning oceans and animals, Pics4Learning Page animals, FPnet birds, mammals, marine life, (Grades K-2). - introduce Pics4Learning land forms and geography words. (all ages) - introduces a part of speech in a visual way such as photographs that can be used to discuss adverbs such as quickly, quietly, slowly, daily, weekly, frequently. - illustrates 3-4 reasons we need to know about mathematics such as angles. Use Pics4Learning architecture. FreeFoto bridges, castles, or buildings for shapes and angles. Use Pics4Learning Page's architecture. - introduce a science topic using SciNetPhotos. Or check topics such as light, electronics, landforms. (all ages) - introduce a history lesson with a political cartoon. Use the Clifford K. Berryman Political Cartoon Collection, and Cagle's Professional Cartoonist page to get started. Also check out the Teaching with Documents: Political Cartoons. - introduce the horrors of war, hunger, poverty. For example, use the NARA: Pictures of the Civil War page. (Grade 5-9) Create a Digital Storytelling Digital storytelling is a great way approach to writing. Students enjoy writing based on visuals. Provide students with photographs or let them take their own with a digital camera. Then, ask students to record their voice narrating the story. Pick a Pet. Provide students with photos of pet. Ask them to create a name for their pet and write about the day they found a new home. Do a Google images search for an animal name, or go to Pics4Learning animals, or use FPnet. Predictable Books. Read a predictable book like Brown Bear, Brown Bear. Adapt the format of the book to PowerPoint. Include photographs to get the story started. Student simply add the words. (Grades K-3) Q&A Story. Tell a story through a series of questions and answers. Use your digital camera to take photographs, then insert them in PowerPoint slides. For example, a screen may show the outside of the door and ask readers what's inside. Then, the next screen shows what's inside. The next page may show a drawer. The following screen shows what's in the draw. Students add the text and audio narration. (Grades K-3) A Trip to Outerspace. Use photos from NASA to create your own virtual field trip to outerspace. Focus on a particular time period such as shuttle history, aspect of space such as careers, or location such as the moon. Use GRIN, JSC Digital Collection, NASA Multimedia gallery, NSSDC Photo Gallery, or NASA Planetary Photojournal. A Trip to the ... Create a story or virtual field trip by providing a set of visuals for writing. Use for simple trips to a farm, zoo, or store. Or, use this idea for a trip to a particular habitat such as wetlands, desert, mountains, river, or beach. Use theFreefoto photos for farm activities, UFWS for wildlife photos, NASA for space photos, and NOAA for weather and ocean photos. Use the Teacher Tap: Digital and Virtual Field Trips for ideas. Use Pics4Learning farms and barns. (All Grades) A Day in the Life of... Start with a series of photos from a particular community worker such as a police officer, fire fighter, baker, or farmer. (Grades 2-3) The Day of the Disaster... Start with a series of photos from a natural disaster. Ask students to tell a story that includes science information as well as information about the social impact of a disaster. Check out the Pics4Learning Natural Disaster photos. Get photos from Freefoto including 911 emergency, floods, nature, weather. (Grades 3-9). Colonial Life. Start with a series of photos from different occupations in a historical time period such as Colonial days. Use photos and information from Colonial Williamsburg. (Grades 2-3) Historical Fiction. Use the photographs from a historical photo website such as the Library of Congress American Memories or Presidential Libraries to provide visual resources for writing. (Grades 3-8) Electronic postcards are lots of fun. You may be able to find an electronic postcard website that fits your needs from the Teacher Tap: Electronic Postcards in the Classroom page. Another option is to use a Word document, single PowerPoint slide, or KidPix picture and make your own postcards. Historical Postcards. Start with a historical photograph in Word. Ask students to use the photograph like a postcard and write a letter. Use the American Memories Collection Finder to locate a good photo. Or go directly to the Photos and Prints or the Panoramic Photos section. Use Pics4Learning History for photos. (all ages) Postcard Storytelling. Start with a photograph of a location. Ask student to use the photograph like a postcard and write a letter. For example, pick a photo of a lighthouse (Freefoto). (all ages). National Geographic Postcard. Use the National Geographic Photography page. Ask students to select a photograph for use on a postcard that represents a particular social studies or science concept. Use audio, video, photographs, and other resources to increase vocabulary and facilitate content area reading. For example, you might introduce a new set of words related to a particular topic. Money Words. Provide pictures of money and a photograph of a situation or object. Ask students to write a sentence or story about the photograph that includes the money. For example, "I bought an apple for sixty cents." (Grades K-2) Opposites. Provide pictures of opposites such as in/out, up/down, quiet/loud, inside/outside. Ask students to match the pictures and put them in groups in Kidspiration. Then, students can create their own narration. (Grades K-1) Career Words. Create a visual glossary of community workers or careers. Use Kids.gov: Careers and Freefoto business for ideas. Or, try Google images. Record a sentence that includes the proper name of the job such as veterinarian or accountant. (Grades 2-8) Visual Spelling Words. Use Excel to create a spreadsheet of vocabulary words, definitions, and matching photographs. Use the National Resources Conservation Photo Gallery for ideas. Use the Pics4Learning oceans page. Try the Natural Science, Travel, Industry (wind power, pollution, construction) and Places/Sights of Earth photographs. (All ages) Speaking Science. Pronunciation is a common problem in science. There are many words that students are able to use in their writing, but they have a hard time pronouncing. Create links to dictionary website vocabulary words that read words aloud. For example, go to Dictionary.com to see and hear the word "amphibian". Locate lots of health and science photographs at the Public Health Image Library. (All grades) Visual Dictionary. Use Google to create a visual dictionary of words that students can categorize. Or, ask students to add a word, definition, example, sentence, and visual. Words Alive. Use short videos to promote the use of vocabulary. For example use the videos form Bee Videos or the Bee Cams and ask students to write using their vocabulary related to science and language arts. Use the Naturescapes: Video and Image Starters for other nature topics. Students need lots of examples and nonexamples for concept and rule development. Create simple projects that provide students with a variety of resources that can be used in knowledge construction. When students only use one resource in the classroom they may miss the "big picture." For example, rather than a single illustration from a textbook, students need many examples of a concept. They should see line drawings, photographs, animations, videos, and audio narration. Different representations are useful for different learning styles. In addition, some students need more concrete examples, while others are ready for more abstract representations. Fictional vs Real Creatures. Create a Kidspiration document that contains both cartoon versions of animals and photographs of real animals. This could also be done with fictional creatures (i.e., dragons, unicorns) vs real creatures. Use super group to categorize. (Grades K-2) Healthy Food. Provide students with photographs of variety of a healthy and unhealthy use Use Freefoto food and drink photos, Pics4Learning food, morgueFile food, or foods photo page. Categorize the foods. List the characteristics of these foods. (Grades 3-6) Phases of Mitosis. In Inspiration, provide students with a variety of line drawings, photographs, and animations of the different phases in mitosis. Ask students to categorize them. Then, take their favorite series, put them in the correct sequence and create notes detailing each phase. (Grades 7-9) Science Concepts. Identify three different photos representing the same concept. Write about how the photos highlight different aspects of the concept. Use the National Resources Conservation Photo Gallery for ideas. Use the Pics4Learning science page to locate astronomy, energy, fossils, geology, medicine, or other photos. Up-Close. Get students to examine their world up-close. Take a photograph at a distance, then take another version close-up or with a scanner. Ask students to write about what they see. For example, describe look at plants. Use the Microscopy website for close-up photos on a wide variety of topics. (Grades K-12) Science through History. Use the Visual Archives to explore the human face of Physics. This website contains photos and stories related to famous physicists and astronomers. Use the Science Service from the Smithsonian for other photos. Sequencing and Directions Students have difficulty writing and following directions. Use technology to help. Action. Use a digital camera to record still photos or short video from an event, demonstration, or science experiment. Or use FreeFoto's general section for ideas. Or, focus on a particular type of action such as FreeFoto's sports and recreation. Use the audio recorder in Word, Inspiration (Kidspiration), or PowerPoint to record directions for students to follow. Or, ask students to write about the visuals. (All ages) Around Town. Ask students to sequence photographs or create a map, then record their voice providing directions or steps in the procedure. (All ages) Maps. Start with a map at GraphicMaps.com. Draw lines on the map showing where you might go. Then write directions. Creating persuasive communications can be powerful teaching and learning tools. Use visuals, audio, and other media tools to bring these activities alive. PSAs. Watch public service announcements from Ad Council. Then, create a PowerPoint-based public service announcement using still photos and audio narration. Check out the freefoto industry page for pollution, energy, and wind power photos. Also consider topics such as trash/recycling and old junk. Conder anti-smoking photos for ads. Safety and Disaster Prevention. Create a presentation on safety or disaster prevention such as bike safety. Use photos from FreeFoto's 911-Emergency page including ambulance, fire, and police. For example, start with resources from Bicycle Safety from the Illinois State Police. You can provide the still photos or give students digital cameras to make their own (i.e., natural disasters, bike safety, fireworks safety, water safety, fire safety, tornado preparation) (Grades 3-12). PowerPoint is a great tool for conducting electronic comparisons. How are things similar and different? What do you like and dislike? Select a topic that would involve making a comparison. Identify the key differences or issues for discussions. Creature Comparison. Create a Venn diagram or comparison chart comparing the characteristics of two creatures. For example, read the book Stellaluna then compare birds and bees. Other good topics include comparing ants and spiders, the lifecycles of bees and butterflies, or dogs and cats as pets. Use Pics4Learning animals and insect photos. Use DiscoverySchool science cartoons. Use the Jungle clipart from DK. (Grades K-3) Seasons. Each month, take a photograph of that class standing in front of a tree outside. Compare how thing change over time. Or, get Freefoto four seasons photos. (Grades K-2) Book or Movie. Use Kidspiration or Inspiration to create a diagram comparison a book with it's movie version. (Grades 3-12) Erosion Comparison. Compare and contrast different types of erosion. Use the National Resources Conservation Photo Gallery for photos (choose by category). Then and Now. Use Kidspiration, Inspiration, or PowerPoint slideshow to compare "then and now." For example, before and after a fire, before and after a volcano, or trace the history of your town. You could adapt the idea for other topics such as "young vs old", "rural vs urban", and "before and after." Use the Picturing the Century website at the National Archives for 100 years of photographs. (All ages) PowerPoint is a great tool for conducting electronic debates. Select a controversial topic that involves two or more perspectives. Identify the key differences or issues for discussions. These become the core slides in the PowerPoint presentation or Inspiration/Kidspiration document. Native Americans or Europeans. Read the book Sign of the Beaver or another historical fiction book that involves comparing Native American and European life during early America. Create a PowerPoint debate comparing the Native American and the Colonist ways of life. (Grades 5-9) Energy Issues. Debate the pros and cons of different energy sources. Check out the SciNetPhotos page. For example, use the Wind Farm, Windmill photos in a wind energy e-debate. Also check out the Forces and Energy photos from DK. News Organization Comparison. Select a single news event at Google News. Compare the reports from at least two different resources. Describe the similiaries and differences on particular aspects of the report such as numbers of casualities, people involved, and major issues. Use a chart to make comparisons. (Grades 5-9) Electronic Posters, Brochures & Fliers Students love to create posters, brochures, and fliers. It's often difficult time consuming to locate visuals. Start with the visuals and ask students to write the words. Travel Brochures. Start with location photos such as Freefoto Europe, Japan, United Kingdom, and transport photos. Also try, Pics4Learning countries photos. Get a map at GraphicMaps.com. Check out the DK Maps. Use the following starting points to locate visuals and other materials for your projects. - 42eXplore - topic index - Daily Resources - Digital and Virtual Field Trips - Digital and Virtual Libraries - Digital and Virtual Museums - Electronic Postcards in the Classroom - Multimedia Seeds: Starting Points for Audio, Video, and Video Resources - News Resources - Primary Resources and Real-World Data - Reference Materials - Visual Resources: Clipart, Photos, and Visual Indexes

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The Canterbury Tales is the culminating life’s work of Geoffrey Chaucer, a fourteenth-century Englishman considered to be one of the greatest poets to write in the English language. In addition to its literary value, The Canterbury Tales is significant because it is the first major work of literature to have been written in English, a language that during Chaucer’s time was considered unworthy of poetry or prose. Full of romance, drama, pathos, and humor, Chaucer’s diverse collection of tales paints a vivid literary portrait of his medieval society. His writing influenced many English authors of great renown who succeeded him, including William Shakespeare and Charles Dickens. Chaucer was born between 1340 and 1345 to John Chaucer, a successful merchant who supplied wine to the royal court. Through this family connection, Chaucer worked as a page in an aristocratic household and went on to pursue a busy life in English society. He served a brief stint in the army, attended the royal court as a poet, and held various royal clerkships and public appointments, including the lucrative position of Controller of Customs for the Port of London. He also served as a Member of Parliament. At a time when it was nearly impossible to rise above one’s social class, Chaucer enjoyed the patronage of King Edward III’s son, John of Gaunt, one of the most powerful noblemen of the time. Chaucer’s intellect, wit, and knowledge of human nature, qualities that characterize The Canterbury Tales, likely contributed to his professional and social success as a commoner among members of the aristocracy. Chaucer’s diplomatic and military travels afforded him an invaluable opportunity to meet people from all walks of life and to read the literature of the European continent, experiences which influenced The Canterbury Tales. He traveled in England and Ireland, as well as in Spain, Flanders, France, and Italy. Already versed in the French poetry popular in the royal court and knowledgeable of classical literature from his studies as a youth, Chaucer became familiar with the Italian language. His knowledge of both French and Italian is reflected in his poetry. Chaucer, however, wrote The Canterbury Tales in Middle English, a fact that is significant because English during Chaucer’s time was not the language of poetry or prose. Because of the Norman invasion in 1066, which made William the Conqueror the King of England, the Anglo-Norman aristocracy of the English court spoke French, and the language of the cultured was French or Latin. In seeing the poetic possibilities of writing in English and in creating a masterpiece in The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer gave literary authority to the English language. During his time in Italy, Chaucer may have read Italian poet Boccaccio’s recently written The Decameron, a collection of tales told by upper-class characters traveling in the Italian countryside to avoid the Florentine plague. The Decameron is thought to be an inspiration for The Canterbury Tales’ ambitious collection of storytellers and their tales. Chaucer’s individual tales drew on many other literary works. It is uncertain when Chaucer began work on The Canterbury Tales. He had certainly written versions of some of the tales for other purposes before he generated the idea of framing the tales with the story of a pilgrimage in the late 1380s. During the last decade of his life, Chaucer edited and added to the project. It remained unfinished at the time of his death in 1400. The Canterbury Tales is structured as a collection of stories told by a socially diverse group traveling to Canterbury to pay homage to St. Thomas. Chaucer introduces his characters in the Prologue and then presents each pilgrim’s tale interspersed with dialogue between and among the travelers. Two tales, the Squire’s and the Cook’s, are incomplete. The Prologue indicates that the pilgrims intended to continue their storytelling game on the trip back from Canterbury. From manuscripts and early print editions of The Canterbury Tales, ten distinct fragments are evident. Chaucer’s intended ordering of the fragments is a matter of debate; scholars and editions differ somewhat on this point. The tales told by Chaucer’s pilgrims include a variety of medieval literary genres, such as the courtly romance, the fabliau, saint’s life tales, and a beast fable. They explore ideas about marriage, sex, fidelity, honor, religion and class, often from multiple perspectives. Many of his characters spring from the page as comic caricatures, while others are vivid portraits of unique individuals. Perhaps his most memorable pilgrim is the bawdy and loquacious Wife of Bath, who proudly details her experience of dominating her five husbands. Historians have identified possible real-life inspirations for some of the pilgrims, including the Wife of Bath; she may have been based on Alice Perrers, the licentious mistress of King Edward III, one of Chaucer’s royal patrons. Chaucer’s lively use of language, his astounding versatility as a storyteller, and the ambition of his project make The Canterbury Tales a much studied work, even seven hundred years after his death. Chaucer’s tales reflect the complex interrelationships of the nobility, the church, and the commoners, called in the Middle Ages the “three estates.” Chaucer portrays not only the tensions that arise from the hierarchy of the three estates, but also those that arise from any challenge to the status quo in terms of age, gender, profession, or ethics. These tensions continue today. Many of the tales’ themes—morality, marriage, money, and social standing—are still central to our world and our literature, and in moving from the allegorical tradition toward realism, The Canterbury Tales anticipates modern fiction, despite having been written in the 1300s. For its influence, historical significance, poetic brilliance, sharp satire, and canny portraits of human nature, The Canterbury Tales will continue to engage readers, just as it has for more than seven centuries. By the end of the unit the student will be able to: 1. Identify the historical importance of The Canterbury Tales as a societal portrait of Chaucer’s time. 2. Identify and describe the characters introduced in the Prologue and discuss the social hierarchy they illustrate. 3. Describe the stories-within-a-story framing narrative of The Canterbury Tales. 4. Compare tales with regard to style, genre, subject matter, and rhyme scheme. 5. Identify Chaucer’s use of humor and irony to explore elements of his society. 6. Define characteristics of knighthood, chivalry, and courtly love. 7. Describe the Wife of Bath’s character and her ideas on chastity and sovereignty in marriage. 8. Compare tales in their portrayals of marriage. 9. Contrast tales in regard to themes of morality, religious virtue, and religious corruption. This eNotes lesson plan is designed so that it may be used in numerous ways to accommodate ESL students and to differentiate instruction in the classroom. Student Study Guide - The Study Guide is organized to study the Prologue and each tale separately. Study Guide pages may be assigned individually and completed at a student’s own pace. - Study Guide pages may be used as pre-reading activities to preview for students the vocabulary words they will encounter in reading the Prologue and each tale and to acquaint them generally with their content. - Before Study Guide pages are assigned, questions may be selected from them to use as short quizzes to assess reading comprehension. (The entire section is 953 words.) 1. Why might Chaucer have set his storytelling contest in the context of a religious pilgrimage? 2. In the Prologue, who are the characters with high status? Who are the least respected? What are their analogs in society today? Why are some professions more highly esteemed than others? 3. What virtues and vices do the pilgrims possess? How do the tales reflect the characters of the pilgrims who tell them? 4. Bravery, honor, and courtesy are the tenets of medieval chivalry in its ideal form. Do these standards of conduct exist in modern life? 5. Discuss the elements of story and character that make The Miller’s Tale humorous. 6. The Nun’s Priest’s... (The entire section is 813 words.) amor vincit omnia: Latin “love conquers all” baldrick: a belt worn across the chest to carry a sword cunningly: slyly, deceitfully heathen: an uncivilized or irreligious person hurdy-gurdy: a stringed musical instrument played by turning a crank manciple: a food buyer miller: a person who makes flour from grain obstinate: stubborn, resistant palmer: a pilgrim of the Middle Ages pilgrimage: a journey, especially one with a religious purpose reeve: a manager of an estate sovereign: supreme in rank summoner: a member of the clergy who calls... (The entire section is 885 words.) Amazon: Greek mythology a member of a race of female warriors armipotent: archaic powerful in battle cithern: a musical instrument similar to a guitar coppice: a thicket of small trees Diana: Roman mythology goddess of chastity, the moon, and the hunt disconsolate: unhappy, cheerless Mars: Roman mythology god of war paragon: a model of excellence or perfection pomp: ceremonial display sleight: a skillful trick Venus: Roman mythology goddess of love wont: a habit or... (The entire section is 644 words.) Cato: short for the Distichs of Cato, an ancient Roman book of moral wisdom censer: a person who performs incense rituals in a church churl: a peasant; a rude ill-bred person coulter: a plow blade cuckold: a man whose wife is unfaithful geomancy: an ancient form of divination performed by reading patterns on the ground jape: a trick meant to amuse or deceive kip: a lodging house scud: a driving shower of rain or snow sloe: black or dark purple fruit of the blackthorn tree (The entire section is 668 words.) byre: a barn canny: British pretty coltish: archaic lustful dotage: senility, especially in old age fen: a marshland mote: a particle of dust palfrey: a riding horse wor: dialect our 1. Why are the scholars Alan and John angry with the miller? John and Alan’s plan to extract their fair share of flour fails when the notoriously dishonest miller sets their horse loose. They leave to retrieve the horse, and by the time they return, the miller... (The entire section is 480 words.) Hodge: a nickname for Roger prentice: an apprentice publican: a tavern owner 1. What reason does the master give for firing his apprentice, Revelling Peterkin? Peter is a “riotous servant,” and the master fears he will corrupt the other servants. The master arrives at this decision by remembering a version of the familiar proverb, “Throw out a rotten apple from the hoard / Or it will rot the others.” 2. Where does Peter go after being fired? He goes to stay with a similarly merry friend whose wife is a prostitute. 3. What does the tale... (The entire section is 242 words.) citadel: a fortress that commands a city; a stronghold fete: French to celebrate penance: self-punishment undertaken to purify sin or guilt pithy: brief but full of meaning rend: to rip thrall: one who is in bondage 1. What must the Sultan of Syria do in order to marry Constance? How does Constance feel about leaving Rome for Syria? The Muslim Sultan must convert to... (The entire section is 433 words.) countenance: behavior, demeanor effusive: overflowing in emotion or affection plight: to pledge repair: to go, to take oneself requite: to repay sumptuous: expensive, magnificent thither: archaic there tonsure: the shaven crown or patch worn by monks and other clerics 1. Where does Sir John get the money he gives to the merchant’s wife? What does he get in return? (The entire section is 449 words.) bier: a stand on which a corpse is placed before burial canticle: a hymn chorister: a member of a choir comrade: a friend diligence: persistent work Herod: an ancient king of Judaea O Alma Redemptoris: Latin O Redemptive Soul privy-drain: a sewer prostrate: lying face down reverence: deep respect, worship throng: a crowd usury: moneylending with very high interest vouchsafe: to grant a privilege or special favor in a gracious or condescending manner 1. Rhyme royal, the rhyme... (The entire section is 590 words.) bower: a lady’s private rooms, boudoir for the nonce: indeed hauberk: a piece of armor worn like a tunic swain: a country youth, a young lover or suitor 1. Describe Sir Topaz. Whom is he in love with? Sir Topaz is a handsome and virtuous knight. After hearing some particularly melodious birdsong, he dreams of an Elf Queen who will be his bride. He vows to make the dream a reality because no other women are worthy of him. 2. Why does the Host interrupt The Tale of Sir Topaz?... (The entire section is 218 words.) annunciation: an announcement assail: to attack diadem: a crown distaff: a tool for spinning fleece into wool knave: a man of low character magnanimity: generosity of spirit quern: a small hand-mill for grinding corn 1. Before beginning his first tragedy, the Monk states the moral of the stories to follow. What does he say? The monk says, “For sure it is, if Fortune... (The entire section is 326 words.) Words of the Knight and the Host, The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, and Words of the Host to the Nun’s Priest altercation: a noisy, angry dispute apoplexy: sudden physical impairment debonair: archaic gracious, pleasant derision: scorn, mockery forsooth: archaic truly implore: to beg mulier est hominus confusio: Latin “woman is man’s ruin” poltroon: a coward ravish: to rob; to destroy repletion: being full of food sycophant: a flatterer, a toady (The entire section is 548 words.) ashen: whitish grey Bacchus: Roman mythology god of wine blackguard: a villain clemency: leniency, mercy forsake: to give up, renounce, or abandon intemperance: lack of self-restraint Pallas: Greek mythology Pallas Athena, goddess of wisdom panacea: a remedy Phoebus: Roman mythology god of light ribaldry: debauchery, lewd behavior shamefast: shy, modest sterling: thoroughly excellent 1. Describe the many virtues of Virginius’s... (The entire section is 486 words.) acquit: to free bull: a sealed document issued by the Pope florin: a gold coin haughty: grand, lofty papal: of or relating to a pope parley: to debate perdition: utter ruin prating: foolish talking or preaching Radix malorum est cupiditas: Latin (literal translation) “the root of evil is greed”; (more common translation) “the love of money is the root of all evil” shrive: to offer a church-sanctioned pardon for sin stertorous: characterized by snoring stile: steps to allow people to pass over a livestock fence (The entire section is 440 words.) annexed: attached, associated bequeath: archaic speak about bigamy: marriage with a second spouse when already married calumniate: to slander, to speak against dejected: discouraged, depressed demur: to raise doubts, to hesitate or show reluctance dilection: spiritual love expound: to explain in detail incubus: an evil spirit who attacks women mead: a meadow pestilence: a fatal disease, a plague propagation: production of offspring provident: psychic (in context) rail: to complain rebuke: to scold... (The entire section is 945 words.) bailiff: a man who manages a lord’s estate and collects rent bawd: archaic one who arranges opportunity for sexual immorality bawdry: archaic the business of arranging opportunity for sexual immorality extortion: taking money by illegal use of force, authority, or threat limiter: a friar licensed by the church to beg within a certain geographical area ordinand: a person about to be ordained as clergy retinue: an entourage scoff: to mock, to ridicule simony: bribery within the church slough: a muddy area (The entire section is 447 words.) cavil: to find fault without good reason curate: a clergyman fie: an exclamation of disgust gloze: archaic to talk smoothly, to flatter guerdon: a reward je vous dis sans doute: French “I tell you without a doubt” orison: a prayer potentate: a ruler rout: a group, a pack scrip: a beggar’s purse spoor: a trail, a track supplication: a plea tabor: a small drum varlet: an attendant, a servant 1. In The Summoner’s Tale, what does the friar write on his wax-covered tablet... (The entire section is 412 words.) abstruse: difficult to understand acquiesce: to agree adversity: a hardship assay: to test, to try besot: to stupefy, to make dull or stupid buffet: a blow or strike, usually of the hand caprice: a change of mind without sufficient reason changeful: sparkling (in context) coronet: a small crown defray: to pay deputation: a group of people sent on a mission on behalf of someone else legion: a multitude, a large number rancor/rancour: deep resentment... (The entire section is 509 words.) billet-doux: a love letter convivial: festive; pertaining to a feast cordial: a sweetened alcoholic beverage derision: scorn, mockery disport: archaic amusement, relaxation eschew: to avoid fettered: bound, limited, hampered laity: lay people (not clergy) pedant: overly academic person Pluto: Greek mythology god of the underworld qualms: pangs, sudden feelings sum: summarize (in context) superlative: utmost, highest degree (The entire section is 582 words.) canticle: a hymn caracole: a half turn to the right or the left by a horse courser: a powerful horse dissimulation: the act of lying emulous: motivated by rivalry feign: to fake, to pretend gossamer: fine cobwebs that float in the air insinuation: subtle instilling of anything into the mind sepulchre: a tomb sophistry: trickery, false reasoning stationary: still, unmoving steed: a male horse, a stallion tercelet: a male hawk (The entire section is 308 words.) beseech: to beg earnestly betwixt: archaic between conjouror: a magician covenant: an agreement, a contract graft: cultivated trees hoodwink: to trick mead: a meadow pleach: interwoven tree branches proffer: to offer roundel and virelay: types of song soothed: confirmed, proved troth: archaic loyalty (The entire section is 465 words.) abjure: to renounce boon: archaic a request, a prayer cloister: an enclosed place coronal: a circlet for the head implying rank or dignity dispel: to scatter hallow: to make holy idleness: inactivity, avoidance of work Interpretatio Nominis Ceciliae: Latin interpretation of the name Cecilia inured: accustomed, used to something Invocacio ad Mariam: Latin invocation of Mary Jove: Roman mythology Jupiter, king of the gods (The entire section is 476 words.) amalgaming: mixing with mercury beechen: made of wood from the beech tree Benedicite: an exclamation of surprise, “Good Gracious!” calcination: the process of reducing a substance to powder using fire canon: a clergyman cozen: to cheat, to defraud crupper: hindquarters of a horse daub: to coat or to cover (often with clay) disabuse: to free from error or misconception dock-leaf: a plant used medicinally enumerate: to list, to count gull: a fool hack: a low-quality or worn-out horse hose: pants, tights ignotum per ignotius: Latin “the unknown by the more unknown” (refers to... (The entire section is 558 words.) arrant: wandering, vagrant assuage: to calm, to pacify, to relieve blear the eyes: to deceive broach: to begin discussion about cavalry: horsemanship (in context) compass: to achieve, to bring about imbecility: mental incompetence paladin: a heroic knight pallid: pale in color plumb: to have sex with (in context) psaltery: an ancient stringed instrument punk: archaic a prostitute unwieldy: awkward to handle wreak: to bring about, to cause 1. In The Prologue to The Manciple’s Tale, what... (The entire section is 741 words.) bale: a bundle bewail: to express sorrow audibly, to make a mournful cry castigation: correction, criticism cavalcade: a procession on horseback enditings: archaic writings homily: a sermon Paternoster: a prayer 1. What is the theme of The Parson’s Tale? Why is it appropriate that The Parson’s Tale is the last tale to be told before the pilgrims reach Canterbury? The Parson’s sermon concerns sin and its remedies for the purpose of religious salvation. After many tales differing in tone and topic, the solemn religious theme emphasizes the purpose of... (The entire section is 425 words.) 1. Why are the characters in The Canterbury Tales traveling to Canterbury? A. To visit the queen. B. To escape legal trouble. C. To attend a wedding. D. To make a religious pilgrimage. E. To act in a theater. 2. Which of the following is NOT a character introduced by the narrator in the Prologue? 3. What does the tavern host suggest as entertainment for the journey to Canterbury? A. wine drinking B. a horse race... (The entire section is 1295 words.) 1. A fabliau is a type of irreverent comic tale, with elements of trickery and vulgarity, written about common people rather than the aristocracy. Explain how The Miller’s Tale and The Reeve’s Tale fit the fabliau genre. Who are the heroes and the fools? How is justice done, and how does it differ in the two tales? Both The Miller’s Tale and The Reeve’s Tale portray tradesmen who are outsmarted and cuckolded by poorer, younger men of learning. Each tale includes the hallmark elements of fabliau: tricksters, fools, and bawdy subject matter. In The Miller’s Tale, Nicholas and Alison are the trickster-heroes. They conspire against Alison’s husband John to enable their illicit tryst. To amuse... (The entire section is 3415 words.)

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Steps for this task: First I tapped out their knowledge about leprechauns, then read them a few picture books over a few days. Second I asked the kids to tell me everything they knew about leprechauns. On a chart I recorded vocabulary that they generated. Even though most American kids understand that leprechauns are tiny fairies from Ireland who keep a pot of gold hidden, it's important to have a discussion. For example, most of my students did not know that leprechauns earned their gold coins from working as cobblers for the fairies. Nor did they know that leprechauns could never lie and this was why they've come up with inventive ways to trick people. A word bank of relevant vocabulary is not only extremely valuable for non native English speakers, it also provides an anchor for less confident writers. Third I displayed my chart which lists 5 essential components of a story: 1. An entertaining beginning 2. Describe the setting 3. Build suspense 4. Frame by frame of the problem 5. Solving the problem After all these months of teaching the steps on this chart the kids are quite familiar with them. Fourth I explained the task. Write a story that features a leprechaun. You'll do a first draft today. Tomorrow you will revise the story using the steps we've learned, and then you will write a final draft of the story. My Two Cents on Creative Writing The buzz all around is Common Core Standards and teachers are swiveling toward non fiction, more opinion based writing. I agree that when kids graduate out of school they should be equipped to formulate arguments and support their positions on a variety of topics. My students write in their journals a few times a week, most of which is expository. Here, the emphasis is on content rather than delivery. While it is important to encourage kids to express their opinions in coherent writing, we should not hastily throw out the baby with the bathwater. I feel strongly that to teach effective writing strategies, creative writing offers the ideal forum. Coming up with a plot and figuring out how all the events will flow requires intense concentration. Students go through a complete thought process for an appreciable length of time. This is also an opportunity to experiment with new vocabulary and channel thoughts into grammatical sentences. In exercising their imagination and expanding their thinking kids are strengthening skills for application later in their lives. Finally, kids learn to write strong sentences and use paragraphs in an enjoyable fashion. These skills will transfer to those expository pieces expected in future years. My students were thoroughly excited about the writing task right from the beginning. I'm very proud to share a few stories from this assignment which appear below. Notice the experimentation in their styles, vocabulary, and description. It is really important for the teacher to notice and praise the strengths, and to overlook a lot of the mistakes. It's normal for beginning writers to have inaccuracies. These stories are from 9 year olds and I think they are incredible. Beyond the streets and over the hills in a little valley in Ireland was a little cottage. In this cottage there lived a girl named Annie. She lived with her brother, James and her aunt. They owed a rather tiny piece of land but apple trees and golden and green apple trees and golden and green grass stretch forever around them. Everyday Annie would go picking apples and would root the potatoes. She did this because you would have to if you don’t have a store for miles away. Her favorite thing though was to read about or look for leprechauns. She would look by every brook and hollow log. She would look in holes big and small and stumps short and tall. One day though she forgot how her aunt said to stay close. She got carried away and went farther than her limit. She thought to her self, “I’ve never been here before.” Well she wasn’t alone. She saw a trail of smoke drifting in the air. As she got close she could see a tiny little chimney popping out of the hill with a weathered tiny door. It was a built into the hill. She got closer. She kneeled down and to her surprise it said clearly printed, “Leprechauns present.” She rang the little bell. Nobody answered. So she just opened it. She had to crawl because of the tiny size. It was so dark though but there was a glimpse of light at the end. Then a thing of dust got in her eye. She took her hand to feel things when it brushed on some hair. Then she moved her hand down. Just then the dust came put. She opened her eyes. “Agghh! Agghh!” They both screamed. “Are you a leprechaun?” she asked. He rang his bell on the tip of his hap, “Jolly good. Follow me over here.” Annie did as she was told. He led her to the light. Right there was an entire town full of leprechauns. There was a rainbow, and little shops a field of clovers and of course much more. There were flowers with nuggets of the finest gold and grass as green as scattered emeralds. Then something caught her eye. In front of them was a beautiful tree dangled with crisp, shiny, ruby red apples. They had golden pits. “I suppose I must give you my gold,” said the leprechaun. “No!” Annie interrupted. “How about one of those apples?” The leprechaun grinned and gladly gave her an apple. “Come back, but don’t tell anyone were here.” She crawled through the cave and exited they tiny wooden door. When she got back she showed her aunt the apple. “Where did you get that?” her aunt asked. Annie was not prepared for this. She said, “From a new tree I found.” So that answered her aunt’s question. Now she could just go there whenever she wanted hopefully her aunt would stay that way. So she did. Everyday she would go see them and bring back one apple. They stayed friends forever and favored each other. The Night Before St. Patrick’s Day Tap, tap, tap. I was lying in bed listening. There it went again. It was the night before St. Patrick’s Day. It must be leprechauns, I thought. Slowly and silently I slipped out of bed. Slowly and silently I tip toed down the stairs. Half way down my mouth dropped open. My body froze. I almost screamed. No it couldn’t be, but it was. There in the middle of my living room were dozens and dozens of leprechauns. Tap, tap, tap. Now I could hear very clearly. Silently I tiptoed down the rest of the stairs. Slowly I approached on of the leprechauns. “Hello, “ I whispered. “My name is Sophie. I won’t hurt you. Just tell me what you’re doing.” “We are digging up our pots of gold to take to the end of the rainbow,” he answered without looking up. “My name is Bob.” Then he and the other leprechauns left. I tiptoed after them. Very soon we reached the end of a spectacular rainbow. “We must go to the other side,” Bob said. “Why?” I asked. “Because we must never bury treasure unless we are in Ireland,” he answered. He climbed onto the rainbow an offered his hand to me. Though I took it, it didn’t do much because he was so much smaller than me. I climbed on after him and the other leprechauns climbed on after me. Soon we reached the very top of the rainbow. Under our feet was the most amazing mat of colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple. Above our heads the stars shimmered and danced. The moon smiled down on us, lighting up the world. Down below the world was asleep. I dozed with it. Just then Bob let out a horrifying shriek. I woke up. Bob’s full to the top pot of gold was now falling quickly to the Earth. “Can you fly?” I asked. “No!” he answered in a panic. “Only the king and queen can fly.” Suddenly I had an idea. When I had gotten out of bed I had wrapped my blanket around me. The leprechauns worked some magic and the blanket could now be used as a parachute. I grabbed Bob, put him in my pocket and we began our long fall to earth. When we got there we were surprised to see we were at the end of the rainbow. There propped up neatly on a rock was Bob’s pot of gold. Not one coin had been lost. I helped Bob bury the pot. Then he worked a spell. I was swept away in a blur of green. Then, plop, I landed warm and safe in my very own bed. When I leaned over to check the time it was 6:30, the time I had left. There was a beautiful charm bracelet with a leprechaun who looked like Bob and lots of clover leaves. When I put it on, it was like I had a touch of magic in me. That morning I tried to tell my parents and sister but they just said I had a big imagination. So my adventure on the rainbow still remains my secret. When I was walking on a trail in March, I found a sign. It was in the ground. It said: Beware of some Lepre. The rest of the sign was covered in dirt. I picked it up. The last part was broken off. Then I saw something green move fast. It looked like a tiny man. There were two of them. Their footprints were green. They were leprechauns! Another sign appeared. On it in tiny letters were: Solve the riddle. I picked up the sign. On the last word chaun was added. I solved the riddle! I put the sign in my knapsack and followed the leprechauns. Their names were, and still are, Lucky and Cheeky. They led me to a gate. On a sign it said, “Private Property. DO NOT ENTER.” I found a key. It opened the gate. There was a 3-headed dragon and a phoenix firebird. They chased us to a cave filled with werewolves. Lucky and Cheeky gave them some meat. We captured one and named him Lightening. We dashed up to a glacier. It came to be a sinkhole. We were caught in a bullet train. We traveled until we came to a station. There was a party. The leprechauns saw their arch-enemy. He was a black elf named Darkness. He saw them and started running. We followed him, grabbing some silver. He liked silver. We threw it into the werewolf cave. That was the end of him. The leprechauns turned into constellations. My New Leprechaun Family A beige sun set over the mountains of Flockenville, a very small village in Ireland. Only twenty families lived in Flockenville. I was sent into the forest to get firewood. By the way, I am Carter. So I aimed my ax and chop, chop, chop! Out came a leprechaun. He said, “Ooo, I’ll take you to my pot of gold.” And across the river were hundreds, perhaps thousands of pots full of gold. But I had to ford the river. SPLASH! I was in the water heading towards a waterfall! Splash! I fell in and all that was left was me and my jack-knife. My ax was too heavy to float down. It took me hours to cut down a tree with a jack knife. I started a fire and when it got going the light attracted an old couple. They managed to make a house and adopt me. It was a nice house. My favorite part was the warm fireplace. Also the warm beds. I got an allowance for chopping down trees. Then one day, years later, I was fit and ready for my adventure home. I ran into more leprechauns. They turned me into a leprechaun! I tried to push the guy off a cliff and into my fire, but I was too small. So, they adopted me. I kept trying to turn myself back into a human, but I dealt with it and had family time with my new leprechaun family. St. Patrick’s Day Story By Lea Pynn The sun was coming up as the moon went down. It shot through Emily’s curtains. She lifted the sheet over her head. She couldn’t take it. She got up and went downstairs. Her mom was making pancakes for breakfast. She only made pancakes on special occasions. Today was a special occasion. Today was Saint Patrick’s Day! Emily’s family lived in a beautiful place called Ireland. Her mom’s name was Jan and her dad’s name was Jefferson. Emily always wanted to see a leprechaun. When she could see a leprechaun she would ask, “Do you have any gold?” One day her mom sent her out to get some firewood. She tripped over a log, dropped her firewood, and tumbled down a dark hole. When her eyes opened she was in a world with giant plants. Emily looked down. She wasn’t wearing her white dress anymore. She had a green shirt, green pants, a black hat, black shoes, and her hair was loose instead of in braids. When she looked back, the hole was covered with weeds, leaves, grass, and dead flowers. The people of the village were running around like crazy. When all the people were gone Emily went to a little Irishman sitting on a tree stump. “Why is everything so big and why am I so little?” she asked. He said, “A pleasant hello would be grand.” “Sorry,” said Emily. “Better. My name is Ton, and you’re a leprechaun.” “WHAT?” she yelled. “Yes. We do not like people going near our village. We put the log there to make you tumble down our hole. Whenever someone goes into Leprechaun Village they turn into leprechauns,” said Ton. “That is actually kind of spectacular, “ Emily said. “Would you like to see what it is like to be a leprechaun?” Ton asked. “Sure I would!” The first place they went to was a clear pond full of ducks. They climbed up plants, rested on flower petals, and rode ducks. The next hour they went to a meadow. Ton and Emily ran off to the woods. They tried to climb trees, but it was hard. “My mom said the latest I can be gone is sunset, “ Emily said. “I’ll let you go off. Just remember never come near this hole again.” Emily was shot out of Leprechaun Village. She had braids, her white dress, and her Converse shoes on. She grabbed her firewood and ran home. Her mom was very happy to see her and very worried. Her mom said her dinner was on the table. When Emily fell asleep Ton was in her house. He crept into her room. This is what he whispered in her ear, “Didn’t we have a grand time?” A St. Patrick’s Day Story My story starts in Ireland in the middle of the mountains in a little house. In that house there lived a little man who was 12 inches tall and always wore the color green. This little man was what we call a leprechaun. Now this leprechaun was hiding his pot of gold when a big net snatched him and his pot of gold. The leprechaun said, “Please let me go! I haven’t hidden my pot of gold yet! Come and snatch me up tomorrow when I have hidden my pot of gold!” The man whose name was Tom said “Or. But you have to be in this exact spot OR.” “OR,” said the leprechaun. The leprechaun quickly hid his pot of gold. Then he walked to his house and went to bed. There was only one problem. Tom was hiding behind a tree. When the leprechaun was gone he went home, got his shovel, and came back and dug up the pot of gold. Then Tom took the pot of gold home. The next day Tom came back to the exact spot he last caught the leprechaun. He waited all day, then the leprechaun finally came. Tom scooped him up in the big net. “Where is you pot of gold?” “My pot of gold is inside the cherry tree,” said the leprechaun. Tom looked inside the cherry tree, but of course, nothing was there. Then Tom said, “Where’s the pot of gold?” “It’s not there. Someone must have stolen it.” While the leprechaun was looking for his pot of gold frantically, Tom ran home and never ever told anyone what happened that day. A Leprechaun Named Izzy Long ago there lived a leprechaun named Izzy. Izzy ran away from home and was all alone in the woods. One day she met a very kind girl named Jenny. They met while Jenny was on vacation. Their vacation was at a cabin in the woods. Jenny went for a walk in the woods. She started to hear strange sounds. She also saw a bush shaking. She started to walk faster. Later she saw something green. She wondered what it was and then she thought it must be a leprechaun. Jenny ran home and got her leprechaun trap. When she came back the leprechaun was still there so Jenny trapped the leprechaun and took him back home. When they got home Jenny put the leprechaun in a cage. Jenny saw he was scared and said, “Don’t be scared. What’s your name?” The leprechaun said, “My name is Izzy.” The girl said, “My name is Jenny and we’re going to be the best of friends. If you promise you will not slip away from me and run away, I will let you out of the cage.” Jenny opened the cage and took Izzy out. Izzy ran out of the cage. Then he said, “I am hungry.” Jenny said, “Well, what do you want?” “Do you have any potatoes? Leprechauns love potatoes.” They both then said goodbye. “I had the best day ever!” Jessica Hall exclaimed. “Why?” asked her mother, Mrs. Hall. “The sixth grade is going to Ireland next month!” That month passed quickly. Before Jessica knew it, she was on the plane. When she found her seat she felt a pinch and almost screamed. She was so shocked to see what she saw. A strange quiet voice, almost a whisper, said, “Hello girly, my name is Lucky, the Leprechaun.” Jessica thought, That was supposed to make me feel better but it didn’t. After all it’s not every day that a girl sees a leprechaun. “Why aren’t you in Ireland?” she asked forgetting where the plane was heading. “You forgetful little girly,” Lucky replied. Quickly Jessica picked up Lucky and put him in her carry on. For the rest of the plane ride she slept. When she woke up the plane was landing. She grabbed her carry on and Lucky was still there. She sighed with relief. She turned for a split second and he was gone. She looked around the plane but it was too late. She realized that this was Lucky’s home and she trusted him to walk around. She left with her class to go to the hotel.When she got there, sitting on her bed, was Lucky and twenty other leprechauns. Jessica’s jaw dropped. Lucky saw this so he quickly said, “You shoved me into your suitcase which means you invited me and my whole family to stay with you.” “Well then,” replied Jessica. All of a sudden they started thrashing about. They tore up the pillows and white, fluffy feathers flew around the room. The wool comforter was torn and spread out all over the room. Jessica yelled, “WHAT ARE YOU DOING?” The leprechauns all got a sad look on their faces. “Well anyway I found you, Lucky. Now where is your pot of gold?” Jessica asked after a long silent moment. “Oh, don’t you know that was the olden times that we did that? This is modern times,” replied Lucky. Jessica now was in a bad mood. She wanted to get rid of the leprechauns. It was the last day of the trip. The leprechauns were still there. She felt so powerless around them. Whenever she said something they always put on those sad faces. Jessica packed her bags. While she was packing she realized why she could never manage to tell them to leave. She had grown to love them. When they weren’t looking, she slipped out the door. On the ride back she felt sad and lonely. She wished Lucky were sitting next to her. When she got home she lugged her bag into her room and lay down. Years past and everyday she thought about him. She had a sixth grade daughter named Jessie. One day Jessie came home and said, “The sixth grade is going to Ireland.” On the plane she felt a pinch. “Hello, my name is Lucky Jr.,” said a small voice. Jessie picked him up and put him in her carry on. Chubby, the Leprechaun Chubby was a big leprechaun. His name was perfect for him because he was chubby. He lived in LGSG city. Chubby was poor. He kept his only $2,000,000 in the bank. ($2,000,000 is not that money for a leprechaun.) One day an evil wizard named Zurvak, who wore a vicious looking blood-red cloak, came flying to LGST city on his ghost chariot pulled by two dead ghostly dragons. His chariot shot out millions of ghosts who broke apart the city prison. All the evil wizards of the world escaped. That night Chubby couldn’t sleep. He was worried about the evil wizards. Then he saw light. He looked out the window. He fell over. The evil wizards were shooting spells at the bank! KABLOOM! It fell over in pieces. Then a huge crate, probably 500 miles high, dropped down on a rope. It opened. The evil wizards shot a spell and all the gold that had been in the bank flew up and fell into the crate. It was Zurvak’s ghost chariot! It flew away with all the gold, followed by the evil wizards. Chubby rushed downstairs. He saw police cars and jumped into one. “Thanks,” he yelled, throwing a pound of gold at a policeman. Soon he came to a desert and his car stopped. “The worst time to run out of gas!” he said. About a mile away he saw a huge cactus. After an hour he came to it. He saw a little rectangular shaped door. He kicked it and it fell over! He walked inside and overheard the wizards having a meeting. “Whoever is first to destroy this planet gets to be in charge,” said Zurvak. Zurvak and the others ran in different directions. Zurvak ran into a catapult. Just as he was about to crush it, Chubby catapulted him to space. The other wizards held a meeting behind the huge cactus. “Now that Zurvak is gone I get to be ruler!” shouted a wizard named Donjatv. Up in space Zurvak threw a spear at Earth. It hit the huge cactus. The cactus fell over crushing the other wizards. Zurvak flew away looking back, laughing at Earth. But before he could turn to look ahead, a meteorite hit him. He fell down, down, down, never to be seen again. Everybody got their gold back. Everyone thanked Chubby. The Leprechaun’s Rainbow In a place called Ireland lived a girl named Emma. Emma had blond hair and blue eyes. One morning Emma woke up. She went outside and lay down and looked at the sky. She saw a beautiful rainbow. When she got up she saw a bush shaking and a strange shadow. “What could it be?” said Emma. It was a leprechaun named Ella. Ella said, “Please don’t hurt me. I don’t know who you are,” said Emma. “You don’t know who I am?” said Ella.” “No, I don’t,” said Emma. “Well, I am a leprechaun. I came from a town called The World of Leprechauns,” said Ella. “That is a beautiful name,” said Emma. “Why are you here?” asked Emma. “I came to collect berries because in our town there aren’t any berries and if we don’t eat, rainbows won’t appear,” said Ella. “You control rainbows?” asked Emma. “Yes, you didn’t know?” “No I didn’t.” “We leprechauns eat different colored berries so we can make the rainbows. I am dressed in blue because I made the color blue in rainbows. Four other leprechauns are with me because they make the other colors of the rainbow. Do you want to meet them? They’re behind the bush.” “All right,” said Emma. The four leprechauns came out from the bush. The one dressed in orange was Patrick, the one in red was Sally, the one in green was Alex, and the one in yellow was May. “We all eat berries. Do you eat berries?” asked Ella. “Of course I do. They are my favorite snack,” said Emma. Ella said, “May we have some berries?” “Of course. Take as many as you need. You may come whenever you want.” “Thank you very much. You are a good friend.” The Young Leprechaun A long time ago there was a young boy named Mike. He had curly, blonde hair and his eyes were as blue as the sea. His skin was peach with a hint of brown. Mike’s family was poor. He lived with is mom and sister. His father died before he was born. Mike and his family lived in a little cottage in the middle of the woods. The cottage had only one room. He shared a room with his sister. His mom slept alone. One day when Mike went out to plant some tomato seeds he saw a shadow. A bush shook. Then he saw something climbing up a tree. Mike froze in his tracks. He said to himself, “Could it be?” When he went behind the bush he almost fainted. He saw a leprechaun. He couldn’t say a word. Mike asked in a shaky voice, “What is your name?” The leprechaun answered, “Coral.” Mike fainted. When Mike woke up he thought it was just a dream. He got dressed and went outside. Right at that moment he saw Coral. Coral said, “Hello. I want to tell you about myself.” I was born by the ocean side. I didn’t have any parents with me. I almost got sucked up by the ocean. Someone had come to save me. I remember it as being a wizard. Then I was brought here to these bushes. That’s my story. “Okay,” said Mike. Now I, the writer, will tell you what Coral looked like. She had blue, curly hair. Her eyes were as brown as dirt. Her skin was peach. The next day Mike woke up and looked for Coral. She wasn’t there but there was a message. It said: I’ve been stolen. Please come and save me. I lie hidden by the sea. After Mike read this letter he rushed over to the sea. He looked all over for Coral. Then, in the shadows of the ocean he saw green. He said to himself, “That must be Coral.” He picked her up. Next Coral said, “I will turn you into a leprechaun.” Zap! Mike was a leprechaun. The very next day Mike and Coral got married.

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Learning With Gardner: Valued Intelligence and Implications for Education Michael Stier, Christopher Miller, & Jacqueline Diggs This study considered the concept of multiple intelligences to assess perceived valued intellect esteemed by society and the influence an individual's area of study on intelligence. A convenience sample of participants (N = 82) was selected from classes and popular areas at a small liberal arts university located in the Midwest. Results demonstrated a statistical difference for the individual's most valued type of intelligence based on the individual's strongest type. However, the hypotheses predicting the most valued and least valued intelligence type by society as well as by the individual were not supported. Since we all possess different intelligences, possible implications include a more effective method for differentiated instruction as well as maximize creativity, motivation, and intelligence in students. Howard Gardner was born in July of 1943 in Scranton, Pennsylvania to Jewish parents that migrated from Germany a year before World War II. He attended college at Harvard University to study history in preparation for a career in law. After studying with prestigious individuals such as Erik Erikson, Jerome Bruner, and David Riesman, Gardner made the decision to investigate human nature and the psychology of human cognition. Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting.' Gardner's initial list of intelligences as described in his book, Frames of Mind of 1983, included seven types. The first two, linguistic and logical-mathematical, are typically valued within the school system. Musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and spatial are intelligences associated with the arts. The final two, interpersonal and intrapersonal, were referred to by Gardner as 'personal intelligences.' Gardner meant for the intelligences to work cooperatively in order for the individual to develop skills or to solve problems. In terms of education, Gardner's objective was to provide instructors with seven ways to teach a topic as opposed to just one. Subsequent research by Gardner added three new intelligences: naturalist, spiritual, and existential to his original seven. For the purposes of this experiment, the researchers examined Gardner's eight central intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial-visual, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Linguistic intelligence refers to words and language, both spoken and written. People with high linguistic intelligence display exceptional skills in reading, writing, acquiring foreign language, and storytelling. Linguistically oriented learners often think in words and are best taught by reading, taking notes, listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. Individuals with high linguistic intelligence enjoy word puzzles, writing poetry or stories, and reading. Occupations that reflect superior linguistic intelligence include: authors, public speakers, journalists, lawyers, teachers, and politicians. Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to reasoning, logic, numbers, and investigate questions scientifically. Logical-mathematical learners detect patterns, experiment, utilize complex calculations, excel at traditional IQ tests, and exercise deductive reasoning. People displaying high logical-mathematical intellect enjoy computer programming, chess, and Sudoku or other logic games. Occupations that reflect advanced logical-mathematical intelligence include: mathematicians, engineers, scientists, doctors, and economists. Musical intelligence refers to music, rhythm, and sound. Individuals with high musical intelligence display sensitivity to sounds and rhythmic patterns, capacity to recognize pitches and tones, and can exhibit excellence in singing and/or instrumental performance. Students with prominent musical intelligence learn in lecture settings best because musical intelligence has a strong auditory component involved. Individuals with superior musical intelligence may create a song, rhythm, rhyme, or lyrics to help learn new information or to commit information into their memory. Gardner adds that this particular intelligence is structurally related to linguistic intelligence. Occupations that reflect a high musical intelligence include: musicians- both vocal and instrumental, conductors, and composers. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence refers to an acute sense of bodily awareness and its function in problem solving or in discovering new things. Individuals with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are typically highly athletic and work well with their hands. Students with superior bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are exceedingly tactile in terms of learning and will benefit best from education if they are allowed to build/create something as opposed to simply hearing about an object. Occupations that best suit individuals with an advanced bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include: professional athletes, dancers, surgeons, builders, and soldiers. Spatial-Visual intelligence refers to an enhanced awareness of an individual's physical space or environment. Individuals with a high spatial-visual intellect can easily interpret and comprehend cartography, and enjoy drawing, sketching, and three-dimensional modeling. Students with exceptional spatial-visual orientation learn best through verbal imagery, charts, graphs, photographs, drawings/paintings, and video. Occupations that accompany accomplished spatial-visual intelligence include: architects, artists, photographers, cartographers, sailors, and video game designers. Interpersonal intelligence refers to an exceptional capacity to interpret and comprehend the intentions, impulses, and needs of others. Individuals with high interpersonal intelligence work efficiently and cooperatively with others, possess sensitivity to the feelings and temperaments of others, and can easily empathize with others. Students with interpersonal intelligence are best taught through interaction and group activities. Individuals with a well-developed interpersonal intelligence typically learn better through open discussions and debate. Occupations that reflect a superior level of interpersonal intelligence include interactive professions such as: psychologists, sales, politicians, educators, and religious leaders. Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the enhanced capacity for self- awareness and introspection. Individuals with superior intrapersonal intelligence have a keen sense of intuition, wisdom, and insight into their true emotions, motivations, aspirations, and fears. They are often excellent at predicting their own behavior in situations and can identify their own strengths and weaknesses. Students with high intrapersonal intelligence are typically introverted and work best independently. Therefore, intrapersonal learners perform well in independent study. Occupations that best reflect individuals with high intrapersonal intelligence include: philosophers, theologians, writers, and psychologists. Naturalistic intelligence refers to the individual's ability to distinguish, label, and classify specific features within the physical environment. Individuals with high naturalistic intelligence enjoy the outdoors, greatly appreciate national parks, look forward to watching the seasons change, love animals, and enjoy planting and maintaining gardens. Students with high naturalistic intelligence learn best when subjects can be related into real life or ecological situations. Occupations that reflect naturalistic intelligence include: farmers, hunters, ecologists, biologists, forest rangers, and naturalists. Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has been broadly accepted and utilized in classrooms worldwide. The world of education has welcomed Gardner's theory into their curriculum in an effort to better identify tools and methods to assist children in learning. Traditionally, schools utilize linguistic and logical-mathematical skills in teaching, learning, and most importantly, testing. Any aptitude test that a student takes in school incorporates knowledge based upon reading comprehension, vocabulary, and math skills. While many children have grown accustomed to learning in this particular way, there remains a small population of students who do not. Incorporating the eight different types of intelligence into the classroom can be easier than some think. For instance, David Thornburg of the Thornburg Institute explains how music can be incorporated into several avenues of learning: "The mood of a piece of music might communicate, clearer than words, the feeling of an era being studied in history. The exploration of rhythm can help some students understand fractions. The exploration of the sounds of an organ can lead to an understanding of vibrational modes in physics. What caused the great scientist Kepler to think of the motions of planets in musical terms? Astronomy students could program a synthesizer to play Kepler's 'music of the spheres' and explore history, science, math and music all at once." Moreover, utilizing Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences in the classroom can encourage creativity within its students. Students can also exhibit their strengths and attempt to identify their strengths within other subjects; thus, enabling students to increase their self-esteem. Conclusively, when educators 'teach for understanding,' their students will accrue positive learning experiences and may possess the skills to produce creative solutions to any problems that may occur in life. Although Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is one of the most widely accepted for validity and accuracy among proponents of multiple intelligence, other theorists such as Sternberg and Thurstone have developed their own ideas of intelligence. Sternberg posited a 'triarchic' theory of intelligence which was deemed to be more encompassing because it evaluated social and background factors apart from human capacity (Li, 1996). Sternberg indicated the theories that preceded his triarchic theory were not incorrect, however, they were merely incomplete; for instance, in comparison to Gardner's theory, Sternberg takes into account creative or musical intelligence but he also separated the remaining 6 categories of Gardner's theory into two categories named the analytical and practical. Analytical problems involve intelligence used for academic purposes or according to Neisser et al. (1996) (as cited by Paik, 1998): 'Analytic problems tend to have been formulated by other people, be clearly defined, come with all information needed to solve them, have only a single right answer, which can be reached by only a single method, be disembodied from ordinary experience, and have little or no intrinsic interest. Practical problems tend to require problem recognition and formulation, be poorly defined, require information seeking, have various acceptable solutions, be embedded in and require prior everyday experience, and require motivation and personal involvement.' If an individual could successfully solve one of these problems, then they would either have a high intelligence for analytical or practical problem solving. One of the reasons that Sternberg's theory has received positive remarks is because of the implications for real-life situations. For instance, Carraher, Carraher, & Schliemann (1985) found that in a sample of Brazilian street children that they were able to calculate mathematical calculations for business of the street, however, were unable to pass a math course at school; this finding indicates that the children were able to manage two types of intelligence on the same intelligence type. In addition to Gardner and Sternberg, Thurstone (1924) proposed that there is a biological function of intelligence to protect the intelligence to protect the organism from risk as well as satisfy the individual's needs using the least amount of effort. Furthermore, Guilford (1967) posited that intelligence was a structure of intellect that was composed of 4 contents, 5 operations, and 6 processes which make ups 120 combinations. In contrast to the previously described theories which advocate a view of intelligence which favors the notion of multiple forms existing, there are many opponents which instead argue for a single, general form of intelligence. From henceforth, these theories shall be referred to as 'general intelligence' theories. Intelligence researchers, including Spearman, Eysenck, and Jensen support such theoretical constructs which incorporate all types of intelligence into a single factor model. Spearman deemed this single factor the 'positive manifold.' For instance, research conducted by Eysenck supporting this notion found that a high correlation exists between IQ and simple cognitive tasks. Also, Spearman's discovery of the positive manifold or general intelligence factor (also known as 'g') also strengthens the evidence for a single factor model. This g factor was created out of the observation that the individual's test score were highly correlated even if the tasks were of differing nature. For instance, if an individual scores highly on a test of verbal skills, then that person is likely to do well on a test measuring another cognitive ability such as mathematics. In addition, the researchers found that this strong positive correlation between high-performance on cognitive tasks is not a product of test construction but of the individual's cognitive abilities or g (Paik, 1998). Additional findings which support the postulation that intelligence is a single factor are reported by Eysenck (1982). For instance, it was reported that reaction time is highly correlated with IQ. These tasks were so simple (pressing a button as a light comes on) that may more accurately be described as sensory and motor. Also, Eysenck suggests that these tests are not affected by gender, socioeconomic, cultural, or educational factors. Therefore, if such a measure portrays intelligence or g differences, intelligence is inborn and not cultivated due to environmental factors. In addition, this definition implies that IQ is directly related to information processing and the nervous system and brain operating with relatively no error (Eysenck, 1982). Furthermore, Jensen posits that faster reaction times are indicative of faster transmissions along neural pathways. It is therefore posited that neural processing speed determines IQ since IQ is correlated with reaction time; g may be processing speed. The behaviorist point of view, as presented by B.F. Skinner, likely opposes the idea of multiple intelligences as well. For instance, in the behaviorist point of view learning is based on reinforcement of behaviors and reactions to stimuli. In the traditional viewpoint, a behaviorist might support the notion that multiple intelligences and the related abilities are cultivated responses to the environmental factors in the individual's life. Also, if learning and behavior is viewed as a scientific, controllable phenomenon, then it is rational to suggest that Skinner's theory would predict that there is a single type of intelligence similar to Spearman, Eysenck, and Jensen. However, this single factor would likely differ from the 'g' concept explained above in that reinforcement might replace neural speed or positive manifold (Paik, 1998). The purpose of the current study is primarily twofold. First, it seeks to determine the attitudes and perceptions about the differing and multiple types of intelligence. It does so by asking the participant to rate which type is most valued by society and then which type is most valued personally. It is hypothesized that logical/mathematical abilities will be most frequently perceived as most valued by society and musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist intelligence will be perceived as least valued. Additionally, it is hypothesized that students will most value an intelligence type related to his/her area/s of study. The second focus of this study is to examine the frequency of each of the eight intelligence types. It is hypothesized that individuals will perceive the logical/mathematical intelligence type as being the most valued by American society as a whole. There are multiple reasons which support this notion. For instance, the American education system heavily emphasizes mathematic, logical, and reasoning skills. Also, college entrance and aptitude exams are based primarily on logical/mathematical skill in combination with reading ability. The SAT measures the mathematic and reading/vocabulary skills of individuals prior to embarking on their collegiate career; the ACT likewise measures individuals in a similar, yet varied, manner. However, both of these standard tests for high school students are based on a foundation of mathematics, logic, and reasoning. While the argument could be made that linguistic intelligence would be just as valued due to its significant representation on the aforementioned measures, the logical intelligence is not only present the mathematic section but also in reading comprehension and extrapolation. In addition, logical/mathematical abilities are lauded in all of the core areas of study in the traditional school system. Students are generally required to take mathematics, English or language arts, and science each year of study. Logical/mathematical intelligence is fostered in each of these subjects. In mathematics one learns arithmetic, algebra, and logical proofs; in English one learns to exercise reading comprehension skills and make inferences about information which is latent in the text; and science relies on the use of formulas and graphs. Furthermore, the grading system of schools is based on logical reasoning and therefore largely ignores additional forms of intelligences such as interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalistic. Society also shows favoritism for the logical/mathematical intelligence reflected in its identification of professions that appear more prestigious than others. For instance, physicians and lawyers, two of the most respected and sought after occupations, require an individual to possess superior abilities in mathematics and logical reasoning. Also, valuing mathematical and logical abilities might be explained by Rogers' ideal self and conditions of worth. Rogers posited that if society places more worth on one state being or quality ' in this instance logical intelligence ' then an individual will likely feel it is to be preferred over any alternatives. Essentially, by placing a higher value on one intelligence, the others might be demeaned; this preference creates a condition of worth for intelligence and potentially leads an individual to create an ideal self image which incorporates the logical/mathematical abilities. In addition, the value placed on this form of intellect appears to coincide with Vygotsky's notion of the importance and influence of the role of culture in development. By encouraging the use of such reasoning, the culture affects the perceptions and values of the individual and therefore may impact the development of one's talents and abilities. Additionally, it is hypothesized that participants will be more likely to choose the intelligence most related to their area of study ' namely their major ' as their most valued type. If an individual is choosing to dedicate such a significant portion of their time and abilities to pursue a more comprehensive knowledge of a topic, they might place a higher value on this area of ability. The one exception to this idea may be those individuals who did not choose a course of study based upon personal development or desire but of outside forces such as pressure from parents, family members, etc. The individual's perception of society's value of intelligence is measured by their responses to a predetermined choice pool of the eight types and the participant is asked to choose one type as most valued. Likewise, the personally most valued intelligence is measured in the same manner. In order for the participants to have an adequate understanding of all the types to make an informed decision of how to answer the questions, a brief explanation was printed on the questionnaire. Following these two questions is an inventory which is designed to determine which intelligence type the individual reports. For this study, 82 participants were administered the survey designed by the researcher. Participants included 36 men and 45 women with one additional participant not reporting gender. The age range of the participants is 18 to 34 years of age. The sample was one of convenience and was selected based on the students in the courses available to be surveyed. Additionally, surveys were distributed to students in popular campus areas such as the caf' and student lounges. These courses were of various disciplines in order to obtain a sample consisting of individuals with a varied educational background. Furthermore, the ethical principles according to the American Psychological Association were followed (American Psychological Association, 2002). The survey which was administered to the participants consists of demographic information, questions concerning which intelligence is most valued, and finally an inventory measuring the participant's strongest intelligence. The first portion of the survey is made of demographic information such as age, race/ethnicity, gender, and major/minor. Then, a description of each of the eight types of intelligences proposed by Gardner is provided for the participant to read. Following the descriptions, the individual is then asked to indicate which of the eight is most valued by society and then which of the eight they personally value the most. Additionally, the participants are asked to complete a shortened version of an inventory measuring the participant's strongest intelligence. See Appendix A to examine the survey used in this research. After pilot testing the original version of the survey, corrections were made, and the proposed experiment was sent to IRB for approval for ethical standards. Following the review and subsequent approval of the project, surveys were distributed as a convenience sample. Surveys were distributed at the beginning of the class period and participants were informed that participation is completely voluntary. After all the surveys were returned, the data was entered into SPSS and analyzed. To test the first hypothesis that logical/mathematical intelligence is perceived as most valuable to society, a frequency was used. To determine is musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist intelligences were perceived to be valued least by society, a frequency was utilized. To test the third hypothesis, individuals will most highly value an intelligence related to their area/s of study, a one-way ANOVA was conducted to test for any correlation between the two variables. Finally, a frequency was used in order to determine if Interpersonal intelligence is reported to be the highest developed form of intelligence more frequently than the other seven types. To test the first hypothesis that individuals perceive logical/mathematical intelligence as the most valued by society, the frequencies were calculated. It was found that individuals most frequently perceived linguistic (19) as most valued by society at 23.2%. The other types resulted in the following order: logical/mathematical had 16 (19.5%), musical had 0 (0.0%), bodily-kinesthetic had 9 (11.0%), spatial/visual had 1 (1.2%), Interpersonal had 18 (22%), Intrapersonal had 12 (14.6%), and naturalist had 2 (2.4%). To test the hypothesis that individuals perceive musical, bodily, and naturalist intelligences are perceived as the least valued by society, the frequencies were calculated. As stated above, these three were among the lowest valued. All three ranked in the lowest four; however, bodily-kinesthetic ranks slightly above spatial/visual and therefore does not fall in the lowest three. To test the hypothesis that a person's strongest intelligence affected their choice of which type they value most, a highest intelligence type by personal most valued type one-way ANOVA was performed. Results indicated a significant difference in most valued type based on the individuals strongest type, F (7, 76) = 3.21, p = .005. The frequencies of the personal most valued types are as follows: linguistic had 12 (14.6%), logical/mathematical had 10 (12.2%), musical had 2 (2.4%), bodily-kinesthetic had 6 (7.3%), spatial/visual had 3 (3.7%), Interpersonal had 24 (29.3%), Intrapersonal had 18 (22%), and naturalist had 2 (2.4%). To test the fourth hypothesis that interpersonal intelligence is the most common type among participants, the frequencies were calculated. The frequencies of the individuals' intelligence type are as follows: linguistic had 1 (1.2%), logical/mathematical had 6 (7.3%), musical had 10 (12.2%), bodily-kinesthetic had 8 (9.8%), spatial/visual had 0 (0.0%), Interpersonal had 9 (11.0%), Intrapersonal had 20 (24.4%), and naturalist had 9 (11.0%). This section will include several theories from Ellis, Adler, Horney, Dollard & Miller, Rogers, Bruner, Vygotsky, Super and Harkness, Frankl, Maslow, Erikson, Snygg & Combs, and Bandura. These 13 theories will discuss the results of our data collection and its implications about the individual and learning. Theory Analysis. There are many theorists that support the notion of the ability for one individual to have multiple intelligences which include Gardner, Sternberg, and Perkins. All of these theories explain how individuals can excel in certain types of intellect while not succeeding in other types. For instance, according to Gardner's categories of intellect, an individual may possess intelligence relating to mathematical and logical reasoning but have trouble composing or playing music. The inability to play music is not a deficit in the individual's personality, however, a function of the multiple intelligence construct. Conversely, it is important to note that individuals that attempt to or feel obligated to perform well in all aspects of multiple intellects may experience neurosis. For example, Albert Ellis indicates that individuals may have irrational thoughts that can cause or sustain neurosis; more specifically, he continues that an individual may feel the need to be competent, intelligent, and achieving in all possible respects which normally coincides with unconditional self-acceptance or statements such as 'I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless' (Ellis, 1994). As we examine the relationship between the most valued personal intelligence by the individual and the results from the assessment, it was concluded that there was a significant difference between the most valued trait the individual chose and the individual's highest intelligence. Although the connection between what an individual views as important and their assessment results seem logical, there are many theoretical insinuations about how the individual has acquired this desire, how the individual maintained motivation to continue to improve in their chosen intellectual area, and finally why the individual strives to the ultimate goal of competence. To begin, Adler posits that individuals are born with natural deficits, such as a lack of skill in writing, and as the individual grows older, he or she notices and attempts to improve this insufficiency to reduce feelings of inferiority. In comparison to Adler, Horney explains that individuals will continually search for intrapersonal flaws, or deficits, so then they can be overcome before anyone will notice the discrepancy. Additionally, Dollard and Miller explain for the course of change or improvement to commence, the individual must notice deficits that, even themselves, believe needs to be altered. From these above three theorists, they all hypothesize that an individual is born as an inferior being in some aspect and must notice this inferiority, disguise the difficulty so it is not visible to others, and finally construct a plan that will help them overcome this deficit. Furthermore, Snygg and Combs explains that learning takes place when meaningful information is extracted from the background of all intelligence which allows the individual to focus and concentrate on the chosen intelligence. In the current study, individuals have all chosen areas of intellect in which they excel which suggests that each individual, at one point, struggled with that specific trait and have 'pulled' this intelligence from the background. Furthermore and most critical, the data that was recorded for personal values and assessment value can be directly related to Roger's proposal of the ideal self and the real self. Taking into consideration that everyone presents a persona or fa'ade to some degree, it seems as though the ideal self can be accurately represented by the category that assesses the individual's personal value while the real self can be operationalized by the assessment itself. Individuals that were recorded seem to experience very little dissonance between the ideal and real self since significant differences were found. For example, if an individual indicated that they personally valued interpersonal relations, data supports that they are most likely to complete the assessment with results of strong interpersonal intelligence. Although how individual become interested and competent in intelligence can be explained by theorists such as Adler, Horney, and Rogers, it seems as though the motivation to continue to improve may be more behaviorally related. For instance, it is stated by Bruner that through the theory of learning, an individual will construct new ideas from what the individual has already learned; this building of intellect provides self-assurance and motivation to continue to learn. Bruner continues that as the individual becomes more motivated about the subject, improvements are no longer made as 'requirements' but as a personal satisfaction and thirst for knowledge. Additionally, it is also imperative to consider influences that are associated within the individual's environment as commonly associated with the theories of Vygotsky and Super and Harkness. Vygotsky indicated that when a task is given to a person that they cannot complete alone, possibly from an intellectual deficit, guidance is needed from a higher individual and the situation produces a zone of proximal development. For example, an individual may need help from a professor writing a paper, but this connection will overcome inferiority feelings of not being a competent writer and motivate them to want to continue to improve. Once this motivation is able to fully flourish and extrapolate it creates a developmental niche that an individual is engulfed within throughout their lifespan according to Super and Harkness. However, the current studies' results indicate no significant difference among majors in comparison to their assessment scores, or in other words, when examining the assessment scores for the type or types of intelligence an individual encompasses, the major which the person is seeking had little to no effect. Although this comparison was not significant, it can be logically rationalized through Frankl's view on meaning of life; Frankl states that when searching for meaning in life or actively searching for self-actualization, there are many different 'routes' a person can take. For instance, one individual may want to pursue a degree in medicine while another may want to seek a life in construction which can both provide framework for a meaningful life within the individual's own constructs. Now that the individual has identified the source of inferiority and has found motivating factors to develop a niche from which to operate, it can give an individual full freedom to live a self-actualized life. For instance, Rogers explains that a fully functioning person lives freely, creatively, openly in each moment, and is able to fully trust inner experiences to guide behavior, which suggests the exclusion of societal value influences. Moreover, Maslow introduced the term of self-actualization as a replacement for psychological health and comprises the full potential of a human being without the influence of environmental or cultural situations which self-actualized individuals did not 'adjust' to at the expense of their own character according to his theory of resistance to enculturation. However, self-actualization was not easy to obtain and Maslow estimated that less than 1% of all people are truly self-actualized. For instance, in a sample of 3,000 college students that were surveyed, Maslow only deemed one of the individuals to be self-actualized which complements the claim that self-actualization is very difficult to reach as well as individuals that are young are likely not to be self-actualized until older (Cloninger, 2008). As individuals grow older, Erikson explains that individuals will look back upon their lives and determine whether or not it was meaningful and if they wished that various experiences had been different. It is reasonable to assume that an individual that has reached self-actualization or is considered a fully-functioning person would be more likely to reflect upon a more fulfilling life than an individual that did not reach these levels of functioning. When examining the relationship between what the individual believes that society values and the individual's assessment of intelligence, there was no significant difference found but the statistical datum did trend towards a stronger indication for support of this notion. If the type of intelligence and what they believed that society valued did not always correlate, it is rational to conceive that college students may not be fully self-actualized and may continue to be influenced by societal values that do not relate to their personal intellects but rather influences from parents, the job market, or culture overall. Conversely, with data trending towards significance indicates social control over the types of intelligences people will ultimately find interest in addition to the susceptibility of being swayed; this phenomenon could be explained according to Bandura's notion of observational learning or modeling. For instance, an individual may have always enjoyed music. However, influences from parents on another type of intelligence because of what is viewed as valuable by society may modify the child's thought process, especially if the child is rewarded for behavior congruent with parental expectation and punished for behavior contrasting. Investigating further, Skinner's idea of operant conditioning can explain this system of rewards and punishments and how the past experiences according to their behaviors will inevitably produce future conduct. Implications. Implications for this study are focused on the process of learning as well as the pedagogy style that would best suit all students of all intelligence types. When considering a classroom setting, or any group of individual for that matter, it is inevitable to experience different cultures, backgrounds, and viewpoints. Furthermore, it is unavoidable to have a group of individuals that have contrasting intelligence types and therefore, different methods that best suit them for learning. If the theory of multiple intelligence would be applied to classes, exams, standardized tests, it would not only produce a more valid test but be tailored to the individual's need more often. This type of instruction would maximize the amount of learning possibility and, logically, raise self-esteem and the motivation of the student. Contrary to the notion of multiple intelligence instruction, it can be argued that this type of teaching may seem to be impractical for large settings. For instance, it is difficult to implement several different teaching styles to a large group of students when the main focus of the economy is to 'cut-back' and let go of teachers from their positions. Although using a single teaching style is economically practical, the quality of education and the amount of information learned will obviously be reduced. What We Learned. Throughout this study, it was very interesting to observe how individuals were not as likely to project or inflate the value of their own talents as it relates to society. By the data, which showed linguistic being perceived as most valued by society but among the most infrequent strengths, it may be seen that intelligence may not be valued based on the individual's abilities. As hypothesized, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and naturalist were valued quite less than the more 'school' intelligences of logical/mathematical and linguistic. In addition, theories of learning and intelligence may drastically influence the teaching pedagogies of instructors and therefore encourage a highly diversified and individualized learning environment. If the findings are applied in the classroom along with the application of learning theories such as Vygotsky and Adler's notions of education, the student has the opportunity to maximize their potential in learning. Carraher, T. N., Carraher, D., & Schliemann, A. D. (1985). Mathematics in the streets and in schools. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3, 21-29 Eysenck, H. J. (1982). Introduction. In H. J. Eysenck (Ed.), A model for intelligence (pp. 1-10). New York: Springer-Verlag. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. Li, R. (1996). A theory of conceptual intelligence: Thinking, learning, creativity and giftedness. Westport, CT: Praeger. Paik, H.S. (1998). One Intelligence or Many? Washington University. Retrieved from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/paik.html Sternberg, R. J. (1985): Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Thurstone, L. L. (1924). The nature of intelligence. New York: Harcourt Brace. http://www.learninginfo.org/multiple-intelligences.htm

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Black Confederate Soldiers Andrew and Silas Chandler, Co. F, 44th Mississippi Infantry posing with D-Guard This page is in tribute of these brave Slaves and Freemen of Color who supported and fought for the Confederate States of America, and believed in the cause of Southern Independence. It has been estimated that over 65,000 Southern blacks were in the Confederate ranks. Over 13,000 of these, "saw the elephant" also known as meeting the enemy in combat. These Black Confederates included both slave and free. The Confederate Congress did not approve blacks to be officially enlisted as soldiers (except as musicians), until late in the war. But in the ranks it was a different story. Many Confederate officers did not obey the mandates of politicians, they frequently enlisted blacks with the simple criteria, "Will you fight?" Historian Ervin Jordan, explains that "biracial units" were frequently organized "by local Confederate and State militia Commanders in response to immediate threats in the form of Union raids". Dr. Leonard Haynes, an African-American professor at Southern University, stated, "When you eliminate the black Confederate soldier, you've eliminated the a part of the history of the South." People know little about them, but in 1861, noted black abolitionist Frederick Douglass said; "There are many colored men in the Confederate Army as real soldiers, having muskets on their shoulders, bullets in their pockets, ready to shoot down loyal troops and doing all that soldiers may do to destroy the Federal government." Black soldiers' contributions to Union armies are already well known, popularized in Hollywood films such as "Glory", but suggesting that Southern blacks fought and died for a government that condoned and supported slavery is politically incorrect nowadays. The South was the only home most of the slaves and Freemen knew and some sixty thousand of them were willing to risk their lives to protect their way of life against the unknown dangers of defeat by the Union Forces. Black historian, Roland Young, says he is not surprised that blacks fought. He explains that "some, if not most, Black southerners would support their country" and that by doing so they were "demonstrating it's possible to hate the system of slavery and love one's country." Some would ask, "Why would they serve; why would they fight?" They served and fought for the same reasons as their white counterparts. They felt that the South was their home, too. Whether slave or free, each had a stake in the society and each had a home they felt endeared to. For example, many Charleston negroes actually cheered at the possibility that they would be able to shoot Yankees shortly after the outbreak of War. This is the very same reaction that most African Americans showed during the American Revolution, where they fought for the colonies, even though the British offered them freedom if they fought for them. 1. The "Richmond Howitzers" were partially manned by black militiamen. They saw action at 1st Manassas (or 1st Battle of Bull Run) where they operated battery no. 2. In addition two black "regiments", one free and one slave, participated in the battle on behalf of the South. "Many colored people were killed in the action", recorded John Parker, a former slave. 2. At least one Black Confederate was a non-commissioned officer. James Washington, Co. D 35th Texas Cavalry, Confederate States Army, became it's 3rd Sergeant. Higher ranking black commissioned officers served in militia units, but this was on the State militia level (Louisiana) and not in the regular C.S. Army. 3. Free black musicians, cooks, soldiers and teamsters earned the same pay as white confederate privates. This was not the case in the Union army where blacks did not receive equal pay. At the Confederate Buffalo Forge in Rockbridge County, Virginia, skilled black workers "earned on average three times the wages of white Confederate soldiers and more than most Confederate army officers ($350- $600 a year). 4. Dr. Lewis Steiner, Chief Inspector of the United States Sanitary Commission while observing Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson's occupation of Frederick, Maryland, in 1862: "Over 3,000 Negroes must be included in this number [Confederate troops]. These were clad in all kinds of uniforms, not only in cast-off or captured United States uniforms, but in coats with Southern buttons, State buttons, etc. These were shabby, but not shabbier or seedier than those worn by white men in the rebel ranks. Most of the Negroes had arms, rifles, muskets, sabers, bowie-knives, dirks, etc.....and were manifestly an integral portion of the Southern Confederate Army." 5. Black and white militiamen returned heavy fire on Union troops at the Battle of Griswoldsville (near Macon, GA). Approximately 600 boys and elderly men were killed in this skirmish. 6. In 1864, President Jefferson Davis approved a plan that proposed the emancipation of slaves, in return for the official recognition of the Confederacy by Britain and France. France showed interest but Britain refused. 7. The Jackson Battalion included two companies of black soldiers. They saw combat at Petersburg under Col. Shipp. "My men acted with utmost promptness and goodwill...Allow me to state sir that they behaved in an extraordinary acceptable manner." 8. Recently the National Park Service, with a recent discovery, recognized that blacks were asked to help defend the city of Petersburg, Virginia and were offered their freedom if they did so. Regardless of their official classification, black Americans performed support functions that in today's army many would be classified as official military service. 9. Confederate General John B. Gordon (Army of Northern Virginia) reported that all of his troops were in favor of Colored troops and that it's adoption would have "greatly encouraged the army". Gen. Lee was anxious to receive regiments of black soldiers. The Richmond Sentinel reported on 24 Mar 1864, "None will deny that our servants are more worthy of respect than the motley hordes which come against us." "Bad faith [to black Confederates] must be avoided as an indelible dishonor." 10. In March 1865, Judah P. Benjamin, Confederate Secretary Of State, promised freedom for blacks who served from the State of Virginia. Authority for this was finally received from the State of Virginia and on April 1st 1865, $100 bounties were offered to black soldiers. Benjamin exclaimed, "Let us say to every Negro who wants to go into the ranks, go and fight, and you are free Fight for your masters and you shall have your freedom." Confederate Officers were ordered to treat them humanely and protect them from "injustice and oppression". 11. A quota was set for 300,000 black soldiers for the Confederate States Colored Troops. 83% of Richmond's male slave population volunteered for duty. A special ball was held in Richmond to raise money for uniforms for these men. Before Richmond fell, black Confederates in gray uniforms drilled in the streets. Due to the war ending, it is believed only companies or squads of these troops ever saw any action. Many more black soldiers fought for the North, but that difference was simply a difference because the North instituted this progressive policy more sooner than the more conservative South. Black soldiers from both sides received discrimination from whites who opposed the concept . 12. Union General U.S. Grant in Feb 1865, ordered the capture of "all the Negro men before the enemy can put them in their ranks." Frederick Douglass warned Lincoln that unless slaves were guaranteed freedom (those in Union controlled areas were still slaves) and land bounties, "they would take up arms for the rebels". 13. On April 4, 1865 (Amelia County, VA), a Confederate supply train was exclusively manned and guarded by black Infantry. When attacked by Federal Cavalry, they stood their ground and fought off the charge, but on the second charge they were overwhelmed. These soldiers are believed to be from "Major Turner's" Confederate command. 14. A Black Confederate, George _____, when captured by Federals was bribed to desert to the other side. He defiantly spoke, "Sir, you want me to desert, and I ain't no deserter. Down South, deserters disgrace their families and I am never going to do that." 15. Former slave, Horace King, accumulated great wealth as a contractor to the Confederate Navy. He was also an expert engineer and became known as the "Bridge builder of the Confederacy." One of his bridges was burned in a Yankee raid. His home was pillaged by Union troops, as his wife pleaded for mercy. 16. As of Feb. 1865 1,150 black seamen served in the Confederate Navy. One of these was among the last Confederates to surrender, aboard the CSS Shenandoah, six months after the war ended. This surrender took place in England. 17. Nearly 180,000 Black Southerners, from Virginia alone, provided logistical support for the Confederate military. Many were highly skilled workers. These included a wide range of jobs: nurses, military engineers, teamsters, ordnance department workers, brakemen, firemen, harness makers, blacksmiths, wagon makers, boatmen, mechanics, wheelwrights, etc. In the 1920'S Confederate pensions were finally allowed to some of those workers that were still living. Many thousands more served in other Confederate States. 18. During the early 1900's, many members of the United Confederate Veterans (UCV) advocated awarding former slaves rural acreage and a home. There was hope that justice could be given those slaves that were once promised "forty acres and a mule" but never received any. In the 1913 Confederate Veteran magazine published by the UCV, it was printed that this plan "If not Democratic, it is [the] Confederate" thing to do. There was much gratitude toward former slaves, which "thousands were loyal, to the last degree", now living with total poverty of the big cities. Unfortunately, their proposal fell on deaf ears on Capitol Hill. 19. During the 50th Anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg in 1913, arrangements were made for a joint reunion of Union and Confederate veterans. The commission in charge of the event made sure they had enough accommodations for the black Union veterans, but were completely surprised when unexpected black Confederates arrived. The white Confederates immediately welcomed their old comrades, gave them one of their tents, and "saw to their every need". Nearly every Confederate reunion included blacks that served with them, wearing the gray. 20. The first military monument in the US Capitol that honors an African-American soldier is the Confederate monument at Arlington National cemetery. The monument was designed 1914 by Moses Ezekiel, a Jewish Confederate. Who wanted to correctly portray the "racial makeup" in the Confederate Army. A black Confederate soldier is depicted marching in step with white Confederate soldiers. Also shown is one "white soldier giving his child to a black woman for protection".- source: Edward Smith, African American professor at the American University, Washington DC. 21. Black Confederate heritage is beginning to receive the attention it deserves. For instance, Terri Williams, a black journalist for the Suffolk "Virginia Pilot" newspaper, writes: "I've had to re-examine my feelings toward the [Confederate] flag started when I read a newspaper article about an elderly black man whose ancestor worked with the Confederate forces. The man spoke with pride about his family member's contribution to the cause, was photographed with the [Confederate] flag draped over his lap that's why I now have no definite stand on just what the flag symbolizes, because it no longer is their history, or my history, but our history." Charles Kelly Barrow, et.al. Forgotten Confederates: An Anthology About Black Southerners (1995). Currently the best book on the subject. Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995). Well researched and very good source of information on Black Confederates, but has a strong Union bias. Richard Rollins. Black Southerners in Gray (1994). Excellent source. Dr. Edward Smith and Nelson Winbush, "Black Southern Heritage". An excellent educational video. Mr. Winbush is a descendent of a Black Confederate and a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV). This fact page is not an all inclusive list of Black Confederates, only a small sampling of accounts. For general historical information on Black Confederates, contact Dr. Edward Smith, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20016; Dean of American Studies. Dr. Smith is a black professor dedicated to clarifying the historical role of African Americans. A Southern Sympathizer An Anthology about Black Southerners Compiled and edited by Charles Kelly Barrow J.H.Segars & R.B. Rosenberg William H. "Ten Cent Bill" Yopp truly was a beloved veteran. He was born in a small slave cabin in Laurens County, Georgia. His master's family was one of the most prominent in the area, producing several members of the state legislature and one member of the Georgia secession convention of 1861. At the age of seven, Bill was bound as a body servant to young T. M. Yopp. The two boys were inseparable. They went everywhere together and became lifelong friends. When the war broke out, T. M. Yopp, commissioned as a captain in Company H, 14th Georgia Infantry, promptly went to Virginia. Along with him went "Ten Cent Bill." During the many battles of the Army of Northern Virginia, Bill was always by his master's side, twice nursing him back to health from severe wounds. Bill guarded the captain's belongings and consistently found needed provisions. In addition, he served as drummer for the company. When Captain Yopp was wounded at the Battle of Seven Pines, it was Bill who cleaned the wound and nursed the captain back to health. At the Battle of Fredericksburg, Captain Yopp was again severely wounded, and Bill was right there to care for him until, owing to exhaustion, he was sent home. Nevertheless, Bill soon rejoined his master in Virginia and remained at his side for the remainder of the War. He witnessed the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia in April 1865. As the outcome of the war became clear, slavery ended. During the earliest days of reconstruction, Bill set out to travel and to earn a living. Yet, many years later, Bill returned to the captain's family. In time, he came to care for his former master at the Georgia Confederate Soldiers' Home in Atlanta. While at the home, Bill gained the love and respect of the other veterans. He was admitted to the Atlanta U.C.V. Camp (United Confederate Veterans) and was prominent at all activities. His relationship with the home's chairman of the board of trustees, Col. R.D. Lawrence, was warm and long-lasting. Bill was very effective in raising funds for the home. For several years he, with the help of the Macon Telegraph, raised enough money to give each veteran in the home a gift of $3.00 at Christmas. A book written by Bill concerning his exploits before, during, and after the war was also used for many years as a fundraiser for the home. The veterans at the home were so thankful that they took up a collection in 1920 to have a medal made for Bill, and the board of trustees voted to allow him to stay at the home as long as he lived. For years Bill was an attraction at both the soldiers' home and at the state fair on the day reserved for blacks who fought for and supported the Confederacy. He was one of the last surviving veterans in the home, which closed its doors to veterans in the 1940s. At the age of 92, Captain Yopp died. Bill was the featured speaker at the memorial service, and it was a particularly emotional one. Not long afterward, Bill joined his longtime friend in the Confederate Cemetery in Marietta, Georgia, where several residents of the home were interred. Clearly, there was not a more beloved veteran than Bill Yopp. The grave of 10-cent Bill Yopp Welters, who served in Capt. John Lott Phillips' Company B, 3rd Florida Infantry Regiment, called the St. Augustine Blues, was also known under other names, such as Anthony Wetters, Tony Fontane and Antonio Huertas. A former slave, he was born in 1810 and enlisted as a fifer in 1861, when he was 51 years old. He participated in the battles of Perryville, Murfreesboro, Vicksburg, Chattanooga, Chickamauga, Atlanta, Franklin and Nashville. Returning to St. Augustine, Florida after the war, Welters lived at 79 Bridge St. and became active in politics and with the E. Kirby Smith Camp, United Confederate Veterans. He died in 1902 at 92 years old. Dr. Winbush as a small boy and his Confederate Veteran grandfather. Black Confederates Why haven't we heard more about them? National Park Service historian, Ed Bearrs, stated, "I don't want to call it a conspiracy to ignore the role of Blacks both above and below the Mason-Dixon line, but it was definitely a tendency that began around 1910." Historian, Erwin L. Jordan, Jr., calls it a "cover-up" which started back in 1865. He writes, "During my research, I came across instances where Black men stated they were soldiers, but you can plainly see where 'soldier' is crossed out and 'body servant' inserted, or 'teamster' on pension applications." Another black historian, Roland Young, says he is not surprised that blacks fought. He explains that "some, if not most, Black southerners would support their country" and that by doing so they were "demonstrating it's possible to hate the system of slavery and love one's country." This is the very same reaction that most African Americans showed during the American Revolution, where they fought for the colonies, even though the British offered them freedom if they fought for them. It has been estimated that over 65,000 Southern blacks were in the Confederate ranks. Over 13,000 of these, "saw the elephant" also known as meeting the enemy in combat. These Black Confederates included both slave and free. Many Confederate officers frequently enlisted blacks with the simple criteria, "Will you fight?" Historian Ervin Jordan, explains that "biracial units" were frequently organized "by local Confederate and State militia Commanders in response to immediate threats in the form of Union raids". Dr. Leonard Haynes, an African-American professor at Southern University, stated, "When you eliminate the black Confederate soldier, you've eliminated the history of the South." As the war came to an end, the Confederacy took progressive measures to build back up its army. The creation of the Confederate States Colored Troops, copied after the segregated northern colored troops, came too late to be successful. Had the Confederacy been successful, it would have created the world's largest armies (at the time) consisting of black soldiers, even larger than that of the North. This would have given the future of the Confederacy a vastly different appearance than what modern day racist or anti-Confederate liberals conjecture. Not only did Jefferson Davis envision black Confederate veterans receiving bounty lands for their service, there would have been no future for slavery after the goal of 300,000 armed black CSA veterans came home after the war. When most Americans think of Civil War soldiers, the colors that spring to mind are blue and gray, not black. Until the 1989 movie "Glory," there was little recognition of the 200,000 blacks who fought for the North. Now, many Southerners say, it is time to honor another forgotten group: blacks who served the Confederacy. What makes this revisionism startling is that several of its leading proponents are African Americans who regard their research as liberating. "There's this caricature of all blacks in the South being victimized and supporting the North," says Edward Smith, a black professor and director of American Studies at American University in Washington. "But we are just as complicated as any people. We're three-dimensional." Since Dr. Smith began speaking about black Confederates six years ago, the subject has spawned several books, scores of articles and heated debate on the Internet. Some blacks have joined the Sons of Confederate Veterans and donned gray at Civil War re-enactments. Confederate heritage groups have proposed erecting monuments to black rebels and other "Confederates of color," such as Hispanics and American Indians. FROM THE ST. PETERSBURG, FLORIDA TIMES: Rebel ancestry isn't uncomfortable at all for the black SCV member in Florida, Nelson Winbush. who fondly recalls his grandfather, Mr. Nelson, and his war tales. "He used to say the Yankees were the dumbest damned people you've ever seen," Dr. Winbush says, telling a story about Union men marching straight at rebel guns. Dr. Winbush's trove of mementos includes pension papers and newspaper clippings describing his grandfather's service in the Army, He also foraged for the rebels and, "fired rifles like everyone else." When asked if he thought the role of blacks in the Rebel army was any less than that of whites he said, "Their lives were at risk: they served, thats all that matters." His grandfather, Dr. Winbush goes on, grew up playing with white boys on the plantation and felt it was only natural to "go along with his pals" to fight Yankees. After the war, he attended 39 Confederate reunions and became a minor celebrity in his native Tennessee. "They all had a spot in their heart for the good old darky. and he loved them devotedly," a Tennessee paper wrote when Mr. Nelson died. Asked about the tone of such reports, Dr, Winbush shrugs. "Those were just the times." he says. Now times have changed. But Dr. Winbush, a retired school teacher and assistant principal, once taught many of the men who now belong to his SCV group, which has been renamed in honor of his grandfather. Dr. Winbush's fellow members also welcome his Confederate Memorial Day address, which includes a defense of states' rights and of his grandfather's commander. Nathan Bedford Forrest. an oft-reviled figure who was a slave trader and imperial wizard of the Ku Klux Klan. "We finally have someone who can give a different point of view and no one can say it's just another ignorant redneck trying to promote racism", says John Carroll, a founding member of the Kissimmee SCV camp. Dr, Winbush has taken his message to groups across the South and has appeared in pro-Confederate videos. He now plans to place a rebel veteran's headstone by his grandfather's grave. "I'm an individual, just like him." he says. driving to Kissimmee's cemetery to adorn rebel graves with battle flags. "People did what they thought was appropriate in that war, black and white, and I'm doing the same now." FOLLOW-UP TO THE ABOVE STORY: There is something very disturbing and sad about the way stories of black Confederates are reported in the news. I suspect that much of it has to do with the fact that those reporting these stories have very little understanding of the history behind their subject. This seems to be the case in this story reported by the St. Petersburg Times about Nelson Winbush's memories of his "black Confederate" grandfather. We read about how unusual it is for a black American to adhere to a narrative that is usually associated with white Southerners and are asked to suspend disbelief and acknowledge the bravery of a man who subscribes to "a different version than mainstream America." Why not, after all here we have a decent man who wants nothing more than to acknowledge his family history and a grandfather who apparently had a profound impact on Winbush's life. Here is a little about Dr. Winbush's grandfather: it is the story of a young slave from a Tennessee plantation named Louis Napoleon Nelson, who went to war with the sons of his master. "They grew up together," Winbush says. At first his grandfather cooked and looked out for the others, but later he saw action, fighting with a rifle under the command of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest, a slave trader and plantation owner. At Shiloh, a two-day battle in 1862 in which more than 23,000 American men were killed or wounded, the Confederate Army needed a chaplain. Louis Nelson couldn't read or write, but he had memorized the King James Bible. He stayed on as chaplain for the next four campaigns, leading services for both Confederate and Union soldiers, before they headed back to the battlefield. He also foraged for food. One time, he killed a mule, cut out a quarter and hauled it back to his comrades. "When you don't have anything else, mule meat tastes pretty good," he would tell his grandson. Over the years, the aging veteran Winbush went to 39 Confederate reunions, wearing a woolly gray uniform that Dr. Winbush still has. In photos, he stands next to two white men who accompanied him to soldiers' reunions until they were old men. Through the sepia gleams a dignity earned on the battlefield. "When he came back, that was storytelling time," Dr. Winbush says. His grandfather died in 1934. The local paper ran an obituary that called him a "darky." Dr. Winbush is proud that his grandfather's death was marked at all.

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The Privileged Status of Story How does the mind work—and especially how does it learn? Teachers' instructional decisions are based on a mix of theories from teacher education, trial and error, craft knowledge, and gut instinct. Such gut knowledge often serves us well, but is there anything sturdier to rely on? Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology who seek to understand the mind. In this regular American Educator column, we consider findings from this field that are strong and clear enough to merit classroom application. By Daniel T. Willingham Question: I have read that the mind treats stories differently than other types of information. It seems obvious that people like listening to stories, but it's not obvious how to use that in the classroom. Is it really true that stories are somehow "special" and, if so, how can teachers capitalize on that fact? Answer: Research from the last 30 years shows that stories are indeed special. Stories are easy to comprehend and easy to remember, and that's true not just because people pay close attention to stories; there is something inherent in the story format that makes them easy to understand and remember. Teachers can consider using the basic elements of story structure to organize lessons and introduce complicated material, even if they don't plan to tell a story in class. * * * Everybody loves a good story. Even small children who have difficulty focusing in class will sit with rapt attention in the presence of a good storyteller. But stories are not just fun. There are important cognitive consequences of the story format. Psychologists have therefore referred to stories as "psychologically privileged," meaning that our minds treat stories differently than other types of material. People find stories interesting, easy to understand, and easy to remember. To understand why these benefits accrue, it is necessary to understand the underlying format of stories. * * * Definitions of story vary, but a useful starting point is to consider how professional storytellers—that is, playwrights, screenwriters, and novelists—define story. There is relative agreement on some basic features, sometimes called "The Four Cs."1 The first C is Causality. Events in stories are related because one event causes or initiates another. For example, "The King died and then the Queen died" presents two events chronologically, but "The King died and the Queen died of grief" links the events with causal information. The second C is Conflict. In every story, a central character has a goal and obstacles that prevent the goal from being met. "Scarlett O'Hara loved Ashley Wilkes, so she married him" has causality, but it's not much of story (and would make a five-minute movie). A story moves forward as the character takes action to remove the obstacle. In Gone With the Wind, the first obstacle Scarlett faces is that Ashley doesn't love her. The third C is Complications. If a story were just a series of episodes in which the character hammers away at her goal, it would be dull. Rather, the character's efforts to remove the obstacle typically create complications—new problems that she must try to solve. When Scarlett learns that Ashley doesn't love her, she tries to make him jealous by agreeing to marry Charles Hamilton, an action that, indeed, poses new complications for her. The fourth C is Character. Strong, interesting characters are essential to good stories, and screenwriters agree that the key to creating interesting characters is to allow the audience to observe them in action. F. Scott Fitzgerald went so far as to write, "Action is character."2 Rather than tell us that Scarlett O'Hara is popular and a coquette, the first time we meet her we observe two men fawning over her. Stories Are More Interesting We might guess that stories are interesting because they often touch on themes that people find intrinsically interesting: romance, sex, death, and the like—all found in Gone With the Wind. That's true enough, but there's more to it. People find material presented in a story format more engaging than if it is presented in expository text no matter what the topic. In one study (Britton et al., 1983), the experimenters asked subjects to read passages. As they read, they were to listen for a tone that sounded unpredictably and only occasionally. Upon hearing it, they were to press a button as quickly as possible. The idea was that if subjects were more absorbed in what they were reading, they would be slower to press the button. The results showed that subjects responded more slowly to the tones when reading stories than when reading expository passages. This result was replicated across many different passages using different tasks (other than the button press) to probe attention. The reason that stories are engaging may be inherent in their structure. Story structure naturally leads the listener (or reader) to make inferences that are neither terribly easy, nor impossibly difficult. New information that is a little bit puzzling, but which we can understand, is deemed more interesting than new information that is either very easy or very difficult to understand. For example, people enjoy working crossword puzzles, anagrams, and the like, but only if they are moderately difficult. They are tedious if too easy, and frustrating if too hard. Sung-il Kim (1999) tested the idea that a story's interest is derived from readers' need to make medium-level inferences. Kim had subjects read short passages and then rate them for interest. In some passages the penultimate sentence provided a reason for the final action taken, but other passages omitted the reason. For example, one passage (below) described a woman preparing soup and then serving it to her husband. A newlywed bride had made clam chowder coup for dinner and was waiting for her husband to come home. Although she was not an experienced cook she had put everything into making the soup. Finally, her husband came home, sat down to dinner, and tried some of the soup. (He was totally unappreciative of her efforts an deven lost his temper about ow bad it tasted.) The poor woman swore she would never cook for her husband again. Example of materials from Kim (1999). The penultimate sentence is in parenthesis to indicate that some saw the sentence and some didn't. Subjects found the passage more interesting if the reason for the ending was not explicitly in the passage. Similar effects have been reported for more educational materials (e.g., historical passages, see Frick, 1992). Stories Are Easier to Comprehend Stories are also easier to comprehend than other forms of text. In one study (Graesser et al, 1994), the experimenters had their subjects read several different types of texts. Texts varied in the familiarity of their content and in their format; some were stories (e.g., one that is very familiar, Princess and the Pea, and one that is not, Bodisat) and some were expository texts (e.g., concerning earthquakes or harvester ants). Each text was read on a computer screen, one sentence at a time; subjects pressed the space bar when they were ready to read the next sentence, so the experimenters were able to measure reading time. The experimenters had analyzed each sentence on a number of dimensions including number of words, grammatical complexity, number of propositions (a linguistic measure of ideas), position in the text, topic familiarity, and narrativity. The experimenters then calculated which of these text characteristics were associated with fast reading times, and which with slow. They found that most of these dimensions had some impact on reading time (e.g., subjects were somewhat slower to read sentences that had more words), but narrativity* had the largest effect by far. Stories were read much faster than expository texts. The researchers take the faster reading speed to indicate greater ease of comprehension. One key reason that stories are easy to comprehend is because we know the format, and that gives us a reasonable idea of what to expect. When an event is described in a story, we expect that the event will be causally related to a prior event in the story. The listener uses his or her knowledge of story structure to relate the present event to what has already happened. For example, Scarlett agreeing to marry Charles initially seems senseless, as it has been established that she thinks he's a fool. But the viewer knows that there must be a causal link to prior events, and knows that the link is likely related to the main character's goal. Indeed, Scarlett's acceptance of Charles's proposal makes sense given her goal of marrying Ashley and his rejection of her. Stories Are Easier to Remember The structure of stories also contributes to the ease of remembering them, and many studies show that stories are indeed easy to remember. In one study (Graesser et al., 1994), subjects listened to the same set of stories and expository texts used in the study described above. Their memory was later tested. Again, familiarity had some impact on memory, but the main effect was for the narrativity of the passages. Subjects remember about 50 percent more from the stories than from the expository passages. Most researchers believe that it is the causal connections that make stories easy to remember (e.g., Meyers & Duffy, 1990). Janice Keenan and her associates had subjects read different versions of a brief paragraph. The last sentence was always the same, but the penultimate sentence varied so that its causal relationship to the final sentence was more or less obvious. The sample below shows how the penultimate sentence varied in one of the passages. |Level of Causal Relationship |Joey's big brother punched him again and again. The next day his body was covered with bruises.||69| |2||Racing down the hill, Joey fell off his bike. The next day his body was covered with bruises. |3||Joey's crazy mother became furiously angry with him. The next day his body was covered with bruises.||75| |Joey went to a neighbor's house to play. The next day his body was covered with bruises. Sample materials from Keenan et al. (1987). Level is a ranking of Memory was tested about 35 minutes after reading. Recall was poor if the sentences were very closely related or very unrelated. Memory was best if the subject had to make an inference to connect the sentences, provided it was not too difficult to find the connection. Part of this memory effect likely occurs as subjects are reading or hearing the story; when the second sentence is moderately related, they think more carefully about how the sentences are connected. As discussed in a previous column (see "Students Remember ... What They Think About," in the Summer 2003 issue of American Educator), thinking about meaning is helpful to memory. Indeed, if subjects are asked to elaborate on the sentences and find a connection between them, the memory advantage for the moderately related sentences disappears (Duffy, Shinjo, & Myers, 1990). Thus, it appears that the moderate connection encourages subjects to think about the sentences, whereas the very strong or very weak connection does not. The story format brings a memory benefit not only when you hear it, but also when you later try to remember it. Causal connections provide an effective web of associations. If you remember the goal of the main character, that is an entrée to remembering how the character tried to achieve that goal, which leads to memory for successive events. For example, if you had difficulty remembering what happened to Charles Hamilton, you might use your knowledge of story structure to guess that Scarlett could not have remained married to him, which would prompt you to remember that he died. Our Minds Seek Causal Connections The story format has psychological significance—better comprehension and better memory—because we know what to expect in a story. These expectations are driven by a mental representation for story structure. In most (but not all) cultures, stories entail causality and goals, and so that's what listeners expect when they hear a story. This expectation is so strong that the listener will use them when remembering the story, even if the story lacked these elements. Take a moment to read the Native American folktale below. In a landmark study, Frederic Bartlett (1932) asked English schoolboys to read this folktale, in which some events happen with no apparent causal connection to prior events. When subjects were asked to recall the folktales weeks later, they added and dropped elements for which there were no apparent causal connections in an unconscious effort to make the story better fit their idea of a story. In particular, subjects had difficulty understanding why some characters were ghosts and difficulty understanding why the Indian dies at the end, and those two facts were especially subject to change in their memory. For example, some subjects omitted the fact that the warriors were ghosts, and one subject later remembered that "Ghost" was a clan name for another group of Indians. Many subjects inserted language indicating causality for the death at the end, for example, relating that he had seemed all right, but became ill the next morning and then died. War of the Ghosts One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party." They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and one saw a canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people." One of the young men said, "I have no arrows." "Arrows are in the canoe," they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relative do not know where I have gone. But you," he said, turning to the other, "may go with them." So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man hard one of the warriors say, "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit." Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts." He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: "Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellws were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick." He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something balck came out of his mouth. his face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead. Causality is so powerful a cue to recall that subjects will use it even in expository prose, if it's available. In one study (Gentner, 1976), subjects who listened to passages from a history textbook later recalled the events described not in the order that they heard them, but in the order of causation. Stories and Story Structure in the Classroom Stories are interesting, easy to comprehend, and easy to remember; and even preschoolers have some appreciation of story structure (Wenner, 2004). Exactly what has led our minds to handle stories in such a privileged way is not well understood, but it has been suggested that understanding the actions and characters in a story calls on the same processes we use in trying to understand the actions and intentions of people in the real world (Bower, 1978). We evolved as a social species, and so we may have special cognitive apparatus to deal with social situations that are co-opted in thinking about stories. How can teachers capitalize on the privileged status of stories? There are two groups of applications. First, obviously enough, one can tell more stories. Second, where stories are inappropriate, it may still be useful to inject elements from the story format into lessons. Both approaches are discussed here. Tell more stories in class. Since stories are interesting, easy to remember, and easy to understand, they are an ideal introduction to a new unit. The teacher can introduce new material in a way that is both non-threatening and interesting. Further, students may acquire some of the basic vocabulary of the content area and be better prepared to delve more deeply into the subject matter. If you think of stories as a particularly "easy to swallow" way of teaching content, you'll think of a lot of ideal times for using stories: after lunch, at the end of a complex discussion when a simple recap is needed, and during the last few minutes of the school day. A teacher might know of a story that complements the lesson's educational point, but does so in a way that is less taxing, more fun, and more interesting. For one such story, see "Mayday at 41,000 Feet: Watch Those Units!" from the Winter 2003–2004 issue of American Educator. Such a story can also make an ideal break on a day when students are frazzled—and is more attractive than other alternatives (such as undemanding busy work). Have students read stories outside of class. Books are available that use a narrative structure to convey complicated content. Most notable are biographies of great figures in science, mathematics, history, and the arts. Biographies make personal the material that teachers want students to master. Biographies of scientists frequently read like detective stories, as they hunt for the solution to a scientific problem. Great scientists and mathematicians also set an excellent example for students through their passion and dedication. Students will gain an important personal perspective when they read an autobiography of an ordinary person who lived through a historical event that they are studying. Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl is a classic example, but there are many other fine works in this vein. Other books integrate educational material into the stories themselves, such as Flatland by Edwin Abbott, or The Man Who Counted by Malba Tahan. Tell stories to older students. Teachers may think that storytelling is inappropriate for older students. Once children get to sixth grade or so, they may think that stories smack of preschool. Of course, older children do enjoy stories; they attend movies, they read books. The problem is that listening to stories read aloud in class sounds like (and indeed is) what young children do. The solution is simple enough. The importance of age-appropriate language is obvious, and teachers might also consider not signaling to students that a story is being told. Such signals might include reading aloud from a book, using a dramatic voice, and insisting that the story be told as a whole, uninterrupted. Rather, the teacher might begin the story without announcing it as a story—tell it in everyday language, work from notes, and allow discussion while the story is being told. When "story" is intrinsic to the subject matter, make use of the story format to structure lessons. History is a natural story; it has the four Cs —causality, conflicts, complications, and character—built in. Yet, history textbooks rarely use a narrative structure. For teachers, an important way to make use of story in history is through the generous use of trade books that treat history as biography, historical fiction, or a narrative. Use the four Cs to structure lessons. There are ways to use the four Cs as the framework for developing lesson plans. For example, a typical lesson on the Spanish-American War emphasizes President Cleveland's and then President McKinley's reluctance to do anything about the Cuban revolution against the Spanish, despite the considerable economic stake that the U.S. had in the country. Successive events (the publishing of an insulting letter by the Spanish Minister and the sinking of the Maine), lead to a U.S. ultimatum that is rejected by the Spanish, whereupon the U.S. declares war. Considering the four Cs might lead to a different framework. The strong character in this drama is Spain, because it is Spain's actions that move the story forward. Thus, a teacher might begin with the background of how Spain first came to control Cuba and the failed revolt of 1868–1878. The central conflict of the story is how the Spanish should deal with the revolt: put it down or try to accommodate the Cubans. The first complication is the increasing involvement of the U.S. in this conflict, which offers a third option—allow the U.S. to mediate. At each step, the teacher would ensure that the causal link between one event and the next was clear to students. Story format can inform the structuring of a lesson plan, even if the lesson does not include a story per se. Use the most important C—conflict. Screenwriters know that the most important of the four Cs is the conflict. If the audience is not compelled by the problem that the main characters face, they will never be interested in the story. Movies seldom begin with the main conflict that will drive the plot. That conflict is typically introduced about 20 minutes into the movie. For example, the main conflict in Star Wars is whether Luke will succeed in destroying the death star, but the movie begins with the empire's attack on a rebel ship and the escape of the two droids. All James Bond movies begin with an action sequence, but it is always related to some other case. Agent 007's main mission for the movie is introduced about 20 minutes into the film. Screenwriters use the first 20 minutes—about 20 percent of the running time—to pique the audience's interest in the characters and their situation. Teachers might consider using 10 or 15 minutes of class time to generate interest in a problem (i.e., conflict), the solution of which is the material to be learned. * * * Cognitive science research confirms that stories are indeed powerful. This research shows us where this power comes from and suggests how teachers might harness it. Stories have a particular format, and each of us has a representation of that format in memory. Teachers may use this power both by the judicious use of storytelling in the classroom, and by using the structure of stories to organize a lesson. Daniel T. Willingham is professor of cognitive psychology and neuroscience at the University of Virginia and author of Cognition: The Thinking Animal. His research focuses on the role of consciousness in learning. He thanks Bill Brewer and Randy Fletcher for useful conversations in preparing this article. *"Narrativity" was determined by asking readers to rate whether they believed that a given piece of writing seemed like a "story." (back to article) 1. The definitions vary somewhat, and some contain five or six Cs rather than four, but there is considerable overlap in the definitions (Field, 1994; Hull, 1983; McKee, 1997). 2. The Notebooks of F. Scott Fitzgerald, ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli. New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich/Bruccoli Clark, 1978, p. 332. Bartlett, F. C. (1932/1995). Remembering. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bower, G. H. (1978). Experiments on story comprehension and recall. Discourse Processes, 1, 211–231. Britton, B. K., Graesser, A. C., Glynn, S. M., Hamilton, T., & Penland, M. (1983). Discourse Processes, 6, 39–57. Duffy, S. A., Shinjo, M., & Myers, J. L. (1990). The effect of encoding task on memory for sentence pairs varying in causal relatedness. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 27–42. Eggen, P. & Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Frick, R. W. (1992). Interestingness. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 113–128. Gentner, D. R. (1976). The structure and recall of narrative prose. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 411–418. Graesser, A. C., Singer, M., Trabasso, T. (1994). Constructing Inferences During Narrative Text Comprehension. Psychological Review, 101, 371–395. Keenan, J.M., Baillet, S.D., & Brown, P. (1987). The effect of causal cohesion on comprehension and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 115–126. Kim, S-i. (1999). Causal bridging inference: A cause of story interestingness. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 57–71. Meyers, J. L. & Duffy, S. A. (1990). Causal inferences and text memory. In A. C. Graesser, & G. H. Bower (Eds.), Inferences and text comprehension. New York: Academic Press. Wenner, J. A. (2004). Preschoolers' comprehension of goal structure in narratives. Memory, 12, 193–202.

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Identification. The origin of the word "Niue" is obscure. Formerly, the island included two endogamous, warring factions that occupied separate territories: a northern region called Motu and a southern region called Tafiti. Location and Geography. Sometimes affectionately called "the Rock," Niue Island is one of the world's largest coral islands and smallest self-governing states. Niue is a large coral island ten miles by seven miles (16 kilometers by 11 kilometers). Some 350 miles (600 kilometers) southeast of Samoa, Niue has no strategic or trade significance and was not annexed by one of the European powers until 1900, long after most other Pacific islands. Formed by volcanic upheavals, the island sits atop 100-foot (30-meter) cliffs rising straight out of deep ocean. All fourteen villages are situated on a narrow terrace that encircles the island. The interior consists of a central saucer-shaped plateau, one hundred fifty feet (forty-five meters) higher than the terrace, covered in ferns, scrub, and second-growth trees. In the southeast quadrant, the remaining primary forest has been set aside as a conservation area protected by legislation and supernatural strictures. There is no surface water except in a few caves with small, brackish pools. Rainwater is collected in tanks as run off from roofs. Despite fluctuation in annual rainfall, the tropical climate is conducive to agricultural production, although cultivation is difficult because of the terrain: a thin layer of fertile soil surrounding jagged limestone pinnacles. East-southeast trade winds give way during the wet season (November to March) to variable winds and occasional storms. Hurricanes have been massive forces of social change, occurring on average once every seven years and causing considerable damage to both buildings and agriculture. There are no surrounding protective reefs or sheltered lagoons. The capital, Alofi, is on the western, lee side of the island at the only place where a wharf could be constructed. Until very recently, the monthly cargo ship had to anchor in deep water about a mile offshore and transfer goods to a barge or lighter for transport to the wharf. Demography. Niue has always had a small population, probably never more than five thousand, because of the strenuous work involved in crop production and the periodic famines. The demographic concern is depopulation, not overpopulation. Spurred in large part by extremely adverse weather, outmigration on a massive scale has been a feature of life since the opening of the airport in 1971. Every five-year census since 1970 has recorded a decline in the population between 15 and 23 percent; in 1995, just over two thousand people remained on the island. Most outmigrants are unmarried youths or adult couples with young children who intend to stay away permanently. Some fifteen thousand Niueans now live in New Zealand. The proportion of children in the population dropped from one-half in 1970 to about one-third in 1995, while the proportion of elderly people has increased from 6.4 to nearly 10 percent. Linguistic Affiliation. The Niuean language is related to other western Polynesian languages, such as Samoan and Tongan, with slight pronunciation differences between the Motu and Tafiti moieties and different spelling conventions. Most Niueans are bilingual. Niuean tends to be the language of family and village life, and English the language of business. Considerable switching between languages occurs in almost every setting. Emergence of the Nation. On attempting to land in June 1774, Captain James Cook and his crew were forcefully repelled by parties of fearsomely attired men uttering blood curdling screams and brandishing spears. Hastily leaving after little actual combat, Cook called the place "Savage Island," a name that appeared on maps into the twentieth century. National Identity. Until around 1960, Niueans had a poorly developed concept of their island as constituting a distinct culture or nation. Between the mid-19th and 20th centuries, Niue was gradually but increasingly exposed to the outside world, resulting in inexorable change in ways of life and Niuean identity. External influences included mission activity, labor migration, colonization, development of a money economy based on agricultural exports and mercantile endeavors, service in foreign wars, and control by a rigid and rather unresponsive administration. People gradually began to develop an allegiance to a broader entity than their natal villages. That process began during encounters with colonial administrators. The process was accelerated in the early 1960s, when the general populace was able to work with and live next to a large and diverse group of white New Zealanders ( palagi ) brought to help the island recover from hurricanes. Those workers came from a wide range of socioeconomic positions with varying aspirations and experiences. Outmigration in the 1970s also heightened a sense of national identity, as Niueans arriving in New Zealand felt a need to distinguish themselves from other Pacific Islanders and the Maori. Ethnic Relations. Few outsiders reside on the island, but those who do are generally well tolerated, although competition for scarce jobs can lead to resentment. Most foreigners are expatriates who provide technical advice to the government or have married Niueans. In the early 1980s, about one hundred people from Tonga, where pressure on land was intense, mobilized kin ties and moved to Niue. Also present were a few dozen high school children from the Tokelaus, receiving education not available in their homeland. In the 1990s, a handful of people from Tuvalu settled in a deserted village, escaping the threat that rising seawater posed to their homeland. No area can be described as urban, but nearly one-fifth of the population lives in the vicinity of Alofi, a typical Pacific port town-capital. Villages are laid out around a central, flat open space, the village green ( male ) which is used for meetings, sports events, and ceremonies. Most houses symbolically if not literally face the most socially important and visually dominant structures near the male: the church and the pastor's house. The church is a central feature of social organization, underpinning all social interaction, providing moral guidance, enabling the redistribution of goods and services from wealthy to less well-off members of the village, socializing children, and upholding traditions while spurring change. Most buildings have been constructed within the past twenty years, using materials, styles, and furnishings imported mainly from New Zealand. Food in Daily Life. Despite the fact that many families can afford imported foodstuffs such as canned corned beef, frozen lamb or chicken, and rice, agriculture remains important. Subsistence activities not only raise food, especially highly prized ceremonial foods, but also symbolize the central values linked to work and identity. Enough surplus food is produced to sustain only one small market each week. Fishing results in a variety of deep-sea catches, such as yellowfin tuna, red bass, and sailfish. Despite the difficult terrain, slash-and-burn (shifting) agriculture is a major crop-producing activity. Niueans cultivate both root crops such as talo (taro), yams, and tapioca, and tree crops such as coconut, breadfruit, papaya, and mango, as well as bananas. Planting also sustains the production of pigs. Hunting of fruit bats, birds, and land crabs, and gathering of fern shoots and other vegetation occurs regularly. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. A boy's first haircutting ( hifi ulu ) and a girl's ear-piercing ceremony ( huki teliga ) are occasions for displaying family solidarity, wealth, and status. Symbolically marking role transitions, these ceremonies involve the donation of cash or gifts to the celebrants. Such gifts are reciprocated by an elaborate and public presentation of feast foods. The extended family does extra work to procure sufficient quantities of these highly esteemed uncooked foods, such as pigs, fish, taro and other prized root crops such as ufi (yams), and barrels of salt pork or canned corned beef. Celebrations of one's twenty-first birthday, weddings, graduation from college, or major community events are less ceremonially intricate. Feast foods are cooked in an earth oven ( umu ) and presented to guests along with other items. After the blessing, each guest gathers items for later consumption into a basket. Basic Economy. The economic base of the island is foreign aid. In the early 1970s, the economic productive work base changed from agriculture to service provision. By the mid-1980s, more than 80 percent of employed adults worked for wages for the government. In 1990, restructuring and downsizing of the civil service took place. Despite the political and social upheaval this caused, the island's standard of living and economy did not plummet, in large part because of the aid still arriving from New Zealand and other international sources. Per capita aid remains among the highest in the world. Land Tenure and Property. Land is inalienable and cannot be sold or deeded permanently to non-Niueans. There is a preference for patrilineal inheritance of real property such as land and an emphasis on primogeniture. Women have some rights, but these are not as strong as those of male claimants. Absentee landowners cause considerable tension in some families. The Land Court is probably the most important and contentious aspect of the judiciary. Major political struggles revolve around means to resolve the dilemmas posed by absentee landowners. Commercial Activities. Tourism, based on deep-sea scuba diving and snorkeling, is the biggest money earner, with the two thousand people who visit annually contributing around $1 million to the economy. Like the export trade, tourism is vulnerable to disruption because of bad weather. Other commercial activity is heavily agriculture-based: the manufacture for export of coconut cream, taro, passion fruit, limes, and honey. Plaited ware such as hats and baskets and other handicrafts are important export items. Earlier attempts to assemble hand-sewn soccer and rugby balls and similar light industries failed largely because of transportation problems. A small but significant proportion of government revenue is generated through the sale of postage stamps to collectors. Trade. Niue generally imports approximately fifteen times as much as it exports. Usually, the primary trade item, taro, accounts for 85 percent of export earnings but is highly vulnerable to disruption from weather. In 1996, Niue experienced a 40 percent reduction in exports because of a severe drought; taro brought in only $90,000. In that year, imports reached a five-year high of $3.4 million. Along with food products and alcohol and tobacco, the major imported goods are consumer durables such as outboard motors, aluminum dinghies, refrigerators, and motorcycles. Division of Labor. Men, especially young men, are expected to undertake physically strenuous or dangerous tasks such as deep-sea fishing. Older men and educated younger men represent the family or village in civic and spiritual affairs. Women generally are assigned tasks focused on the domestic domain, such as caring for old people or children, cooking, sewing, and weaving. Niue is characterized by a lack of hereditary rulers, a very flexible social hierarchy, an individualistic achievement orientation, and a strong work ethic. More than by speech patterns, dress styles, comportment, or social interaction, differentiation into fluid socioeconomic strata depends on personal charisma or accomplishment and material wealth, such as ownership of aluminum fishing dinghies or outboard motors. Government. There is a democratically elected parliamentary government. The premier is chosen by a vote by the twenty elected representatives in the Fale Fono (Niuean Assembly). The formation of distinct political parties has been more discussed than realized. Political cleavage exists between those who do and those who do not wish to change the infrastructure initially set up by the New Zealand administration. Niueans over age 18 get two votes. One vote is to elect the village representative. These politicians tend to be older men with prestigious backgrounds, such as pastors, government officials, and successful planters and merchants. The second vote is used to elect six island-wide representatives or Common Roll members. These politicians often include women and tend to be younger than village representatives who have been educated abroad as teachers, doctors, or administrators. Hence, modern politics both conforms to a Polynesian tradition of gerontocracy by having elders represent individual villages and deviates from that convention by rewarding individual achievement and expertise in new arenas. Social Problems and Control. A small police force consisting of a chief and a constable assigned to each village maintains law and order. Most criminal acts are relatively minor misdemeanors (petty theft, unsafe driving, allowing pigs to wander) and are dealt with locally by warnings or small fines. More serious crimes, such as assault, are prosecuted in the magistrate's court and may result in large frees or imprisonment. Basic social welfare programs exist. For example, free nutrition supplements are available to ensure the health and well-being of young children, and older people receive a modest pension. Various voluntary associations include a trade union for government employees, women's groups, sports teams, church choirs, dance groups, and youth groups. Although women are not automatically accorded the sociopolitical status that men achieve after marriage, women can achieve positions of authority and influence, especially at older ages, through education and by demonstrating effective leadership. As important as gender in assigning tasks and respect is chronological age. Those who are older are respected and deferred to not just because of family background, experience, and accomplishments but because they are older. Attention to relative age is linguistically signaled and bolstered by the social, religious, economic, and political organization of life. Domestic Unit. In the past, villages were endogamous, somewhat matrifocal units. The mixing of youth from all villages at the high school has caused the breakdown of this tradition, and that of the Motu-Tafiti rivalry. People live in extended family groups called magafaoa , which oversee land ownership and use. Villages are composed of related magafaoa. Households within a magafaoa occupy clusters of nearby dwellings. The head of a household is usually a married man ( patu ) who represents his domestic unit in church and village politics. Also living in his household are his wife and unmarried children, any recently married children and their spouses, and some grandchildren. Frequently, a household includes a sibling of the patu or of his spouse, a widowed older relative, or a niece or nephew who goes to a nearby school. Infant Care. Mothers are the primary caregivers for infants. Grandmothers are crucial resources, especially for firstborn children, because they teach new mothers how to parent properly. A child who crawls and begins to talk is thought to be capable of understanding. When a child is around one year old, the indulgent period of infancy gives way to intense training in social behaviors and a heightening of the role that fathers play in the lives of their children. A child is the responsibility of all members of a magafaoa and may be fed, clothed, chastised, and cared for by any family member; the child thus may end up living in a different household temporarily or permanently. While at play, toddlers and young children are usually in the care of older siblings. Child Rearing and Education. There are six elementary schools and one high school. Schooling is compulsory, secular, and free for all children age 5 to 14. At more advanced grades, instruction is delivered in English. The curriculum is modeled on that used in New Zealand schools but includes materials especially designed for a Pacific Islander context. Higher Education. Postsecondary education at the university or technical college level is available only overseas. Students are selected for further training and supported by government scholarships and then return to take up government jobs, such as physicians or nurses, engineers, technicians, administrators and managers, teachers, and mechanics. Niuean society is a gerontocracy based on obedience to and respect for those who are older than oneself, with special accord being given to males and those who are first-borns. Gifts (e.g., food, shell necklaces, money) are frequently exchanged informally as well as formally, signaling esteem and friendship, and are expected to be reciprocated at some later time. The first missionaries to arrive in the mid-nineteenth century were Samoan. They were followed in 1861 by English representatives of the London Missionary Society. Most Niueans are Christian, with the majority (75 percent) being affiliated with the Protestant Church of Niue ( Ekalesia Niue ). In general, pastors are men trained in seminaries in Samoa or elsewhere who play a central role in village life as spiritual and civic leaders. To varying degrees, most Niueans still embrace older religious ideas, believing in a supernatural world inhabited by aitu , spirits of dead ancestors or ghosts. Aitu keep a close eye on behavior and punish with misfortune, illness, or even death upon individuals who transgress social norms or flout cultural conventions. Death implies movement from this world to a parallel supernatural world inhabited by ghosts and ancestral spirits. Death is not necessarily instantaneous but rather a gradual transition, as implied by use of the same word, mate , to denote states distinguished in other cultures as delirious, unconscious, dying, and dead. Any location at which an unexpected or violent death occurs will have a fono or prohibition placed on it, distancing the living from the revenge of ancestral sprits. Until the appropriate time for a pastor to lift this tapu (supernatural edict), people will not visit or will behave there in a very circumspect fashion. Caves or chasms with a history of importance in human affairs are named and treated with respect because of supernatural associations. High-quality (Western) biomedical care is available free of charge. Emergency services and in-patient care for surgical conditions are provided at Lord Liverpool Hospital in Alofi. Patients requiring specialist care are sent by air to nearby countries. Outpatient care is available at several clinics, including a mobile one that regularly visits each village. Public health surveillance and the prevention of disease are a key aspect of health service delivery. This is accomplished through sanitary disposal of wastes, provision of potable water, rodent and mosquito control, and well-baby clinics and childhood vaccination programs. Herbalists and traditional healers ( taulaatua ) address psychosocial issues that do not always respond well to other therapies as well as diseases that are deemed to be uniquely Niuean in origin and manifestation. Despite an official ban, there is underground support for and provision of this kind of care. There are two official days of celebration: Peniamina's Day and Independence Day. Peniamina was a Niuean who went to Samoa in the mid-nineteenth century and later returned with Samoan missionaries. He is credited with bringing the Bible and beginning the modernization of Niue. Independence from New Zealand was granted on 19 October 1974, a process begun fourteen years earlier. Niueans resisted being hurried to independence even when the United Nations applied pressure. At stake was the fashioning of the world's first Compact of Free Association—a model used subsequently in independence agreements by other Pacific societies— which gave Niueans self-determination but continued New Zealand citizenship, monetary aid, and military protection. Niueans do not have a strong interest in preserving their history by collecting artifacts or through oral storytelling or the recitation of genealogies. Traditional dances and songs are featured at important events such as weddings and official ceremonies. A recent surge of interest in history has resulted in the establishment of a small museum in Alofi and the revival of several handicrafts, such as the building of canoes by hand and the making of hiapo , a mulberry bark cloth. Some returned migrants make a living through the arts, such as sculpture, writing, painting, and composing music. Such endeavors, however, are aimed more at an overseas commercial art market than at the local community. Most funding for the arts comes from overseas; the New Zealand government is interested in fostering and maintaining traditional Pacific arts and crafts. Barker, Judith C. Social Organization of Health Services for Preschool Children on Niue Island, Western Polynesia , 1985. ——. "Health and Functional Status of the Elderly in a Polynesian Population." Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology 4: 163–194, 1989. ——. "Home Alone: The Effects of Out-Migration on Niuean Elders' Living Arrangements and Social Support." Pacific Studies 17 (3): 41–81, 1994. ——. "Between Humans and Ghosts: The Decrepit Elderly on a Polynesian island." In Jay Sokolovsky, ed., The Cultural Context of Aging: Worldwide Perspectives, rev. 2nd ed., 1997. ——. "Road Warriors: Driving Behaviors on a Polynesian Island." In Robert A. Hahn, ed., Anthropology in Public and International Health: Bridging Differences in Culture and Society . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Chapman, Terry M. The Decolonization of Niue, 1976. Connell, John C. Migration, Employment and Development in the South Pacific: Country Report Number 11—Niue, 1983. Loeb, Edwin M. "History and Traditions of Niue." Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin no. 32, 1926. McBean, Angus. "Niue Today . . . " South Pacific Bulletin October 1962, pp. 33–37, 60–64. McLachlan, Sue. "Savage Island or Savage History? An Interpretation of Early European Contact with Niue." Pacific Studies 6: 26–51, 1982. Niue Government. Niue: A History of the Island, 1982. Pollock, Nancy J. "Work, Wages and Shifting Cultivation on Niue." Pacific Studies 2: 132–143, 1979. Scott, Dick. Would a Good Man Die? Niue Island, New Zealand and the Late Mr. Larsen, 1993. Yarwood, Vaughn, with photographs by Glenn Jowitt. "Life on the Rock." New Zealand Geographic 37: 56– 86, 1998. —J UDITH C. B ARKER

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Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization, Western lifestyle or European civilization is a term used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems, and specific artifacts and technologies that have some origin or association with Europe, having both indigenous and foreign origin. The term has come to be applied by people of European ethnicity to countries whose history is strongly marked by European immigration, colonisation, and influence, such as the continents of the Americas and Australasia, whose current demographic majority is of European ethnicity, and is not restricted to the continent of Europe. Western culture is characterized by a host of artistic, philosophic, literary, and legal themes and traditions; the heritage of Greek, Roman, Celtic, Germanic Jewish, and other ethnic and linguistic groups, as well as Christianity, including the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church, which played an important part in the shaping of Western civilization since at least the 4th century. Also contributing to Western thought, in ancient times and then in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance onwards, a tradition of rationalism in various spheres of life, developed by Hellenistic philosophy, Scholasticism, humanism, the Scientific revolution and the Enlightenment. Values of Western culture have, throughout history, been derived from political thought, widespread employment of rational argument favouring freethought, assimilation of human rights, the need for equality, and democracy. Historical records of Western culture in Europe begin with Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Western culture continued to develop with Christianisation during the Middle Ages, the reform and modernization triggered by the Renaissance, and with globalization by successive European empires, that spread European ways of life and European educational methods around the world between the 16th and 20th centuries. European culture developed with a complex range of philosophy, medieval scholasticism and mysticism, and Christian and secular humanism. Rational thinking developed through a long age of change and formation, with the experiments of the Enlightenment, and breakthroughs in the sciences. Tendencies that have come to define modern Western societies include the existence of political pluralism, prominent subcultures or countercultures (such as New Age movements), and increasing cultural syncretism resulting from globalization and human migration. The West as a geographical area is unclear. There is some disagreement about what nations should or should not be included in the category, and at what times. Many parts of the Eastern Roman Empire are considered Western today, but were Eastern in the past. Geographically, the "West" of today would include Europe (especially the European Union countries) together with extraeuropean territories belonging to the Anglosphere, as well as the Hispanidad, the Lusosphere or the Francophonie in the wider context. Since the context is highly biased and context-dependent, there is no agreed definition what the "West" is. It is difficult to determine which individuals fit into which category, and the East–West contrast is sometimes criticized as relativistic and arbitrary. Globalism has spread Western ideas so widely that almost all modern cultures are, to some extent, influenced by aspects of Western culture. Stereotyped views of "the West" have been labelled Occidentalism, paralleling Orientalism — the term for the 19th-century stereotyped views of "the East". As Europe discovered the wider world, old concepts adapted. The area that had formerly been considered the Orient ("the East") became the Near East, as the interests of the European powers interfered with Qing China and Meiji Japan for the first time, in the 19th century. Thus, the Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895 occurred in the Far East, while the troubles surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire simultaneously occurred in the Near East. The term Middle East, in the mid-19th century, included the territory east of the Ottoman Empire but West of China - i.e. Greater Persia and Greater India, but is now used synonymously with: Near East in most languages. The earliest civilizations which influenced the development of western culture were those of Mesopotamia; the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran: the cradle of civilization. The Greeks contrasted themselves to their Eastern neighbours, such as the Trojans in Iliad, setting an example for later contrasts between east and west. In the Middle Ages, the Near East provided a contrast to the West, though it had been Hellenized since the time of Alexander the Great. Concepts of what is the West arose out of legacies of the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Later, ideas of the west were formed by the concepts of Latin Christendom and the Holy Roman Empire. What we think of as Western thought today originates primarily from Greco-Roman and Germanic influences, and includes the ideals of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, as well as Christian culture. Western culture is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. As with all other cultures it has evolved and gradually changed over time. Nevertheless, it is possible to follow the evolution and history of the West, and appreciate its similarities and differences, its borrowings from, and contributions to, other cultures of humanity. In Homeric literature, and right up until the time of Alexander the Great, for example in the accounts of the Persian Wars of Greeks against Persians by Herodotus, we see the paradigm of a contrast between the West and East. Nevertheless, the Greeks felt they were the most civilized and saw themselves (in the formulation of Aristotle) as something between the so-called wild barbarians of most of Europe and the soft, slavish Middle-Easterners. Ancient Greek science, philosophy, democracy, architecture, literature, and art provided a foundation embraced and built upon by the Roman Empire as it swept up Europe, including the Hellenic World in its conquests in the 1st century BC. In the meantime however, Greece, under Alexander, had become a capital of the East, and part of an empire. The Celts also created some significant literature in the ancient world whenever they were given the opportunity (an example being the poet Caecilius Statius). They also developed a large amount of scientific knowledge themselves, as seen in their Coligny Calendar. For about five hundred years, the Roman Empire maintained the Greek East and consolidated a Latin West, but an East-West division remained, reflected in many cultural norms of the two areas, including language. Although Rome, like Greece, was no longer democratic, the idea of democracy remained a part of the education of citizens. Eventually the empire became increasingly split into a Western and Eastern part, reviving old ideas of a contrast between an advanced East, and a rugged West. In the Roman world one could speak of three main directions; North (Celtic tribal states nd Parthians), the East (lux ex oriente), and finally South, which implied danger, historically via the Punic wars (Quid novi ex Africa?) The West was peaceful – it contained only the Mediterranean. Christianity emerged from Judaism on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and both spread around the Roman world, with Christianity being the more popular religion. With the rise of Christianity, much of Rome's tradition and culture were reshaped by that religion, and transformed into something new, which would serve as the basis for the development of Western civilization after the fall of Rome. Also, Roman culture mixed with Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures, which slowly became integrated into Western culture starting, mainly, with their acceptance of Christianity. The Medieval West was at its broadest the same as Christendom, including both the "Latin" West, also called "Frankish" during Charlemagne's reign, and the Orthodox Eastern part, where Greek remained the language of empire. After the fall of Rome much of Greco-Roman art, literature, science and even technology were all but lost in the western part of the old empire. However, this would become the centre of a new West. Europe fell into political anarchy, with many warring kingdoms and principalities. Under the Frankish kings, it eventually, and partially, reunified, and the anarchy evolved into feudalism. Much of the basis of the post-Roman cultural world had been set before the fall of the Empire, mainly through the integration and reshaping of Roman ideas through Christian thought. The Greek and Roman paganism had been completely replaced by Christianity around the 4th and 5th centuries, since it became the official State religion following the baptism of emperor Constantine I. Roman Catholic Christianity and the Nicene Creed served as a unifying force in Christian parts of Europe, and in some respects replaced or competed with the secular authorities. Art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church, in an environment that, otherwise, would have probably seen their loss. The Church founded many cathedrals, universities, monasteries and seminaries, some of which continue to exist today. In a broader sense, the Middle Ages, with its fertile encounter between Greek philosophical reasoning and Levantine monotheism was not confined to the West but also stretched into the old East. The philosophy and science of Classical Greece was largely forgotten in Europe after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, other than in isolated monastic enclaves (notably in Ireland, which had become Christian but was never conquered by Rome). The learning of Classical Antiquity was better preserved in the Byzantine Eastern Roman Empire. Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis Roman civil law code was preserved in the East and Constantinople maintained trade and intermittent political control over outposts such as Venice in the West for centuries. Classical Greek learning was also subsumed, preserved and elaborated in the rising Eastern world, which gradually supplanted Roman-Byzantine control as a dominant cultural-political force. Thus, much of the learning of classical antiquity was slowly reintroduced to European civilisation in the centuries following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The rediscovery of the Justinian Code in Western Europe early in the 10th century rekindled a passion for the discipline of law, which crossed many of the re-forming boundaries between East and West. In the Catholic or Frankish west, Roman law became the foundation on which all legal concepts and systems were based. Its influence is found in all Western legal systems, although in different manners and to different extents. The study of canon law, the legal system of the Catholic Church, fused with that of Roman law to form the basis of the refounding of Western legal scholarship. During the Reformation and Enlightenment, the ideas of civil rights, equality before the law, procedural justice, and democracy as the ideal form of society began to be institutionalized as principles forming the basis of modern Western culture, particularly in Protestant regions. In the 14th century, starting from Italy and then spreading throughout Europe, there was a massive artistic, architectural, scientific and philosophical revival, as a result of an increased interest for Classical antiquity. This period is commonly referred to as the Renaissance. In the following century, this process was further enhanced by an exodus of Greek Christian priests and scholars to Italian cities such as Venice after the end of the Byzantine Empire with the fall of Constantinople. From Late Antiquity, through the Middle Ages, and onwards, while Eastern Europe was shaped by the Orthodox Church, Southern and Central Europe were increasingly stabilized by the Catholic Church which, as Roman imperial governance faded from view, was the only consistent force in Western Europe. In 1054 came the so-called Great Schism that, following the Greek East and Latin West divide, separated Europe into religious and cultural regions present to this day. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture took over as the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science for many years. Movements in art and philosophy, such as the Humanist movement of the Renaissance and the Scholastic movement of the High Middle Ages, were motivated by a drive to connect Catholicism with Greek and Arab thought imported by Christian pilgrims. However, due to the division in Western Christianity caused by the Protestant Reformation and the Enlightenment, religious influence - especially the temporal power of the Pope - began to wane. From the late 15th century to the 17th century, Western culture began to spread to other parts of the world through explorers and missionaries during the Age of Discovery, and by imperialists from the 17th century to the early 20th century. During the Great Divergence, a term coined by Samuel Huntington the Western world overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the most powerful and wealthy world civilization of the time, eclipsing Qing China, Mughal India, Tokugawa Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. The process was accompanied and reinforced by the Age of Discovery and continued into the modern period. Scholars have proposed a wide variety of theories to explain why the Great Divergence happened, including lack of government intervention, geography, colonialism, and customary traditions. Coming into the modern era, the historical understanding of the East-West contrast – as the opposition of Christendom to its geographical neighbors – began to weaken. As religion became less important, and Europeans came into increasing contact with far away peoples, the old concept of Western culture began a slow evolution towards what it is today. The Age of Discovery faded into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, during which cultural and intellectual forces in Western Europe emphasized reason, analysis, and individualism rather than traditional lines of authority. It challenged the authority of institutions that were deeply rooted in society, such as the Catholic Church; there was much talk of ways to reform society with toleration, science and skepticism. Philosophers of the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Voltaire (1694–1778), David Hume, and Immanuel Kant. influenced society by publishing widely read works. Upon learning about enlightened views, some rulers met with intellectuals and tried to apply their reforms, such as allowing for toleration, or accepting multiple religions, in what became known as enlightened absolutism. New ideas and beliefs spread around Europe and were fostered by an increase in literacy due to a departure from solely religious texts. Publications include Encyclopédie (1751–72) that was edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire spread the ideals of the Enlightenment. Coinciding with the Age of Enlightenment was the scientific revolution, spearheaded by Newton. This included the emergence of modern science, during which developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed views of society and nature. While its dates are disputed, the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution, and its completion is attributed to the "grand synthesis" of Newton's 1687 Principia. The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools. These transitions began in Great Britain, and spread to Western Europe and North America within a few decades.The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries. The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants and fire. The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steam-powered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories. Some cultural and artistic modalities are characteristically Western in origin and form. While dance, music, visual art, story-telling, and architecture are human universals, they are expressed in the West in certain characteristic ways. In Western dance, music, plays and other arts, the performers are only very infrequently masked. There are essentially no taboos against depicting a god, or other religious figures, in a representational fashion. The symphony, concerto, sonata, opera and oratorio have their origins in Italy. Many important musical instruments used by cultures all over the world were also developed in the West; among them are the violin, piano, pipe organ, saxophone, trombone, clarinet, accordion, and the theremin. The solo piano, symphony orchestra and the string quartet are also important performing musical forms. Many forms of popular music have been derived from African-Americans, and their innovations of jazz and blues serve as the basis from which much of modern popular music derives. Folklore and music during 19th and 20th centuries, initially by themselves, but later played and further developed together with White and Black Americans, British people, and Westerners in general. These include jazz, blues and rock music (that in a wider sense include the rock and roll and heavy metal genres), rhythm and blues, funk, Hip-Hop, techno as well as the ska and reggae genres from Jamaica. Several other related or derived styles were developed and introduced by Western pop culture such as pop, metal and dance music. Jan van Eyck, among other renaissance painters, made great advances in oil painting, and perspective drawings and paintings had their earliest practitioners in Florence. In art, the Celtic knot is a very distinctive Western repeated motif. Depictions of the nude human male and female in photography, painting and sculpture are frequently considered to have special artistic merit. Realistic portraiture is especially valued. Photography, and the motion picture as both a technology and basis for entirely new art forms, were also developed in the West. The ballet is a distinctively Western form of performance dance. The ballroom dance is an important Western variety of dance for the elite. The polka, the square dance, and the Irish step dance are very well known Western forms of folk dance. The soap opera, a popular culture dramatic form, originated in the United States first on radio in the 1930s, then a couple of decades later on television. The music video was also developed in the West in the middle of the 20th century. While epic literary works in verse such as the Mahabharata and Homer's Iliad are ancient and occurred worldwide, the prose novel as a distinct form of storytelling, with developed, consistent human characters and, typically, some connected overall plot (although both of these characteristics have sometimes been modified and played with in later times), was popularized by the West in the 17th and 18th centuries. Of course extended prose fiction had existed much earlier; both novels of adventure and romance in the Hellenistic world and in Heian Japan. Both Petronius' Satyricon (ca 60 CE) and the Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu (ca 1000 CE) have been cited as the world's first major novel but they had very limited long-term impact on literary writing beyond their own day until much more recent times. Tragedy, from its ritually and mythologically inspired Greek origins to modern forms where struggle and downfall are often rooted in psychological or social, rather than mythical, motives, is also widely considered a specifically European creation, and can be seen as a forerunner of some aspects of both the novel and of classical opera. Important Western architectural motifs include the Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic columns, and the Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque, and Victorian styles are still widely recognised, and used even today, in the West. Much of Western architecture emphasizes repetition of simple motifs, straight lines and expansive, undecorated planes. A modern ubiquitous architectural form that emphasizes this characteristic is the skyscraper, first developed in New York, London, and Chicago. See main article: Western media. The Western media refers to the news media of the Western world. It is mainly characterized by the freedom of the press, and has gradually expanded into developing countries. In recent years, many Western media outlets have seen their circulation figures stagnate. Despite the slowing of its growth, the mainstream Western media continues to be perceived as a fair, independent and objective medium of news reporting. The roots of the Western media can be traced back to the late 15th century, when printing presses began to operate throughout Western Europe. The emergence of news media in the 17th century has to be seen in close connection with the spread of the printing press, from which the publishing press derives its name. The western media has gradually expanded into developing countries, with significant news coverage focused on various human rights issues in Africa, America, Asia, Europe and Oceania. In authoritarian regimes, exposure to Western media is generally considered to be a measure of political openness. The native religions of Europe were polytheistic but not homogenous – however they were similar insofar as they were predominantly Indo-European in origin. Roman religion was similar to but not the same as Hellenic religion - likewise the same for indigenous Germanic polytheism, Celtic polytheism and Slavic polytheism. Western culture, for at least the last 1000 years, has been considered nearly synonymous with Christian culture. Before this time many Europeans from the north, especially Scandinavians, remained polytheistic, though southern Europe was predominantly Christian from the 5th century onwards. As in other areas, Judaism is found in the Western world. Minority groups, and Jews in particular, often had to contend with discrimination and persecution. This could include being subjected to violence and/or destruction of property (this may be referred to as a pogrom) as well as being expelled or banned from various polities, hoping to find havens in other places. Religion has waned considerably in Europe, where many are today irreligious, agnostic or atheist and they make up about 18.2% of the European population. In terms of irreligion, over half of the populations of the Czech Republic (79.4% of the population was agnostic, atheist or irreligious), the United Kingdom (~25%), Germany (25-33%), France (22-35%) and the Netherlands (39–44%) are agnostic, atheist, or otherwise non-religious. However, per another survey by Pew Research Center from 2011, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world where 70% are Christians, According to this survey, 76% of Europeans described themselves as Christians, and about 86.0% of the Americas population consider themselves Christians, (90% in Latin America and 77.4% in North America). And 73.3% in Oceania are self-identify as Christian. Throughout the Western world there are increasing numbers of people who seek to revive the indigenous religions of their European ancestors, such groups include Germanic, Roman, Hellenic, Celtic and Slavic, polytheistic reconstructionist movements, likewise, Wicca, new age spirituality and other neo-pagan belief systems enjoy notable minority support in Western nations. Since classical antiquity, sport has been an important facet of Western cultural expression. A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sports in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sports became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia. Baron Pierre de Coubertin, a Frenchman, instigated the modern revival of the Olympic movement. The first modern Olympics were held at Athens in 1896. The Romans built immense structures such as the Colisseum in Rome to house their festivals of sport. The Romans exhibited a passion for blood sports, such as the infamous Gladiatorial battles that pitted contestants against one another in a fight to the death. The Olympic Games revived many of the sports of Classical Antiquity - such as Greco-Roman wrestling, discus and javelin.The sport of bullfighting is a traditional spectacle of Spain, Portugal, southern France, and some Latin American countries. It traces its roots to prehistoric bull worship and sacrifice and is often linked to Rome, where many human-versus-animal events were held. Bullfighting spread from Spain to its Central and South American colonies, and in the 19th century to France, where it developed into a distinctive form in its own right. Jousting and hunting were popular sports in the Western Europe of the Middle Ages, and the aristocratic classes of Europe developed passions for leisure activities. A great number of the popular global sports were first developed or codified in Europe. The modern game of golf originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James II's banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. The Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the 18th Century brought increased leisure time, leading to more time for citizens to attend and follow spectator sports, greater participation in athletic activities, and increased accessibility. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. The bat and ball sport of cricket was first played in England during the 16th century and was exported around the globe via the British Empire. A number of popular modern sports were devised or codified in Britain during the 19th Century and obtained global prominence – these include Ping Pong, modern tennis, Association Football, Netball and Rugby. Football (also known as soccer) remains hugely popular in Europe, but has grown from its origins to be known as the world game. Similarly, sports such as cricket, rugby, and netball were exported around the world, particularly among countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, thus India and Australia are among the strongest cricketing nations, while victory in the Rugby World Cup has been shared among the Western nations of New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and England. Australian Rules Football, an Australian variation of football with similarities to Gaelic football and rugby evolved in the British colony of Victoria in the mid-19th century. The United States also developed unique variations of English sports. English migrants took antecedents of baseball to America during the colonial period. The history of American football can be traced to early versions of rugby football and association football. Many games known as "football" were being played at colleges and universities in the United States in the first half of the 19th century American football resulted from several major divergences from rugby, most notably the rule changes instituted by Walter Camp, the "Father of American Football". Basketball was invented in 1891 by James Naismith, a Canadian physical education instructor working in Springfield, Massachusetts in the United States. From these American origins, basketball has become one of the great international participation sports. Professionalism in sport in the West became prevalent during the 20th Century, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans began following the exploits of professional athletes through radio, television, and the internet—all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. A notable feature of Western culture is its strong emphasis and focus on innovation and invention through science and technology, and its ability to generate new processes, materials and material artifacts with its roots dating back to the Ancient Greeks. It was the West that first developed steam power and adapted its use into factories, and for the generation of electrical power. The electrical motor, dynamo, transformer, and electric light, and indeed most of the familiar electrical appliances, were inventions of the West. The Otto and the Diesel internal combustion engines are products whose genesis and early development were in the West. Nuclear power stations are derived from the first atomic pile constructed in Chicago in 1942. Communication devices and systems including the telegraph, the telephone, radio, television, communication and navigation satellites, mobile phone, and the Internet were all invented by Westerners. The pencil, ballpoint pen, CRT, LCD, LED, camera, photocopier, laser printer, ink jet printer, plasma display screen and world wide web were also invented in the West. Ubiquitous materials including concrete, aluminium, clear glass, synthetic rubber, synthetic diamond and the plastics polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC and polystyrene were invented in the West. Iron and steel ships, bridges and skyscrapers first appeared in the West. Nitrogen fixation and petrochemicals were invented by Westerners. Most of the elements, were discovered and named in the West, as well as the contemporary atomic theories to explain them. The transistor, integrated circuit, memory chip, and computer were all first seen in the West. The ship's chronometer, the screw propeller, the locomotive, bicycle, automobile, and aeroplane were all invented in the West. Eyeglasses, the telescope, the microscope and electron microscope, all the varieties of chromatography, protein and DNA sequencing, computerised tomography, NMR, x-rays, and light, ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy, were all first developed and applied in Western laboratories, hospitals and factories. In medicine, the pure antibiotics were created in the West. The method of preventing Rh disease, the treatment of diabetes, and the germ theory of disease were discovered by Westerners. The eradication of smallpox, was led by a Westerner, Donald Henderson. Radiography, Computed tomography, Positron emission tomography and Medical ultrasonography are important diagnostic tools developed in the West. Other important diagnostic tools of clinical chemistry including the methods of spectrophotometry, electrophoresis and immunoassay were first devised by Westerners. So were the stethoscope, electrocardiograph, and the endoscope. Vitamins, hormonal contraception, hormones, insulin, Beta blockers and ACE inhibitors, along with a host of other medically proven drugs were first utilized to treat disease in the West. The double-blind study and evidence-based medicine are critical scientific techniques widely used in the West for medical purposes. In mathematics, calculus, statistics, logic, vectors, tensors and complex analysis, group theory and topology were developed by Westerners. In biology, evolution, chromosomes, DNA, genetics and the methods of molecular biology are creatures of the West. In physics, the science of mechanics and quantum mechanics, relativity, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics were all developed by Westerners. The discoveries and inventions by Westerners in electromagnetism include Coulomb's law (1785), the first battery (1800), the unity of electricity and magnetism (1820), Biot–Savart law (1820), Ohm's Law (1827), and the Maxwell's equations (1871). The atom, nucleus, electron, neutron and proton were all unveiled by Westerners. Westerners are also known for their explorations of the globe and outer space. The first expedition to circumnavigate the Earth (1522) was by Westerners, as well as the first journey to the South Pole (1911), and the first moon landing (1969). The landing of robots on Mars (2004 and 2012) and on an asteroid (2001), the Voyager explorations of the outer planets (Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989), and Voyager 1's passage into interstellar space (2013) were significant recent Western achievements. Western culture has developed many themes and traditions, the most significant of which are: Elements of Western culture have had a very influential effect on other cultures worldwide. People of many cultures, both Western and non-Western, equate modernization (adoption of technological progress) with Westernization (adoption of Western culture).

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2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Films Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film (also called filmstock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, photoplay, flick, and most commonly, movie. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema, and the movies. Films are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using animation techniques and/or special effects. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Flickering between frames is not seen due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion; a psychological effect identified as beta movement. Film is considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them. History of film Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the zoetrope and the praxinoscope. These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as magic lanterns), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect — and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film animation. With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures. By the 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures." Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques. Motion pictures were purely visual art up to the late 19th century, but these innovative silent films had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the twentieth century, films began developing a narrative structure by stringing scenes together to tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theatre owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete film scores being composed for major productions. The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood. However in the 1920s, European filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and F. W. Murnau, along with American innovator D. W. Griffith and the contributions of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, continued to advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound films were initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies. The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of colour. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white. But as colour processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color an essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. By the end of the 1960s, colour had become the norm for film makers. Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production and style of film. New Hollywood, French New Wave and the rise of film school educated, independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th Century. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st Century. Film theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of film/cinema as art. Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, narrativity, diegesis, cinematic codes, "the image", genre, subjectivity, and authorship. More recent analysis has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others. Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. In general, these works can be divided into two categories; academic criticism by film scholars, and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media. Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact on films, especially those of certain genres. Mass marketed action, horror, and comedy films tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a film. The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film. For prestige films such as most dramas, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a film to obscurity and financial loss. The impact of a reviewer on a given film's box office performance is a matter of debate. Some claim that movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies which were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films. Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result. It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films. This line of work is more often known as film theory or film studies. These film critics attempt to come to understand how film and filming techniques work, and what effect they have on people. Rather than having their works published in newspapers or appear on television, their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities. Motion picture industry The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the process was invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Already by 1917, Charlie Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars. In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the Indian film industry (primarily centered around " Bollywood") annually produces the largest number of films in the world. Whether the ten thousand-plus features a year produced by the Valley porn industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate. Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish. Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of filmmaking; many films have large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner's Waterworld. Yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also known as The Oscars) are the most prominent film awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits. Also, film quickly came to be used in education, in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts. Stages of filmmaking The nature of the film determines the size and type of crew required during filmmaking. Many Hollywood adventure films need computer generated imagery (CGI), created by dozens of 3D modellers, animators, rotoscopers and compositors. However, a low-budget, independent film may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Filmmaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American studio system. A typical Hollywood-style filmmaking Production cycle comprises five main stages: This production cycle typically takes three years. The first year is taken up with development. The second year comprises preproduction and production. The third year, post-production and distribution. A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. Independent filmmaking often takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. An independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a major movie studio. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie film scene in the late 20th and early 21st century. Creatively, it was becoming increasingly difficult to get studio backing for experimental films. Experimental elements in theme and style are inhibitors for the big studios. On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. The problem is exacerbated by the trend towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by Warner Bros. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987). An unproven director is almost never given the opportunity to get his or her big break with the studios unless he or she has significant industry experience in film or television. They also rarely produce films with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles. Until the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film. The cost of 35 mm film is outpacing inflation: in 2002 alone, film negative costs were up 23%, according to Variety. Film requires expensive lighting and post-production facilities. But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer. Technologies such as DVDs, FireWire connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere Pro and Apple's Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Apple's Final Cut Express and iMovie make movie-making relatively inexpensive. Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution. Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process. File formats like GIF, QuickTime, Shockwave and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet. Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of independent animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry. Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized (some say exploited) by Hanna-Barbera, and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television. Although most animation studios are now using digital technologies in their productions, there is a specific style of animation that depends on film. Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of film, and then run through a projector. When it is initially produced, a film is normally shown to audiences in a movie theatre or cinema. The first theatre designed exclusively for cinema opened in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1905. Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years. In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents). Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or feature film). There were "double features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theatre for a lump sum, and a "B picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film (those in theaters) consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as trailers or " The Twenty"). Originally, all films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision — see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies. Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or direct-to-video movies. These are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases. And indeed, some films that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are dumped into these markets. The movie theatre pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental fees. The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theatre count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view). Development of film technology Film stock consists of transparent celluloid, polyester, or acetate base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Stock widths and the film format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints. Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 16 frames per second is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16-23 fps and projected from 18 fps on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown) . When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras — allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design — allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously. As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save colour films through the use of separation masters — three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process). Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Film preservation of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color films, due to their high decay rates; black and white films on safety bases and colour films preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage. Some films in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in television production. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on film. Endurance of films Films have been around for more than a century; however this is not long when one considers it in relation to other arts like painting and sculpture. There was a perceived "threat" by television during the early 1950's, especially when the FCC expanded television during its 1952 TV license expansion. Trade magazines were publishing articles on the "death' of local theatres. Nonetheless, many at present believe that film will be a long enduring art form because motion pictures appeal to diverse human emotions. Apart from societal norms and cultural changes, there are still close resemblances between theatrical plays throughout the ages and films of today. Romantic motion pictures about a girl loving a guy but not being able to be together for some reason, movies about a hero who fights against all odds a more powerful fiendish enemy, comedies about everyday life, etc. all involve plots with common threads that existed in books, plays and other venues.

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- Anonymity is the state of not being identifiable. The possibility of being anonymous is often considered a cornerstone of democracy, since without it there is the possibility that nobody will dare to give opposing views, or to vote differently from the majority. — “anonymity - Anarchopedia”, - 'Incognito' is a CD that allows you to browse, blog, email and chat in complete anonymity wherever you happen to be. 'Anonymity Anywhere' is a CD that allows you to browse, blog, email and chat in complete anonymity wherever you happen to be. — “ - Home”, - Allows users to browse the Web anonymously, and evade URL and IP filters. — “”, - Anonymity is the condition of being unknown, without a name or lacking an identity. The term is derived from the Greek word ανωνυμία, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness" Anonymity is also closely related to certain aspects of the problem of privacy. — “Anonymity - encyclopedia article - Citizendium”, - In the Proceedings of Designing Privacy Enhancing Technologies: Workshop on Design Issues in Anonymity and Unobservability, July 2000, pages 46-66. (BibTeX entry)· Towards an ***ysis of on Design Issues in Anonymity and Unobservability, July 2000, pages. — “Free Haven's Selected Papers in Anonymity”, - Anonymity is a shield from the tyranny of the majority. It thus exemplifies the purpose behind the Bill of Rights, and of the First Amendment in particular: to protect unpopular individuals from retaliation -- and their ideas from suppression -- at the hand of an intolerant society. — “EPIC - Internet Anonymity”, - Free speech and anonymity have always been important real-world societal issues and have been the topics of numerous heated court cases. These issues are becoming increasingly important as more people discover the digital world and find the need for anonymity in this new society. — “Anonymity on the Internet Must be Protected”, groups.csail.mit.edu - De-identifying data, however, provides no guarantee of anonymity. Among the techniques proposed for providing anonymity in the release of. microdata, the k-anonymity proposal. — “k-Anonymity”, spdp.dti.unimi.it - Definition of word from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary with audio pronunciations, thesaurus, Word of the Day, and word games. They are trying to protect their child's anonymity. — “Anonymity - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster”, merriam- - Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ανωνυμία, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, the term typically refers to a person, and often means that the personal identity, or personally identifiable. — “Anonymity - Psychology Wiki”, - anonymity (countable and uncountable; plural anonymities) (uncountable) The quality or state of being anonymous; anonymousness. anonymity in Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, G. & C. Merriam, 1913. — “anonymity - Wiktionary”, - Definition of anonymity in the Online Dictionary. Meaning of anonymity. Pronunciation of anonymity. Translations of anonymity. anonymity synonyms, anonymity antonyms. Information about anonymity in the free online English dictionary and. — “anonymity - definition of anonymity by the Free Online”, - Offers Ultimate Anonymity, featuring anonymous email, newsgroups, and web surfing. Participate in P2P file sharing protocols, chat rooms, IRC and other popular protocols with complete privacy and anonymity. — “Cyber Solutions”, ultimate- - anonymity properties that are of utility in modelling anything more than academic Anonymity provides a mechanism by which an individual may render their actions. — “Formalizing Anonymity - A Review”, www- - How is anonymity used on the Internet? How anonymous is an Internet user, and how can an Internet user achieve anonymity? What are the pros and cons of anonymity on the Internet? Is anonymity controlled by laws. — “Anonymity on the Internet”, people.dsv.su.se - Anonymity definition, the state or quality of being anonymous. See more. — “Anonymity | Define Anonymity at ”, - Anonamizing networks - Networks like tor are free to use, provide very high anonymity and privacy.They tunnel your connection encrypted through several proxies resulting in the fact that Learn more about anonymity if you really need to be anonymous. — “How to Be Online Anonymously - wikiHow”, - Guides, how-to's and information on anonymity and protecting your privacy. — “Anonymity & privacy information - ”, - Anonymity. Many people don't want the things they say online to be connected with their offline identities. For these individuals and the organizations that support them, secure anonymity is critical. — “Anonymity | Electronic Frontier Foundation”, - Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymity typically refers to the state of an individual's personal identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown. — “Anonymity - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”, - Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymity typically refers to the state of an individual's personal identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown. — “Anonymity facts - ”, - This paper constitutes a part of a seminar project on Anonymity on the Internet' at the Faculty of Law qualification of the right to anonymity needs a thoughtful approach of the concept itself, in proportion to. — “Definitions of Anonymity and its Dimensions in an Electronic”, users.skynet.be - Anonymity In French as in other literatures, anon.' is a prolific and impressive author. The Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes occupies four large. — “Anonymity: Information from ”, related videos for anonymity - ¿Anonymity? - This Guy check out Twig bust out this song in the practice room at 3B! - Frankel - "Anonymity is the New Fame" Frankel - "Anonymity is the New Fame" little- July 9, 2009 At a small house, somewhat tucked away in the trees and hillside, at the very end of one of the winding roads up behind the reservoir, I met up with Frankel, the musical pseudonym for Michael Orendy's songwriting. It was getting on to a point in the evening where the low sun drenched the living room and stretched the shadows, but the heat still lingered. There was an upright in the corner and a couple acoustic guitars and no real plan, except to play a few songs off his new album, Anonymity is the New Fame, released by Autumn Tone Records two weeks earlier. He sat down with a guitar, started tinkering out a little folky blues song called "Weary Mind," gently meandering its way into the opening, "Sometimes, I don't want to be myself at all," and suddenly you're hooked, following the imagery soaked storytelling as it swims between comfort and uneasiness, disillusion and acceptance. His voice is magnetic, but it's the deliberate, careful delivery that makes these songs so immediate and enthralling. Frankel gets the award for favorite home so far, although I'm a bit biased towards most things mid-century modern. He played three songs that day, all on guitar. Stripped away from the instrumentation of the album, to the heart of the songwriting, there's an endearing soulfulness and introspection that you can't help but be drawn to. Find out more about Frankel at: /frankel Camera: Elliot Glass ... - Censorship, Privacy, Anonymity, and Net Neutrality March 4, 2011 - Adam Beberg presents several topics related to daily life on the Internet, suitable for a wide and non-technical audience. His work over the last two decades has centered around Distributed Computing, Security, and Education. Censorship limits what can be found when looking for news and information. Privacy is far more important than in the past since everything one does on the Internet can come back to do damage years later. Anonymity has turned the world into a happy but deceptive place, safer for both whistle-blowers and criminals. Net Neutrality is a three-way crash between technology, business, and political realities, that may have serious consequences for future freedoms and business opportunities. Stanford University: www.stanford.edu Cee Lo Green - Forget You: Parisian Love: Stanford University Channel on YouTube: - Will Smartphones and Face Recognition Destroy Anonymity? Fraser Cain from Universe Today emailed in the question, "Will smartphones and face recognition destroy anonymity? Now that pretty much everyone has a smartphone, and face recognition is pretty good, and everyone has put photos of themselves on the Internet, are we about to have a complete loss of public anonymity?" There is a delicate balance that must be maintained. For every reason systems like these may be useful, there is a counter-argument against any stripping of anonymity. What do you think? Please leave a comment below with your take on this topic. http - Dance Chapter - Anonymity Anonymity 7" (1980) - Is Google+ Killing Anonymity? Facebook decided a couple of years ago that you have to use your real name to become a member and now Google Plus has made it their new policy as well. It's started a fierce debate, Randi Zuckerberg, former Facebook marketing director said "anonymity on the Internet has to go away." But there are a lot of people fighting back against this statement, and now a new website has been dedicated to the cause of anonymity, called, "My name is Me". Electronic Frontier Foundation's Eva Galperin weighs in. - SOURCE Barcelona 2010: Anonymity, Privacy, and Circumvention with Tor in the Real World Speaker: Sebastian Hahn The Tor network is the largest and well known anonymity network ever deployed.How does it work? Who uses it, where do they use it, and why do they use it? This talk will give a quick introduction to the Tor network, it will include real life examples of people using Tor to safeguard their use of the internet, and it will cover some of the current challenges facing the Tor network. If you've ever wondered about country-wide firewalls (both the technology and the social support behind them), geographically anonymous hosting, or practical privacy on the internet - this talk will be of interest. For more information visit: bit.ly To download the video visit: bit.ly - Your Online Identity: On The Line - 4: Anonymity A production of Interpersonal.tv, this presentation of the MIT ECAP Program, at ecitizen.mit.edu features Dazza Greenwood of the MIT Media Lab explaining online identity, privacy and calling for an Identity Bill of Rights - State Farm® - State Of Anonymity (Cheers) It seems these days, the more technologically connected we've become, the more isolated we've become on a human level. State Farm and our agents reach out and connect like no other company. When you trust a State Farm agent, they don't just call you a customer - they know you by name. - Internet Anonymity 101 This fun video will teach you how to protect yourself on the Internet using https, proxies and Tor. You will also learn the basics of how computers communicate and what they can tell hackers about you. - UN and China trying to remove online anonymity The world just keeps getting creepier and creepier The Communist regime in China, The NSA in America and the UN teaming up to track everyone online. What could possibly go wrong with that? - Building and Managing Online Communities: Anonymity, Defamation and Privacy, Oh My! This panel looks at the challenges, both legal and journalistic, facing journalism ventures that seek to build and maintain online communities, from article comments to community forums and blogs. Issues include the role of Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, dealing with and protecting anonymous commenters, and concerns regarding defamation and privacy. Patrick Carome - Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr LLP Bill Densmore - Consultant to Donald W. Reynolds Journalism Institute at University of Missouri and co-founder of CircLabs Inc. Eric Goldman - Associate Professor, Santa Clara University School of Law Jeff Howe - Contributing editor at and author of Crowdsourcing Barbara Wall - Vice President/Senior Associate General Counsel, Gannett Co. David Ardia (moderator) - Director, Citizen Media Law Project, Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University This panel is part of the Online Media Legal Network's 2010 conference "Journalism's Digital Transition: Unique Legal Challenges and Opportunities" held at Harvard Law School on Friday, April 9, 2010. Find more information here: - High Anonymity Proxy All proxies are not created equal . Visit www.anonymous- to learn why most proxies are not secure. If you want a high anonymity proxy, you need a professional service. - 25c3: Security and anonymity vulnerabilities in Tor Speaker: Roger Dingledine Past, present, and future There have been a number of exciting bugs and design flaws in Tor over the years, with effects ranging from complete anonymity compromise to remote code execution. Some of them are our fault, and some are the fault of components (libraries, browsers, operating systems) that we trusted. Further, the academic research community has been coming up with increasingly esoteric -- and increasingly effective! -- attacks against all anonymity designs, including Tor. Roger will walk through some of the most egregious bugs and design flaws we've had, and give some intuition about lessons learned building and deploying the largest distributed anonymity network ever. Then he'll outline the wide variety of current vulnerabilities we have, explain what they mean for our users, and talk about which ones we have a plan for and which ones will continue to be a pain for the coming years. Last, we'll speculate about categories and topics that are likely to introduce new problems in the future. More information about the 25th Chaos Communication Congress can be found via the Chaos Communication Congress website: bit.ly Source: bit.ly - Anonymity is a 'moot' point Christopher 'moot' Poole, founder of the controversial 4 imageboard, opens up to CNN after his recent TED talk. - TNTHII - anonymity Basically anonymity on the internet is good, it doesn't make us to do something that we wouldn't do, it is just an opportunity. Personally I don't believe in anonymity in a way as many other people believe, I know that everything can be traced to its original source and sometimes I just don't want to risk something like that. But most of the times I'm saying what I think anyway. As a research for this I was reading several articles about 4chan anonymity and about m00t, because obviously he is very insightful in this area. TrollsNews T-shirts ... seriously, you're gonna love them Please follow TrollsNews on facebook - http and if you like to be informed about very stupid things you can also follow TrollsNews on twitter - - The Anonymity Project - Spring 2009 Digital Ethnography Preview For the Spring 2009 Digital Ethnography course led by Michael Wesch. This is a compilation of trailers created by students for their Spring 2009 projects. For more information about our project, visit our research hub: There you will find links to student blogs, our wiki, our diigo links, notes, and other materials. - Judge who gave Venables anonymity speaks out The judge who granted anonymity to James Bulger's killer Jon Venables has spoken out in support of the Government. . Follow us on twitter at . - Tor - because privacy and anonymity matter Staying anonymous online can protect you in "real life." - The value of anonymity: a message to Randi Zuckerberg I'd love to know what people are saying behind my back. Video transcript: Follow me: - Tor: Building, Growing, and Extending Online Anonymity By Andrew Lewman A review and update on Tor, how open source solutions work well worldwide, where we're headed, and where we need help from developers like you. Tor is a tool to protect your online privacy and anonymity. We rely on thousands of volunteers to run our network, review our code, and help enhance the experience for all.FOSDEM (Free and Open Source Development European Meeting) is a European event centered around Free and Open Source software development. It is aimed at developers and all interested in the Free and Open Source news in the world. Its goals are to enable developers to meet and to promote the awareness and use of free and open source software. More info at - Anonymity Email me: danbrownuniverse@ Anonymity on the internet (wikipedia): bit.ly Anonymous (wikipedia): bit.ly Is the internet a human right? (video): bit.ly /////////////////////////// Jackthreads: Twitter: - Your opinion On: Anonymity in Internet by Paulo Coelho What about people who hide behind anonymity when they write comments in the internet? In my opinion this is the dark side when you are empowered by the fact that you dont have to be liable for your opinions. Im saying this because I met Jeff Jarvis from and Michael Arrington from and they told me that they are insulted every single day and in the case of Arrington someone even spat on his face. If we stood by our opinions, I think we should put our name next to it. However, if you go to any newspaper site and click on comments, you see that most people use nicknames in order to insult what people do. So, I would like to hear your opinion on anonymity in the internet. - Psychosocial Impacts of Internet Anonymity [HD] This brief informational video is intended to spread awareness of the causes of unintended and problematic behavior on the web. The internet's greatest utility is arguably the democracy lent by anonymity, but the unlimited free speech offered by the online environment is not necessarily being used to positive effect. See why and learn what you can do to retain the value of the web. Social interactions are typically grounded in unwritten rules of conduct. These rules are rarely enforced by authority, but there are often social consequences for avoiding them. How do people conduct themselves when the social consequences of face-to-face communication are minimized? This question forms the basis of the study of the Online Disinhibition Effect. This effect explains how and why given free rein in an online environment, people generally behave with less restraint. Abbreviated References Dooley, JJ, Pyzalski, J., & Cross, D. (2009). Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying. Journal of Psychology, 217, 182-188. Moore, PJ, Heuvelman, A., & Verleur, R. (2010). Flaming on YouTube. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1536-1546. Sheeks, MS, & Birchmeier, ZP (2007). Shyness, sociability, and the use of computer-mediated communication in relationship development. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, 64-70. Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 321-326. Suler, J. (2004). In class and online: Using discussion boards in teaching. CyberPsychology ... - Anonymity Project: The PostSecret Effect "Intimacy Among Strangers in Online Anonymous Communities". My third and final draft of my research documentary. Music: "In The Way" by Two Seconds Away More credits at . For a more in-depth look at this project, check out my research blog at and our class research hub at ! - Tor Anonymity Online See how you can anonymize your internet usage on Windows Macs and Linux - Who I am After numerous requests and much speculation I have decided to 'out' myself and reveal my identity and resume. I hope this will add weight to the research I present on this channel, although I am still not the source for the information presented in my videos. My sources are all listed, and should be checked. I would like my 'outing' to also act as a launch pad for opinion and comment in some of my future videos, where it is warranted and based on my own expertise. However, most of my videos will remain factual. I prefer to present the facts, show my sources, let people check the facts and make up their own minds. You don't need me to tell you what to think. Facts speak for themselves. - Anonymity in the Healthcare Professions What are the ethics and practical matters that Healthcare professionals need to consider with regard to anonymous accounts? - Christopher "moot" Poole: The case for anonymity online The founder of 4chan, a controversial, uncensored online imageboard, describes its subculture, some of the Internet "memes" it has launched, and the incident in which its users managed a very public, precision hack of a mainstream media website. The talk raises questions about the power -- and price -- of anonymity.TEDTalks is a daily video podcast of the best talks and performances from the TED Conference, where the world's leading thinkers and doers give the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. Featured speakers have included Al Gore on climate change, Philippe Starck on design, Jill Bolte Taylor on observing her own stroke, Nicholas Negroponte on One Laptop per Child, Jane Goodall on chimpanzees, Bill Gates on malaria and mosquitoes, Pattie Maes on the "Sixth Sense" wearable tech, and "Lost" producer JJ Abrams on the allure of mystery. TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design, and TEDTalks cover these topics as well as science, business, development and the arts. Closed captions and translated subtitles in a variety of languages are now available on , at http Watch a highlight reel of the Top 10 TEDTalks at - ghett0t33n admits to alien anonymity inspired by marilyn manson's or omega's makeup in mechanical animals, namely the dope show - Anonymous @OccupyLSX - Anonymity & peaceful protesting NOTE: Protesters @ OccupyWallStreet and other Occupy Events have been arrested for wearing Guy Fawkes masks. Videography by Jason Gleeson @ - Housewife Superspy? Former MI5 Head Stella Rimington on Leaving Anonymity Complete video at: fora.tv Stella Rimington, former director general of MI5, recalls the complications and tabloid-fueled controversy that followed her appointment as head of the famed British intelligence service, after spending decades in anonymity as a secret agent. ----- American Intelligence: Technology, Espionage, and Alliances Dame Stella Rimington is the retired director general of the British Security Service (MI5). Appointed director general in 1992, she was the first woman to hold the post and the first director general to be publicly named on appointment. After gaining a postgraduate diploma in the study of records and the administration of archives at Liverpool University, Rimington worked in the Worcester County Record Office and the India Office Library in London. In the mid 1960s, while accompanying her husband on a posting to the British High Commission in New Delhi, she worked part time for the Security Service, which at that time had an office in New Delhi. On her return to the UK in 1969, Rimington joined MI5 as a full time employee. She worked in all the main fields of the service's responsibilities, counter subversion, counter espionage and counter terrorism, becoming successively director of all three branches. During her tenure as director general, Rimington pursued a policy of greater openness for MI5, giving the 1994 Dimbleby Lecture on BBC TV. She retired from MI5 in April 1996. Rimington was made a Dame Commander of the Bath in the 1996 New ... - Anonymity Online (2/9) Wish to become anonymous online? Broadcasting live tech tutorials every week! Download the pack: - Anonymity Online (1/9) Wish to become anonymous online? Broadcasting live tech tutorials every week! Download the pack: - No Anonymity on Future Web says Google CEO Signs of the Times reports The Book - Equal Money System: - 24C3: Anonymity for 2015 Speaker: Len Sassaman Why not just use Tor? In recent years, an increasing amount of academic research has been focused on secure anonymous communication systems. In this talk, we briefly review the state of the art in theoretical anonymity systems as well as the several deployed and actively used systems such as Tor and Mixmaster, and explain their advantages and limitations. For more information visit: bit.ly To download the video visit: bit.ly - Unfathomed - Anonymity (LYRICS & DOWNLOAD) LYRICS, DOWNLOAD, & FACEBOOK BELOW. Download Link - Facebook - Lyrics- A sea of debris Clogs arteries, as they choke Claiming their lives Devoured by smoke In the name of god detonate the skies winds of the east violating tranquility the war has just begun fighting to breathe but lungs are too weak collapsing within imploding veins blotches the skin dismantling the bones infernal blaze consuming stronghold desolation of a powerhouse chaos restored phobias bestowed catastrophic and tragic to the globe behind the veil lies a tale that is yet to unfold a dormant beast awakens from his slumber and decades of horrors await us in the distance who dares to challenge the throne a modern dynasty this isn't over it's only just begun prepare for the worst in the name of god desecrate the atmosphere Behold! mounds of fallen triumph are the only remains Fighting to breathe but lungs are too weak collapsing within imploding veins blotches the skin dismantling the bones infernal blaze consuming stronghold desolation, ruination, complete devastation the beast has woken an epidemic shall arise marking the end of a malignant tumour on the face of the earth demise, fortress risen in vain tonight, we all sleep in flames foreign, sent by the prophets to rid the tarnish upon a nation built with corruption bloodshed is lusted mercy's no option lives of the innocent burried without coffins boom! a sudden collision and millions ignited the sound of flesh burned ... - Summoner Showcase -- Issue #28 -- Anonymity FTL Play League of Legends FREE at Now feast your eyes on the entries: Real Men Don't Wear Pants [ LordWalmart and TrIIIp wish their friend Jamie a happy birthday by mocking his taste in trousers, it would appear. At least cake comes with the deal. Nyandalee [ Nobody knows who made this. The spirits of the internet came forth to harness the great power of a flying pastry cat and soaring javelins. Whoever you are, Summoner, thank you. LoL Time [ Cody gives us one more addition to the Showcase that could not be ignored. It's for a good cause - turning lemons into lemonade, shall we say? Just sing louder than everyone else when they sing the real lyrics. Carrying, carrying yeah! Swimsuit *** and Studs [fav.me Where to start? Lord Albrekt has a slew of fashionable swimwear for Katarina, Lux, Garen and many others, which prompted VeLOLciraptor to add her own take on Sona's bikini. Not to be outshined, an evasively anonymous summoner will not fess up to creating the LoL Swimsuit Studs. What a shame. We're looking forward to more submissions next week, so if something is new and exciting, send in a link and your Summoner Name to Summoner_Showcase@! Until next time, Make something cool! Include your name (please please!) And we'll see you next week! - Media war in Sri Lanka-11 Sep 09 Part 2 On the Listening Post this week, the civil war has ended in Sri Lanka but the media war continues and anonymity in the blogosphere: Is it a good thing? We begin this week in post-war Sri Lanka and its governments never ending battle against the media. Its a four-month old story that keeps developing. Back in May, the Sri Lankan Army defeated the separatist Tamil Tigers in a military push that killed 20000 civilians in the last month of fighting alone. Weve reported before on how the Sri Lankan government locked most of the media out of the war zone. Now, the United Nations, human rights groups and journalists are working to uncover the truth about the last bloody days of the battle. A disturbing video has surfaced that appears to show cold-blooded executions. The video has provoked an immediate pushback from the Sri Lankan government and the fight over that piece of footage is being waged all the way from the capital, Colombo to London. - NSFW 80: Full Frontal Anonymity Hosts:Brian Brushwood and Justin Robert Young The guy from GFQ, Secrets or BS, defending NY, TX and FL, and a mind blowing performance from the musical guest. Guests: Andrew Zarian and musical guest Julia Nunes Download or subscribe to this show at twit.tv/nsfw. We invite you to read, add to, and amend our show notes. Find out more at Bandwidth for NSFW is provided by Cachefly. Running time: 1:16:33 Blogs & Forum blogs and forums about anonymity “E.J. Montini's Columns & Blog: You know my name. You know where I work. You even know what I look like. All of which I believe to online anonymity as I am of my real-life privacy. I think both attitudes are equally prudent. I simply don't see any upside to exposing my real name in this forum, and” — blogs - E.J. Montini's Columns & Blog, “The most amazing thing about the site - and the thing that separates it in my mind from just about every other forum I've ever seen is that Anonymity isn't just permitted, it's encouraged. More on this in a bit. Let's take a step back for a second and follow my thought process” — Anonymity - , “Anonymity. Blogs. Here we go again -- a new attack on anonymous speech, misusing the facts ripped from the current headlines about a case of one person's slimy online attacks on another. So, as what Maureen Dowd today called the " Contributors to this blog include a diverse group of lawyers, law” — 'Skanky' Blogging, Anonymity and What's Right | Citizen Media, “A resource in the anonymous network of onions Once you are logged in, a usermenu will give you more alternatives - including the anonymity forum” — Go to the Forum, onion.is- “How to Blog Safely (About Work or Anything Else) Related Issues: Anonymity, Bloggers' Rights. Published April allow you to designate individual posts or your entire blog as available only to those who have the password,” — How to Blog Safely (About Work or Anything Else) | Electronic, “AllAnonymity, Online Anonymity Tools, provides software for hiding IP, surf anonymously, protect privacy, prevent online threats, anonymous proxy” — IP Hide Tools and Services – " Blog, “Darren Straight's Blog Feed Darren Straight's LinkedIn Profile Darren Straight's Facebook It can also be done to protect your anonymity, so that the website you are visiting does” — VTunnel is here to protect your anonymity online!, “Quickly and easily make panonymous posts to blogs, and other pages that accept comments, Blog Anonymity” — Anonymous Blog Posting - Quick Anonymous posts to blogs and, ultimate- “Virus writers are always anonymous. Vicious political lies (with faked photoshop photos of political leaders, or false innuendo about personal lives) are always anonymous as well. Spam is anonymous. eBay fraudsters are anonymous too. It seems as” — Seth's Blog: The problem with anonymous (part VII), similar for anonymity - anonymity on the internet - relative anonymity - degree of anonymity - the anonymous - anonymity application - free encyclopedia - list of anonymously published works - ip addresses - definition of anonymity - word games - webster online dictionary with audio pronunciations - state of being - large city - define anonymity - english dictionary - online dictionary - internet anonymity - dictionary results - anonymity proxy - personal anonymity - ultimate anonymity - second marriage - thesaurus browser - requested anonymity - anonymity network - free online dictionary - witness anonymity - french literature - unanswered questions - protect anonymity - real name - the police - service provider - internet user - personal identity - encyclopedia article - ***ual abuse - victims of rape - real names

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Apps for Learning About Government What is an election? What are laws? Who is running for president? Your children may be asking questions like these as our country experiences a presidential election year. Check out these apps to help them learn more about how government works and help explain the some of the difficult concepts associated with election and government. How America Works by KIDS DISCOVER for iPad (iOS only) This app tells about the different parts of American government and reads like a magazine for kids. It includes videos and interactive learning activities that discuss democracy, how a bill becomes law, and checks and balances within our government. Be sure to enjoy the 3D representation of the Oval Office and Air Force One with your child. Browse the gallery of all 44 presidents. The app is $2.99 and appropriate for children 6-8. Also, visit the KIDS DISCOVER website for a free lesson plan to accompany the app. BrainPOP Jr. (Android and iOS) BrainPOP Jr. uses cartoon style movies, quizzes, and facts to teach children. The app tackles difficult concepts for younger kids such as U.S. history and government. Be sure to check out the free video, The Branches of Government, in the Social Studies section. Free content is available within the app, but a subscription to BrainPop will give you access to a complete digital video library. The subscription can be completed through an in-app purchase. There are two options for a subscription: BrainPOP Jr. Explorer Subscription, which offers the free movie of the week plus 3 related movies for 1.99 a month, or the BrainPOP Jr. Full Access Subscription for $5.99 a month. BrainPOP Jr. is a wonderful app for sparking curiosity in children and can serve as a resource to answer the many questions children may have about a wide range of topics. There are videos on Science, Social Studies, Math, Language, and more. Each video is followed by an easy or hard quiz for which KinderTown encourages parentparticipation, as reading is needed. News-O-Matic, Daily Reading for Kids (iOS and Android) News-O-Matic is a news magazine for kids. This magazine contained within an app includes interactive activities and videos. News-O-Matic features 5 daily stories covering the United States and international news, sports, arts, science, and more. The articles are written by their staff of journalists, including educational experts, and reviewed by psychologists to ensure age-appropriate content. The content of the articles is designed for young readers to understand. The app is also ad-free, so the distractions are limited. News-O-Matic also features complete playback of the articles via a Read-to-Me function, making the information accessible to younger students and struggling readers. Definitions and pronunciations are provided for difficult words within articles. A few games are featured as they relate to the news of the day. The app also offers a Spanish translation. A special school edition exists for classroom settings or homeschool environments. KinderTown’s favorite feature that is only included in the school edition is the ability to change reading levels within the app from a first-grade reading level up to a sixth-grade reading level. In addition, the school version includes assessment questions for students. News-O-Matic is a very complete educational news magazine for kids and lots of features for educators and parents. News-O-Matic is appropriate for children ages 5-8 and offers many different choices for price and time duration for subscriptions. Tags: App, brainpop, civic, Educational, election, government, kids discover, KinderTown, laws, politics, president, review Top 10 Must-Have Math Apps Motion Math: Pizza! (iOS only) teaches children beginning economics by simulating a pizza shop. While using the app, children are learning about economics, setting prices, and serving customers through simulation. Parents, follow up the use of this app with conversations about why certain things cost more money than others and how your family makes purchasing decisions. Bugs and Bubbles (iOS only) is an engaging app for younger children. The randomized practice offers multiple ways to practice beginning math skills in a visually rich environment. Counting, upper- and lowercase letters, and sorting are all presented with a fun garden theme. Pet Bingo – by Duck Duck Moose (iOS only) is a math fact practice app that includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, anddivision. This app can be replayed for a long time and could be used with multiple children in your house. Children earn rewards for completing math facts correctly in order to care for their virtual pet. Quick Math – Multiplication Table & Arithmetic Game (iOS only) offers basic math fact practice with a simple, clean interface. KinderTown’s favorite feature about Quick Math is that you can write on the screen with your finger and it will recognize the answer. Quick Math has also developed the apps Quick Fractions and QuickClocks that provide similar practice of the concepts. Dragon Box Algebra 5+ (iOS, Android, Kindle Fire, Windows Phone) is an app that develops algebra skills with approachable problems for children starting at age 5. (There is a second Dragon Box app for more advanced students, called Dragon Box Algebra 12+.) Both apps create problems that must be solved visually in order to make the quantities on both sides of the screen equal. This app is excellent for preparing students for algebraic thinking. Splash Math (iOS, Kindle, Android) is a series of apps that are made for each grade level. The Splash Math apps cover an entire year’s worth of math skills. Through the app, randomized practice is presented to your child. The app also offers parent features such as progress reports and the ability to customize the skills your child is practicing. This app serves as a great reinforcement of concepts your child has already learned in math. Math Doodles (iOS only) is a puzzle app that brings a visual perspective to math thinking. This app contains many complex concepts and spans a wide range of skills. Your six-year-old child could use this app as well as a high school student because of the ability to change the type of puzzle pieces presented from simple dice to Roman numerals. Operation Math (iOS, Android) has created two apps, Operation Math and Operation Math Code Squad. Operation Math simulates high-tech, intense math missions for children to undertake. Operation Math Code Squad follows the same ideas, but up to 4 players can play at the same time. There is a timer feature in this app, and if your child does not like the feeling of being rushed or timed, this would not be a good match. Operation Math Code Squad is an example of how apps can involve multiple players in order to practice math facts. Motion Math: Zoom (iOS only) moves your child along the path of learning numbers, place value, and number relationships with this thoughtful app. By the use of analytics, the app guides your child at his own pace through a variety of number quantities with the goal of helping him manipulate a number line and make connections between 1’s, 10’s, 100’s, and eventually decimals. The game appears simple as numbered balloons float on the screen, but the swiping, pinching, and tapping will keep your kids on their toes. Cash Cow Deluxe (iOS only) uses gameplay to help kids become proficient at manipulating money. Tap small coins to make quantities of 5, 10, 25, or 100 cents. The more coins you make, the more the cash cow earns to save the duck’s farm. The app offers several modes of play including arcade, relaxed, endless, practice, or story modes. Tags: App, counting, economics, Education, Educational, fact, fun, game, ios, KinderTown, math, money, practice, pricing, problem, puzzle, review, skills, sorting, thinking myBlee Math offers a wide variety of elementary math lessons on topics such as measuring line segments, working with money, mental math and multi-digit addition for students ages 5-8. KinderTown likes how the app gives initial instruction on a particular concept before the child is asked to practice or apply it. The instruction is given with a female robotic-like voice. Another great feature is the use of “MyScript” technology that can identify a child’s handwriting as she writes her answer directly on the screen. Children will also find the use of the digital manipulatives which include movable rulers, blocks, protractors, etc. both interesting and helpful for solving problems. myBlee is an app that would benefit students who need additional practice with math concepts. The app offers communication to parents about their student’s progress through frequent emails. The app is free for 10 minutes each week. Subscriptions can be purchased for students who need more time per week for $9.99 a month or for $74.99 for a year. Tags: addition, App, concept, Educational, elementary, instruction, KinderTown, lessons, math, measurement, mental, money, myblee math, practice, review, student Engaging Math Apps Jump! – iOS only Jump! is a truly unique game experience based on numbers. The app takes children through challenges involving counting, skip counting, and addition. The player must lead their character from one shore to another by jumping on the correct number. Players can combine numbers to make numbers needed if they are missing. There is a hint button which is helpful to players who are just learning to play the game. The app uses adaptive technology to quickly adjust to your child’s learning level. There is a rewarding play area where children can play with the characters they have saved. The game has additional obstacles called “Stompers” and “Fuses” that will add a challenge to your child’s strategy as they navigate their way through the game. This app is appropriate for children who are becoming confident with recognizing numbers and counting approximately ages 4-8 and is $2.99. Motion Math Match – iOS only Motion Math Match presents children with a series of cards and challenges them to match cards that equal the same value. For example, a student might choose the following cards, 2+2=4, 4, and 3+1=4. The students can use both hands to match multiple cards. Once a match has been made the cards disappear and more cards fall into place. The app adjusts to your child’s level and can be played with addition facts, subtraction facts, multiplication facts, or division facts. This iPad app is appropriate for children ages 5-12 and is $3.99. Motion Math Match is available for iPad and iPad mini. Tags: addition, App, apps, artgig, cards, counting, Educational, engaging, game, jump, KinderTown, learning, match, math, motion math, numbers, skip counting Dr. Seuss E-books Read Across America Day is this week, and libraries and schools across the country will celebrate by reading Dr. Seuss books to children. Try some of these apps together with your child that celebrate reading! For more fun with words and sounds, check out our Power Pack Sound Play for children ages 3-4. Dr. Seuss ABC – iOS This e-book reinforces your child’s growing knowledge of letters, sounds, words, and vocabulary. Your child will enjoy tapping the pages of this delightful ABC book in order to find hidden surprises. The e-book reads aloud to your child and highlights the words as they are read. You can also change the settings to allow the app to “Read to me” or “Auto Play.” The “Auto Play” feature reads the pages and turns the pages to allow the book to play like a movie continuously. In each story, letters are referred to by their size such as “Big A” and “Little a.” Be sure your child knows that this means uppercase and lowercase. The book engages your child by repeatedly asking questions such as, “What begins with C? or D? E?” etc. Try asking your child this type of question as you enjoy the story together. Dr. Seuss Treasury – iOS Oceanhouse Media has created a Treasury of Dr. Seuss books. Here you will find the e-book versions of many of the classic Dr. Seuss books your child may already know and love. For example, Hop on Pop, Horton Hears a Who!, Green Eggs and Ham, and Cat in the Hat. Check out the rest of the books and read a new title with your child. The e-books include interactive and engaging features such as reading aloud to your child, highlighting the words, and looking for fun hidden treasures by tapping the scenes. The app is subscription based which gives your family access to 55 digital Dr. Seuss books. Tags: 3-4, App, books, Dr. Seuss, eBook, Education, KinderTown, preschool, Read Across America, Reading, review Expanding Your Child’s Vocabulary with Apps As children grow, their vocabulary expands from their immediate environment such as family members’ names and foods they like to eat, to naming everything they can see, to eventually learning more sophisticated topics through books and literature. Reading to your child even as he begins to learn to read independently increases his vocabulary and knowledge of educational topics. Try these apps for a different approach to build on your child’s existing vocabulary. Download our Power Pack on Vocabulary for more ideas and activities to expand your child’s vocabulary. Noodle Words Action Set 1 – iOS only Noodle Words Action Set 1, is the first of two apps that present fun, interactive, engaging, and appealing word play experiences for children. Noodle Words supports vocabulary development and increases comprehension through motivational word play activities. The app presents individual words to your child and then demonstrates the meaning of the word with a creative visual. For example, the word “grow” is accompanied by a vine that continues to grow out of control as your child repeatedly taps around the screen. Children love the repetitive visual effects that illustrate the meaning of the 18 different action words included in the app. Playing Noodle Words with your child will be some of the most fun you will have learning vocabulary together. Noodle Words is $2.99 and appropriate for students ages 4-6. Martha Speaks Word Spinner – iOS, Android, Kindle, and Windows Martha Speaks Word Spinner is a fantastic board game app that will inspire lots of family fun! This app is an interactive board game that is played on your iPad. Choose your pup game piece, spin the wheel, and see who can get to the dog house first. There are six games to choose from within the app to play on each turn. Word Spinner gets kids listing words, telling stories, and playing charades. The games present open-ended questions such as “Name several kinds of fruit.” The app does not correct these types of questions, so parents will need to provide the feedback. Your child will need an engaged adult or sibling to listen and respond to the answers. The vocabulary in the app ranges from simple words like “clothing” to more advanced concepts like “prehistoric animals.” A wonderful game for the whole family! Martha Speaks is free and appropriate for children ages 5-8. Endless Alphabet – iOS, Android, Kindle, and Windows Endless Alphabet is a super silly, wacky, hilarious vocabulary learning app for kids. Children can scroll through words inside a friendly blue monster’s mouth. Tap on one that looks especially interesting and learn what the word means. Kids need to build the word, letter by letter first, then watch, listen and learn about the meaning of each word. Wacky, weird letters and colorful, interesting (non-scary) monster characters play the starring role in the app. There are no high scores and no climbing levels in Endless Alphabet. This app is just about learning new words in a playful, discovery-focused way. Tags: apps, Educational, endless alphabet, engaging, KinderTown, learning, marta speaks, noodle words, review, vocabulary The act of storytelling develops vocabulary, understanding of character, and story organization. Using a storytelling app will augment that process for your child, as you provide the occasional vocabulary help or guiding questions. Check out our Power Pack on Storytelling that will provide you with more ideas and a greater understanding of how to grow this skill within your child. Superhero Comic Book Maker – iOS only This app does an awesome job of making storytelling easy for children as young as three years old. It is easy to navigate, and the pieces to create a story are embedded nicely within the app. To begin, children choose the comic maker button and select a background as the setting for the first scene in their story. Children can easily record narration for each character as they develop a story. By returning to the main menu children can create additional scenes and then combine them into a longer story. Even if children only use one scene to create a mini story, they are building vocabulary and language skills. This app provides an inviting environment for young learners to start creating stories. This app is appropriate for children ages 6-8 and costs $1.99. My Story – iOS only Your child can use stickers, markers, photos, and voice recordings to create an original book with My Story. This app also allows for the creation of multiple users so more than one child in a household or classroom can have an individual account within the app. This feature is great for classrooms or learning centers. My Story also allows for sharing if enabled by email, on social networks, or in iBooks. Parents be sure to help your child with this if you are interested in sharing stories with family and friends. This app is appropriate for children ages 5-8 and costs $3.99. Draw and Tell – iOS only Draw and Tell brings the best features of drawing apps into one fabulous art and storytelling experience. Children can choose from a blank page, browse your photo library, or select a background from within the app to start creating a story. The app provides tools such as crayons, stickers, paint, and erasers. Your child can narrate his story while the app records the audio and stickers moving around the screen. Children who are not feeling up to creating their own picture can try the variety of coloring pages where they can drop paint into the lines to create a vibrant scene. Draw and Tell is $1.99 and appropriate for children ages 3-8. Tags: App, art, creation, draw and tell, drawing, Educational, ios, KinderTown, my story, power pack, review, storytelling, superhero comic book maker Top 3 Apps for 3 Year Olds If you have a 3-year-old in your home you are probably looking for new and creative solutions to add to your repertoire of daily activities to satisfy your child’s eagerness to explore, discover, and problem solve. Check out these top 3 apps to encourage your child’s natural curiosity, as well as our free Power Pack focused on ways to interact with books with your 3-year-old. Then download KinderTown and search by age for more app suggestions for your young learner. Grandma’s Preschool – iOS only The app begins with the bus dropping the kids off at Grandma’s school which resembles Grandma’s house. The house is organized like a typical preschool where children can move around and choose a learning activity by tapping on letters, numbers, science experiments, or an art center. Additional activity areas that can be explored include nap time, outdoor recess, centers with books and toys, and a white board for teaching and learning. Children are positively rewarded for their effort with grandma’s dancing, clapping, and high fives. The app has a nice balance of digital play and learning exploration. You may need to monitor and encourage your child to visit the more academically-focused learning areas as the app does not regulate how much time is spent in the play arena. Grandma’s character engages players with her positive spirit and dancing energy, however, some present-day grandmas may not like the way grandma is represented with gray hair and glasses. The app does not require any in-app purchases and is available for iPhone and iPad for $2.99. Beck and Bo – iOS, Android Beck and Bo delights young children with a dynamic free play environment that always has a new surprise popping up. There is no pressure to complete each thematic area in a specific way, which is something we appreciate about the app. Upon entering the app children will find twelve thematic scenes. Objects or questions are presented one at time in each scene for kids to experience thematic vocabulary. Once a scene is finished they can continue to play in the area or view each object in their own scrapbook. Beck and Bo is a fantastic app for playful discovery that understands how young children learn. Monkey Preschool Explorer – iOS, Android, Kindle Fire The Monkeys provide an all new entertaining app that is simple for children to navigate, includes interesting graphics, and incorporates exploration as the center theme. The Monkey Preschool Explorers app provides a mixed review of early childhood concepts such as colors, numbers, shapes, letters, and association skills. One game includes Milo the Monkey driving a jeep through the jungle and children have to tap on the lower case and upper case letter indicated. At the end, children can play a fun racing game and choose a hat for Milo as a reward. The developers of Monkey Preschool have a “Thups Knack” system which changes the difficulty of the game as children play. The app costs $2.99 and is appropriate for children ages 3-5. Tags: 3 year old, App, beck and bo, books, creative, Educational, grandma's preschool, ios, KinderTown, monkey preschool explorer, power pack Top Science Apps for Young Children Young children are keenly aware of their surroundings, which inevitably relates to science. Check out these great apps for young children interested in science. Grandpa in Space – iOS only Grandpa in Space provides children with an engaging science experience where they can learn science facts. The app does a nice job of integrating other content areas while learning about science. Other skills presented in the app include: identifying shapes and opposites, memory skills, and rhyming. The app presents the skills in an outer space-themed environment where children can design their own space ship, ride in it with grandpa, and watch short interesting movies about each planet in between practicing skills. We love grandpa’s guidance in learning and his high fives! Weird But True by National Geographic – iOS only Weird But True is a fantastic free app for children who love to read books with fun science facts or impress their friends and family with interesting tidbits of information. The facts are presented to children in a colorful way, and they can rate the “weirdness” of the app and collect their favorites by pressing the heart. The Weird But True app is free and contains a “pack” of free facts. Additional packs require an in-app purchase that is gated with a math fact (that children may be able to solve). We suggest that you monitor your child’s use of the app so he or she does not mistakenly make in-app purchases. A fascinating app for the fact-lover in your house! Gazzili Science – iOS only Play with items in a water tank, plant a seed and watch it grow, or taste an apple pie! Gazzili Science introduces young learners to science topics in a kid-friendly environment. In the app, kids progress through six science learning areas that teach through discovery and narration. After completing each area your child can go to the Gazzili fun page where prizes earned throughout the game are used to build a unique contraption. The app also includes an option to turn on the printed narration of the app for hearing impaired students, and that’s pretty cool! Tags: App, Educational, facts, gazzili science, grandpa in space, ios, KinderTown, memory, national geographic, review, rhyming, science, Shapes, space, weird but true Pre-Reading Skills: Beyond Letters and Sounds Preschool and Kindergarten students (ages 4 to 6) learn to identify letters when learning how to read. It is also valuable for children at this age to practice rhyming, identifying letter sounds, segmenting words into individual sounds, and identifying syllables in words to support and strengthen their beginning reading skills. Read with Doc McStuffins: Letters and Sounds This app offers five pre-reading activities for preschoolers. It’s much more than an app to practice letters. The app focuses on the following skills: tracing and matching lower and upper case letters, recognizing letters and letter sounds, listening and matching rhymes, determining syllables, and hearing beginning, middle and ending sounds in words. The activities are expertly created and simulate lessons in preschool and kindergarten classrooms. The app will grow with your child as he learns the letters and gains reading skills. The animation and characters in this app come to life (no surprise from Disney) to motivate your child and help him focus on learning the skills. KinderTown is impressed with the quality of the content provided by the app. Our child testers enjoyed the balance of rewarding activities with the learning games. This app ranks at the top as one of the best we’ve seen for preschoolers. Parents, watch your preschooler interact with the app and then simulate the activities in the real world with your child for extra practice. For example, the app uses common words to determine the number of syllables in a word. Ask your child questions like, “How many syllables do you hear in the word macaroni?” “How many syllables are in the word banana?” To imitate the rhyming games, ask your child, “Which word rhymes with cat, bat, or wagon?” Check out the Power Pack: Letters and Sounds: Ages 5-6 for more tips about how to effectively use apps to help your child learn pre-reading skills, as well as hands-on activities you can do with your child. Tags: activities, disney, doc mcstuffins, educational app, Kindergarten, KinderTown, letter sounds, letters, power pack, preschool, Reading, review, rhyming, skills, students, syllables

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Poetry in Writing Courses One of the most important keys to understanding poetry language is music, and often the role of music in poetry is not shown to students in an introductory course, because emphasis tends to be placed on workshop and reading, with the idea that one learns how to write by reading and receiving critiques. However, without an understanding of music in poetry (rhythm, lineation, meter), students are inclined to not absorb the most important qualities of poetry while reading, and to critique and receive critiques without a basic understanding of the language with which they are working. For this reason, we’ll begin with a brief description of one aspect of music in poetry, lineation, before going into the meaning of metaphor, simile, personification, apostrophe and imagery. Of course there are more tools involved and accessible to the poet, but scholars/poets generally believe these are the most important to get things started. We'll close with a short note on the problem of “ambiguity” in poetry by beginners. Lineation dictates when a line of poetry stops and a new lines begins. Often, beginning poets write down impressions, randomly break them into lines, and turn them in as poems. Asking even beginning students to write several drafts of a poem that are lineated in different ways will help them understand how rhythm is created through lineation For example, the Israeli poet Yehuda Amichai uses a fairly iambic beat (an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable). He consistently breaks the lines where the pause naturally occurs, in order to mimic the pattern of ordinary speech because he wants to capture the heightened meaning within the ordinary: A man in his life has no time. When he loses he seeks When he finds he forgets When he forgets he loves When he loves he begins forgetting. Amichai also uses repetition to convey a sense of truth and the inevitability of loss and forgetting. Amichai is creating a kind of poetry logic by beginning each line with “When...” to show the connection between seeking and forgetting and loving. If the poem were lineated in a different way, it would lose its force: A man in his life has no time. When he loses, he seeks, when he finds he forgets, when he forgets he loves, when he loves he begins forgetting. In this version, the connections are broken, and the cohesive, accruing force of the rhythm is lost. Also, because the last line is longer than the rest, it is given more importance, and the emphasis is placed on forgetting. This is fine, except that Amichai is trying to get rid of the hierarchies to show how everything is connected and equally important. Metaphor, Simile, Personification, Apostrophe A metaphor is a direct comparison between one thing or person to another, as in Pablo Neruda’s line from Twenty Love Poems: “You were a gray beret and the whole being at peace.” Because Neruda is saying that the “You” in the poem is a gray beret, the comparison in metaphor is more immediate than it is in simile. Simile is a comparison using the word “like” to connect one thing to another, as in Derek Walcott’s “Crusoe’s Island” – “The chapel’s cowbell / Like God’s anvil.” The chapel’s cowbell is compared to God’s anvil. Good metaphors and similes bring in larger parts of the world into the miniature of the poem. Neruda hints at something more than human and the condition of “peace,” to make the poem expand beyond a simple address to a beloved. Walcott begins with the simple image of a cowbell and, through comparison, brings in the idea of God’s will shaping and creating things. Walcott doesn’t say “The chapel’s cowbell is a heavy force that shapes the world.” He wants to charge his comparison with the widest possible range of meaning and resonance. Personification is when an object or thing is given human attributes, as in Odysseus Elytis’ poem “Aegean Melancholy” — “And the sea playing on its concertina.” The sea in this line is personified as a musician, playing an accordion-like instrument. The sea playing on its piano would be far less interesting, because the piano, and the sea are already very familiar images to the reader. The contrast between the already familiar image of the sea, with the idiosyncratic image of the concertina, is more surprising. Also, a concertina is played by squeezing it from both sides, and pulling it outward, letting it expand, much like the motion of waves. There are similarities and striking differences all within this one comparison. Apostrophe is a direct address to a person or thing, as in Gu Cheng’s poem, Forever Parted: Graveyard, which is written to the dead Red Guards who are buried near the Cemetery of the Revolutionary Martyrs in China: “Your hands were / soft, your nails clean, / the hands of those who’d opened schoolbooks / and storybooks, books about heroes.” Apostrophe allows Gu Cheng to write about the dead with immediacy by addressing them directly, and imagining what their lives were like. Imagery. Ordinarily, imagery is stressed more than anything in beginning creative writing workshops. Concrete language anchors the poem, engages the five senses, and keeps the poem from becoming too vague. While simply plugging in imagery to fulfill an image quota does not make music or poetry language happen, it is important for the beginning writer to learn to incorporate as many concrete images as possible. Here are a few lines from Shu Ting’s “The Singing Flower” that make the abstract experience of exile a concrete, palpable experience for the reader: I walk to the square through the zig-zag streets, back To the pumpkin shack I guarded, the work in the barley fields, deep in the desert (of exile). Shu Ting doesn’t say “When I was in high-school during the Cultural Revolution I was taken away to the countryside because my father was considered a political nonconformist.” Rather, she makes that experience in the countryside come alive with specific images like the pumpkin shack and the barley fields, the zig-zag streets. Also, images provide larger possibilities for making rhythm, and establishing stronger metaphors and similes. For more on imagery, please visit the Image in Poetry OWL resource. This source explains where images come from, how they are made, and what their function is in poetry. The problem of Ambiguity in the beginner’s writing: beginners often mistake vagueness or lack of meaning or music in poetry as “ambiguity,” or “open-endedness” that allows the reader to imagine the rest, to fill in the blanks. In most cases, the poem is simply unclear, uncertain, or poorly written. Of course, ambiguity is important to poetry, since poetry excludes almost everything to say what it says. But at this stage, the beginning writer should focus on music, metaphor, simile, imagery, etc. and wait until she has reached a Mid-to-Advanced course in creative writing to explore how ambiguity works in poetry. Understanding how to read and write ambiguity is one of the most difficult, and necessary, features of poetry. For more information on how to avoid some mistakes of beginning poetry writing, visit the Tutoring Creative Writing Students OWL resource. Poetry in Mid to Advanced Level Writing Courses As students move into mid and advanced level writing courses, they will be expected to read and write more complex poetry. This resource should help students as they transition into these more complex ideas. Without an understanding of the uses of ambiguity, the beginning writer will find it difficult to move on to an intermediate or advanced level, because ambiguity is essential to the wordplay and music that make up a poem. The critic, William Empson, wrote a study called “The 7 Types of Ambiguity.” This is a scholarly work and not easily applicable to writing. But the point he makes about ambiguity is important for mid to advanced level poets. Empson says that ambiguity could happen in many ways. For example, when two or more meanings are resolved into one. Also, if two things are compared or set against each other as opposites, but still yield multiple kinds of comparisons and oppositions, the poem is ambiguous. Another kind of ambiguity Empson talks about is when two seemingly unconnected meanings are given simultaneously. Contradictions within a single poem also lead to ambiguity. Adam Zagajewski’s poem, “Betrayal,” is ambiguous throughout: The greatest delight, I sense, is hidden sublimely in the act of betrayal which can be equal only to fidelity. To betray a woman, friends, an idea, to see new light in the eyes of distant shadows. But choices are limited: other women, other ideas, the enemies of our long-standing friends. If only we could encounter some quite different otherness, settle in a country which has no name, touch a woman before she is born, lose our memories, meet a God other than our own. A contradiction is apparent in the first 3 lines, because “betrayal” and “fidelity,” two opposites, are put on the same plane. There are two unconnected meanings: 1) that betrayal is equal to fidelity; and 2) that betrayal can yield illumination or help us “see new light in the eyes / of distant shadows.” This is the kind of ambiguity we find in Shakespeare’s soliloquies. A mind wrestling with itself, unknown to itself, trying to resolve something, is enacted effectively in “Betrayal.” While two disparate ideas are being compared here, betrayal and fidelity, a multitude of other comparisons are teased out in the process. By putting the betrayal of “a woman, friends, an idea” on the same plane, Zagajewski forces us to question whether or not a woman, friends and ideas have the same value for the speaker, and in life. And what about nationality, love, memory, God—do these warrant the same attention? In a way, the multiple meanings are resolved into one in this poem, because the last few lines seem to be about the human longing for limitless possibility, which becomes the one meaning that the poem is seeking to become. Zagajewski is a master of ambiguity, so it is highly unlikely that the comparisons and contradictions and resolutions in his poem happened by accident. It is clear that he wasn’t merely trying to sketch something vague for the reader to fill in. On the whole, it is more fun to read a poem that directs us with craft and intention, wit and skill, and that guides us to particular kinds of ambiguities that strike the poet as exciting, interesting and necessary. Even professional poets with MFAs struggle with using ambiguity effectively. The best way for a mid to advanced level poet to begin to understand ambiguity is simply to acknowledge how important it is to poetry, and how difficult it is to learn. Reading as much as possible with an eye on how ambiguity is working in good poetry is also helpful. While writing in meter is beyond the scope of an introductory course on creative writing, it becomes essential in mid to advanced level courses. Meter goes back to the idea of music. If poetry is music made to create a separate language, then meter is the key principle in making music. Because of space limitations, I won’t go into a lengthy description of meter and metrical patterns, as they are widely available elsewhere. Mary Oliver’s “Rules for the Dance” is a handy and easy-to-use resource. Meter consists of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry and how they are arranged or organized. The most common metrical form is iambic pentameter, which has five stressed syllables, and five unstressed syllables, per line. Each line begins with an unstressed syllable, followed by a stressed syllable. This pattern repeats five times in a single line. The common line in iambic pentameter, therefore, consists of ten syllables. The placement of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem determines the tone, feeling and effect of the poem, because the poem is first and foremost rhythmic. Iambic pentameter, for example, establishes a calm, regular tone that resembles speech, as in these lines from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 23: As an unperfect actor on the stage, Who with his fear is put besides his part, Or some fierce thing replete with too much rage, Whose strength’s abundance weakens his own heart; So I, for fear of trust, forget to say The perfect ceremony of love’s rite, And in mine own love’s strength seem to decay The trochee, on the other hand, reverses the iambic beat---a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. The trochaic line has the opposite effect of the natural, iambic beat. It sounds disruptive, artificial and energetic, as in these lines from Macbeth: Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble... Many poets have mixed the iambic with the trochaic in the same line. Experiment with the various effects of different patterns, until you have a sense of what each sounds and feels like. The OWL's summary of sound and meter is a good resource. This source is a detailed explanation of how to scan meter, and write in meter. It is essential for mid to advanced level poets to experiment with form. This doesn’t mean you have to write a sonnet in iambic pentameter. There are countless forms from around the world you can experiment with. Ron Padgett’s “Handbook of Poetic Forms” is an excellent guide. Write sound poetry, acrostic poetry, sestinas, villanelles, canzones. Form is a good way to touch base with the history of poetry, and forces you to pay closer attention to language. Many beginning poets don’t revise, or don’t have enough of what Kenneth Koch calls a “poetry base” to understand revision. But for mid to advanced level poets, revision is essential. Generally, a good poem is not a result of writing, but of revision. It is difficult to hear the music in the process of writing. Go back and experiment with different ways to break the lines, using fresher metaphors, similes, or images. Read the poem aloud to hear if the rhythm sounds right. If you were trying to be ambiguous, were you precise enough to make the ambiguity clear? Perhaps you’ll find that chunks of your poem don’t belong there, or that more writing is required. Maybe the poem calls for couplets, and you currently have it in quatrains. Whatever the case may be, the true test of learning the poetry language is the ability to revise and write several drafts of each poem, so that you learn by trial and error what works and doesn’t work. Sample Assignment Sheet Some teachers have found it helpful to introduce poets and poems for beginning and mid to advanced level students to imitate. This gives them the opportunity to read and discuss a poem, while at the same time generating their own poems. Wislawa Szymborska’s poem “Unexpected Meeting” is a good example: We are very polite to each other, insist it’s nice meeting after all these years. Our tigers drink milk. Our hawks walk on the ground. Our sharks drown in water. Our wolves yawn in front of the open cage. Our serpents have shaken off lightning, The bats---long ago now---have flown out of our hair. We fall silent in mid-phrase, smiling beyond salvation. have nothing to say. Szymborska is famous for writing about particular objects and creatures that are neglected. Her work also tries to incorporate neglected feelings, and she is skeptical and ironic. J.D. McClatchy characterized the tone of her poetry as “detached sympathy.” Try to write a poem based on a very particular event, such as Szymborska’s poem about a reunion with friends. There is little that is particular about such a reunion, but the comical moment of “smiling beyond salvation,” and the idea that creatures are more articulate than humans, is very particular. It is likely that Szymborska does not go around having these idiosyncratic thoughts all day, but in her poetry, she pays special attention to those thoughts that are nearly forgotten, or dismissed as trivial. Consider some thought or idea that you would ordinarily dismiss as random or trivial, and write a poem around it. Try to use the random or trivial thought to make a statement about life, human relations, or some other big topic. The Brazilian poet Joao Cabral de Melo Neto is known for assimilating the style of pop song lyrics into his poems. He writes his own lyrics in a very abstract language. A good example is his poem “End of the World”: At the end of the melancholy world men read the newspapers. Indifferent men eating oranges that flame like the sun. They gave me an apple to remind me of death. I know that cities telegraph asking for kerosene. The veil I saw flying fell in the desert. No one will write the final poem about this private twelve o’clock world. Instead of the last judgment, what worries me is the final dream. Joao Cabral de Melo Neto, unlike Wislawa Szymborska, doesn’t try to say anything about life or the world. He tries to bring poetry closer to what he considers its original form as song, and he thinks of his words as the material of song. Often in pop songs, the words are elliptical and don’t make much sense, but they resonate in a mysterious way. Write a poem that doesn’t make any logical sense or doesn’t add up to a final meaning; think about the way lyrics in pop songs suggest meaning without directly stating it or trying to explain it. Additional Resources for Poetry in Writing Courses - Bernadette Mayer’s Writing Experiments: A list of writing exercises and prompts that are useful in getting started - Charles Bernstein’s Experiments: An excellent avant-garde list of writing exercises and prompts for poets of all levels - poets.org: An online, comprehensive resource from the Academy of American Poets - Kim Addonizio and Dorianne Laux, Editors. The Poet’s Companion: A Guide to the Pleasures of Writing Poetry. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 1997. - Kenneth Koch. Making Your Own Days: The Pleasures of Reading and Writing Poetry. Touchstone, 1998. - Mary Oliver. A Poetry Handbook: A Prose Guide to Understanding and Writing Poetry. Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994. - Mary Oliver. Rules for the Dance: A Handbook for Writing and Reading Metrical Verse. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998. - Ron Padgett, Editor. Handbook of Poetic Forms. Teachers & Writers Collaborative, 2000.

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As we move away from Egyptian hieroglyphics to Greek mural paintings, we can see that instead of painting scenes of the after life, the Greek preferred to paint scenes of interesting or exciting scenes from their lives. The art no longer is about controlling reality but rather celebrating and sharing special or exciting moments. Like the hieroglyphics originally painted on the internal walls of the Egyptain pyramids, the Greek kings demanded that paintings be made on the internal walls of their palaces where they lived. The Bull-Leaping Toreador Fresco was painted at the palace at Knosses in 1450-1400 BC. It was painted with the wet-fresco technique and very quickly because it dried so fast. Here is another fresco from the West House of Akrotiri in Thera 1650 BC, it is 53″ high and depicts a young fisherman with his catch. Yet, another scene celebrating the every day occurences in life. The Minoan culture was also equally fascinated by nature and due to their proximity to the ocean, often depicted sea creatures like this Octopus jar from Palaikastro in 1500 BC. This particular vase is very interesting in the progress of art because it shows how flat drawings go from being two dimensional like the hieroglyphics to have more of a three dimensional and interactive or expanding quality. As we look at the connections between Egyptian and Greek art, let’s take a look at this funerary mask from Mycenae in 1600-1500 BC made of beaten gold. Does it remind you of a certain Pharoah, Tutenkhamen, who also had a mask of gold? The Greek Geometric Period Like the Egyptians, who held an incredible love of precision with regard to their hieroglyphic art, early Greek artists also explored Geometric Art on ceramic pots. For example, this Attic Geometric krater from the Dipylon cemetery in Athens was made in 740 BC and is extremely fascinating when you take a very close look at the patterns and shapes that surround the figures. Notice the straight lines that the figures stand upon, so similar to the hieroglyphic writings. Over time, the Greeks took their fascination with geometry and lines from walls to ceramics to buildings. They expanded upon the concepts of Egyptian pyramids to create temples for their gods that had pointed roofs like the pyramids but also had columns like the internal structure of the pyramids and palaces. These two types of architectural design were called Doric and Ionic Orders. Just a fancy way of explaining what parts went where and why. Like past cultures, religion and the gods played a very important part in the Greek’s lives, art and stories. The Greeks believed that their gods lived on top of a very big mountain called Mount Olympus. Zeus was the father and Hera was the mother. Athena was smart and Artemis was a hunter. Apollo was the god of the sun while his brother Neptune was the god of the sea. In these stories, the Greek gods created many mythical and magical creatures. One story tells of the minotaur, a creature that was half man and half bull, who lived in a maze and hurt anyone that went in there. While another story told of pegasus, a winged horse, that was created specially for Hercules to help him fight battles. The Greeks loved their stories and told them in art, and through word and in plays! Today, we are going to pretend to be Greek gods and goddesses. We will paint our own mythical creatures to put in the world and wreak havoc or help mankind. You can choose if your creature is good or bad. It can be part man or part bull, part horse or part hawk, part octopus or part lion. It’s your choice. So, let’s get out our paints and have some fun! Early man eventually moved away from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to settle along the river Nile. These men and women were called Egyptians and like early cave men and the Sumerians, they were possibly even more interested in telling their stories through art. Of all of the ancient civilizations, the Egyptians were definitely the most prolific. The Pre-Dynastic Period What exactly is a pre-dynasty period? Well, it’s the years that describe the time before their were Eyptian Pharoahs and Queens. For every Pharoah that lived, the time that they ruled was considered a dynasty. So, before they had Pharoahs, that time was called pre (meaning: before) dynasty (meaning: period of Pharoah’s power). Make sense? The Geography of Egypt During this time, Egypt was divided into two parts: Upper Egypt (the southern part) and Lower Egypt (the northern part). Ancient Egypt didn’t truly become the power it is known today until the two parts joined together to become the Egyptian kingdom. The First Dynasty: King Narmer If you take a look at the art from King Narmer’s reign, you’ll see some interesting similarities between the art of his time and the Sumerians. This slate tablet, The Palette of King Narmer, seems like an evolution of the Code of Hamurabi. Both tell a story, but while the Hamurabi’s stele speaks of code and laws, King Narmer’s palette tells a story of war and victory. By putting Egyptian gods in half human/half animal form around himself on the Palette, it is likely King Narmer believed they brought him good luck and helped him to win the battle. In addition, King Narmer depicted animals around himself to give the effect of him being part god. Architecture from the Old Kingdom In Egyptian art there are two time periods, the Old Kingdom and the New Kingdom. The Old Kingdom came first and laid the foundation for art as we know it today. Take a look at this “mastaba” it is an Egyptian tomb that looks very similar to the Sumerian temples or “ziggurats.” It is the tomb of King Zoser from the 3rd Dynasty. Fourth Dynasty Pyramids If we compare the ziggurat to the mastaba to the pyramids of the fourth dynasty, you can notice an evolution in the architecture of that time. These structures required an amazing amount of limestone rock and teamwork among hundreds of laborers who likely worked on building these pyramids for 50 years…for each one! The Great Pyramids of Gizeh: Menkaure 2525-275 BC, Khafre 2575-2525 BC, and Khufu 2600-2550 BC were incredibly large. Khufu is 775 feet on one side and 450 feet high, it contains 2.3 million blocks of stone weighing about 2.5 tons each. The Great Sphinx Another famous piece of sculpture from that time is the Great Sphinx which was built in front of the Pyramids of Gizeh from 2575-2525 BC. The Sphinx is made of sandstone, is 65 feet high and 240 feet long. The Sphinx stood watch at the entrances to the Pharoah’s tombs. Very similar to our Lamassu friends from the Assyrian time period, the kings of Egypt probably believed that the Sphinx would ward off any evil or trespassers. Art from the New Kingdom In the New Kingdom art, we start to see yet another evolution of art. In the sculpture called the Senmut with Princess Nefrua from Thebes of the 18th Dynasty 1490-1460 BC, we see a scuplture that combine human form and storytelling in the form of “hieroglyphics.” This is a natural combination of the palette or stele and the lamassu or sphinx. The Egyptian kings of this time believed that a “block statue” such as this would be an eternal home for their “ka,” their spirit. The Tomb of Nebamun As the art continued to grow and evolve, so too did the Egyptian’s concept of ways to express themselves and protect themselves from bad spirits. This can be seen in the hieroglyphics of the tomb of Nebamun, a noble man who was a scribe (writer) and seller of grains. Notice how we have human form depicted flat combined with hieroglyphics in the background. What is even more interesting is that when we take a look at the tomb of Tutankhamen, we see a royal mummy, a godlen coffin and a mask of semi-precious stones. This is a natural evolution of the lamassu and sphinx. Since the pharoahs believed they were god-like, when they died they created mummies, coffins and masks of themselves to ward off evil spirits. And so, even though it is thousands of years later, people still feel the need to control their future and tell their stories through art. Today we are going to create a miniature sculpture called an “ankh.” In Egypt, an ankh is a talisman or special necklace carved with hieroglyphics that is designed to ward off evil. So, we will create our own hieroglyphics today and design our own ankhs to protect us from bad stuff. We’ll use clay that we roll out and flatten and then carve in it with pencils and plastic knives and punch a hole. After we bake the clay in the oven, we will use a thick piece of yarn or string to make a necklace that we can wear. If your child enjoyed this particular lesson, here are some art books on the subject that they might also enjoy… Class Lesson: Friday, December 19, 2008 After the cavemen, came early man who settled in Mesopotamia. They also found a way to communicate their hopes, their dreams and their victories. And, like early cave man, they wanted to control the future. So, how do you think they did this? They told stories using art. The Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys In the early fourth millenium B.C., the settlement of two great river valleys in Mesopotamia led to monumental acheivements in writing, architecture and politics. The two river valleys were called the Tigris and Euphrates. What made the land so special between the two rivers was that the earth was incredibly fertile which meant it was an ideal place to grow crops for food. The people that lived in this area at that time were called the Sumerians. Can you say Tigris and Euphrates? The First Alphabet The Sumerian people are believed to be the first ones to develop a written language. It was called “cuneiform.” Their letters consisted of lines made from a wedge-shaped tool into tablets of stone. The first writings were about government and business transactions. Later on, they wrote stories such as: the Epic of Gilgamesh. It’s quite possible that the stories they used to tell with words or on cave walls were now the ones that they wrote down in their tablets. The Gods and Architecture Sumerians believed that their city-states were each under the protection of special spirits or nature gods. Each city-state had their own unique god that protected and looked after their people. The Sumerians built special temples at the center of their cities, they were called “ziggurats.” Now, if the temple is at the center and higher up than all the other houses, how important do you think they were? Super important or only kinda important? That’s right! They were very, very important. The Standard of Ur Sumerian kings believed very strongly in life after death and made sure they were buried with everything they could possibly need: helmets, daggers, bowls, jewelry, instruments and other special items. The most interesting of all the objects they found in these graves is The Standard of Ur. It is a story of war and peace made of wood, shells, lapis lazuli and red limestone. It was created in 2700 B.C. and is 8″ high by 19″ wide. This is one of the first times that a story is told on wood from side to side and up and down, the way we read words today. Many different people lived in the Mesopotamian river valley: the Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Hittites, the Elamites and then the Assyrians. Because they fought so many people in order to conquer the land, they were believed to be very mean and cruel people. To show off how strong and invinceable they were, they built the royal citadel of Sargon II in 720 B.C. It had strong defensive walls and was built on a mound of dirt 50 feet high. Can you image how high that is?! Lamassu: Protectors of the King The doorway to the Khorsabad palace was guarded by really, really large statues of creatures called “Lamassu.” A Lamassu is a bull with a human head and wings, pretty scary looking don’t you think? This particular statue was 13′ 10″ high and made from limestone in 720 B.C. These creatures were made to protect the king from visible and invisible enemies. So, as long as the Lamassu were outside the palace, the kings believe nothing bad could happen to them. Doesn’t that sound cool? Today, all of you are going to pretend to be Kings and Queens. And…we are going to make our own special Lamassu guardians out of clay. So, first let’s pick the three animal parts we want to use in our sculpture. You can use a person’s head or an eagle’s head or a lion’s head. For the body, you might want to use a horse or a bull. You can add wings or a tail. And you can add claws to the feet or fangs to the teeth. Make it as scary as you like! Remember, this special guardian will protect you from anything scary. After we’re done making our guardian out of clay, then I’m going to take them home and bake them in the oven to “fire” the clay which takes all of the water out of the clay and makes it very hard and strong. It will still be breakable but the shape will be permanent after we “fire” the statues. Great job everyone! Mesopotamian Art Book List If your child really enjoyed this particular lesson, here are some additional books that you can buy or check out from the library. Just click on the links below. Class Lesson: Friday, November 21, 2008 In the beginning, there were no words, no alphabet, no books. Yet, early cave men found a way to communicate their hopes, their dreams and their victories. So, how do you think they did this? They told stories using art. Cave Paintings from Spain and France The very first cave paintings were discovered in 1896 in the Altamira Cave in Santander, Spain. These paintings dated back to 14,000 BC and showed bison over 8′ long! This particular painting is called the Bisons of the Altamira Cave. Later, archeologists discovered the paintings in the Hall of Bulls Cave in Lascaux, France. What was so interesting about this find was that it showed so many different kinds of animals. Why do you think this is so? I will give you a hint: they were painted at different times. Now, why do you think there are so many different animals? That’s right! They are from different times. Each group of animals likely represents a hunt that was performed at a different time. It would seem as though they used this cave over and over again for artwork, with many different artists taking turns. The Very First Artists in the World What is even more interesting is that a very long time ago, when cave men were alive, only a few very special people were allowed to create art. They were called Shaman or hunter-magicians. Early cave men believed that if they drew an animal on a wall, they would capture its spirit and the Shaman would be able to control the success of the hunt. So, if they drew bison on a wall, what animal do you think the Shaman were trying to control with their art? That’s right! In the Altamira Cave from Spain, they were trying to control bison. But, in the cave paintings from the Hall of the Bulls, what animal do you think they were trying to control? I’ll give you a hint: the name of the Cave is Hall of the Bulls. That’s right! They were probably trying to control bulls and ensure the hunters a good hunt. Cave Man’s First Signature Of all the cave paintings that were found, my favorite is the one from the Pech-Merle Cave in Lot, France from 14,000 BC. In this particular painting, you see a spotted horse with a negative hand imprint next to it. Since early cave men did not have words or an alphabet or language, this is probable their very first expression of identity or how they wrote their signature next to their artwork. Some believe that these first handprints may have inspired the development of written language at a later date. Another is of this early painting of man from the Hall of the Bulls in Lauscaux, France. In this particular painting we see a man with a face of a bird. This could be the depiction of the Shaman himself. If early Shaman believed that there was a special spirit that protected them, what animal spirit do you think was protecting this one? That’s right! It probably was a bird. Early Art Tools When early cave men artists or Shaman first created art, there was no such thing as paint or brushes or canvas. They had to work with what they could find. They used the cave walls instead of paper or canvas, twigs or leaves as brushes and different types of dirt and berries for paint. Today you are all going to pretend to be Shaman, hunter-magicians. We are going to go on a nature walk to collect sticks, twigs and leaves then bring them back here to paint with them onto our cave walls. Now, since we don’t exactly have cave walls, we will be using the inside of brown paper bags. And, you will be signing your work with a handprint. Since we are not cave men or hunters, the animal we will choose to draw today can be one that you have seen at the zoo. Pick an animal that you like or one that you think is particularly magical to you and we will create a cave painting so that you can magically control it for one day! Choose carefully and think about your animal as you are searching for painting tools. If it’s spiky, you’ll want a twig to paint the spikes or horns. If it’s furry, maybe you’ll want some soft leaves to paint the fur. There’s no wrong way to do it, so just remember to have fun! After we get back from the nature walk, you will each work at your group tables and I will come around and help you while you are creating your masterpiece! This is supposed to be fun, so be as creative with your painting as you like! Cave Painting Art Book List If your child really enjoyed this particular lesson, here are some additional books that you can buy or check out from the library. Just click on the link below. Welcome to Art History for Kids! In the coming months, watch this blog to view lesson plans the day of and use the information to discuss what your children are learning. My goal will be to provide both Art History and hands-on Art Education for the children of Room One. The final piece will culminate in the classroom art project in the Spring for the Solana Beach Ball. As always, if you’d like more information or links to additional resources to continue the learning, please don’t hesitate to drop me an email. Click here. Looking forward to a great semester of art, laughter and learning! Angela Hill, Incitrio (Max’s mom) This Year’s Proposed Art History Schedule: Paleolithic Art > The Origins of Cave Paintings (painting – animals) Mesopotamian Art > Ancient Guardians of the Kings (sculpture – mythic creatures) Egyptian Art > The Mystery of the Mummies (sculpture – ankh) Greek Art > Greek Mythology’s Magical Creatures (painting – minotaurs/pegasus) Roman & Moroccan Art > The Art of Mosaic Storytelling (sculpture/painting – mosaic tiles) Possible Field Trip San Diego Museum of Man > Mosaic Arts International 2009 Exhibition Roman & Moroccan Art > The Art of Mosaic Storytelling (drawing/gluing – mosaic patterns) Roman Art > Medallions and Money from Ancient Rome (sculpture – coins/medals) Class Art Show > Art Display and Party to Celebrate a Year of Art History and Art (snacks and drinks – parents please join us!)

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The Mystery of Technology Integrating Tech in a LA Classroom by Jamie Dannenberg and Stephanie Ainsworth The Mystery Project The FrameworkThis project is a culmination of a mystery unit. Before we get to the major project, we work through a literature unit that stresses plot structure, theme, setting, foreshadowing, etc...While we use technology in many places, the goal is to keep technology as a tool rather than the focus. Three Skeleton Key•Begin by playing a few minutes of old radio play (available on-line). Use this to introduce the idea of creating suspense.•As we read, students summarize every few paragraphs onPages. Discuss the difference between copying and summarizing.•Students find 10 vocab words they don’t know. They create aKeynote with the words and definitions. These Keynotes areshared in small groups. (A master list of words is created andused on the test).•Students keep track of examples of foreshadowing on theirPages notes.•Students fill out the first copy of the Examining a Story sheet. Examining a StoryStudent Name:___________________Story Name: ____________________ Who is the main character? This is the protagonist. Describe him or her using 3 sentences: Who is the antagonist? This is the person who gets in the main characters way or causes trouble. Describe him or her (or it) using 3 sentences. What is the setting of the story? Give details about what it looks like, where it is, and a guess at the time period. List 3 clues that the author gives about how the story is going to end (foreshadowing). Examining a Story Theme: Every story has a theme. What do you think the theme of this story is?Plot Diagram: Fill in the diagram with details from the story. Climax PP3 PP2 PP4 PP1 Intro ResolutionIntroduction:Plot Point 1:Plot Point 2:Plot Point 3:Climax:Plot Point 4:Resolution: Examining a StoryDescribe the mood of the story:What is the point of view of the story (choose one):! ____First person (The character is also part of the story and uses I, etc...)! ____Second person (The author refers to one of the characters as “you,” making! ! ! you part of the story.! ____Third person objective (Tells the story without letting you know of any! ! ! characterʼs thoughts. The author uses words like “he” or “she,” but! ! ! not “I” or “you.”! ____Third person omniscient (Tells the story with he/she, etc... but also tells you! ! ! what everyone is thinking.)Tenses: Which tense did the author use?! ____ Past Tense - The author is telling a story that takes place before this point! ! ! ! in time.! ____ Present Tense - The author is telling a story that is taking place right now.! ____ Future Tense - The author is telling you a story that will take place in the! ! ! ! future. After Twenty Years O’HenryBefore reading this story, students respond to a journal prompt in Moodle. Theprompt asks them to reflect on what they would do if they knew a friend wasdoing something wrong.Students read through this story in small groups. They are all members of thesame Google Docs. Here they write a short summary of the story and list 5questions they have. Each student must contribute one question. They also sharethis doc with me. This is also where they record vocab for the story.The story is confusing, so we also look at it as a class and fill out the Examining aStory sheet together. The Stranger Chris Van AllsburgI scan this book in and create a Keynote so everyone can seethe pictures.This is an excellent example of how to describe a setting,create the mood, include foreshadowing, etc...Students fill out the Examining a Story sheet again. Theysubmit this on Moodle for a grade. Mystery ProjectBased on Harris Burdick by Chris VanAllsburg Begin by having students look at the directions for Phase 1 on Moodle. Don’t print these out. Mystery Writing Project create the mood of your story for your audience. To do this, you need to Phase 1: Writing the Story use colorful adjectives. Your story should be between 500 and 1000 words. This is meant to be a short story, not a novel! You may want to The Basics: write your story on Google Docs so that you are able to communicate with You will be writing a mystery that includes the various plot elements that we have studied in class this year. This is a large project, so please take it your partner outside of the classroom. seriously. Make sure you look over the rubric before you turn work in to be graded. You also need to work hard to stay on top of things. If you fall Step Four: behind, it will be difficult to catch up. Now that you have your first draft finished, we are going to do some revising. You will be paired with another group. Spend 10 minutes on Step One: each story. Don’t worry about spelling, etc… Instead, focus on content. Before any good writer sits down to write a story, they think through what Work through the Partner Revising Sheet. You will need to turn this in, so type of story they would like it to be. You are going to do the same thing. Look at the story starter from The Mysteries of Harris Burdick you chose. please work through it carefully! Spend a few minutes jotting down ideas of what could be happening. Each story could be written many different ways. Try to come up with a basic Step Five: plot outline in your heads. You don’t need all of the details at this point. Sit and make revisions based on the feedback you were given on the Jot down any ideas that you have so you don’t forget them as you write. Partner Revising Sheet. Think through other things that you might want to change. Can you add detail? Once you think your story is perfect, run it Step Two: through Criterion. The next step is to get your ideas organized on paper. This is the final prewriting step we are going to do. Fill out the Examining a Story sheet that we have used for other stories this week. Try to add many details and Step Six: descriptive words. Before you turn your story in, you need to sit and read it out loud to yourself. It’s amazing what you may notice when you hear your own story. Step Three: Is there anything that you want to add or change? Would a different Now you are ready to write. You are going to use the basic outline you adjective paint a better picture? You want the reader to be drawn into planned during your prewriting. You will definitely need to add more your story. Once you are positive that it is perfect, print it out and turn it details, though. For example, you want to paint a picture of the setting and in. Please make sure your name is on your story. Also, put the title on top! Look at the rubric with the students so they know what is expected of them. Mystery Writing Rubric Phase One: Writing the Story Writers’ Names: ____________________________ Points Possible: Points Earned: Did you have a clear 6 introduction that set the tone of the story? Did you use strong 10 adjectives that painted pictures? Did you have at least 9 three pieces of foreshadowing? Did you a strong plot 10 structure based on the diagram you created during pre-writing? Was your final version 5 different than your first version? Did you have perfect 15 spelling and grammar? Did you have an 5 appropriate title for your story? Final Grade: 60 Next, have students sign up for groups using thenotecard system. Have students write their names inthe center of a card and 4 students they would like towork with in each corner. I assign the groups fromthese suggestions.Make a Keynote of the Harris Burdick slides. Gothrough the slideshow twice so they can get ideas ofwhich story they would like to use for their project. Use Moodle Choice for partners to pick their story.You can set limits so only one group in each class canchoose a story. This prevents students from fightingover stories.Give each group a photocopy of their prompt. Theyhave 10-15 minutes to brainstorm possible plot ideaswhile I circulate. The next class period (Day 2 of the project) is spentwith students filling in the Examining a Story sheet forthe story they are going to write. This must beapproved before they can move on.At this stage, I introduce Google Docs. Students writetheir stories together in class and at home. They havetwo days to complete their stories.The next day (Day 5), students meet with anothergroup to edit. Then they run their stories throughCriterion for grammar corrections. I do check forsignificant revisions. I always collect the stories (on Google docs)on a weekend. This gives me time to edit. Icopy and paste the rubric directly on theirGoogle site. I also add comments, but I don’tmake corrections for them. This is a greatway to be able to check and see if they havemade corrections. Phase TwoStudents are given directions for the project, but I allow themto use different programs or formats as long as they meet therequirements listed in the rubric.This part of the project is very independent. Students alsograde their partners at the end of the project so I know if therewere any issues I didn’t notice. I also circulate and take noteson what I observe happening in the groups. Mystery Writing Project Phase 2: Creating a KeynoteThe Basics:Now that you have written your story, you are going to create a Keynotewith illustrations, sounds, and text. All of the directions are writtenclearly below. Please follow the steps one by one in order to meet all of thecriteria!Step One: Open a Keynote document and choose the style of the project.Think about the mood you would like to create as you make your selection.Step Two: The first slide should be a title slide. You need to write thename of your story using correct capitalization. Below the title, you shouldlist your names.Step Three: Create ten more slides. This will be where you put your textand illustrations. Look at your story and break it into ten sections. Thisshould be done with a great deal of thought. Try to think about naturalbreaks in the story and what the illustrations could be for each section.Once you have divided the story into ten sections, type or paste the text oneach slide. You may select a fun font that creates the appropriate mood.Please make sure that it is easy to read, though.Step Four: The next step is to create illustrations for your story. This canbe done in a few different ways. One way is to draw the pictures and takepictures of your drawings using PhotoBooth. Another way is to use acomputer program such as Pencil (in your Zextras folder). If you know ofother programs, you may definitely use them! Be creative and have fun.You DO need an illustration on each of the ten pages. You may not use pictures you find on-line, but you may use photos of yourself or otherphotos that you have taken. If you are using photos, try to alter themusing Seashore or another program.Step Five: After you have inserted all of your text and illustrations, youare ready to add sound. To do this, go to Garage Band and follow the stepsbelow for each slide. You will do this ten times! • Create a new project, choose podcast. • Label the project Slide 1, Slide 2, etc… and save it in a Mystery Project folder inside your Language Arts folder. • Start by creating the text. To do this, click on the either the male or female voice. Click the large red dot on the bottom of the screen and start reading your text. Make sure you set the tone with your voice and speak clearly. When you are finished, click the red dot again. (If you hear a tapping sound as you are recording, go up to the Control tab and turn the metronome off.) • Now you are ready to add sound effects. You should have at least one sound effect per slide. This can be music (from Garageband) or another noise that fits with your story. To do this, first look at the bottom right section of your screen. Make sure that the eye is blue (turned on). Once you see the Loop menu, click on Sound Effects. You can listen to various sound effects under each category. When you find one that you like, drag it onto a new track. You can adjust the volume for each track so that you are able to hear your words. You may have more than one sound effect per slide if you would like. • Once you are sure that the sounds for the page are perfect, go to the Share tab at the top of your screen. Choose the “send song to iTunes” option. The first time you do this, you will need to create a playlist called Mystery. Leave the rest of the settings the way they are and hit “Share.” Eventually you will have 10 files in iTunes under your Mystery playlist. • Back in Keynote, go to your first slide with writing. Open the Media Inspector, find your file in iTunes and drag it onto your slide. Do this for each of your ten story slides.Step 6: Add a slide at the end giving credit to Chris VanAllsburg for thestory starter (The Mysteries of Harris Burdick) and any other sites orprograms that you used.Step 7: Now we need to work on timing. To do this, you are going to look ateach slide. Start with your title slide. Open the Inspector and click on thetab that looks like a slide. Choose to start the transition automatically.Then adjust the time to be 4 seconds. For the rest of the slides, do the samething. The only difference is that you need to set the time for the slides tobe one second longer than your sound file. You can find these times bylooking at the file in iTunes.Step 8: You’re almost finished! The final step is to export your project. Todo this, go to the Share tab and choose “Export.” Choose the QuickTimetab. Set the Playback Uses to Manual Advance and set the format to CD-Rom Movie. Make sure you have checked to include audio and click“next.” Save it to your desktop. Mystery Project Rubric Name _________________________ Total Points (out of 40) ________ 4 3 2 1Spelling: The story was The story had The story had 2-4 The story had 5 or perfect with no only one spelling spelling mistakes. more spelling spelling mistakes mistake. mistakes. at all.Grammar: The story had The story had The story had The story had 5 or perfect grammar. only one grammar between 2 and 4 more grammar mistake. grammar mistakes. mistakes.Title Slide: Your title slide Your title slide Your title slide Your title slide did was perfect. It had only one had a couple of not follow the had your story mistake. errors. directions given. title with correct capitalization and your names.Illustrations: Your illustrations Your illustrations Your illustrations Your illustrations were very were very nice. were OK. You did not follow the carefully done. You obviously could have spent guidelines given, They showed time worked very hard more time on or appeared to be and creativity. on them. them. very hastily done.Verbal Text: You did an You did a nice job You had several You did not follow excellent job with the text. You issues with the directions as far creating a mood. may have had an text. It was very as text. Your pacing was issue with pacing hard to perfect and it was or volume or the understand. easy to mood might not understand. have been created perfectly. Sound Effects: You had at least You did a nice job Your sound Your sound one sound effect with the sound effects had effects were not per slide. The effects, but you several issues. complete or did effect was may have missed not fit the story. appropriate, at a a slide or they good volume and didn’t add to the added to the story. story.Story Line: Your story line Your story line Your story line Your story line showed a strong was nice. You had was not needed more plot development. the necessary completely work. A feeling of parts but could developed. A suspense was have used more strong feeling of created and there detail. suspense was not was a clear climax created. and resolution.Details: You had You had many You had a few Your story lacked wonderful details details, but at details, but details. that added to your times you could needed many story. have added more. more.Timing: Your slide show Your slide show You slide show Your timing did was perfectly timing was nice, timing was OK, not meet the timed. but there was a but had issues in criteria given. place or two some spots. where it could have been better.Credit Slide You included a You included a Your credit slide You forgot to slide giving credit credit slide, but had many errors. include a credit to all sites used. needed to pay slide. This was done closer attention to thoroughly. some details. Literature Unit Project specifically for Summer of the Swans by Betsy Byars The Framework This unit is a small unit on a realistic fiction book entitled Summer of the Swans. It teaches students how to work withvocabulary, character traits as well as how to monitor their ownreading and thoughts. While we use technology in many places, the goal is to keep technology as a tool rather than the focus. This unit works toward teaching students to use parts oftechnology in a simple way so they can later use it on their own. Skeleton•Begin by reviewing ways that people read and what works forcomprehending.•Alternate reading whole class, partners and at home individually.•Students record vocab words as they read. Students can recordwords they’re questionable about, but also use the words from themaster list of words. For each vocab word (or selected ones, useInspiration to web the words - definition, example (sentence), way toremember the word, and a simile. Students also use Inspiration tocreate a character web for character traits of the main characters.•Model reading strategies like questioning, predicting, inferring etc.through whole class reading. Use stickies to record thoughts.Students practice at home. and share some thoughts during the nextwhole class reading.•Students also summarize every few chapters on Pages in whichthey later upload to moodle. Choice Project Summer of the Swans: Sara’s Life at a Glance Project.Title Page: Name of book, Author’s name, your name (3 points).Identify the following Character’s in Sara’s Life (who are they, describe their actions in one part of the story, and what is Sara’s relationship with them at the beginning and howdoes it change at the end). (6 points per Character). • Wanda • Charlie • Aunt Willie • Joe • FatherExplain Sara’s Life at the beginning of the story (first describe her self-esteem and then tell me how it was like a kaleidoscope). (6 points)Why couldn’t Charlie talk, describe what happened to him as a child (4 points).What significance did the Swans have in the story? (2 points)Describe the situation of WHY Sara is SO mad at Joe in the beginning (4 points).Why did Charlie go missing (describe what happened) (4 points).Describe the following character’s reaction and what they do when they find out that Charlie is missing. (2 points per Character). • Aunt Willie • Wanda (specifically how she found out) • Sara • JoeDescribe how Charlie was found 1. what did Charlie experience in the woods, 2. who looked for him 3. describe the events that happened as they looked for him, 4. and how washe finally found). (3 points per question).What does Sara realize or learn about her life at the end of the story (at least 2 things she learned) (6 points (3 points each)).What can you learn about how to treat other people by reading this story (3 things you learned). (2 points per).Vocabulary Slide: Choose 10 words that were unfamiliar to you in the story and make a Vocabulary Slide with the definition in your own explainable words. (2 points perword).At least 5 sentences of your thoughts and opinions of the book (5 points).Total: ________/105 Some Project Choices... ---(Pages) ---(Comic Life) Later in the semester or year students apply what they’velearned in reading with a book of their choice. They use thevocabulary strategies taught, summarizing strategies, ways to look at an analyze character traits, as well as ways tokeep track of literary elements. Student do this as they read and then at the end of their chosen books, students do a project to demonstrate and apply their knowledge. For the project, students need to create a cover, a short summary of the book, and choose five projects. The Project...Students have a choice to do 5 of the following. 20 Ways of Looking at the Book Complete any five of the assignments below: (Each item should be a minimum of one page in length, but usually should be longer than that.) 1. Summarize the book in poem form with rhyme (minimum 20 lines). 2. Discuss in depth the relevance of the title. 3. Write a letter to the author. 4. Use two other sources to research and write a report on an issue from the book. 5. Write a one minute radio advertisement persuading the public why they should buy and read this book. Then, use Garage Band to record your advertisement. 6. Research and write a report on the author. 7. Q & A - Pretend youre interviewing a person from the book. Write your interview in question and answer format. Then, use Garage Band to record the interview. Use different voices for the different people talking. Extra credit if you use iMovie to make an actual television show of the interview. 8. Compare and contrast the book with another you have read.9. Discuss cause and effect relationships you found in the book.10. Write an editorial based on a controversial issue in the book. (An editorial is a letterin which the writer is trying to persuade the reader to agree with the topic written. Thewriter addresses the other side, but weighs more into persuading the reader to thinkone way.)11. Design a time-line for events in the book.12. Write a letter to one of the characters in the book.13. As a literary agent, write a letter to the publishing company designed to persuadethem to publish this book.14. Create a glossary of unfamiliar words and phrases. Because it’s a glossary, it mustinclude definitions of your words written in your words. Each word also must include asentence using the word.15. Choose your favorite passage from the book. Copy it down (with the page number)and discuss what you found appealing about it.16. Top 10 List - list ten things you learned from this book. 17. Youre the reporter. Write a front page news story or a report live from the scene.Use Pages to write it. Make it look appealing. Extra credit if you do an audiorecording on Garage Band.18. Write your own test - a combination of matching, multiple choice, true/false,short answer, and essay. Include an answer key for your test. (May put in paper formor use quizlet.com)19. Journal as you go - As youre reading the book, keep a two-sided readingjournal. The left side should have quotes from the book and page numbers. Theright side should have your questions, thoughts, observations, revelations, etc.20. E-mail partner - Partner up with some whos reading the same book. Divide thebook into four parts. When youve read the first quarter, write a letter to your partnerabout your questions, thoughts, observations, revelations, etc. Your partner is torespond. Do the same for the next three sections of the book. When you finish, printout your letters and responses (each partner is to have four letters and fourresponses). (Google Docs would work great for this.) THE DEVIL’S ARITHMETIC The of J Germa April 2011 By Jane Yolen ew ns com s. Whe take h es i na old wor n n king , an old ew Jew Tha , ts th Jew goe non- “I loved this book! I em s ou would recommend a cam th of th t. p. e this book to anyone who loves action, Hannah or Chaya? Jews. suspense, and real page turners.” -- Madi BrinkJEWS AND GERMANSIn 5701, the Germans had hated the Jews. Anytype of Jew, including Greek Jews. In theastonishing story of a girl named Hannah shefinds herself at a Seder with her family but shegets caught up in the moment and falls into astrange dream when her ancestors were still livingand young. Nazi’s find her family and take her toa concentration camp. She knows abouteverything that happens but know when willbelieve her and her guardians make all thedecisions for her. When a cart of Jews comes tothe camp, others must go into the gas ovens. Whatwill she do? Jewish boys with the traditional shaved heads. Jewish star Hitler In this book, the characters are fake but most of the actions in the book are real. The writer, Jane Yolen, is actually a Jew and her grandparents and parents (when they were young) where held in camps and they told her stories. She took bits and pieces and created a horror- filled book. Reading Level: 6.0 Number of Pages: 170 James and theGiant Peach This book has 126 pages This is forpeople who likefantasy and the people that Roald would want to leave it would be someone Dahl whoa happy ending and people whowould want the whole book to be happyJames and the Giant peach tree. The Aunts use it to get money. One night james found a Peach hole in the peach and finds a door. James is a boy from England and He opens it and finds somehis parents died and he has to live friends. The peach separates from with his mean aunts. One day he the tree and rolls down the hill. Itgets these green candy like things crushes the aunts and ends up inand drops them on the ground and the ocean. Then sharks come andmakes a huge peach on a very old start to eat the peach. Dear Andrew Clements, I am .... I am 12 years old and in the 6th grade. For a reading project we had to chose onebook. It could be any book that we wanted to read and many of my friends recommendedThe Report Card, so that was the book that I read. After we were done reading the book,we did three different projects on it, and this was one of the ones that I chose, to write oremail a letter to you. I really, truly think that you are a great author and I am starting toread another one of your books. I really like how you put in how Nora was thinking inbetween times. I also liked that you made it a secret. I think that when there are any majorsecrets in a book that many readers want to know when “the beans might get spilled” so tospeak. That is what I liked about your book. I also liked that you made Nora friends with aboy because in most stories there are normally either a boy friends with a boy or a girlfriends with a girl and that I think that is another thing that makes your book really unique.I really liked your book and so far I really like your other book. I am glad that I had achance to read a few of your books and I really look forward to reading a few of your otherbooks. It would really mean a lot to me if you could email me or send me a letter. My emailaddress is ... and my address is:...It would really mean a lot to me if you could do that so I hope to hear from you soon. Thanks, ..., 6B, 12 years, 6th grade Simple Ways to Integrate Technology in a Language Arts ClassroomUse Moodle to upload extra worksheets, communicate homework expectations,allow students to collaborate in forums, and submit journals.Criterion is an on-line editing site. Students submit writing and are told whenthey have sentence or paragraph structure issues, essay structure problems, aswell as simple grammar problems. It’s a great way for students to start the editingprocess as well turn in quick writing assignments for you to evaluate. (They arealso given a score from 1 to 6.Google Docs is a great way for students to collaborate with each other. You canalso grade student work if they share it with you. Moodle Choice is a great way to allow students to choose projects without“fighting” over ideas. You can set a limit so only one group in a class can choose atopic. It automatically resets for the next section of a class.You can use Moodle to review MAP style questions. Set this up using MoodleChoice.Students can use Easy Bib to complete their Works Cited page.Students can create examples of their oral reading using Garageband. They canlink the examples to a portfolio so you can track their growth.Garageband can also be used to establish the mood of a story. Students can addsound effects, voice alterations, etc... so that they demonstrate a clearunderstanding of what mood is. ActivInspire is a great piece of software that allows you to create a slideshow foryour class. As you teach your class, you can store the notes you used to make onthe whiteboard. These notes can be added to Moodle with a voice over so thatparents and students can review what happened in class. (This is especiallyhelpful for students on vacation or those that need a little extra help).Inspiration and Kidspiration are both great programs for brainstorming/organizing writing before students begin. Need Handouts? To access our handouts, go tohttps://sites.google.com/a/hollandchristian.org/ integrating-tech-in-a-la-classrrom/home

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