Datasets:

LLukas22

/

nq

like 0

when does the dead zone gulf of mexico occur

Dead zone (ecology) - wikipedia Dead zones are hypoxic (low - oxygen) areas in the world 's oceans and large lakes, caused by "excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in bottom and near - bottom water. (NOAA) ''. In the 1970s oceanographers began noting increased instances of dead zones. These occur near inhabited coastlines, where aquatic life is most concentrated. (The vast middle portions of the oceans, which naturally have little life, are not considered "dead zones ''.) In March 2004, when the recently established UN Environment Programme published its first Global Environment Outlook Year Book (GEO Year Book 2003), it reported 146 dead zones in the world 's oceans where marine life could not be supported due to depleted oxygen levels. Some of these were as small as a square kilometre (0.4 mi2), but the largest dead zone covered 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 mi2). A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide. Aquatic and marine dead zones can be caused by an increase in chemical nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus) in the water, known as eutrophication. These chemicals are the fundamental building blocks of single - celled, plant - like organisms that live in the water column, and whose growth is limited in part by the availability of these materials. Eutrophication can lead to rapid increases in the density of certain types of these phytoplankton, a phenomenon known as an algal bloom. Limnologist Dr. David Schindler, whose research at the Experimental Lakes Area led to the banning of harmful phosphates in detergents, warned about algal blooms and dead zones, "The fish - killing blooms that devastated the Great Lakes in the 1960s and 1970s have n't gone away; they 've moved west into an arid world in which people, industry, and agriculture are increasingly taxing the quality of what little freshwater there is to be had here... This is n't just a prairie problem. Global expansion of dead zones caused by algal blooms is rising rapidly. '' The major groups of algae are Cyanobacteria, green algae, Dinoflagellates, Coccolithophores and Diatom algae. Increase in input of nitrogen and phosphorus generally causes Cyanobacteria to bloom and this causes dead zones. Cyanobacteria are not good food for zooplankton and fish and hence accumulate in water, die, and then decompose. Other algae are consumed and hence do not accumulate to the same extent as Cyanobacteria. Dead zones can be caused by natural and by anthropogenic factors. Use of chemical fertilizers is considered the major human - related cause of dead zones around the world. Natural causes include coastal upwelling and changes in wind and water circulation patterns. Runoff from sewage, urban land use, and fertilizers can also contribute to eutrophication. Notable dead zones in the United States include the northern Gulf of Mexico region, surrounding the outfall of the Mississippi River, the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest, and the Elizabeth River in Virginia Beach, all of which have been shown to be recurring events over the last several years. Additionally, natural oceanographic phenomena can cause deoxygenation of parts of the water column. For example, enclosed bodies of water, such as fjords or the Black Sea, have shallow sills at their entrances, causing water to be stagnant there for a long time. The eastern tropical Pacific Ocean and northern Indian Ocean have lowered oxygen concentrations which are thought to be in regions where there is minimal circulation to replace the oxygen that is consumed. These areas are also known as oxygen minimum zones (OMZ). In many cases, OMZs are permanent or semipermanent areas. Remains of organisms found within sediment layers near the mouth of the Mississippi River indicate four hypoxic events before the advent of artificial fertilizer. In these sediment layers, anoxia - tolerant species are the most prevalent remains found. The periods indicated by the sediment record correspond to historic records of high river flow recorded by instruments at Vicksburg, Mississippi. Changes in ocean circulation triggered by ongoing climate change could also add or magnify other causes of oxygen reductions in the ocean. In August 2017, a report found that the US meat industry is responsible for the largest - ever dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff from widespread manure and fertilizer pollution contaminated water from the Heartland to the Gulf. Much of this pollution comes from the vast quantities of corn and soy used to raise meat animals for agribusiness companies, like Tyson. Low oxygen levels recorded along the Gulf Coast of North America have led to reproductive problems in fish involving decreased size of reproductive organs, low egg counts and lack of spawning. In a study of the Gulf killifish by the Southeastern Louisiana University done in three bays along the Gulf Coast, fish living in bays where the oxygen levels in the water dropped to 1 to 2 parts per million (ppm) for three or more hours per day were found to have smaller reproductive organs. The male gonads were 34 % to 50 % as large as males of similar size in bays where the oxygen levels were normal (6 to 8 ppm). Females were found to have ovaries that were half as large as those in normal oxygen levels. The number of eggs in females living in hypoxic waters were only one - seventh the number of eggs in fish living in normal oxygen levels. Fish raised in laboratory - created hypoxic conditions showed extremely low sex hormone concentrations and increased elevation of activity in two genes triggered by the hypoxia - inductile factor (HIF) protein. Under hypoxic conditions, HIF pairs with another protein, ARNT. The two then bind to DNA in cells, activating genes in those plant cells. Under normal oxygen conditions, ARNT combines with estrogen to activate genes. Hypoxic cells in vitro did not react to estrogen placed in the tube. HIF appears to render ARNT unavailable to interact with estrogen, providing a mechanism by which hypoxic conditions alter reproduction in fish. It might be expected that fish would flee the potential suffocation, but they are often quickly rendered unconscious and doomed. Slow moving bottom - dwelling creatures like clams, lobsters and oysters are unable to escape. All colonial animals are extinguished. The normal re-mineralization and recycling that occurs among benthic life - forms is stifled. It has been shown that future changes in oxygen could affect most marine ecosystems and have socio - economic ramifications due to human dependency on marine goods and services. In the 1970s, marine dead zones were first noted in settled areas where intensive economic use stimulated scientific scrutiny: in the U.S. East Coast 's Chesapeake Bay, in Scandinavia 's strait called the Kattegat, which is the mouth of the Baltic Sea and in other important Baltic Sea fishing grounds, in the Black Sea, and in the northern Adriatic. Other marine dead zones have appeared in coastal waters of South America, China, Japan, and New Zealand. A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide. The Elizabeth River estuary is important for Norfolk, Virginia, Chesapeake, Virginia, Virginia Beach, Virginia and Portsmouth, Virginia. It has been polluted by nitrogen and phosphorus, but also toxic deposits from the shipbuilding industry, the military, the world largest coal export facility, refineries, loading docks, container - repair facilities and others, so fish had been "offlimits since the 1920 _́ s ''. In 1993, a group formed to clean it up, adopting the mummichog as a mascot, and has removed thousands of tons of contaminated sediment. In 2006, a 35 - acre biological dead zone called Money Point was dredged out, and shown fish to return, the wetland to recover A dead zone exists in the central part of Lake Erie from east of Point Pelee to Long Point and stretches to shores in Canada and the United States. The zone has been noticed since the 1950s to 1960s, but efforts since the 1970s have been made by Canada and the US to reduce runoff pollution into the lake as means to reverse the dead zone growth. Overall the lake 's oxygen level is poor with only a small area to the east of Long Point that has better levels. The biggest impact of the poor oxygen levels is to lacustrine life and fisheries industry. A dead zone exists in the Lower St. Lawrence River area from east the Saguenay River to east of Baie Comeau, greatest at depths over 275 metres (902 ft) and noticed since the 1930s. The main concerns for Canadian scientists is the impact of fish found in the area. Off the coast of Cape Perpetua, Oregon, there is also a dead zone with a 2006 reported size of 300 square miles (780 km2). This dead zone only exists during the summer, perhaps due to wind patterns. The Oregon coast has also seen hypoxic water transporting itself from the continental shelf to the coastal embayments. This has seemed to cause intensity in several areas of Oregon 's climate such as upwelled water containing oxygen concentration and upwelled winds. The area of temporary hypoxic bottom water that occurs most summers off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico is the largest recurring hypoxic zone in the United States. The Mississippi River, which is the drainage area for 41 % of the continental United States, dumps high - nutrient runoff such as nitrogen and phosphorus into the Gulf of Mexico. According to a 2009 fact sheet created by NOAA, "seventy percent of nutrient loads that cause hypoxia are a result of this vast drainage basin ''. which includes the heart of U.S. agribusiness, the Midwest. The discharge of treated sewage from urban areas (pop. c 12 million in 2009) combined with agricultural runoff deliver c. 1.7 million tons of phosphorus and nitrogen into the Gulf of Mexico every year. Even though Iowa occupies less than 5 % of the Mississippi River drainage basin, average annual nitrate discharge from surface water in Iowa is about 204,000 to 222,000 metric tonnes. or 25 % of all the nitrate which the Mississippi River delivers to the Gulf of Mexico. Export from the Raccoon River Watershed is among the highest in the United States with annual yields at 26.1 kg / ha / year which ranked as the highest loss of nitrate out of 42 Mississippi subwatersheds evaluated for a Gulf of Mexico hypoxia report. The area of hypoxic bottom water that occurs for several weeks each summer in the Gulf of Mexico has been mapped most years from 1985 through 2017. The size varies annually from a record high in 2017 when it encompassed more than 22,730 sq kilometers (8,776 square miles) to a record low in 1988 of 39 sq kilometers (15 square miles). The 2015 dead zone measured 16,760 square kilometers (6,474 square miles). Nancy Rabalais of the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium in Cocodrie predicted the dead zone or hypoxic zone in 2012 will cover an area of 17,353 sq kilometers (6,700 square miles) which is larger than Connecticut; however, when the measurements were completed, the area of hypoxic bottom water in 2012 only totaled 7,480 sq kilometers. The models using the nitrogen flux from the Mississippi River to predict the "dead zone '' areas have been criticized for being systematically high from 2006 to 2014, having predicted record areas in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2013 that were never realized. In late summer 1988 the dead zone disappeared as the great drought caused the flow of Mississippi to fall to its lowest level since 1933. During times of heavy flooding in the Mississippi River Basin, as in 1993, "'' the "dead zone '' dramatically increased in size, approximately 5,000 km (3,107 mi) larger than the previous year ". Some assert that the dead zone threatens lucrative commercial and recreational fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. "In 2009, the dockside value of commercial fisheries in the Gulf was $629 million. Nearly three million recreational fishers further contributed about $10 billion to the Gulf economy, taking 22 million fishing trips. '' Scientists are not in universal agreement that nutrient loading has a negative impact on fisheries. Grimes makes a case that nutrient loading enhances the fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. Courtney et al. hypothesize, that nutrient loading may have contributed to the increases in red snapper in the northern and western Gulf of Mexico. Shrimp trawlers first reported a ' dead zone ' in the Gulf of Mexico in 1950, but it was not until 1970 when the size of the hypoxic zone had increased that scientists began to investigate. After 1950, the conversion of forests and wetlands for agricultural and urban developments accelerated. "Missouri River Basin has had hundreds of thousands of acres of forests and wetlands (66,000,000 acres) replaced with agriculture activity (...) In the Lower Mississippi one third of the valley 's forests were converted to agriculture between 1950 and 1976. '' In July 2007, a dead zone was discovered off the coast of Texas where the Brazos River empties into the Gulf. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 calls for the production of 36 billion US gallons (140,000,000 m) of renewable fuels by 2022, including 15 billion US gallons (57,000,000 m) of corn - based ethanol, a tripling of current production that would require a similar increase in corn production. Unfortunately, the plan poses a new problem; the increase in demand for corn production results in a proportional increase in nitrogen runoff. Although nitrogen, which makes up 78 % of the Earth 's atmosphere, is an inertial gas, it has more reactive forms, one of which is used to make fertilizer. According to Fred Below, a professor of crop physiology at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign, corn requires more nitrogen - based fertilizer because it produces a higher grain per unit area than other crops and, unlike other crops, corn is completely dependent on available nitrogen in soil. The results, reported 18 March 2008 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, showed that scaling up corn production to meet the 15 - billion - US - gallon (57,000,000 m) goal would increase nitrogen loading in the Dead Zone by 10 -- 18 %. This would boost nitrogen levels to twice the level recommended by the Mississippi Basin / Gulf of Mexico Water Nutrient Task Force (Mississippi River Watershed Conservation Programs), a coalition of federal, state, and tribal agencies that has monitored the dead zone since 1997. The task force says a 30 % reduction of nitrogen runoff is needed if the dead zone is to shrink. Dead zones are reversible, though the extinction of organisms that are lost due to its appearance is not. The Black Sea dead zone, previously the largest in the world, largely disappeared between 1991 and 2001 after fertilizers became too costly to use following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the demise of centrally planned economies in Eastern and Central Europe. Fishing has again become a major economic activity in the region. While the Black Sea "cleanup '' was largely unintentional and involved a drop in hard - to - control fertilizer usage, the U.N. has advocated other cleanups by reducing large industrial emissions. From 1985 to 2000, the North Sea dead zone had nitrogen reduced by 37 % when policy efforts by countries on the Rhine River reduced sewage and industrial emissions of nitrogen into the water. Other cleanups have taken place along the Hudson River and San Francisco Bay. The chemical aluminium sulfate can be used to reduce phosphates in water.

the reason why the number of tiger is decreasing

Tiger hunting - wikipedia Tiger hunting is the capture and killing of tigers. Humans are the tigers ' most significant predator, and illegal poaching is a major threat to the tigers. The Bengal tiger is the most common subspecies of tiger, constituting approximately 80 % of the entire tiger population, and is found in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, and India and has been hunted in those countries for centuries. The tiger has historically been a popular big game animal and has been hunted for prestige as well as for taking trophies. Extensive poaching has continued even after such hunting became illegal and legal protection was provided to the tiger. Now a conservation - reliant endangered species, the majority of the world 's tigers live in captivity. Tigers were once considered to be harder to hunt than lions, due to their habit of living alone in dense cover and not noisily asserting their presence with roars as often. Historically, tigers have been hunted on foot, horseback, elephant - back, and from machans. Any of these involved considerable danger and the hunting of a tiger had been considered a manly and a courageous feat with game, trophies being collected as the symbols of valor and prestige. Accounts of British royalty photographed aside dead tiger carcasses during the late 19th and early 20th centuries depict the construction of the successful conquest of Indian nature, thus symbolizing the imperial, masculine identities desired by the British. In some places such as China, tigers were also perceived to be a threat to human life in the area, so those who managed to kill them were hailed as heroes to the general public. In 1986, it was discovered that tigers were declining rapidly due to being poisoned, snared or shot and then smuggled out of India to supply medicinal manufacturers in China. By 1992, the trade industry paid a total of 12.4 million dollars for 200 tigers that were harvested by poachers. Since that time, the Chinese have banned poaching and the tiger part trade. However, this has only increased the value of poached tigers. Individual poachers now get approximately $800 per tiger, but those associated with well - known established gangs can receive up to $5,000 per body received. In addition to poaching, to compensate for the banning of trade in tiger parts, China has begun harvesting tigers by means of "tiger farming. '' This enables them to breed captive tigers for the purpose of selling their parts. While the tigers were widely extant and not threatened up to the first decades of the twentieth century, hunting and habitat loss reduced their population in India from 40,000 to less than 1,800 in a mere hundred years. Despite the prevalence of tiger hunting as a royal sport for centuries, the consequences were larger during the British Raj due to the hunters ' use of far superior firepower, and their interest to hunt shared by a much larger number of colonial aristocrats led to further depletion. In the preface to Manohar Malgonkar 's novel A Distant Drum, the Regimental Code of an old Indian Army regiment is set out, to which the regiment 's officers are expected to live up. It begins with First and foremost, we always finish off our own tigers. Always. In the first years of the 20th century, the Imperial Russian government began a plan to colonise the Central Asiatic lands inhabited by the Caspian tiger. The Russian local authorities worked heavily to exterminate tigers during a huge land reclamation program in areas such as the Syr - Daria and Amu - Daria rivers and the Aral Sea. The Russian army was instructed to exterminate all tigers found around the area of the Caspian Sea, a project that was carried out very efficiently. Once the extermination of the Caspian tiger was almost complete, the farmers followed, clearing forests and planting crops. Due to intensive hunting and deforestation, the Caspian tiger retreated first from the lush lowlands to the forested ranges, then to the marshes around some of the larger rivers, and finally, deeper into the mountains, until it almost certainly became extinct. The last stronghold of the Caspian tiger in the former Soviet Union was in the Tigrovaya Balka area, in Tajikistan. Though the tigers were reported as being found here until the mid-1950s, the reliability of these claims is unknown. In the early years of the Russian Civil War, both Red and White armies based in Vladivostok nearly wiped out the local Siberian tigers. In the 1920s, tigers were heavily persecuted by the Communists, who would on occasion bag up to eight or ten on a single outing. Legal tiger hunting within the Soviet Union would continue until 1947, when it was officially prohibited. In 1959, during the PRC 's Great Leap Forward, Mao Zedong declared South China tigers as enemies of man, and began organising and encouraging eradication campaigns. By the early 1960s, Chinese tigers had been reduced to just over 1,000 animals. A decade later, their range was reduced to three regions in southern China, two of which were located in the Jiangxi Province. Tiger bones and nearly all body parts are used in traditional Chinese medicine for a range of purported uses, including pain killers. Tiger parts are used in traditional East Asian medicines, particularly in traditional Chinese medicine, where many people believe that tiger parts have multiple medicinal properties. When combined with the high prices that furs fetch on the black market and destruction of habitat, poaching for medicinal uses has greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild. A century ago, it is estimated that there were over 100,000 tigers in the world; now, global numbers may be below 2,500 mature breeding individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals. There is no scientific corroboration to these beliefs, which include: On 15 March 2010, the World Federation of Chinese Medicine Societies (WFCMS) issued a statement regarding the use of endangered species for medicinal purposes. Huang Jianyin, Deputy Secretary of WFCMS, addressing the conference, issued the following statement: "Tiger conservation has become a political issue in the world. Therefore it is necessary for the traditional Chinese medicine industry to support the conservation of endangered species, including tigers '' (Science Daily). As TCM Practitioners push to remove endangered species from the "ingredients list, '' they are being met by farmers hoping to reignite the demand for TCM Based medicinal products, such as tiger bone wine. Tiger farming is partially, if not fully, responsible for reigniting the demand for tiger - based medicinal products. At Xiongsen bear and tiger farm in Guilin, China, as many as 200,000 bottles of tiger bone wine are being produced annually. (Jacobs 2010) Parks such as Xiongsen profit off branding their wine as holistic medicinal remedies, meeting the market demand for prior medicinal practices. While TCM practitioners attempt to move away from the use of endangered species, tiger farms are reigniting this demand. Today, tiger farmers in China are pushing their government to lift the ban on tiger part sales. In 2007, farmers fought to have the ban lifted, citing that, "(t) he poaching of wild tigers for traditional medicine would diminish substantially if tigers, which breed prolifically in captivity - could be farmed for food. '' However, this goes directly against the reasons for which these establishments were created - for reintroducing the endangered species back into the wild. If tiger farming is allowed, the population of wild tigers will be directly affected. How? One of the first noticeable factors will be the growth in demand for a natural product (wild vs captive bred). The consequence of ignoring these dire issues will be detrimental to the population of tigers. Most alarmingly, it is projected that within the next decade, the species of tigers may go extinct. "James Leape, director general of the World Wildlife Fund, told the meeting in St. Petersburg that if the proper protective measures are n't taken, tigers may disappear by 2022, the next Chinese calendar year of the tiger '' (Titova 2010) The wild tiger is one of the most threatened species on the planet. The main factors behind the endangerment of tigers are spurred by humans, due to demand, customary beliefs, ritual practices of / and increasing number of populations clashing and tampering with the original boundaries and dwelling zones of this wild animal. In some middle eastern countries tiger parts are believed to heal the liver and kidneys and are used to treat epilepsy, baldness, inflammation, possession by evil demons, toothaches, malaria, hydrophobia, skin diseases, nightmares, laziness, fevers, and headaches. Although tiger populations are mostly impacted by habitat degradation and diminution in prey density. Wang and Shen 2010 explain that factors that best explain diminishing population of tiger species are human population density and distance from roads. However, hunting activities and poaching contribute greatly to the declines of this animal. Illegal trade circulating products from tiger parts is another of the major causes of extinction of the Javan, Caspian and Bali tiger subspecies (WWF 2010). A well - respected report "Traffic: The wildlife trade monitoring network '' has released numbers on animals killed and traded for parts and products. "One thousand tigers were killed and traded for their parts and products in the last decade. '' The Malayan species of tiger has about 600 to 800 in the wild, making it the third largest sub-species. It is one of the most portrayed, which appears on the Malaysian coat of arms. The Bali tiger has already become extinct due to hunting. It was the smallest of the tiger family with an approximate weight of 90 -- 100 kg in males and 65 -- 80 kg in females. As the Russian economy has declined, laws and regulations against poaching became looser and less enforced, which has favoured the hunting and poaching of tigers to improve market conditions and economy (Washington Post, 2010). The degree to which poaching and hunting is practised is such that very rarely do Siberian tigers die of old age, since they are killed before they are allowed to reach this stage. In recognition of these times of struggle for the survival of the tiger, Russian Prime minister Vladimir Putin has put forth an effort to bring people together in awareness of this occurrence in the city of St. Petersburg. The name of the event is called the "Tiger Summit '' an international forum to rescue tigers from the brink of extinction. The year 2010 was the Chinese year of the tiger, which made the year a natural focus of international conservation efforts. Tiger experts fear that tigers are in jeopardy of extinction due to current threats (Traffic 2010). Prolonging their existence will take a very high level of commitment from multiple countries. Experts agree that efforts to conserve habitat are essential. For example, an evaluation of conservation strategies to preserve species of tigers in North - eastern China reveal the importance of enlarging suitable habitats for conservation and survival (Xiaofeng, 2009). Key landscapes must be tiger - conservation friendly to ensure ecosystem integrity that is equally valuable for humans, tigers and many other wildlife species sharing the same area. In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China. Baiting consisted of watching for a tiger over the carcass of some animal, domestic or wild, which it had previously killed. The tiger would usually come to its kill in the evening, making the vicinity resound with its loud roars. While there was no danger to the hunter as long as he sat up in the tree, it was dangerous for him to attempt to return home during the night. The hunter would thus have to remain in the tree till morning. In China, small bombs known as pen - tras were placed in a tiger 's kill, and would detonate upon ingestion. In Burma and in India, a concoction of mustard oil and latex was strewn around a water hole frequented by a tiger. In an attempt to rid its paws of the sticky fluid with its tongue or teeth, the tiger would involuntarily cover its face with dirt and leaves. The resulting blindness made it easier for it to be brought down. Hunqua was the rajah 's practise in Bengal of reducing the numbers of tigers by setting fire to grass ten or twenty miles around one jungle in such a manner that beaters could drive the fleeing animals into a mile of netting. In upper Irrawaddy, when a bamboo bridge was seen to be used by tigers, the slats of the bridge would be adjusted, so that on its next crossing, the tiger would fall onto sharpened poles at the bottom. In Madhya Pradesh, the Baigas would hang a tiger 's kill from the middle of a horizontal pole supported in two forked trees a few feet apart. Because the pole was slippery and had no bark, the tiger would slip, trying to gain access to the kill and fall upon sharpened bamboo spikes at the bottom. In Burma, bamboo stakes would be placed on both sides of a path frequented by tigers. When a tiger made physical contact with a cord tied across the path, the slit half of the bamboo clapper would loudly spring back on its other half. The sound would apparently cause the tiger to leap to one side and impale itself on one of the stakes. Horses and camels were used by cavalry officers in the 17th century India, which they found to be more reliable and less unpredictable than elephants. After chasing the tigers to exhaustion, the riders would gallop around the tigers in ever decreasing circles, and then kill the tiger with a sword. For this purpose it was necessary to have a pack of hunting dogs of very considerable strength, well trained in the chase of every kind of big game animal found in the taiga. When hunting, the hunters would usually collect most of the dogs of their village to form a nondescript pack. Not all dogs were equal in hunting, as they differed greatly in quality and character. In every pack there were one or two leaders which the rest follow. If the leader were lost, the pack soon got out of hand. Hunters rarely brought dogs along in heavy snow, as it would impede the dogs ' movement and make them easy targets for the tiger. Upon encountering the tiger, the dogs would begin to bark furiously, at the same time catching hold of its legs and biting it in the hind quarters. In such a manner, they caused it to stop and turn at bay. When the tiger was finally cornered, the dogs would usually make high pitched barks, consistent with feelings of extreme nervousness. Half of the pack would continue to surround the tiger, while the other dogs rested. If, however, the quarry tried to break away, the whole pack charged it, with some of the dogs actually jumping on the animal 's back and forcing it to halt once more. Working only from sound and keeping behind trees out of sight of the quarry, the hunter would get within easy range of the latter and shoot it. Despite their great strength, the tigers usually did not stand their ground against the dogs unless cornered, much preferring to retreat. It was theorised that this is due to the tiger mistaking the dogs for dholes (Cuon alpinus), which have been known to kill tigers on rare occasions. To conserve the wild tigers as a species in the environment, several threats need to be addressed -- habitat loss, reduction of prey populations, and direct hunting of tigers. In response to the poaching and hunting of tiger species for the making of medicines and other tiger derived products, The Chinese government should regulate and if needed to terminate or set a quota for the number of allowable practices for this type of action. Because a lot of these hunting practices take place illegally and it is hard to put an end to poaching. Enforcement of existing laws and sanctions against illegal trade markets that circulate tiger parts is greatly needed (Barber - Meyer). Human scarcity makes for less exploitation of natural resources and the wild tiger populations can in these places remain stable or increase, as long as they are not subject to poaching. Tigers depend on trees for shelter and cover and hunting of animals that live on them. Habitat destruction and logging for new roads and dwellings harms this species ecosystem drastically. The trees allow tigers to sharpen their claws and scratch trees to provide the basic survival toolkits. The loss of vegetative elements in their reproductive and dwelling environment is a cause for concern as well, since these species rely on cover from trees and tall grasses to prey on other animals. Trees and vegetation also provide natural cover from abiotic factors and elements that these animals rely on for their protection. Tigers mate and reproduce in the same areas where they were born, therefore conserving natural vegetation and tree cover is important. The effort to promote the recovery of tigers throughout their range has been ongoing for at least 40 years. Multiple governments have funded a special Project Tiger Program, and have been very active. Anderson et al. 2006 has analysed funding of money for tiger conservation specifically by non-governmental organisations between the years 1998 - 2002. Over $23 million has been invested between the countries of India, Russia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Nepal. Gratwicke et al. 2006 writes that ExxonMobil, a major corporation has invested 12.6 million US dollars for the sole purpose of tiger conservation between the years of 1999 - 2004. The Wildlife Conservation Society and the Panthera Foundation announced a plan in 2008 to create a "Genetic Corridor '' between Bhutan and Myanmar to help sustain a large, continuous population of tigers, spanning eight countries. This project promises to be the largest area of unbroken or unfragmented tiger habitat, and would represent the single most intense effort to conserve this species from extinction. (Rabinowitz). Another major contributor is the World Wildlife Fund for nature. This organisation has proposed a major initiative with an objective of doubling wild tiger populations by the year 2020. In response to major organisations putting forth such great efforts, other smaller more numerous efforts have joined forces in this task. The conglomeration of these organisations has been named the international Tiger Coalition. Sanderson et al. (2006) evaluated the effectiveness of varying conservation measures for the tiger species in differing sites through a survey of 70 conservationists. High scores were given for those areas that showed a high effectiveness in implementation with a scaling value in descending order for those measures proven ineffective. Of these measures, a few projects in India, Bhutan, Nepal and Malaysia were considered to be most effective.

how long is a season of fixer upper

Fixer Upper (TV series) - wikipedia Fixer Upper is an American reality television series about flipping houses airing on HGTV starring Chip and Joanna Gaines, based in Waco, Texas. The show 's pilot aired in May 2013, with the full season 1 beginning in April 2014, season 2 began in January 2015, season 3 began in December 2015, and season 4 began in November 2016. The 5th and final season premiered on November 21, 2017. Produced by Highnoon TVs producers Scott Feeley and Jim Berger, producers of the famous cooking show Cake Boss, Fixer Upper is a very popular home improvement show. Prior to "Fixer Upper, '' Chip and Joanna Gaines worked with clients on buying and remodeling homes. In total, the couple had worked on over 100 homes. On the show, Joanna and Chip start by showing one couple three potential homes for purchase in central Texas, each of which requires a varying amount of repair or renovation. Once the couple chooses their home, Joanna designs it while Chip is the lead contractor. The buyers typically have an overall budget of under $200,000 with at least $30,000 in renovations. In March 2017, it was announced that Chip and Joanna Gaines would be getting a Fixer Upper spin - off series entitled Fixer Upper: Behind the Design. The half - hour show will showcase how Joanna comes up with the designs seen on Fixer Upper. On April 27, 2017, Chip Gaines was named in a fraud lawsuit filed by former business partners. The former partners alleged that the Gaines ' persuaded them to sell their interest in Magnolia Realty to him for $2,500 each without disclosing plans that had been in the works to develop the Fixer Upper reality television show. His attorney, Jordan Mayfield, told KWTX - TV, the CBS television station in Waco, Texas, "We are confident that these claims will be found to be meritless, and it is disappointing to see people try to take advantage of the hard work and success of Chip and Joanna Gaines. ''

which state is home to the arizona iced tea beverage company

Arizona beverage company - wikipedia Arizona Beverages USA (stylized as AriZona) is an American producer of many flavors of iced tea, juice cocktails and energy drinks based in Woodbury, New York. Arizona 's first product was made available in 1992. Arizona is known for its "Big Can '' drinks holding 23 fl. oz. (680 ml) of iced teas, juice drinks and other beverages that retail for around the price of $ 0.99 in the United States. The "Arnold Palmer blend '' of iced tea and lemonade has been commercially available since the 1990s, though Arizona has since risen to become the most popular primary distributor of the beverage, with over $100 million in sales in 2010. Arizona also distributes packed trays of tortilla chip products, consisting of "Nachos ' n ' Cheese '' and "Salsa ' n ' Chips ''. The company roots trace back to 1971 when friends John Ferolito and Don Vultaggio opened a beverage distribution business in Brooklyn, New York. The company was a successful beer distributor. In 1990, they saw the success of Snapple (also a Brooklyn - based company founded in the 1970s) bottled juices and teas, and attempted to make their own product. In 1992, they produced the first bottles of their own AriZona teas. In The United Kingdom, five different flavours of green teas in 500ml bottles are sold. The beverages are distributed by American Drinks Ltd. Arizona sells their 695 ml (23 fl. oz.) canned products in Canada for $. 99 CAD and 500ml (16.9 fl. oz.) cans for $1.49 CAD (Chains such as 7 - Eleven carry this product for the higher markup value). The same products in 473 ml (16 oz) bottles are sold at a premium, roughly 2 -- 3 times the canned price. Arizona Iced tea cans were briefly recalled in Canada in 2007 due to a can defect, before being re-introduced at the $. 99 CAD price. They sell a variety of iced tea and juice drinks. As of approximately December 20, 2014 the 695 ml (23 fl. oz.) canned Arizona beverages were unavailable until late January / Early February 2015 because the company sought to find a Canadian distributor, no longer using Coke for distribution. The company has a bottling plant in Mississauga and uses local distributors across the country. Arizona sells their 695 ml (23 fl. oz.) canned products in Colombia for 5.500 (COP), the Arizona Products could be found in Exito Supermarkets in national level or in Oxxo Markets around the country in cities such as Bogotá, Medellin, Bucaramanga, Cali, Monteria or Barranquilla. The beverages are distributed by Destileria Nacional S.A. In Norway, different flavors of Arizona Iced Tejma and Green Tea are sold. They are available in 500 ml cans, and 473 ml bottles. The beverages are usually sold in smaller shops like Deli De Luca. In Sweden, seven different flavors of Arizona Iced Tea and Green Tea are sold. They are available in 500ml cans, and 473ml bottles. The beverages are distributed by Grays American Stores AB. In Turkey, seven different flavors of Arizona Iced Tea in 500ml Pet bottles, 473ml Glass Bottles and 355ml Slim Cans are available. The beverages are distributed by Dmc Group Turkey. After the passage of Arizona SB1070, a controversial anti-illegal immigration measure, many businesses associated with the state of Arizona faced protests and boycotts. A tongue - in - cheek post to Twitter calling Arizona Iced Tea "the drink of Fascists '' fueled reports of a boycott of Arizona - brand beverages. In reaction to this, the company posted to its Twitter account that "Arizona is and always has been a NY based company! ''

who was the first republican governor elected in texas since reconstruction

List of governors of Texas - wikipedia The Governor of Texas is the chief executive of the U.S. State of Texas, the presiding officer over the executive branch of the Government of Texas, and the commander - in - chief of the Texas National Guard, the State 's militia. The governor has the power to consider bills passed by the Texas Legislature, by signing them into law, or vetoing them, and in bills relating to appropriations, the power of a line - item veto. He may convene the legislature, and grant pardons and reprieves, except in cases of impeachment, and upon the permission of the legislature, in cases of treason. The State provides an official residence, the Governor 's Mansion in Austin. The incumbent, Greg Abbott, is the forty - eighth governor, of whom two have been women, to serve in the office since Texas ' statehood in 1845. When compared to those of other states, the Governorship of Texas has been described as one of relative weakness. In some respects, it is the Lieutenant Governor of Texas, who presides over the Texas Senate, who possesses greater influence to exercise their prerogatives. The governor is inaugurated on the third Tuesday of January every four years along with the Lieutenant Governor, and serves a term of four years. Prior to the present laws, in 1845, the state 's first constitution established the office of governor, serving a term of two years, but no more than four years of every six. The 1861 constitution, following secession from the Union, established the first Monday of November following election as the term 's start. Following the end of the American Civil War, the 1866 constitution increased term length to four years, limiting overall service to no more than eight years of every twelve, moving the term 's start to the first Thursday following organization of the legislature, or "as soon thereafter as practicable. '' The constitution of 1869, enacted during Reconstruction, removed term limitations, to this day making Texas one of fourteen states with no limit on gubernatorial terms. The present constitution of 1876 returned terms to two years, but a 1972 amendment again returned them to four. Since its establishment, only one man has served in excess of eight years as governor: Rick Perry. Perry, the longest - serving governor in state history, assumed the governorship in 2000 upon the exit of George W. Bush, who resigned to take office as the 43rd President of the United States. Perry was re-elected in 2002, 2006, and 2010 serving for 14 years before choosing to retire in 2014. Allan Shivers assumed the governorship upon the death of Beauford Jester in July 1949 and was re-elected in 1950, 1952 and 1954, serving for 7 1 / 2 years, making him the second longest serving Texas governor. Price Daniel was elected to the governorship in 1956 and re-elected in 1958 and 1960 before losing his re-election for an unprecedented fourth term in the 1962 Democratic primary, missing the runoff. John Connally was elected in 1962 and re-elected in 1964 and 1966 before choosing to retire in 1968. In the case of a vacancy in the office, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. Prior to a 1999 amendment, the lieutenant governor only acted as governor until the expiration of the term to which he succeeded. See: List of Texas Governors and Presidents See: List of Texas Governors and Presidents See: President of the Republic of Texas # List of presidents and vice presidents Currently, there are two living former governors of Texas. The most recent death of a former governor was that of Mark White (1983 -- 1987), who died on August 5, 2017. The most recently serving governor of Texas who has died is Ann Richards (1991 -- 1995, born 1933), who died on September 13, 2006. Pictured in order of service: Texas has had two female governors: Miriam A. "Ma '' Ferguson and Ann Richards. Ferguson was one of the first two women elected governor of a U.S. state (on November 4, 1924), along with Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming. Ross was inaugurated on January 5, 1925, while Ferguson was inaugurated on January 20, so Ross is considered the first female state governor. Ferguson was the wife of former governor Jim "Pa '' Ferguson, while Richards was elected "in her own right, '' being neither the spouse nor widow of a governor. Texas governors have been born in fourteen states: Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Baylor University is the most common alma mater of Texas governors, with five of them - Lawrence Sullivan Ross, Pat Morris Neff, Price Daniel, Mark White, and Ann Richards - considered alumni (though Ross attended but never completed a degree). To date, Coke Stevenson is the most recent governor who never attended college, and Bill Clements is the most recent who attended college but did not graduate. Three governors have served non-consecutive terms: Elisha M. Pease, Miriam A. Ferguson, and Bill Clements. As was the case in most Southern states, Texas did not elect any Republican governor from the end of Reconstruction until the late twentieth century. Bill Clements was the state 's first Republican governor since Edmund J. Davis left office in 1874, 105 years earlier. Dolph Briscoe was the last governor to be elected to a two - year term, in 1972; he was also the first to be elected to a four - year term, in 1974, since the post-Reconstruction period when two - year terms had first been established. Rick Perry, who ascended to the governorship on December 21, 2000 upon the resignation of then - Governor George W. Bush, won full four - year terms in 2002, 2006 and 2010. W. Lee "Pappy '' O'Daniel served as the inspiration for the fictional, but similarly named, Mississippi Governor Menelaus "Pappy '' O'Daniel, in the film O Brother, Where Art Thou? Ann Richards had a cameo appearance on an episode of the animated comedy series King of the Hill, in which she has a brief romance with Bill Dauterive after he takes the fall for mooning her in the elevator of an Austin hotel (Hank actually mooned her because he thought his friends were going to be mooning the people in the elevator but they set him up). In the Texas Senate, there are no majority or minority leaders. In the Texas House, there are no majority or minority leaders.

who sang it's gonna be a bright sunshiny day

I Can See Clearly Now - wikipedia "I Can See Clearly Now '' is a song written, composed, and originally recorded by Johnny Nash. It was a single from the album of the same name and achieved success in the United States and the United Kingdom when it was released in 1972, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was covered by many artists throughout the years, including a 1993 hit version by Jimmy Cliff, who re-recorded the song for the motion picture soundtrack of Cool Runnings, where it reached the top 20 at No. 18 on the Billboard Hot 100. After Nash wrote and composed the original version, he recorded it in London with members of the Fabulous Five Inc., and produced it himself. Its arrangements and style are both heavily laced with reggae influences. Nash had collaborated with Bob Marley in the past, and his approach drew strongly from Marley 's reggae style. After making modest chart advances for a month, the RIAA - certified gold single unexpectedly took only two weeks to vault from No. 20 to No. 5 to No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 on November 4, 1972, remaining atop this chart for four weeks, and also spent the same four weeks atop the adult contemporary chart. shipments figures based on certification alone Reggae singer Jimmy Cliff recorded a cover of the song for the 1993 movie Cool Runnings. It was released as a single in 1993, reaching No. 18 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was Cliff 's first single to make the Hot 100 in 25 years, and is his highest - charting single in the United States. The song also appears in various other films, such as Grosse Pointe Blank, The Break - up, Thelma & Louise, Antz, Deep Blue Sea, Envy, Hitch, Igor, Shrek 2 's "Far Far Away Idol, '' "Viktor Vogel -- Commercial Man, '' and Jennifer 's Body, as well in a 2009 advertisement for Lipton in the Middle East and Russia. It is also briefly sung by Cheech in the movie Up in Smoke. It has also been covered by these artists: In November 2002, the song was featured prominently in "The Freak, '' an episode of the NBC police drama television series Boomtown. In November 2016, a cover version of the song by the Hothouse Flowers was featured in the premiere episode of British Motoring show, The Grand Tour, causing the song to reach the number 1 position on the iTunes 's Top 40 UK Rock Song chart in late 2016.

why did the south object to high tariffs

Tariff of Abominations - wikipedia The "Tariff of Abominations '' was a protective tariff passed by the Congress of the United States on May 19, 1828, designed to protect industry in the northern United States. Created during the presidency of John Quincy Adams and enacted during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, it was labeled the Tariff of Abominations by its southern detractors because of the effects it had on the antebellum Southern economy. It set a 38 % tax on 92 % of all imported goods. Industries in the northern United States were being driven out of business by low - priced imported goods; the major goal of the tariff was to protect these industries by taxing those goods. The South, however, was harmed directly by having to pay higher prices on goods the region did not produce, and indirectly because reducing the exportation of British goods to the U.S. made it difficult for the British to pay for the cotton they imported from the South. The reaction in the South, particularly in South Carolina, led to the Nullification Crisis. The tariff marked the high point of U.S. tariffs in terms of average percent of value taxed, though not resulting revenue as percent of GDP. The 1828 tariff was part of a series of tariffs that began after the War of 1812 and the Napoleonic Wars, when the blockade of Europe led British manufacturers to offer goods in America at low prices that American manufacturers often could not match. The first protective tariff was passed by Congress in 1816; its tariff rates were increased in 1824. Southern states such as South Carolina contended that the tariff was unconstitutional and were opposed to the newer protectionist tariffs, but Western agricultural states favored them, as well as New England 's industries. In an elaborate scheme to prevent passage of still higher tariffs, while at the same time appealing to Andrew Jackson 's supporters in the North, John C. Calhoun and other southerners joined them in crafting a tariff bill that would also weigh heavily on materials imported by the New England states. It was believed that President John Quincy Adams 's supporters in New England, the National Republicans, or as they would later be called, Whigs, would uniformly oppose the bill for this reason and that the southern legislators could then withdraw their support, killing the legislation while blaming it on New England. What that plan was, Calhoun explained very frankly nine years later, in a speech reviewing the events of 1828 and defending the course taken by himself and his southern fellow members. A high - tariff bill was to be laid before the House. It was to contain not only a high general range of duties, but duties especially high on those raw materials on which New England wanted the duties to be low. It was to satisfy the protective demands of the Western and Middle States, and at the same time to be obnoxious to the New England members. The Jackson men of all shades, the protectionists from the North and the free - traders from the South, were to unite in preventing any amendments; that bill, and no other, was to be voted on. When the final vote came, the southern men were to turn around and vote against their own measure. The New England men, and the Adams men in general, would be unable to swallow it, and would also vote against it. Combined, they would prevent its passage, even though the Jackson men from the North voted for it. The result expected was that no tariff bill at all would be passed during the session, which was the object of the southern wing of the opposition. On the other hand, the obloquy of defeating it would be cast on the Adams party, which was the object of the Jacksonians of the North. The tariff bill would be defeated, and yet the Jackson men would be able to parade as the true "friends ''. Southern opponents generally felt that the protective features of tariffs were harmful to southern agrarian interests and claimed they were unconstitutional because they favored one sector of the economy over another. New England importers and ship owners also had reason to oppose provisions targeting their industries -- provisions inserted by Democratic Party legislators to induce New England constituents to sink the legislation. Those in Western states and manufacturers in the Mid-Atlantic States argued that the strengthening of the nation was in the interest of the entire country. This same reasoning swayed two - fifths of U.S. Representatives in the New England states to vote for the tariff increase: A substantial minority of New England Congressmen (41 %) saw what they believed to be long - term national benefits of an increased tariff, and voted for it; they believed the tariff would strengthen the manufacturing industry nationally (see table). The Democratic Party had miscalculated: despite the insertion by Democrats of import duties calculated to be unpalatable to New England industries, most specifically on raw wool imports, essential to the wool textile industry, the New Englanders failed to sink the legislation, and their plan backfired. The 1828 tariff was signed by President Adams, although he realized it could weaken him politically. In the presidential election of 1828, Andrew Jackson defeated Adams with a popular tally of 642,553 votes and an electoral count of 178 as opposed to Adams 's 500,897 tally and 83 electoral votes. Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina strongly opposed the tariff, anonymously authoring a pamphlet in December 1828 titled the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, in which he urged nullification of the tariff within South Carolina. The South Carolina legislature, although it printed and distributed 5,000 copies of the pamphlet, took none of the legislative action that the pamphlet urged. The expectation of the tariff 's opponents was that with the election of Jackson in 1828, the tariff would be significantly reduced. When the Jackson administration failed to address its concerns, the most radical faction in South Carolina began to advocate that the state itself declare the tariff null and void within South Carolina. In Washington, an open split on the issue occurred between Jackson and Vice-President Calhoun. On July 14, 1832, Jackson signed into law the Tariff of 1832 which made some reductions in tariff rates. Calhoun resigned on December 28 of the same year. The reductions were too little for South Carolina. In November 1832 the state called for a convention. By a vote of 136 to 26, the convention overwhelmingly adopted an ordinance of nullification drawn by Chancellor William Harper. It declared that the tariffs of both 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina. While the Nullification Crisis would be resolved with a compromise known as the Tariff of 1833, tariff policy would continue to be a national political issue between the Democratic Party and the newly emerged Whig Party for the next twenty years.

how did the byzantine empire cause orthodox christianity to spread into russian territory

History of the Russian Orthodox Church - wikipedia The Russian Orthodox Church (Russian: Русская Православная Церковь) is traditionally said to have been founded by the Andrew the Apostle, who is thought to have visited Scythia and Greek colonies along the northern coast of the Black Sea. According to one of the legends, St. Andrew reached the future location of Kiev and foretold the foundation of a great Christian city. The spot where he reportedly erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrew 's Cathedral Orthodox Christian Constantinople 's greatest mission outreach was to areas known as Kievan Rus that are now the states of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Christianity was introduced into Kievan Rus by Greek missionaries from Byzantium in the 9th century. In 863 -- 869, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius translated parts of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic language for the first time, paving the way for the Christianization of the Slavs. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatius, circa 866 - 867 AD. By the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Greek and Byzantine priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or 957. Undoubtedly influenced by his Christian grandmother and by a proposed marriage alliance with the Byzantine imperial family, Olga 's grandson Vladimir I (c. 956 - 1015) prince of Kiev, from among several options, chose the Byzantine rite. Baptized in 988, he led the Kievans to Christianity. This date is often considered the official birthday of the Russian Orthodox Church. Thus, in 1988, the Church celebrated its millennial anniversary. The Kievan church was originally a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch along with the Emperor, appointed the metropolitan who governed the Church of Rus '. The Metropolitan 's residence was originally located in Kiev. As Kiev was losing its political significance due to the Mongol invasion, Metropolitan Maximus moved to Vladimir in 1299; his successors, Metropolitan Peter and Theognostus, moved the residence to Moscow by the 14th century. While Russia lay under Mongol rule from the 13th (Genghis Khan 's army entered Russia in 1220s) through the 15th century, the Russian church enjoyed a favoured position, obtaining immunity from taxation in 1270. This period saw a remarkable growth of monasticism. The Monastery of the Caves (Pecherska Lavra) in Kiev, founded in the mid-11th century by the ascetics St. Anthony and St. Theodosius, was superseded as the foremost religious centre by the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, which was founded in the mid-14th century by St. Sergius of Radonezh (in what is now the city of Sergiev Posad). Sergius, as well as the metropolitans St. Peter (1308 -- 26) and St. Alexius (1354 -- 78), supported the rising power of the principality of Moscow. The church enjoyed protection for its land and buildings as well as freedom from taxes. In addition it was guaranteed freedom from persecution in accordance with Islamic religious law. To that extent, there was even a legal relationship between the Golden Horde and the Russian Orthodox Church since these rights had been conceded in a formal document (jarlig). The church was only required to pray for the Khan. This continuation of the "symphony '' corresponded with the Orthodox idea of a state that protected the Orthodox Church and, therefore could call for loyalty. Centuries later, the ecumenical patriarchs dealt hardly differently with the Ottoman rulers. In 1261, the Russian church established an eparchy in Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde. The increasing importance of Moscow and the growing power of the political system also created ideas that contributed to a theological basis of the stature of Moscow. References have already been made regarding the perception of Moscow as a Third Rome. From that moment the sources began to use more the notion Tsarstvo, tsardom, representing a translation of the Greek basileia. The metropolitan of Moscow, Makariy (1483 - -- 1563) contributed above all, to the strengthened emphasis of the Moscow idea of the state. He emphasized the Russian ecclesiastical tradition. He made brief readings available, Menaions, which were arranged according to the calendar so that they could be read continuously in the liturgy and in the monasteries. These had strong Russian features and supported a providential view of the Russian political system. During the 15th century the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival and life of the Russian state. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tartar oppression, and to expand both economically and spiritually. At the Council of Florence 1439, a group of Orthodox Church leaders agreed upon terms of reunification with Papacy. The Moscow Prince Vasily II, however, rejected the concessions to the Roman Church and forbade the proclamation of the acts of the Council in Moscow in 1452. The Russian Metropolitan Isidore, who had signed the Union act, was in the same year expelled from his position as an apostate. In 1448, the Russian Church in Moscow became effectively independent from the Patriarchate of Constantinople -- when the Russian bishops in Moscow elected their own primate, Jonas, a Russian bishop, without recourse to Constantinople. The Russian church within the bounds of the Grand Duchy of Moscow was thenceforth effectively autocephalous. Metropolitan Jonas was given the title of Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus ', but his successors styled themselves as Metropolitans of Moscow and All Rus '. Five years later, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. From this point onward the Russian Orthodox Church saw Moscow as the Third Rome, legitimate successor to Constantinople, and the metropolitan of Moscow as head of the Russian Church. The reign of Ivan III and his successor was plagued by numerous heresies and controversies. One party, led by Nil Sorsky and Vassian Kosoy, called for secularisation of monastic properties. They were oppugned by the influential Joseph of Volotsk, who defended ecclesiastical ownership of land and property. The sovereign 's position fluctuated, but eventually he threw his support to Joseph. New sects sprang up, some of which showed a tendency to revert to Mosaic law: for instance, the archpriest Aleksei converted to Judaism after meeting a certain Zechariah the Jew. Monastic life flourished in Russia, focusing on prayer and spiritual growth. The disciples of St. Sergius left the Troitse - Sergiyeva Lavra to found hundreds of monasteries across Russia. Some of the most famous monasteries were located in the Russian North, in order to demonstrate how faith could flourish in the most inhospitable lands. The richest landowners of medieval Russia included Joseph Volokolamsk Monastery, Kirillo - Belozersky Monastery and the Solovetsky Monastery. In the 18th century, the three greatest monasteries were recognized as lavras, while those subordinated directly to the Synod were labelled stauropegic. In the 1540s, Metropolitan Macarius convened a number of church councils, which culminated in the Hundred Chapter Council of 1551. This assembly unified Church ceremonies and duties in the whole territory of Russia. At the demand of the Church hierarchy the government canceled the tsar 's jurisdiction over ecclesiastics. The growing might of the Russian state contributed also to the growing authority of the Autocephalous Russian Church and during the reign of Tsar Fyodor I his brother - in - law Boris Godunov contacted the Ecumenical Patriarch, who "was much embarrassed for want of funds, '' with a view elevate the status of the Russian Orthodox Church to an independent autocephaly. On January 23, 1589 the Moscow Patriarchate was created, making the Russian Church autocephalous, and Job, Metropolitan of Moscow became the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus '. During the next half a century, when the tsardom was weak, the patriarchs (notably Germogen and Philaret) would run the state along with (and sometimes instead of) the tsars. The beginning of the 17th century proved to be a hard time for Russia. The Poles and Swedes invaded Russia from the west. At this time of trouble the Russian Church fulfilled its patriotic duty before the people with honor, as it did before. Patriarch Germogen (1606 -- 1612), the leader of an insurrection against invading Poles, and later starved to death imprisoned, was the spiritual leaders of the mass levy led by Minin and Pozharsky. The defense during the siege of Trinity - St. Sergius Lavra from a Polish - Lithuanian irregular army between 1608 and 1610 has been inscribed forever in the chronicle of the Russian state and the Russian Church. The main and tragic event in the 17th century was the great schism, the schism of the so - called Old Believers, who seceded from the main Church in protest against ecclesiastical reforms of Patriarch Nikon. In the period after the invaders were driven away from Russia, the Russian Church was engaged in one of the most important of its internal tasks, namely, introducing corrections into its service books and rites. A great contribution to this was made by Patriarch Nikon, a bright personality and outstanding church reformer. Some clergymen and lay people did not understand and did not accept the liturgical reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon and refused to obey the church authority. This was how the Old Believers ' schism emerged. Nikon, pursuing the ideal of a theocratic state, attempted to establish the primacy of the Orthodox church over the state in Russia, and he also undertook a thorough revision of Russian Orthodox texts and rituals to bring them into accord with the rest of Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1652 Nikon resolved to centralize power that had been distributed locally, while conforming Russian Orthodox rites and rituals to those of the Greek Orthodox Church. For instance he insisted that Russian Christians cross themselves with three fingers, rather than the then - traditional two. This aroused antipathy among a substantial section of the believers who saw the changed rites as heresy, although they had only a minor ritual significance. This group became known as the Old Ritual Believers or Old Believers, who rejected the teachings of the new patriarch. Tsar Aleksey (who was simultaneously centralizing political power) upheld Nikon 's changes. During the so - called Raskol, the Old Ritual Believers were separated from the Orthodox Church. Avvakum Petrov, Boyarynya Morozova and many other dissidents were burned at the stake, either forcibly or voluntarily. Millions seceded from the official church and were strongly persecuted by the state. In order to escape persecution, they migrated to more remote areas of the realm and even abroad. Many went to Siberia and other inhospitable lands, where they would live in semi-seclusion until the modern times. The schism peaked in 1666 when Nikon was deposed but the Russian church retained his reforms and anathematized those who continued to oppose them. The Old Believers had formed a vigorous body of dissenters within the Russian Orthodox church for the next two centuries. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Russian Orthodox Church experienced phenomenal geographic expansion. In 1684, Moscow Patriarchate requested Constantinople that the Metropolia of Kiev be made subordinate to Moscow but the request was declined.. Eventually, in 1686 after patriarch Parthenius IV was succeeded by Dionysius IV it was agreed to subordinate the Metropolia of Kiev to Moscow. But just a year later in 1687 such subordination was denounced by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and those in charge were defrocked because of the bribe. In any case this brought millions of faithful and a half dozen dioceses under the pastoral and administrative care of the Russian Orthodox Patriarch. Leaders learned local languages and translated the gospels and the hymns. Sometimes those translations required the invention of new systems of transcription. However, the success was superficial and quickly reversed. Empress Catherine the Great issued an Edict of Religious Freedom in 1773, which allowed other religious organizations to operate in the Empire. The edict marked the end of significant missionary activity, and saw the rise of apostasy among the new Christian communities. In particular, areas that had previously been under Islamic influence reverted to Islam. Stephen Neill argues that: In the 19th century, there were small - scale missionary efforts in Russian possessions in Asia and Alaska, as well as in Japan and China. The Japanese mission was the most successful, reaching about 35,000 baptized members in 1914. However, currently (2015) in Japan, there are only 30.000 Orthodox Christians. In 1700, following the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I prevented a successor from being named. In 1721, following the advice of Feofan Prokopovich, the patriarchate of Moscow was replaced with the Most Holy Governing Synod to govern the church. The Holy Governing Synod was modeled after the state - controlled synods of the Lutheran Church of Sweden and in Prussia and was tightly intertwined with the state. The chief procurator of the synod, a lay official who obtained ministerial rank in the first half of the 19th century, henceforth exercised effective control over the church 's administration until 1917. This control, which was facilitated by the political subservience of most of the higher clergy, was especially marked during the procuratorship (1880 -- 1905) of the archconservative Konstantin Pobedonostsev. The Synod remained the supreme church body in the Russian Church for almost two centuries. In the Synodal period of its history from 1721 to 1917, the Russian Church paid a special attention to the development of religious education and mission in provinces. Old churches were restored and new churches were built. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the work of brilliant theologians. Russian theologians also did much to develop such sciences as history, linguistics and Oriental studies. In 1762 Peter III secularized all church land and serfs, henceforth state property. Catherine the Great promised to return the land if the church supported her coup, she reneged on the promise paying stipends with just 1 / 4 of the value of the seized land. She closed 569 out of 954 monasteries and only 161 got government money. Only 400,000 rubles of church wealth was paid back. In 1785 the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat in Catherine 's legislative commission. By 1786, Catherine chose to simply exclude all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education. In 1797 the Holy Synod banned the election of priests who were now appointed by bishops. The 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisius Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of modernization. During the final decades of the imperial order in Russia many educated Russians sought to return to the Church and revitalize their faith. No less evident were non-conformist paths of spiritual searching known as God - Seeking. Writers, artists, and intellectuals in large numbers were drawn to private prayer, mysticism, spiritualism, theosophy, and Eastern religions. A fascination with elemental feeling, with the unconscious and the mythic, proliferated along with visions of coming catastrophe and redemption. The visible forms of God - Seeking were extensive. A series of ' Religious -- Philosophical Meetings ' were held in Saint Petersburg in 1901 -- 1903, bringing together prominent intellectuals and clergy to explore together ways to reconcile the Church with the growing if undogmatic desire among the educated for spiritual meaning in life. Especially after 1905, various religious societies arose, though much of this religious upheaval was informal: circles and salons, séances, private prayer. Some clergy also sought to revitalize Orthodox faith, most famously the charismatic Father John of Kronstadt, who, until his death in 1908 (though his followers remained active long after), emphasized Christian living and sought to restore fervency and the presence of the miraculous in liturgical celebration. In 1909, a sensation - creating volume of essays appeared under the title Vekhi (Landmarks or Signposts), authored by a group of leading left - wing intellectuals, mostly former Marxists, who bluntly repudiated the materialism and atheism that had dominated the thought of the intelligentsia for generations as leading inevitably to failure and moral disaster. One sees a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry we see widespread interest in spiritual - ethical literature and non-conformist moral - spiritual movements; an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and objects (especially icons); persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession, walking - dead, demons, spirits, miracles, and magic); the renewed vitality of local "ecclesial communities '' actively shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places and forms of piety; and the proliferation of what the Orthodox establishment branded as ' sectarianism ', including both non-Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of deviant popular Orthodoxy and mysticism. In 1914 in Russia, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox churches and 29,593 chapels, 112,629 priests and deacons, 550 monasteries and 475 convents with a total of 95,259 monks and nuns. The year 1917 was a major turning point for the history of Russia, and also the Russian Orthodox Church. The Russian empire was dissolved and the Tsarist government - which had granted the Church numerous privileges -- was overthrown. After a few months of political turmoil, the Bolsheviks took power in October 1917 and declared a separation of church and state. The government seized all church lands. Thus the Russian Orthodox Church found itself without official state backing for the first time in its history. One of the first decrees of the new Communist government (issued in January 1918) declared freedom of "religious and anti-religious propaganda ''. This led to a marked decline in the power and influence of the Church. The Church was also caught in the crossfire of the Russian Civil War that began later the same year, and many leaders of the Church supported what would ultimately turn out to be the losing side (the White movement). The Russian Orthodox Church supported the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church. According to Lenin, a communist regime can not remain neutral on the question of religion but must show itself to be merciless towards it. There was no place for the church in Lenin 's classless society. Even before the end of the civil war and the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church came under persecution of the Communist government. The Soviet government stood on a platform of militant atheism, viewing the church as a "counter-revolutionary '' organization and an independent voice with a great influence in society. While the Soviet Union officially claimed religious toleration, in practice the government discouraged organized religion and did everything possible to remove religious influence from Soviet society. The Russian Orthodox Church supported tsarist Russia, therefore creating another reason the Bolsheviks would attempt to diminish their influence on the Russian people and government. "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E.M. Skliansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10 - 20 versty and we will choke by hand the bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged. '' He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia. The Soviets ' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance '', though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth (see also the Soviet or committee of the All - Union Society for the Dissemination of Scientific and Political Knowledge or Znanie which was until 1947 called The League of the Militant Godless). Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment. The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed. The establishment of the gulags was an integral part of carrying out this objective as many Orthodox clergy and laymen were sent to camps like Svirlag and Solovki. Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture being sent to these prison camps and or labour camps or also mental hospitals. Many Orthodox (along with peoples of other faiths) were also subjected to psychological punishment or torture and mind control experimentation, in order to force them give up their religious convictions (see Piteşti prison). Thousands of churches and monasteries were taken over by the government and either destroyed or used as warehouses, recreation centers, "museums of atheism '', or even Gulags. It was impossible to build new churches. Practicing Orthodox Christians were restricted from prominent careers and membership in communist organizations (the party, the Komsomol). Dmitri Egorov as an example, was removed from his prominent position and sent to the gulag, over his outspoken criticisms of the governments anti-Eastern Orthodox campaigns. Egorov later died in prison from complications caused by a protracted hungerstike. Anti-religious propaganda was openly sponsored (funded) and encouraged by the government, which the Church was not given an opportunity to publicly respond to. The government youth organization, the Komsomol, encouraged its members to vandalize Orthodox Churches and harass worshippers. Seminaries were closed down, and the church was restricted from using the press. The history of Orthodoxy (and other religions) under Communism was not limited to this story of repression and secularization. Bolshevik policies toward religious belief and practice tended to vacillate over time between, on the one hand, a utopian determination to substitute secular rationalism for what they considered to be an unmodern, "superstitious '' worldview and, on the other, pragmatic acceptance of the tenaciousness of religious faith and institutions. In any case, religious beliefs and practices did persist, in the domestic and private spheres but also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political dangers of an unrelenting culture war. In November 1917, following the collapse of the tsarist government, a council of the Russian Orthodox church reestablished the patriarchate and elected the metropolitan Tikhon as patriarch. But the new Soviet government soon declared the separation of church and state and nationalized all church - held lands. These administrative measures were followed by brutal state - sanctioned persecutions that included the wholesale destruction of churches and the arrest and execution of many clerics. The Russian Orthodox church was further weakened in 1922, when the Renovated Church, a reform movement supported by the Soviet government, seceded from Patriarch Tikhon 's church, restored a Holy Synod to power, and brought division among clergy and faithful. The result of state sponsored atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed. This included people like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna who was at this point a monastic. Along with her murder was Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich Romanov; the Princes Ioann Konstantinovich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley; Grand Duke Sergei 's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth 's convent. They were herded into the forest, pushed into an abandoned mineshaft and grenades were then hurled into the mineshaft. Her remains were buried in Jerusalem, in the Church of Maria Magdalene. In the early 1920s, Lenin expelled the leading Russian religious thinkers. Forced to leave Russia, these intelligentsia settled in various European cities. The vessels which carried these intellectuals to Europe came to be known as the Philosophers ' ships. With the establishment of the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris in 1925, these émigré theologians began to teach and write about Orthodox theology in a distinctive new way. The Fin de siècle intellectual movement in theology and philosophy actually reached its full expression outside Russia in what is now called the Russian Religious Renaissance. Theologian Paul L. Gavrilyuk explains that the Russian Religious Renaissance was an attempt to interpret all aspects of human existence: culture, politics, even economics, in Christian terms. This Renaissance was brought about by the generation of Nicholas Berdyaev, Sergius Bulgakov, Nicholas Lossky, and Lev Shestov. The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly all of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited. The sixth sector of the OGPU, led by Yevgeny Tuchkov, aggressively arrested and executed bishops, priests, and devout worshippers, such as Metropolitan Veniamin in Petrograd in 1922 for refusing to accede to the demand to hand in church valuables (including sacred relics). Some 20,000 people were executed just outside Butovo, including many clergy, ascetics and laymen. The church survived underground, and Freeze argues that the persecution in some ways made it stronger: The mass closure of churches continued until 1939, by which time there was only a few hundred left. According to the official data of the government Commission on Rehabilitation: in 1937 136,900 Orthodox clerics were arrested, 85,300 of them were shot dead; in 1938 28,300 arrested, 21,500 of them shot dead; in 1939 1,500 arrested, 900 of them shot dead; in 1940 5,100 arrested, 1,100 of them shot dead. The Solovki Special Purpose Camp was established in the monastery on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea. Eight metropolitans, twenty archbishops, and forty - seven bishops of the Orthodox Church died there, along with tens of thousands of the laity. Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad. Father Pavel Florensky was one of the New - martyrs of this particular period as well as Metropolitan Joseph (Ivan Petrovykh). Many thousands of victims of persecution were subsequently recognized in a special canon of saints known as the "new - martyrs and confessors of Russia ''. Patriarch Tikhon anathematized the communist government, which further antagonized relations. The Soviet authorities sponsored I Renovationist (officially called II All - Russian Council) in Moscow from April 29 to May 8, 1923, which apart from confirming the decisions concerning changes in the canonical rules of ordinations and clerical marriage, put Patriarch Tikhon (then under house arrest, awaiting civil trial) on ecclesiastic trial in absentia, dethroned him, stripped him of his episcopacy, priesthood and monastic status. The Council then resolved to abolish the Patriarchate altogether and to return to the "collegial '' form of church government. Tikhon refused to recognize the authority of the Council and the validity of the "court '' decision. The Council 's decisions had no effect on the life of the Patriarchal or "Tikhonite '' Church, which continued to exist, albeit on an illegal footing. When Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal elections to be held. Patriarchal Locum Tenens (acting Patriarch) Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky, 1887 -- 1944), going against the opinion of a part of the Church 's parishes, in 1927 issued an Appeal to the faithful, widely known as The Declaration of Metropolitan Sergius, which proclaimed loyalty towards the Soviet state and condemned political dissent within the Church. The Appeal made it clear that its purpose was "legalisation '' of the Patriarchal Church 's structures, namely The Temporary Patriarchal Synod. The legalisation had been granted by the authorities shortly thitherto. Moreover, he demanded pledges of loyalty to the Soviet state from all Russian Orthodox clergy abroad. This, as well as the fact that his actions were seen by many as usurpation of the power that he was not entitled to, being a deputy of imprisoned Metropolitan Peter (Polyansky) (according to the XXXIV Apostolic canon), solidified the already existing split with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia abroad and provoked another split with the Russian True Orthodox Church (Russian Catacomb Church) within the Soviet Union. The latter claimed to remain faithful to the Canons of the Apostles, declaring the part of the Church led by Metropolitan Sergius schism, sometimes coined as sergianism (сергианство). Due to this canonical disagreement it is disputed which church has been the legitimate successor to the Russian Orthodox Church that had existed before 1925. After Nazi Germany 's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. On September 4, 1943, Metropolitans Sergius (Stragorodsky), Alexius (Simansky) and Nicholas (Yarushevich) were officially received by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. They received a permission to convene a council on September 8, 1943, that elected Sergius Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus '. A new patriarch was elected, theological schools were opened, and thousands of churches began to function. The Moscow Theological Academy and Seminary which had been closed since 1918 was re-opened. Between 1945 and 1959 the official organization of the church was greatly expanded, although individual members of the clergy were occasionally arrested and exiled. The number of open churches reached 25,000. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy were executed by the end of the Khrushchev era. Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB. In the postwar era, having changed its political orientation, the Orthodox Church reviewed its traditional positions. It went on to approve the accomplishments of the socialist state, and it called on believers to participate in the international peace movement. Modernist tendencies grew stronger, even in the religious aspects of ideology and practice. For example, the church no longer glorified senseless suffering, which it once considered as a road of "salvation. '' Relations between the church and state improved considerably. For his work, Patriarch Pimen was awarded testimonials and personal medals by the Soviet Peace Fund (1969 and 1971) and the gold Fighter for Peace medal from the Soviet Peace Committee. His predecessor Patriarch Aleksy was awarded four Orders of the Red Banner of Labor and other medals of the USSR. By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union stood at 6893 and the number of functioning monasteries to 18. Citizens of the USSR were permitted to form religious societies for their religious needs if at least 20 believers reached the age of 18. Believers who composed an association performed religious rites, organized meetings for prayer, and other purposes connected to worship. They hired ministers and other persons to meet their needs, collected voluntary contributions in houses of worship for the support of their property. The Government granted the free use of houses of worship and other publicly owned property of the USSR. Russian Orthodox priests were trained at theological academies and seminaries In the Soviet Union the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities were regulated by the government. Church owned property was nationalized. Places of worship were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church 's influence on education declined. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it was restricted from evangelizing. Then, beginning in the late 1980s, under Mikhail Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in many church buildings being returned to the church, to be restored by local parishioners. A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988 with the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus ': Throughout the summer of that year, major government - supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities. The 1988 Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church met in Zagorsk; many older churches and some monasteries were reopened. An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was finally lifted. For the first time in the history of Soviet Union, people could see live transmissions of church services on television. The Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world and has seen a resurgence in activity and vitality since the end of Soviet rule. Up to 90 % of ethnic Russians and Belarusians identify themselves as Russian Orthodox (although to a large degree this is a cultural identification, rather than a religious one). In keeping with other Orthodox churches, which do not place a high importance on weekly church attendance, the number of people regularly attending services is relatively low, however it has grown significantly since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In December 2006 the Church had over 27,000 parishes, 169 bishops, 713 monasteries, two universities, five theological academies and 75 theological schools in the territory of the former Soviet Union and has a well - established presence in many other countries all over the world. In recent years many church buildings have been officially returned to the Church, most of these being in a deteriorated condition. There have been difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Vatican, especially since 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory. The leadership of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic. This point of view is based upon the stance of the Russian Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome is but one of many equal Christian organizations, and that as such it is straying into territory that was already Christianized by the Orthodox Church. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, while acknowledging the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia, believes that the small Catholic minority in Russia, in continuous existence since at least the 18th century, should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in Russia, just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries (including constructing a cathedral in Rome, near the Vatican). The issue of encroachment by other Christian denominations into Russia is a particularly sensitive one to many members of the Russian Orthodox Church. They argue that the Orthodox Church now finds itself in a weakened position as a result of decades of secular Communist rule, and is therefore unable to compete on an equal footing with Western Churches. Thus, proselytizing by mostly foreign - based Catholics, Protestant denominations, and by many non-traditional sects can be seen as taking unfair advantage of the still - recovering condition of the Russian Church. On the other hand, many of these groups have argued that the position of Russian Orthodoxy is today no weaker than that of most Western European Churches. Smaller religious movements, particularly Baptists and members of other Protestant denominations, that have become active in Russia in the past decade claim that the state provides unfair support to the Orthodox Church and suppresses others, referring to the 1997 Russian law, under which those religious organizations that could not provide official proof of their existence for the preceding 15 years were seriously restricted in their rights and ability to worship. The law was formally presented as a way to combat destructive cults, but was condemned by representatives of other religions and human rights organizations as being written in a manner that explicitly favored the Russian Orthodox Church, as the Soviet Union had prohibited the establishment of other religions. Consequently, this law gave full rights only to a small number of "first - rank '' religions, such as Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism. The situation is expected to normalise as the 15 - year window starts to slide over the post-Communist period. Due to its deep cultural roots, many members of the Russian government are keen to display their respect for the Church. It is common for the President of Russia to publicly meet with the Patriarch on Church holidays such as Easter (Paskha or Пасха in Russian). Meetings with representatives of Islam and Buddhism occur less frequently. The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (also known as the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad), based in New York City, is a jurisdiction of the church which was separated from Moscow for several decades. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad was formed in the 1920s by Russian communities outside Communist Russia who refused to recognize the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church, as they believed it had fallen under the influence of the Bolsheviks. Relations between the two churches began improving in the 1990s, and there was a formal reconciliation in 2007 through the Act of Canonical Communion with the Moscow Patriarchate This agreement made the Church Abroad a mostly self - governing branch of the Russian Orthodox Church. In November 2013 large group of Russian entrepreneurs, public figures and scientists have called for defining a special role of Orthodoxy in the Constitution. The appeal has been submitted to the president, the two houses of the Russian Parliament and Russian regional parliaments. The petitioners say their address was the final document of the conference titled "The Triumph and Collapse of an Empire: Lessons from History ''. According to them "The state sovereignty of the Russian Federation is law. Our call is for backing up its spiritual sovereignty, too, by declaring the Orthodoxy 's special role in the Russian Constitution ''. Russian traders settled in Alaska during the 18th century. In 1740, a Divine Liturgy was celebrated on board a Russian ship off the Alaskan coast. In 1794, the Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries -- among them Saint Herman of Alaska -- to establish a formal mission in Alaska. Their missionary endeavors contributed to the conversion of many Alaskan natives to the Orthodox faith. A diocese was established, whose first bishop was Saint Innocent of Alaska. The headquarters of this North American Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was moved from Alaska to California around the mid-19th century. It was moved again in the last part of the same century, this time to New York. This transfer coincided with a great movement of Uniates to the Orthodox Church in the eastern United States. This movement, which increased the numbers of Orthodox Christians in America, resulted from a conflict between John Ireland, the politically powerful Roman Catholic Archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota; and Alexis Toth, an influential Ruthenian Catholic priest. Archbishop Ireland 's refusal to accept Fr. Toth 's credentials as a priest induced Fr. Toth to return to the Orthodox Church of his ancestors, and further resulted in the return of tens of thousands of other Uniate Catholics in North America to the Orthodox Church, under his guidance and inspiration. For this reason, Ireland is sometimes ironically remembered as the "Father of the Orthodox Church in America. '' These Uniates were received into Orthodoxy into the existing North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. At the same time large numbers of Greeks and other Orthodox Christians were also immigrating to America. At this time all Orthodox Christians in North America were united under the omophorion (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow, through the Russian Church 's North American diocese. The unity was not merely theoretical, but was a reality, since there was then no other diocese on the continent. Under the aegis of this diocese, which at the turn of the 20th century was ruled by Bishop (and future Patriarch) Tikhon, Orthodox Christians of various ethnic backgrounds were ministered to, both non-Russian and Russian; a Syro - Arab mission was established in the episcopal leadership of Saint Raphael of Brooklyn, who was the first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in America. The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution. One of its effects was a flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. The Revolution of 1917 severed large sections of the Russian church -- dioceses in America, Japan, and Manchuria, as well as refugees in Europe -- from regular contacts with the mother church. In 1920 Patriarch Tikhon issued an ukase (decree) that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Patriarch) should continue independently until such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed; and on this basis, the North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church (known as the "Metropolia '') continued to exist in a de facto autonomous mode of self - governance. The financial hardship that beset the North American diocese as the result of the Russian Revolution resulted in a degree of administrative chaos, with the result that other national Orthodox communities in North America turned to the Churches in their respective homelands for pastoral care and governance. A group of bishops outside the boundaries of Russia gathered in Sremski - Karlovci, Yugoslavia, and adopted a clearly political monarchist stand. The group claimed to speak as a synod for the entire "free '' Russian church. This group, which to this day includes a sizable portion of the Russian emigration, was formally dissolved in 1922 by Patriarch Tikhon, who then appointed metropolitans Platon and Evlogy as ruling bishops in America and Europe, respectively. Both of these metropolitans continued to entertain relations intermittently with the synod in Karlovci, but neither of them accepted it as a canonical authority. Between the World Wars, the Metropolia coexisted and at times cooperated with this independent synod, later known as Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. The two groups eventually went their separate ways. ROCOR, which moved its headquarters to North America after the Second World War, sought unsuccessfully to establish jurisdiction over all parishes of Russian origin in North America. The Metropolia, as a former diocese of the Russian Church, looked to the latter as its highest church authority, albeit one from which it was temporarily cut off under the conditions of the communist regime in Russia. After World War II, the Patriarchate of Moscow made unsuccessful attempts to regain control over these groups. After resuming communication with Moscow in the early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia became known as the Orthodox Church in America. However, recognition of this autocephalous status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA. The Patriarchate of Moscow, through its agreement with the OCA, renounced its former canonical claims in the United States and Canada; it also acknowledged an autonomous church established in Japan that same year, the Orthodox Church of Japan. On 17 May 2007, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia signed the Act of Canonical Communion with the Moscow Patriarchate. According to the provisions of the Act, the Moscow Patriarchate guarantees that ROCOR will maintain its independent hierarchy, continuing to be "an indissoluble, self - governing part of the Local Russian Orthodox Church, '' the only change being that when she elects a new First Hierarch, his election must be confirmed by the Patriarch of Moscow. In turn, ROCOR recognizes the Patriarch of Moscow as the head of the entire Russian Orthodox Church.

where did the incas live in south america

Inca empire - wikipedia The Inca Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu, lit. "The Four Regions ''), also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Its political and administrative structure "was the most sophisticated found among native peoples '' in the Americas. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern - day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century. Its last stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas incorporated a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean Mountains, using conquest and peaceful assimilation, among other methods. At its largest, the empire joined Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile and a small part of southwest Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia. Its official language was Quechua. Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the sun worship of Inti -- their sun god -- and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their king, the Sapa Inca, to be the "son of the sun. '' The Inca Empire was unique in that it lacked many features associated with civilization in the Old World. In the words of one scholar, "The Incas lacked the use of wheeled vehicles. They lacked animals to ride and draft animals that could pull wagons and plows... (They) lacked the knowledge of iron and steel... Above all, they lacked a system of writing... Despite these supposed handicaps, the Incas were still able to construct one of the greatest imperial states in human history ''. Notable features of the Inca Empire include its monumental architecture, especially stonework, extensive road network reaching all corners of the empire, finely - woven textiles, use of knotted strings (quipu) for record keeping and communication, agricultural innovations in a difficult environment, and the organization and management fostered or imposed on its people and their labor. The Incan economy has been described in contradictory ways by scholars: as "feudal, slave, socialist (here one may choose between socialist paradise or socialist tyranny) ''. The Inca empire functioned largely without money and without markets. Instead, exchange of goods and services was based on reciprocity between individuals and among individuals, groups, and Inca rulers. ' Taxes ' consisted of a labour obligation of a person to the Empire. The Inca rulers (who theoretically owned all the means of production) reciprocated by granting access to land and goods and providing food and drink in celebratory feasts for their subjects. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu, "the four suyu ''. In Quechua, tawa is four and - ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case representing the four suyu ("regions '' or "provinces '') whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu. The term Inka means "ruler '' or "lord '' in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family. The Incas were a very small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million persons. The Spanish adopted the term (transliterated as Inca in Spanish) as an ethnic term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca ("Inca Empire '') referred to the nation that they encountered and subsequently conquered. The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilization. Andean civilization was one of five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine '', that is indigenous and not derivative from other civilizations. The Inca Empire was preceded by two large - scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku (c. 300 -- 1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca and the Wari or Huari (c. 600 -- 1100 AD) centered near the present - day city of Ayacucho. The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures. Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the central Andes was aided by conditions that allows for the elaboration of the staple food chuño. Chuño, which can be stored for long periods, is made of potato dried at the freezing temperatures that are common at nighttime in the southern Peruvian highlands. Such link between the Inca state and chuño may be questioned as potatoes and other crops such as maize can also be dried with only sunlight. Troll did also argue that llamas, the Inca 's pack animal, can be found in its largest numbers in this very same region. It is worth considering the maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the greatest distribution of llamas and alpacas in Pre-Hispanic America. The link between the Andean biomes of puna and páramo, pastoralism and the Inca state is a matter of research. As a third point Troll pointed out irrigation technology as advantageous to the Inca state - building. While Troll theorized environmental influences on the Inca Empire he opposed environmental determinism arguing that culture lay at the core of the Inca civilization. The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells an origin story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu T'uqu (Tambo Tocco) was named Qhapaq T'uqu ("principal niche '', also spelled Capac Tocco). The other caves were Maras T'uqu (Maras Tocco) and Sutiq T'uqu (Sutic Tocco). Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa (Ayar Auca) and Ayar Uchu; and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura (Mama Cora). Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans. Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama. When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him. Ayar Uchu decided to stay on the top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained. Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco a child, Sinchi Roca. The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away. After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Cápac, the founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Cápac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca. Under the leadership of Manco Cápac, the Inca formed the small city - state Kingdom of Cusco (Quechua Qusqu ', Qosqo). In 1438, they began a far - reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti - Cusi Yupanqui, whose name literally meant "earth - shaker ''. The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the Tribe of Chancas (modern Apurímac). During his reign, he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control. Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station. Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler 's children were brought to Cusco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Traditionally the son of the Inca ruler led the army. Pachacuti 's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti 's death in 1471. Túpac Inca 's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca 's only serious rival for the Peruvian coast. Túpac Inca 's empire stretched north into modern - day Ecuador and Colombia. Túpac Inca 's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern - day Ecuador and in parts of Peru. At its height, the Inca Empire included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador and a large portion of what is today Chile, north of the Maule River. The advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche. The empire 's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527. The empire extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano. The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes a method of taxation: For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which was the Inca 's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute. Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land. '' When they returned to Peru in 1532, a war of succession between the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened the empire. Perhaps more importantly, smallpox, influenza, typhus and measles had spread from Central America. The forces led by Pizarro consisted of 168 men, one cannon, and 27 horses. Conquistadors ported lances, arquebuses, steel armor and long swords. In contrast, the Inca used weapons made out of wood, stone, copper and bronze, putting them at significant technological disadvantage. In addition, due to the absence of horses in the Americas, the Inca did not develop tactics to fight cavalry. However, the Inca were still effective warriors, being able to successfully fight the Mapuche, which later would strategically defeat the Spanish as they expanded further south. The first engagement between the Inca and the Spanish was the Battle of Puná, near present - day Guayaquil, Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops, that were at the moment armed only with hunting tools (knives and lassos for hunting llamas). Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde, met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. The Inca offered them ceremonial chicha in a golden cup, which the Spanish rejected. The Spanish interpreter, Friar Vincente, read the "Requerimiento '' that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Atahualpa dismissed the message and asked them to leave. After this, the Spanish began their attack against the mostly unarmed Inca, captured Atahualpa as hostage, and forced the Inca to collaborate. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa 's imprisonment Huáscar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa 's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August 1533. Although "defeat '' often implies an unwanted loss in battle, much of the Inca elite "actually welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners. '' The Spanish installed Atahualpa 's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco 's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement. The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Other diseases, including a probable Typhus outbreak in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618, all ravaged the Inca people. The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4 -- 37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus, knowledge of how to read them was lost as almost all fell into disuse and disintegrated over time or were destroyed by the Spaniards. The main form of communication and record - keeping in the empire were quipus, ceramics, textiles and various dialects of Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, including central Peru, for several centuries prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua '' originally named Qhapaq Runasimi, or ' the great language of the people '), or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect. The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come directly from the Incas, who were just a part of the reason for Quechua 's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct from the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these dialects of Quechua had a similar linguistic structure, they differed according to the region in which they were spoken. Although many of the societies within the empire spoke or learned to speak Quechua, others continued to speak their original languages, such as Aymara, which remains in use in contemporary Bolivia, where it is the primary indigenous language and in various regions surrounding Bolivia. The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus varied. The Inca 's impact outlasted their empire, as the Spanish continued the use of Quechua. The Incas were not known to develop a written form of communication; however, they visually recorded narratives through paintings on vases and cups (qirus). These paintings are usually accompanied by geometric patterns known as toqapu, which are also found in textiles. Researchers have speculated that toqapu patterns could have served as a form of written communication (e.g.: heraldry, or glyphs), however this remains unclear. The high infant mortality rates that plagued the Inca Empire caused newborn infants to solely be given the term ' wawa ' when they were born. Most families did not invest very much into their child until they reached the age of two, or most of the times three years old. Once the child reaches the age of three a ' coming of age ' ceremony occurs. This ceremony is deemed the rutuchikuy ritual. For the Incas this ceremony indicated that the child had entered the stage of ' ignorance '. During this ceremony the family would invite all relatives to their house for food and dance and then each member of the family would get to cut a piece of hair off of the young child. After each family member got a piece of the hair, the father would then shave off the rest of the child 's head. According to Covey, this stage of life was categorized by a stage of "ignorance, inexperience, and lack of reason, a condition that the child would overcome with time. '' For the Incan society in order to advance from the stage of ignorance to development the child must learn the roles around the family associated with their gender. The next important ritual was to celebrate the maturity of child. Unlike the previous ritual ceremony, the celebration of maturity was to signify the child 's sexual potency. In the western world this ceremony would be known as a celebration of puberty, however for the Incas it was called warachikuy for boys and qikuchikuy for girls. The warachikuy ceremony included dancing, fasting, tasks to show their strength, and family ceremonies. The boy would also be given new clothes and taught how to act as an unmarried man. On the other hand, the girls ceremony qikuchikuy signified the onset of menstruation, therefore the girl would go into the forest alone and not return until the bleeding had ended. In the forest she would fast, and upon arrival the girl would be given a new name, adult clothing, and advice. This ' folly ' stage of life was important because this was the time the young adults could have sex without having to be a parent. Between the ages 20 - 30 the young adults were "ripe for serious thought and labor, ''. The young adults were able to hold on to their ' youthful status ' during this age by living at home and helping out their home community. The young adults only reached their ' full potential ' once they were married. In the end, the male and female terms describe the individuals loss of sexual vitality and humanity. Specifically, the decrepitude stage signifies the loss of their mental well being and further physical dystrophy. In the Incan Empire, the age of marriage differed for men and women; men typically married at the age of 20, while women usually got married around 4 years earlier at the age of 16. Men who were highly ranked in society could have multiple wives, but those lower in the ranks could only take a single wife. Marriages were typically within classes and resembled a more business - like agreement. Once married, the women were expected to cook, collect food and watch over the children and livestock. Girls and mothers would also work around the house to keep it orderly to please the public inspectors. These duties remained the same even after wives became pregnant and with the added responsibility of praying and making offerings to Kanopa, who was the god of pregnancy. It was typical for marriages to begin on a trial basis with both men and women having a say in the longevity of the marriage. If the man felt that it would n't work out or if the woman wanted to return to her parent 's home the marriage would end. Once the marriage was final, the only way the two could be divorced was if they did not have a child together. Marriage within the Empire was crucial for survival. A family was considered disadvantaged if there was not a married couple at the center because everyday life centered around the balance of male and female tasks. In the eyes of the Inca, male and female roles were considered equal. The "indigenous cultures saw the two genders as complementary parts of a whole. '' In other words, there was not a hierarchical structure in the domestic sphere for the Incas. Within the domestic sphere, women were known as the weavers. Women 's everyday tasks included: spinning, watching the children, weaving cloth, cooking, brewing chichi, preparing fields for cultivation, planting seeds, bearing children, harvesting, weeding, hoeing, herding, and carrying water. Men on the other hand, "weeded, plowed, participated in combat, helped in the harvest, carried firewood, built houses, herded llama and alpaca, and spun and wove when necessary ''. On looking Spaniards did not understand the complementary nature of men and women roles within the Inca culture and believed women were treated like slaves. However, Inca women did not view themselves as slaves, nor did they do their job for the man. The women completed their daily tasks for the improvement of her household and community, to ensure her family would survive. Furthermore, women were allowed to own land and herds because inheritance was passed down from both the mother 's and father 's side of the family. Kinship within the Inca society followed a parallel line of descent. In other words, women ascended from women and men ascended from men. Due to the parallel descent, women had access to land and other necessities through her mother, and communities flourished because of the environmental social ties among women. Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records. The Inca believed in reincarnation. After death, the passage to the next world was fraught with difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower - covered fields and snow - capped mountains. It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. Those who obeyed the Inca moral code -- ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) -- "went to live in the Sun 's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth ''. The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation. They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes. The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527. The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha. The Incas were polytheists who attempted to please many gods. These included: The Inca Empire employed central planning. The Inca Empire traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy. While axe - monies were used along the northern coast, presumably by the provincial mindaláe trading class, most households in the empire lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay taxes, usually in the form of the mit'a corvée labor, and military obligations, though barter (or trueque) was present in some areas. In return, the state provided security, food in times of hardship through the supply of emergency resources, agricultural projects (e.g. aqueducts and terraces) to increase productivity and occasional feasts. The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago, a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources and the cultural foundation of ayni, or reciprocal exchange. The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. The Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister. He was "son of the sun, '' and his people the intip churin, or "children of the sun, '' and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi, or "warriors ' cultivation, '' attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca. Moreover, Cusco was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines and geographic center of the Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it "the navel of the universe ''. The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW) and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cusco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent. At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. Cusco was likely not organized as a wamani, or province. Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district, like Washington, D.C. or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu, a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains. Both Cusco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani. However, colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani, with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast. The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu, which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia. The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu, named after the Aymara - speaking Qulla people. It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile. Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as likely being the foremost Inca settlement in Chile. The second smallest suyu, Antisuyu, was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word "Andes. '' Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu, located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco. The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws. Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through tokoyrikoq (lit. "he who sees all ''), or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence. The Inca had three moral precepts that governed their behavior: Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the Sapa Inca. Below that may have been the Willaq Umu, literally the "priest who recounts '', the High Priest of the Sun. However, beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin, who was a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca, perhaps similar to a Prime Minister. Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui, a "Council of the Realm '' was composed of 16 nobles: 2 from hanan Cusco; 2 from hurin Cusco; 4 from Chinchaysuyu; 2 from Cuntisuyu; 4 from Collasuyu; and 2 from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cusco and within the Quarters (hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna). While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly, the basic organization was decimal. Taxpayers -- male heads of household of a certain age range -- were organized into corvée labor units (often doubling as military units) that formed the state 's muscle as part of mit'a service. Each unit of more than 100 tax - payers were headed by a kuraka, while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq, a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life, the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka. Furthermore, one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka, in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax - payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units. Francisco Pizarro Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs. The most notable example is Machu Picchu, which was constructed by Inca engineers. The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar to sustain them. This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC -- AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca and later in the city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400 -- 1100) in present - day Bolivia. The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable, despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity. Physical measures used by the Inca were based on human body parts. Units included fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits and wingspans. The most basic distance unit was thatkiy or thatki, or one pace. The next largest unit was reported by Cobo to be the topo or tupu, measuring 6,000 thatkiys, or about 7.7 km (4.8 mi); careful study has shown that a range of 4.0 to 6.3 km (2.5 to 3.9 mi) is likely. Next was the wamani, composed of 30 topos (roughly 232 km or 144 mi). To measure area, 25 by 50 wingspans were used, reckoned in topos (roughly 3,280 km or 1,270 sq mi). It seems likely that distance was often interpreted as one day 's walk; the distance between tambo way - stations varies widely in terms of distance, but far less in terms of time to walk that distance. Inca calendars were strongly tied to astronomy. Inca astronomers understood equinoxes, solstices and zenith passages, along with the Venus cycle. They could not, however, predict eclipses. The Inca calendar was essentially lunisolar, as two calendars were maintained in parallel, one solar and one lunar. As 12 lunar months fall 11 days short of a full 365 - day solar year, those in charge of the calendar had to adjust every winter solstice. Each lunar month was marked with festivals and rituals. Apparently, the days of the week were not named and days were not grouped into weeks. Similarly, months were not grouped into seasons. Time during a day was not measured in hours or minutes, but in terms of how far the sun had travelled or in how long it had taken to perform a task. The sophistication of Inca administration, calendrics and engineering required facility with numbers. Numerical information was stored in the knots of quipu strings, allowing for compact storage of large numbers. These numbers were stored in base - 10 digits, the same base used by the Quechua language and in administrative and military units. These numbers, stored in quipu, could be calculated on yupanas, grids with squares of positionally varying mathematical values, perhaps functioning as an abacus. Calculation was facilitated by moving piles of tokens, seeds or pebbles between compartments of the yupana. It is likely that Inca mathematics at least allowed division of integers into integers or fractions and multiplication of integers and fractions. According to mid-17th - century Jesuit chronicler Bernabé Cobo, the Inca designated officials to perform accounting - related tasks. These officials were called quipo camayos. Study of khipu sample VA 42527 (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin) revealed that the numbers arranged in calendrically significant patterns were used for agricultural purposes in the "farm account books '' kept by the khipukamayuq (accountant or warehouse keeper) to facilitate the closing of accounting books. Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines (popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships and scenes of tribal warfare. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or "aryballos ''. Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Almost all of the gold and silver work of the Incan empire was melted down by the conquistadors. The Inca recorded information on assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu, although they can no longer be decoded. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Quipus are also believed to record history and literature. The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, by cutting holes in the skull to alleviate fluid buildup and inflammation caused by head wounds. Many skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful. Survival rates were 80 -- 90 %, compared to about 30 % before Inca times. The Incas revered the coca plant as sacred / magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes. The Spaniards took advantage of the effects of chewing coca leaves. The Chasqui, messengers who ran throughout the empire to deliver messages, chewed coca leaves for extra energy. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries. The Inca army was the most powerful at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier. Every able bodied male Inca of fighting age had to take part in war in some capacity at least once and to prepare for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire reached its largest size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war. The Incas had no iron or steel and their weapons were not much more effective than those of their opponents. They went into battle with drums beating and trumpets blowing. Their armor included: The Inca weaponry included: Roads allowed quick movement (on foot) for the Inca army and shelters called tambo and storage silos called qullqas were built one day 's travelling distance from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord 's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as they traveled. Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner. However, it represented the Inca (emperor), not the empire. Francisco López de Jerez wrote in 1534: ... todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos. (... all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well - ordered as Turks.) Chronicler Bernabé Cobo wrote: The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool cloth, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow and two parallel snakes along the width with the tassel as a crown, which each king used to add for a badge or blazon those preferred, like a lion, an eagle and other figures. (... el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste y dos culebras tendidas a lo largo paralelas con la borda que le servía de corona, a las cuales solía añadir por divisa y blasón cada rey las que le parecía, como un león, un águila y otras figuras.) - Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653) Guaman Poma 's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. In his 1847 book A History of the Conquest of Peru, "William H. Prescott... says that in the Inca army each company had its particular banner and that the imperial standard, high above all, displayed the glittering device of the rainbow, the armorial ensign of the Incas. '' A 1917 world flags book says the Inca "heir - apparent... was entitled to display the royal standard of the rainbow in his military campaigns. '' In modern times the rainbow flag has been wrongly associated with the Tawantinsuyu and displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage by some groups in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco also flies the Rainbow Flag, but as an official flag of the city. The Peruvian president Alejandro Toledo (2001 -- 2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima 's presidential palace. However, according to Peruvian historiography, the Inca Empire never had a flag. Peruvian historian María Rostworowski said, "I bet my life, the Inca never had that flag, it never existed, no chronicler mentioned it ''. Also, to the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, the flag dates to the first decades of the 20th century, and even the Congress of the Republic of Peru has determined that flag is a fake by citing the conclusion of National Academy of Peruvian History: "The official use of the wrongly called ' Tawantinsuyu flag ' is a mistake. In the Pre-Hispanic Andean World there did not exist the concept of a flag, it did not belong to their historic context ''. National Academy of Peruvian History Incas were able to adapt to their high - altitude living through successful acclimatization, which is characterized by increasing oxygen supply to the blood tissues. For the native Inca living in the Andean highlands, this was achieved through the development of a larger lung capacity, and an increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentration, and capillary beds. Compared to other humans, the Incas had slower heart rates, almost one - third larger lung capacity, about 2 L (4 pints) more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been slightly taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude.

who has won the most super bowl rings

Super Bowl ring - wikipedia The Super Bowl ring is an award in the National Football League given to the winners of the league 's annual championship game, the Super Bowl. Since only one Vince Lombardi Trophy is awarded to the team (ownership) itself, the Super Bowl ring offers a collectible memento for the actual players and team members to keep for themselves to symbolize the victory. These rings are typically made of yellow or white gold with diamonds. They usually include the team name, team logo, and Super Bowl number (usually indicated in Roman numerals). The NFL pays for the cost of 150 rings to the winning team, at roughly $5,000,000 in total, depending upon the fluctuating cost of gold and diamonds. Most rings are manufactured by memorabilia company Jostens. In 2015 (for the New England Patriots), it was reported that each ring cost $36,500, costing over $5 million, being the most expensive rings Jostens has ever produced. The winning team can typically present rings to whomever they choose, including usually, but not limited to: players (active roster or injured), coaches, trainers, executives, personnel, and general staff. Some teams have also been known to give rings to former players and coaches that were on the team at some point during the season, despite not having been on the winning roster for the Super Bowl itself. Sometimes a team will give rings to fans as part of a charity raffle. Teams can distribute any number of rings, but must pay for any over the 150 - ring limit. A recent trend over the last 15 -- 20 years has been lesser rings awarded to front office staff. These are commonly called "B '' and "C '' level rings and are smaller and contain fewer diamonds or contain faux diamonds. The first instance of this was the Redskins Super Bowl XVII ring when many in the front office received rings that were not solid gold and contained cubic zirconia stones (which resemble diamonds). When Tampa Bay won Super Bowl XXXVII, the players and coaches received rings with a diamond - centered Lombardi trophy. Some staff received rings with a metal Lombardi trophy and real diamonds surrounding the trophy and the "C '' level ring did not contain any diamonds. Many rings feature diamonds in the shape of the Vince Lombardi Trophy or a football. Some feature diamonds or gold in the shape of a team logo. Others illustrate the number of Super Bowls that franchise has won. Also, the rings are customized with the player 's name and uniform number. The Green Bay Packers Super Bowl XLV ring contained more than 100 diamonds. The Packer logo, in the center of the ring, made up 13 diamonds, one for each title the team has won, dating back to 1929. In a break from tradition, this is the first super bowl ring to be made of platinum, not gold. The New England Patriots Super Bowl LI ring has 283 diamonds, to commemorate their comeback from being down 28 - 3 versus the Atlanta Falcons late in the 3rd quarter. Replicas of the rings for various years are popular collectibles, along with genuine rings. Dave Meggett is known to have placed his ring for sale on eBay. Two Super Bowl rings from the 1970 Steelers sold on eBay for over $69,000 apiece in mid-2008. Patriots safety Je'Rod Cherry raffled his ring from Super Bowl XXXVI in November 2008 to benefit several charities working to help children in Africa and Asia. Tight end Shannon Sharpe, meanwhile, gave his first Super Bowl ring to his brother Sterling, who had his career cut short by injury. In 2011, a Super Bowl ring belonging to Steve Wright, a lineman for the Green Bay Packers in the 1960s, sold for over $73,000 at auction. Three Super Bowl rings belonging to former Raiders ' great Ray Guy brought over $96,000 at auction. In 2012, Lawrence Taylor 's son sold his father 's Super Bowl ring from 1990 for more than $250,000. The most expensive super bowl ring is $149,000 A select few have won championships in both the NFL and Canada 's equivalent Canadian Football League (CFL).

elton john leann rimes written in the stars

Written in the Stars (Elton John and LeAnn Rimes song) - Wikipedia "Written in the Stars '' is a single released in 1999 by Elton John and LeAnn Rimes. In the US, it was certified Gold on 27 April 1999 by the RIAA. This song came from the musical Aida written by Elton John and Tim Rice. In this scene in the musical, Radames informs Aida that he 's calling off the wedding. Aida knows that this would ruin her father 's escape and tells him he must go through with it. Radames agrees, on condition that she escapes to freedom on a boat he will provide. The two lovers lament the complication of the circumstances of their love together before parting. For John, "Written In The Stars '' was his 57th -- and to date, final -- top 40 single on the US Billboard charts as a performer. John posted at least one top 40 single on the US charts every year from 1970 to 1999, with this song being the last in the run. Due to Rimes ' previous country music success, made # 74 on Canada 's RPM country chart due to unsolicited airplay as an album cut. There are two different recordings of the song, one with Rimes performing the first verse, the other with John. The song was later featured on Rimes ' 2002 album I Need You and the concept album for the musical. The song was performed live at VH1 Divas Live 1999. According to an episode of VH1 's Pop - Up Video, the music video for this song was meant to evoke forbidden loves, as well as the separation between the two singers. Rimes was shown in colder, more heavenly backdrops; John was given warmer backgrounds, as in a milder depiction of hell. Written in the Stars Music Video on YouTube

where does it say we have freedom of religion

Freedom of religion in the United States - wikipedia In the United States, freedom of religion is a constitutionally protected right provided in the religion clauses of the First Amendment. Freedom of religion is also closely associated with separation of church and state, a concept advocated by Colonial founders such as Dr. John Clarke, Roger Williams, William Penn and later founding fathers such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. The United States Constitution addresses the issue of religion in two places: in the First Amendment, and the Article VI prohibition on religious tests as a condition for holding public office. The First Amendment prohibits the Congress from making a law "respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ''. This provision was later expanded to state and local governments, through the Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment. The October 10, 1645, charter of Flushing, Queens, New York, allowed "liberty of conscience, according to the custom and practice of Holland without molestation or disturbance from any magistrate or ecclesiastical minister. '' However, New Amsterdam Director - General Peter Stuyvesant issued an edict prohibiting the harboring of Quakers. On December 27, 1657, the inhabitants of Flushing approved a protest known as The Flushing Remonstrance. This contained religious arguments even mentioning freedom for "Jews, Turks, and Egyptians, '' but ended with a forceful declaration that any infringement of the town charter would not be tolerated. Freedom of religion was first applied as a principle in the founding of the colony of Maryland, also founded by the Catholic Lord Baltimore, in 1634. Fifteen years later (1649), an enactment of religious liberty, the Maryland Toleration Act, drafted by Lord Baltimore, provided: "No person or persons... shall from henceforth be any waies troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof. '' The Maryland Toleration Act was repealed with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen and a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion was passed. In 1657, Lord Baltimore regained control after making a deal with the colony 's Protestants, and in 1658 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692, when after Maryland 's Protestant Revolution of 1689, freedom of religion was again rescinded. In addition in 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province '', preventing Catholics from holding political office. Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Maryland 's Charles Carroll of Carrollton signed the American Declaration of Independence. Rhode Island (1636), Connecticut (1636), New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1682), founded by Baptist Roger Williams, Congregationalist Thomas Hooker, and Quaker William Penn, respectively, established the religious freedom in their colonies in direct opposition to the theocratic government which Separatist Congregationalists (Pilgrim Fathers) and Puritans had enforced in Plymouth Colony (1620) and Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628). Having fled religious persecution themselves in England, the leaders of Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colony restricted franchise to members of their church only, rigorously enforced their own interpretation of theological law and banished freethinkers such as Roger Williams, who was actually chased out of Salem., as well as banning Quakers and Anabaptists. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities. Catholics and Jews also had full citizenship and free exercise of their faiths. Williams, Hooker, Penn, and their friends were firmly convinced that democracy and freedom of conscience were the will of God. Williams gave the most profound theological reason: As faith is the free gift of the Holy Spirit, it can not be forced upon a person. Therefore, strict separation of church and state has to be kept. Pennsylvania was the only colony that retained unlimited religious freedom until the foundation of the United States. The inseparable connection of democracy, freedom of religion, and the other forms of freedom became the political and legal basis of the new nation. In particular, Baptists and Presbyterians demanded vigorously and successfully the disestablishment of the Anglican and Congregational state churches that had existed in most colonies since the seventeenth century. In the United States, the religious civil liberties are guaranteed by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. The "Establishment Clause, '' stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, '' is generally read to prohibit the Federal government from establishing a national church ("religion '') or excessively involving itself in religion, particularly to the benefit of one religion over another. Following the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and through the doctrine of incorporation, this restriction is held to be applicable to state governments as well. The "Free Exercise Clause '' states that Congress can not "prohibit the free exercise '' of religious practices. The Supreme Court of the United States has consistently held, however, that the right to free exercise of religion is not absolute. For example, in the 19th century, some of the members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints traditionally practiced polygamy, yet in Reynolds v. United States (1879), the Supreme Court upheld the criminal conviction of one of these members under a federal law banning polygamy. The Court reasoned that to do otherwise would set precedent for a full range of religious beliefs including those as extreme as human sacrifice. The Court stated that "Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they can not interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices. '' For example, if one were part of a religion that believed in vampirism, the First Amendment would protect one 's belief in vampirism, but not the practice. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the religious civil rights. Whereas the First Amendment secures the free exercise of religion, section one of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination, including on the basis of religion, by securing "the equal protection of the laws '' for every person: All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction there of, are citizens of the United States and of the State where in they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The affirmation or denial of specific religious beliefs had, in the past, been made into qualifications for public office; however, the United States Constitution states that the inauguration of a President may include an "affirmation '' of the faithful execution of his duties rather than an "oath '' to that effect -- this provision was included in order to respect the religious prerogatives of the Quakers, a Protestant Christian denomination that declines the swearing of oaths. The U.S. Constitution also provides that "No religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification of any Office or public Trust under the United States. '' Several states have language included in their constitutions that requires state office - holders to have particular religious beliefs. These include Arkansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. Some of these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. Even though they are still on the books, these provisions have been rendered unenforceable by U.S. Supreme Court decisions. With reference to the use of animals, the U.S. Supreme Court decision in the cases of the Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah in 1993 upheld the right of Santeria adherents to practice ritual animal sacrifice with Justice Anthony Kennedy stating in the decision, "religious beliefs need not be acceptable, logical, consistent or comprehensible to others in order to merit First Amendment protection ''. (quoted by Justice Kennedy from the opinion by Justice Burger in Thomas v. Review Board of the Indiana Employment Security Division 450 U.S. 707 (1981)) Likewise in Texas in 2009, issues that related to animal sacrifice and animal rights were taken to the 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in the case of Jose Merced, President Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc., v. City of Euless. The court ruled that the free exercise of religion was meritorious and prevailing and that Merced was entitled under the Texas Religious Freedom and Restoration Act (TRFRA) to an injunction preventing the city of Euless, Texas from enforcing its ordinances that burdened his religious practices relating to the use of animals. Religious liberty has not prohibited states or the federal government from prohibiting or regulating certain behaviors; i.e. prostitution, gambling, alcohol and certain drugs, although some libertarians interpret religious freedom to extend to these behaviors. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that a right to privacy or a due process right does prevent the government from prohibiting adult access to birth control, pornography, and from outlawing sodomy between consenting adults and early trimester abortions. Thomas Jefferson wrote that the First Amendment erected a "wall of separation between church and state '' likely borrowing the language from Roger Williams, founder of the First Baptist Church in America and the Colony of Rhode Island, who used the phrase in his 1644 book, The Bloody Tenent of Persecution. James Madison, often regarded as the "Father of the Bill of Rights '', also often wrote of the "perfect separation '', "line of separation '', "strongly guarded as is the separation between religion and government in the Constitution of the United States '', and "total separation of the church from the state ''. Controversy rages in the United States between those who wish to restrict government involvement with religious institutions and remove religious references from government institutions and property, and those who wish to loosen such prohibitions. Advocates for stronger separation of church and state emphasize the plurality of faiths and non-faiths in the country, and what they see as broad guarantees of the federal Constitution. Their opponents emphasize what they see as the largely Christian heritage and history of the nation (often citing the references to "Nature 's God '' and the "Creator '' of men in the Declaration of Independence). Some more socially conservative Christian sects, such as the Christian Reconstructionist movement, oppose the concept of a "wall of separation '' and prefer a closer relationship between church and state. Problems also arise in U.S. public schools concerning the teaching and display of religious issues. In various counties, school choice and school vouchers have been put forward as solutions to accommodate variety in beliefs and freedom of religion, by allowing individual school boards to choose between a secular, religious or multi-faith vocation, and allowing parents free choice among these schools. Critics of American voucher programs claim that they take funds away from public schools, and that the amount of funds given by vouchers is not enough to help many middle and working class parents. U.S. judges often ordered alcoholic defendants to attend Alcoholics Anonymous or face imprisonment. However, in 1999, a federal appeals court ruled this unconstitutional because the A.A. program relies on submission to a "Higher Power ''. Thomas Jefferson also played a large role in the formation of freedom of religion. He created the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which has since been incorporated into the Virginia State Constitution. The United States of America was established on foundational principles by the Declaration of Independence: We hold these truths to be self - evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; (based on Thomas Jefferson 's draft.) In 1944, a joint committee of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America and the Foreign Missions Conference formulated a "Statement on Religious Liberty '' Religious Liberty shall be interpreted to include freedom to worship according to conscience and to bring up children in the faith of their parents; freedom for the individual to change his religion; freedom to preach, educate, publish and carry on missionary activities; and freedom to organize with others, and to acquire and hold property, for these purposes. Following increasing government involvement in religious matters, Congress passed the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act. A number of states then passed corresponding acts (e.g., Missouri passed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act). Signed on November 4, 1796, the Treaty of Tripoli was a document that included the following statement: As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquility, of Mussulmen (Muslims); and as the said States never entered into any war or act of hostility against any Mahometan (Mohammedan) nation, it is declared by the parties that no pretext arising from religious opinions shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries. This treaty was submitted to the Senate and was ratified unanimously on June 7, 1797, and then signed by President John Adams on June 10, 1797. In accordance with Article VI of the Constitution, on that date this treaty became incorporated as part of "the supreme Law of the Land ''. Since the 1940s, the Jehovah 's Witnesses have often invoked the First Amendment 's freedom of religion clauses to protect their ability to engage in the proselytizing (or preaching) that is central to their faith. This series of litigation has helped to define civil liberties case law in the United States and Canada. In the United States of America and several other countries, the legal struggles of the Jehovah 's Witnesses have yielded some of the most important judicial decisions regarding freedom of religion, press and speech. In the United States, many Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah 's Witnesses are now landmark decisions of First Amendment law. Of the 72 cases involving the Jehovah 's Witnesses that have been brought before the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court has ruled in favor of them 47 times. Even the cases that the Jehovah 's Witnesses lost helped the U.S. to more clearly define the limits of First Amendment rights. Former Supreme Court Justice Harlan Stone jokingly suggested "The Jehovah 's Witnesses ought to have an endowment in view of the aid which they give in solving the legal problems of civil liberties. '' "Like it or not, '' observed American author and editor Irving Dilliard, "Jehovah 's Witnesses have done more to help preserve our freedoms than any other religious group. '' Professor C.S. Braden wrote: "They have performed a signal service to democracy by their fight to preserve their civil rights, for in their struggle they have done much to secure those rights for every minority group in America. '' "The cases that the Witnesses were involved in formed the bedrock of 1st Amendment protections for all citizens, '' said Paul Polidoro, a lawyer who argued the Watchtower Society 's case before the Supreme Court in February 2002. "These cases were a good vehicle for the courts to address the protections that were to be accorded free speech, the free press and free exercise of religion. In addition, the cases marked the emergence of individual rights as an issue within the U.S. court system. Before the Jehovah 's Witnesses brought several dozen cases before the U.S. Supreme Court during the 1930s and 1940s, the Court had handled few cases contesting laws that restricted freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Until then, the First Amendment had only been applied to Congress and the federal government. However, the cases brought before the Court by the Jehovah 's Witnesses allowed the Court to consider a range of issues: mandatory flag salute, sedition, free speech, literature distribution and military draft law. These cases proved to be pivotal moments in the formation of constitutional law. Jehovah 's Witnesses ' court victories have strengthened rights including the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service and the right to engage in public discourse. During the World War II era, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Jehovah 's Witnesses in several landmark cases that helped pave the way for the modern civil rights movement. In all, Jehovah 's Witnesses brought 23 separate First Amendment actions before the U.S. Supreme Court between 1938 and 1946. The Supreme Court has consistently held fast to the rule of strict separation of church and state when matters of prayer are involved. In Engel v. Vitale (1962) the Court ruled that government - imposed nondenominational prayer in public school was unconstitutional. In Lee v. Weisman (1992), the Court ruled prayer established by a school principal at a middle school graduation was also unconstitutional, and in Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe (2000) it ruled that school officials may not directly impose student - led prayer during high school football games nor establish an official student election process for the purpose of indirectly establishing such prayer. The distinction between force of government and individual liberty is the cornerstone of such cases. Each case restricts acts by government designed to establish prayer while explicitly or implicitly affirming students ' individual freedom to pray. The Court has therefore tried to determine a way to deal with church / state questions. In Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), the Court created a three - part test for laws dealing with religious establishment. This determined that a law was constitutional if it: Some examples of where inhibiting religion has been struck down: Under the doctrine of Incorporation, the first amendment has been made applicable to the states. Therefore, the states must guarantee the freedom of religion in the same way the federal government must. Many states have freedom of religion established in their constitution, though the exact legal consequences of this right vary for historical and cultural reasons. Most states interpret "freedom of religion '' as including the freedom of long - established religious communities to remain intact and not be destroyed. By extension, democracies interpret "freedom of religion '' as the right of each individual to freely choose to convert from one religion to another, mix religions, or abandon religion altogether. The no religious test clause of the U.S. constitution states that "no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. '' Although it has become tradition for US presidents to end their Presidential Oath with "so help me God '', this is not required by the Constitution. The same applies to the Vice President, the House of Representatives, the Senate, the members of the Cabinet, and all other civil and military officers and federal employees, who can either make an affirmation or take an oath ending with "so help me God. '' Some state constitutions in the US require belief in God or a Supreme Being as a prerequisite for holding public office or being a witness in court. This applies to Arkansas, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, where the requirement was challenged and overturned in Voswinkel v. Hunt (1979), South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas, debatably. A unanimous 1961 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Torcaso v. Watkins held that the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the federal Constitution override these state requirements, so they are not enforced. Problems sometimes arise in the workplace concerning religious observance when a private employer discharges an employee for failure to report to work on what the employee considers a holy day or a day of rest. In the United States, the view that has generally prevailed is that firing for any cause in general renders a former employee ineligible for unemployment compensation, but that this is no longer the case if the ' cause ' is religious in nature, especially an employee 's unwillingness to work during Jewish Shabbat, Christian Sabbath, or Muslim jumu'ah. After reports in August 2010 that soldiers who refused to attend a Christian band 's concert at a Virginia military base were essentially punished by being banished to their barracks and told to clean them up, an Army spokesman said that an investigation was underway and "If something like that were to have happened, it would be contrary to Army policy. '' John Higham described anti-Catholicism as "the most luxuriant, tenacious tradition of paranoiac agitation in American history ''. Anti-Catholicism which was prominent in the United Kingdom was exported to the United States. Two types of anti-Catholic rhetoric existed in colonial society. The first, derived from the heritage of the Protestant Reformation and the religious wars of the 16th century, consisted of the "Anti-Christ '' and the "Whore of Babylon '' variety and dominated Anti-Catholic thought until the late 17th century. The second was a more secular variety which focused on the supposed intrigue of the Catholics intent on extending medieval despotism worldwide. Historian Arthur Schlesinger Sr. has called Anti-Catholicism "the deepest - held bias in the history of the American people. '' Because many of the British colonists, such as the Puritans and Congregationalists, were fleeing religious persecution by the Church of England, much of early American religious culture exhibited the more extreme anti-Catholic bias of these Protestant denominations. Monsignor John Tracy Ellis wrote that a "universal anti-Catholic bias was brought to Jamestown in 1607 and vigorously cultivated in all the thirteen colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia. '' Colonial charters and laws contained specific proscriptions against Roman Catholics. Monsignor Ellis noted that a common hatred of the Roman Catholic Church could unite Anglican clerics and Puritan ministers despite their differences and conflicts. Some of America 's Founding Fathers held anti-clerical beliefs. For example, in 1788, John Jay urged the New York Legislature to require office - holders to renounce foreign authorities "in all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil. '' Thomas Jefferson wrote: "History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest - ridden people maintaining a free civil government, '' and, "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own. '' Some states devised loyalty oaths designed to exclude Catholics from state and local office. The public support for American independence and the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution by prominent American Catholics like Charles Carroll of Carrollton, the only Catholic signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his second cousins, Bishop John Carroll and Daniel Carroll, allowed Roman Catholics to be included in the constitutional protections of civil and religious liberty. Anti-Catholic animus in the United States reached a peak in the 19th century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Some American Protestants, having an increased interest in prophecies regarding the end of time, claimed that the Catholic Church was the Whore of Babylon in the Book of Revelation. The resulting "nativist '' movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, the burning of Catholic property, and the killing of Catholics. This violence was fed by claims that Catholics were destroying the culture of the United States. The nativist movement found expression in a national political movement called the Know - Nothing Party of the 1850s, which (unsuccessfully) ran former president Millard Fillmore as its presidential candidate in 1856. The founder of the Know - Nothing movement, Lewis C. Levin, based his political career entirely on anti-Catholicism, and served three terms in the U.S. House of Representatives (1845 -- 1851), after which he campaigned for Fillmore and other "nativist '' candidates. After 1875 many states passed constitutional provisions, called "Blaine Amendments, forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, when they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school, even if it were religious. Anti-Catholicism was widespread in the 1920s; anti-Catholics, including the Ku Klux Klan, believed that Catholicism was incompatible with democracy and that parochial schools encouraged separatism and kept Catholics from becoming loyal Americans. The Catholics responded to such prejudices by repeatedly asserting their rights as American citizens and by arguing that they, not the nativists (anti-Catholics), were true patriots since they believed in the right to freedom of religion. The 1928 presidential campaign of Al Smith was a rallying point for the Klan and the tide of anti-Catholicism in the U.S. The Catholic Church of the Little Flower was first built in 1925 in Royal Oak, Michigan, a largely Protestant area. Two weeks after it opened, the Ku Klux Klan burned a cross in front of the church. The church burned down in a fire in 1936. In response, the church built a fireproof crucifixion tower, as a "cross they could not burn ''. In 1922, the voters of Oregon passed an initiative amending Oregon Law Section 5259, the Compulsory Education Act. The law unofficially became known as the Oregon School Law. The citizens ' initiative was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools, including Catholic schools. The law caused outraged Catholics to organize locally and nationally for the right to send their children to Catholic schools. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925), the United States Supreme Court declared the Oregon 's Compulsory Education Act unconstitutional in a ruling that has been called "the Magna Carta of the parochial school system. '' In 1928, Al Smith became the first Roman Catholic to gain a major party 's nomination for president, and his religion became an issue during the campaign. Many Protestants feared that Smith would take orders from church leaders in Rome in making decisions affecting the country. A key factor that hurt John F. Kennedy in his 1960 campaign for the presidency of the United States was the widespread prejudice against his Roman Catholic religion; some Protestants, including Norman Vincent Peale, believed that, if he were elected president, Kennedy would have to take orders from the pope in Rome. To address fears that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision - making, John F. Kennedy famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party 's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters -- and the Church does not speak for me. '' He promised to respect the separation of church and state and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy to him. Kennedy also raised the question of whether one - quarter of Americans were relegated to second - class citizenship just because they were Catholic. Kennedy went on to win the national popular vote over Richard Nixon by just one tenth of one percentage point (0.1 %) -- the closest popular - vote margin of the 20th century. In the electoral college, Kennedy 's victory was larger, as he took 303 electoral votes to Nixon 's 219 (269 were needed to win). The New York Times, summarizing the discussion late in November, spoke of a "narrow consensus '' among the experts that Kennedy had won more than he lost as a result of his Catholicism, as Catholics flocked to Kennedy to demonstrate their group solidarity in demanding political equality. In 2011, The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops argued that the Obama Administration put an undue burden upon Catholics and forced them to violate their right to freedom of religion as part of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Historically, the Latter Day Saint movement, which is often called Mormonism, has been the victim of religious violence beginning with reports by founder Joseph Smith immediately after his First Vision 1820 and continuing as the movement grew and migrated from its inception in western New York to Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois. The violence culminated when Smith was assassinated by a mob of 200 men in Carthage Jail in 1844. Joseph Smith had surrendered himself previously to the authorities, who failed to protect him. As a result of the violence they were faced with in the East, the Mormon pioneers, led by Brigham Young, migrated westwards and eventually founded Salt Lake City, and many other communities along the Mormon Corridor. Smith and his followers experienced relatively low levels of persecution in New York and Ohio, although one incident involved church members being tarred and feathered. They would eventually move on to Missouri, where some of the worst atrocities against Mormons would take place. Smith declared the area around Independence, Missouri to be the site of Zion, inspiring a massive influx of Mormon converts. Locals, alarmed by rumors of the strange, new religion (including rumors of polygamy), attempted to drive the Mormons out. This resulted in the 1838 Mormon War, the Haun 's Mill massacre, and the issue of the Missouri Executive Order 44 by Governor Lilburn Boggs, which ordered "... Mormons must be treated as enemies, and must be exterminated or driven from the state... ''. The majority of Mormons would flee to Illinois, where they were received warmly by the village of Commerce, Illinois. The Mormons quickly expanded the town and renamed it Nauvoo, which was one of the largest cities in Illinois at the time. The economic, political, and religious dominance of the Mormons (Smith was mayor of the city and commander of the local militia, the Nauvoo Legion) inspired mobs to attack the city, and Smith was arrested for ordering the destruction of an anti-Mormon newspaper, the Nauvoo Expositor, although he acted with the consent of the city council. He was imprisoned, along with his brother Hyrum Smith, at Carthage Jail, where they were attacked by a mob and murdered. After a succession crisis, most of the Mormons united under Brigham Young, who organized an evacuation from Nauvoo and from the United States itself after the federal government refused to protect the Mormons. Young and an eventual 50,000 -- 70,000 would cross the Great Plains to settle in the Salt Lake Valley and the surrounding area. After the events of the Mexican -- American War, the area became a United States territory. Young immediately petitioned for the addition of the State of Deseret, but the federal government declined. Instead, Congress carved out the much smaller Utah Territory. Over the next 46 years, several actions of the federal government were directed at Mormons, specifically to curtail the practice of polygamy and to reduce their political and economic power. These included the Utah War, Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, Poland Act, Edmunds Act, and Edmunds -- Tucker Act. In 1890, LDS Church president Wilford Woodruff issued the Manifesto, ending polygamy. With the concept of plural marriage, from 1830 to 1890 the Mormon faith allowed its members to practice polygamy; after 1843 this was limited to polygyny (one man could have several wives). The notion of polygamy was not only generally disdained by most of Joseph Smith 's contemporaries, it is also contrary to the traditional Christian understanding of marriage. After 1844 the United States government passed legislation aimed specifically at the Mormon practice of polygamy until The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) officially renounced it. In the case of Reynolds v. United States, the U.S. supreme court concluded that "religious duty '' was not a suitable defense to an indictment for polygamy; therefore, a law against polygamy is not legally considered to discriminate against a religion that endorses polygamy. When their appeals to the courts and lawmakers were exhausted and once church leaders were satisfied that God had accepted what they saw as their sacrifice for the principle, the prophet leader of the church announced that he had received inspiration that God had accepted their obedience and rescinded the commandment for plural marriage. In 1890, an official declaration was issued by the church prohibiting further plural marriages. Utah was admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896. Aside from the general issues in the relations between Europeans and Native Americans since the initial European colonization of the Americas, there has been a historic suppression of Native American religions as well as some current charges of religious discrimination against Native Americans by the U.S. government. With the practice of the Americanization of Native Americans, Native American children were sent to Christian boarding schools where they were forced to worship as Christians and traditional customs were banned. Until the Freedom of Religion Act 1978, "spiritual leaders (of Native Americans) ran the risk of jail sentences of up to 30 years for simply practicing their rituals. '' The traditional indigenous Sun Dance was illegal from the 1880s (Canada) or 1904 (USA) to the 1980s. Continuing charges of religious discrimination have largely centered on the eagle feather law, the use of ceremonial peyote, and the repatriation of Native American human remains and cultural and religious objects: A 2006 study at the University of Minnesota showed atheists to be the most distrusted minority among Americans. In the study, sociologists Penny Edgell, Joseph Gerties and Douglas Hartmann conducted a survey of American public opinion on attitudes towards different groups. 40 % of respondents characterized atheists as a group that "does not at all agree with my vision of American society '', putting atheists well ahead of every other group, with the next highest being Muslims (26 %) and homosexuals (23 %). When participants were asked whether they agreed with the statement, "I would disapprove if my child wanted to marry a member of this group, '' atheists again led minorities, with 48 % disapproval, followed by Muslims (34 %) and African - Americans (27 %). Joe Foley, co-chairman for Campus Atheists and Secular Humanists, commented on the results, "I know atheists are n't studied that much as a sociological group, but I guess atheists are one of the last groups remaining that it 's still socially acceptable to hate. '' A University of British Columbia study conducted in the United States found that believers distrust atheists as much as they distrust rapists. The study also showed that atheists have lower employment prospects. Several private organizations, the most notable being the Boy Scouts of America, do not allow atheist members. However, this policy has come under fire by organizations who assert that the Boy Scouts of America do benefit from taxpayer money and thus can not be called a truly private organization, and thus must admit atheists, and others currently barred from membership. An organization called Scouting for All, founded by Eagle Scout Steven Cozza, is at the forefront of the movement. In the 1994 case Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet, Supreme Court Justice David Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: "government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to irreligion ''. Everson v. Board of Education established that "neither a state nor the Federal Government can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another ''. This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgment of the existence of a deity, making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts, so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance. In Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, after atheist Michael Newdow challenged the phrase "under God '' in the United States Pledge of Allegiance, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, unanimously. On June 26, a Republican - dominated group of 100 -- 150 congressmen stood outside the capital and recited the pledge, showing how much they disagreed with the decision. The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that Newdow did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.

when did they add the three point line

Three - point field goal - wikipedia A three - point field goal (also called a three - pointer) is a field goal in a basketball game made from beyond the three - point line, a designated arc surrounding the basket. A successful attempt is worth three points, in contrast to the two points awarded for field goals made within the three - point line and the one point for each made free throw. The distance from the basket to the three - point line varies by competition level: in the National Basketball Association (NBA) the arc is 23 feet 9 inches (7.24 m) from the basket; in FIBA and the WNBA (the latter uses FIBA 's three - point line standard) the arc is 6.75 metres or 22 feet 1 ⁄ inches from the basket; and in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) the arc is 20 feet 9 inches (6.32 m) from the basket. In the NBA and FIBA / WNBA, the three - point line becomes parallel to each sideline at the points where the arc is 3 feet (0.91 m) from each sideline; as a result the distance from the basket gradually decreases to a minimum of 22 feet (6.71 m). In the NCAA the arc is continuous for 180 ° around the basket. There are more variations (see main article). In 3x3, a FIBA - sanctioned variant of the half - court 3 - on - 3 game, the "three - point '' line exists, but shots from behind the line are only worth 2 points. All other shots are worth 1 point. The three - point line was first tested at the collegiate level in a 1945 NCAA game between Columbia and Fordham but it was not kept as a rule. At the direction of Abe Saperstein, the American Basketball League became the first basketball league to institute the rule in 1961. Its three - point line was a radius of 25 feet (7.62 m) from the baskets, except along the sides. The Eastern Professional Basketball League followed in its 1963 -- 64 season. The three - point shot later became popularized by the American Basketball Association after its introduction in the 1967 -- 68 season. ABA commissioner George Mikan stated the three - pointer "would give the smaller player a chance to score and open up the defense to make the game more enjoyable for the fans. '' During the 1970s, the ABA used the three - point shot, along with the slam dunk, as a marketing tool to compete with the National Basketball Association (NBA). In the 1979 -- 80 season, after having tested it in the previous pre-season, the NBA adopted the three - point line despite the view of many that it was a gimmick. Chris Ford of the Boston Celtics is widely credited with making the first three - point shot in NBA history on October 12, 1979. Kevin Grevey of the Washington Bullets also made one on the same day. The sport 's international governing body, FIBA, introduced the three - point line in 1984, at a distance of 6.25 m (20 ft 6 in). The NCAA 's Southern Conference became the first collegiate conference to use the three - point rule, adopting a 22 - foot (6.71 m) line for the 1980 -- 81 season. Ronnie Carr of Western Carolina University was the first to score a three - point field goal in college basketball history on November 29, 1980. Over the following five years, NCAA conferences differed in their use of the rule and distance required for a three - pointer. The line was as close as 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and as far away as 22 feet in the Big Sky Conference. Used in conference play, it was adopted by the NCAA for the 1986 -- 87 men 's season at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m), and was first used in the NCAA Tournament in 1987. In the same 1986 -- 87 season, the NCAA adopted the three - pointer in women 's basketball on an experimental basis, using the same 19 ft 9 in distance, and made its use mandatory beginning in 1987 -- 88. In 2007, the NCAA lengthened the men 's three - point distance to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m), with the rule coming into effect at the beginning of the 2008 -- 09 season. The NCAA women 's three - point distance was moved to match the men 's distance in 2011 -- 12. American high schools, along with elementary and middle schools, adopted a 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) line nationally in 1987, a year after the NCAA. The NCAA is experimenting with the FIBA three - point line (see below) in the 2018 National Invitation Tournament. During the 1994 -- 95, 1995 -- 96, and 1996 -- 97 seasons, the NBA attempted to address decreased scoring by shortening the distance of the line from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) (22 ft (6.71 m) at the corners) to a uniform 22 ft (6.71 m) around the basket. From the 1997 -- 98 season on, the NBA reverted the line to its original distance of 23 ft 9 in (22 ft at the corners, with a 3 inch differential). Ray Allen is currently the NBA all - time leader in career made three - pointers with 2,973. In 2008, FIBA announced that the distance would be increased by 50 cm (19.69 in) to 6.75 m (22 ft 1 ⁄ in), with the change being phased in beginning in October 2010. In December 2012, the WNBA announced that it would be using FIBA 's distance, too, as of the 2013 season. The NBA has discussed adding a four - point line, according to president Rod Thorn. In the NBA, three - point field goals have become increasingly more frequent along the years, with effectiveness increasing slightly. The 1979 - 80 season had an average 2.2 three - point goals per game and 6.6 attempts (28 % effectiveness). The 1989 - 90 season had an average 4.8 three - point goals per game and 13.7 attempts (35 % effectiveness). The 2009 - 10 season had an average 6.4 three - point goals per game and 18.1 attempts (36 % effectiveness). The 2016 - 17 season had an average 9.7 three - point goals per game and 27.0 attempts (36 % effectiveness). A three - point line consists of an arc at a set radius measured from the point on the floor directly below the center of the basket, and two parallel lines equidistant from each sideline extending from the nearest end line to the point at which they intersect the arc. In the NBA and FIBA standard, the arc spans the width of the court until it is a specified minimum distance from each sideline. The three - point line then becomes parallel to the sidelines from those points to the baseline. The unusual formation of the three - point line at these levels allows players some space from which to attempt a three - point shot at the corners of the court; the arc would be less than 2 feet (0.61 m) from each sideline at the corners if it was a continuous arc. In the NCAA and American high school standards, the arc spans 180 ° around the basket, then becomes parallel to the sidelines from the plane of the basket center to the baseline (5 feet 3 inches or 1.60 metres). The distance of the three - point line to the center of the hoop varies by level: A player 's feet must be completely behind the three - point line at the time of the shot or jump in order to make a three - point attempt; if the player 's feet are on or in front of the line, it is a two - point attempt. A player is allowed to jump from outside the line and land inside the line to make a three - point attempt, as long as the ball is released in mid-air. An official raises his / her arm with three fingers extended to signal the shot attempt. If the attempt is successful, he / she raises his / her other arm with all fingers fully extended in manner similar to a football official signifying successful field goal to indicate the three - point goal. The official must recognize it for it to count as three points. Instant replay has sometimes been used, depending on league rules. The NBA, WNBA, FIBA and the NCAA specifically allow replay for this purpose. In NBA, FIBA, and WNBA games, video replay does not have to occur immediately following a shot; play can continue and the officials can adjust the scoring later in the game, after reviewing the video. However, in late game situations, play may be paused pending a review. If a shooter is fouled while attempting a three - pointer and subsequently misses the shot, the shooter is awarded three free - throw attempts. If a player completes a three - pointer while being fouled, the player is awarded one free - throw for a possible 4 - point play. Conceivably, if a player completed a three - pointer while being fouled, and that foul was ruled as either a Flagrant 1 or a Flagrant 2 foul, the player would be awarded two free throws for a possible 5 - point play. Major League Lacrosse features a two - point line which forms a 15 - yard (14 m) arc around the front of the goal. Shots taken from behind this line count for two points, as opposed to the standard one point. In gridiron football, a standard field goal is worth three points; various professional and semi-pro leagues have experimented with four - point field goals. NFL Europe and the Stars Football League adopted a rule similar to basketball 's three - point line in which an additional point was awarded for longer field goals; in both leagues any field goal of 50 yards (46 m) or more was worth four points. The Arena Football League awards four points for any successful drop kicked field goal (like the three - point shot, the drop kick is more challenging than a standard place kick, as the bounce of the ball makes a kick less predictable, and arena football also uses narrower goal posts for all kicks than the outdoor game does). During the existence of the World Hockey Association in the 1970s, there were proposals for two - point hockey goals for shots taken beyond an established distance (one proposal was a 44 - foot (13.4 m) arc, which would have intersected the faceoff circles), but this proposal gained little support and faded after the WHA merged with the NHL. It was widely believed that long - distance shots in hockey had little direct relation to skill (usually resulting more from goalies ' vision being screened or obscured), plus with the lower scoring intrinsic to the sport a two - point goal was seen as disruptive of the structure of the game. The Super Goal is a similar concept in Australian rules football, in which a 50 - meter (55 yd) arc determines the value of a goal; within the arc, it is the usual 6 points, but 9 points are scored for a "super goal '' scored from outside the arc. To date the super goal is only used in pre-season games and not in the season proper. The National Professional Soccer League II, which awarded two points for all goals except those on the power play, also used a three - point line, drawn 45 feet (14 m) from the goal. It has since been adopted by some other indoor soccer leagues.

who said its better to be lucky than good

May you live in interesting times - wikipedia "May you live in interesting times '' is an English expression purported to be a translation of a traditional Chinese curse. While seemingly a blessing, the expression is always used ironically, with the clear implication that ' uninteresting times ', of peace and tranquillity, are more life - enhancing than interesting ones, which from historical perspective usually include disorder and conflict. Despite being so common in English as to be known as the "Chinese curse '', the saying is apocryphal, and no actual Chinese source has ever been produced. The most likely connection to Chinese culture may be deduced from analysis of the late - 19th century speeches of Joseph Chamberlain, probably erroneously transmitted and revised through his son Austen Chamberlain. Despite being widely attributed as a Chinese curse, there is no equivalent expression in Chinese. The nearest related Chinese expression is "寧 為 太平 犬, 莫 做 亂 離 人 '' (nìng wéi tàipíng quǎn, mò zuò luàn lí rén), which is usually translated as "Better to be a dog in a peaceful time, than to be a human in a chaotic (warring) period. '' The expression originates from Volume 3 of the 1627 short story collection by Feng Menglong, Stories to Awaken the World. Evidence that the phrase was in use as early as 1936 is provided in a memoir written by Hughe Knatchbull - Hugessen, the British Ambassador to China in 1936 and 1937, and published in 1949. He mentions that before he left England for China in 1936, a friend told him of a Chinese curse, "May you live in interesting times. '' Frederic René Coudert, Jr. also recounts having heard the phrase at the time: Some years ago, in 1936, I had to write to a very dear and honoured friend of mine, who has since died, Sir Austen Chamberlain, brother of the present Prime Minister, and I concluded my letter with a rather banal remark "that we were living in an interesting age ''. Evidently he read the whole letter, because by return mail he wrote to me and concluded as follows: "Many years ago I learned from one of our diplomats in China that one of the principal Chinese curses heaped upon an enemy is, ' May you live in an interesting age. ' '' "Surely '', he said, "no age has been more fraught with insecurity than our own present time. '' That was three years ago. Research by philologist Garson O'Toole shows a probable origin in the mind of Austen Chamberlain 's father Joseph Chamberlain dating around the late - 19th and early 20th centuries. Specifically, O'Toole cites the following statement Joseph made during a speech in 1898: I think that you will all agree that we are living in most interesting times. (Hear, hear.) I never remember myself a time in which our history was so full, in which day by day brought us new objects of interest, and, let me say also, new objects for anxiety. (Hear, hear.) (emphasis added) From this it is likely that the Chamberlain family may have inadvertently transmitted a folk etymology by expanding Joseph Chamberlain 's use of the concept to refer to some Chinese curse. The phrase is again described as a "Chinese curse '' in an article published in Child Study: A Journal of Parent Education in 1943.

what is the closest airport to white sulphur springs west virginia

Greenbrier Valley Airport - wikipedia Greenbrier Valley Airport (IATA: LWB, ICAO: KLWB, FAA LID: LWB) is a public airport three miles (5 km) north of Lewisburg in Greenbrier County, West Virginia, United States. It has one runway and is owned by the Greenbrier County Airport Authority. Silver Airways ("United Express '') has scheduled airline flights, subsidized by the Essential Air Service program, to Washington - Dulles International Airport, which replaced Cleveland - Hopkins International Airport in summer 2012. Silver Airways also flies to Atlanta - Hartsfield International Airport as an independent airline, replacing Delta Connection. Federal Aviation Administration records say the airport had 7,153 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 4,651 in 2009 and 12,293 in 2010. It is in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011 -- 2015, which called it a non-primary commercial service airport based on enplanements in 2008 / 2009 (between 2,500 and 10,000 per year). The 2013 Federal sequester was forecasted to result in the closure of the airport 's control tower which would have then required pilots to rely on air traffic controllers from other airports. During World War II the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces. Greenbrier Valley Airport covers 472 acres (191 ha) at an elevation of 2,301 feet (701 m) above mean sea level. Its one runway, 4 / 22, is 7,003 by 150 feet (2,135 x 46 m) asphalt. In the year ending November 30, 2011 the airport had 22,107 aircraft operations, average 60 per day: 67 % general aviation, 18 % air taxi, 10 % scheduled commercial, and 5 % military. 26 aircraft were then based at this airport: 88 % single - engine, 8 % multi-engine, and 4 % jet. The airport has four rental car companies, Avis, Hertz, Enterprise, and National. The following passenger airline operates scheduled passenger flights: ViaAir currently operates Embraer ERJ - 145 regional jets on its flights serving the airport. Silver Airways previously served the airport with Saab 340B regional turboprop aircraft. Service ended September 30, 2016. Historically, the airport was served with jet aircraft by Piedmont Airlines followed by Air Atlanta and US Airways. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Piedmont was operating Boeing 737 - 200 jet service nonstop to Roanoke, VA (ROA) with direct flights continuing on to Atlanta (ATL) and New York LaGuardia Airport (LGA). Piedmont also previously served the airport with NAMC YS - 11 turboprops during the mid 1970s. During the mid 1980s, Air Atlanta was flying Boeing 727 jet service nonstop to both New York John F. Kennedy Airport (JFK) and Atlanta (ATL) with direct one stop 727 flights to Philadelphia (PHL) via New York and also to Miami (MIA) via Atlanta. In the late 1990s, US Airways was operating Fokker 100 twin jets nonstop to New York LaGuardia Airport (LGA).

when was the factory act of 1833 passed

Factory Acts - wikipedia The Factory Acts were a series of UK labour law Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to regulate the conditions of industrial employment. The early Acts concentrated on regulating the hours of work and moral welfare of young children employed in cotton mills but were effectively unenforced until the Act of 1833 established a professional Factory Inspectorate. The regulation of working hours was then extended to women by an Act of 1844. An Act in 1847 (the Ten Hour Act) (together with Acts in 1850 and 1853 remedying defects in the 1847 Act) met a long - standing (and by 1847 well - organised) demand by the millworkers for a ten - hour day. The Factory Acts also sought to ameliorate the conditions under which mill - children worked with requirements on ventilation, sanitation, and guarding of machinery. Introduction of the ten - hour day proved to have none of the dire consequences predicted by its opponents, and its apparent success effectively ended theoretical objections to the principle of factory legislation; from the 1860s onwards more industries were brought within the Factory Act, until by 1910, Sidney Webb reviewing the cumulative effect of century of factory legislation felt able to write The system of regulation which began with the protection of the tiny class of pauper apprentices in textile mills now includes within its scope every manual worker in every manufacturing industry. From the hours of labour and sanitation, the law has extended to the age of commencing work, protection against accidents, mealtimes and holidays, the methods of remuneration, and in the United Kingdom as well as in the most progressive of English - speaking communities, to the rate of wages itself. The range of Factory Legislation has, in fact, in one country or another, become co-extensive with the conditions of industrial employment. No class of manual - working wage - earners, no item in the wage - contract, no age, no sex, no trade or occupation, is now beyond its scope. This part, at any rate, of Robert Owen 's social philosophy has commended itself to the practical judgment of the civilised world. It has even, though only towards the latter part of the nineteenth century, converted the economists themselves - converted them now to a "legal minimum wage '' -- and the advantage of Factory Legislation is now as soundly "orthodox '' among the present generation of English, German, and American professors as "laisser - faire '' was to their predecessors... Of all the nineteenth century inventions in social organisation, Factory Legislation is the most widely diffused. He also commented on the gradual (accidentally almost Fabian) way this transformation had been achieved The merely empirical suggestions of Dr. Thomas Percival and the Manchester Justices of 1784 and 1795, and the experimental legislation of the elder Sir Robert Peel in 1802, were expanded by Robert Owen in 1815 into a general principle of industrial government, which came to be applied in tentative instalments by successive generations of Home Office administrators... This century of experiment in Factory Legislation affords a typical example of English practical empiricism. We began with no abstract theory of social justice or the rights of man. We seem always to have been incapable even of taking a general view of the subject we were legislating upon. Each successive statute aimed at remedying a single ascertained evil. It was in vain that objectors urged that other evils, no more defensible existed in other trades, or among other classes, or with persons of ages other than those to which the particular Bill applied. Neither logic nor consistency, neither the over-nice consideration of even - handed justice nor the Quixotic appeal of a general humanitarianism, was permitted to stand in the way of a practical remedy for a proved wrong. That this purely empirical method of dealing with industrial evils made progress slow is scarcely an objection to it. With the nineteenth century House of Commons no other method would have secured any progress at all. The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 (42 Geo III c. 73) was introduced by Sir Robert Peel; it addressed concerns felt by the medical men of Manchester about the health and welfare of children employed in cotton mills, and first expressed by them in 1784 in a report on an outbreak of ' putrid fever ' at a mill at Radcliffe owned by Peel. Although the Act included some hygiene requirements for all textile mills, it was largely concerned with the employment of apprentices; it left the employment of ' free ' (non-indentured) children unregulated. It allowed (but did not require) local magistrates to enforce compliance with its requirements, and therefore went largely unenforced. As the first attempt to improve the lot of factory children, it is often seen as paving the way for future Factory Acts. At best, it only partially paved the way; its restriction to apprentices (where there was a long tradition of legislation) meant that it was left to later Factory Acts to establish the principle of intervention by Parliament on humanitarian grounds on worker welfare issues against the "laissez - faire '' political and economic orthodoxy of the age which held that to be ill - advised. Under the Act, regulations and rules came into force on 2 December 1802 and applied to all textile mills and factories employing three or more apprentices or twenty employees. The buildings must have sufficient windows and openings for ventilation, and should be cleaned at least twice yearly with quicklime and water; this included ceilings and walls. Each apprentice was to be given two sets of clothing, suitable linen, stockings, hats, and shoes, and a new set each year thereafter. Apprentices could not work during the night (between 9 pm and 6 am), and their working hours could not exceed 12 hours a day, excluding the time taken for breaks. A grace period was provided to allow factories time to adjust, but all night - time working by apprentices was to be discontinued by June 1804. All apprentices were to be educated in reading, writing and arithmetic for the first four years of their apprenticeship. The Act specified that this should be done every working day within usual working hours but did not state how much time should be set aside for it. Educational classes should be held in a part of the mill or factory designed for the purpose. Every Sunday, for one hour, apprentices were to be taught the Christian religion; every other Sunday, divine service should be held in the factory, and every month the apprentices should visit a church. They should be prepared for confirmation in the Church of England between the ages of 14 and 18 and must be examined by a clergyman at least once a year. Male and female apprentices were to sleep separately and not more than two per bed. Local magistrates had to appoint two inspectors known as ' visitors ' to ensure that factories and mills were complying with the Act; one was to be a clergyman and the other a Justice of the Peace, neither to have any connection with the mill or factory. The visitors had the power to impose fines for non-compliance and the authority to visit at any time of the day to inspect the premises. The Act was to be displayed in two places in the factory. Owners who refused to comply with any part of the Act could be fined between £ 2 and £ 5. The 1819 Cotton Mills and Factories Act (59 Geo. III c66) stated that no children under 9 were to be employed and that children aged 9 -- 16 years were limited to 12 hours ' work per day. It applied to the cotton industry only, but covered all children, whether apprentices or not. It was seen through Parliament by Sir Robert Peel; it had its origins in a draft prepared by Robert Owen in 1815 but the Act that emerged in 1819 was much watered - down from Owen 's draft. It was also effectively unenforceable; enforcement was left to local magistrates, but they could only inspect a mill if two witnesses had given sworn statements that the mill was breaking the Act. An amending Act (60 Geo. III., c. 5) was passed in December 1819. When any accident disabled a factory (as had just happened at New Lanark), nightworking in the rest of the works by those who had previously worked in the affected factory was permitted until the accident was made good. In 1825 John Cam Hobhouse introduced a Bill to allow magistrates to act on their own initiative, and to compel witnesses to attend hearings; noting that so far there had been only two prosecutions under the 1819 Act. Opposing the Bill a millowner MP agreed that the 1819 Bill was widely evaded, but went on to remark that this put millowners at the mercy of millhands "The provisions of Sir Robert Peel 's act had been evaded in many respects: and it was now in the power of the workmen to ruin many individuals, by enforcing the penalties for children working beyond the hours limited by that act '' and that this showed to him that the best course of action was to repeal the 1819 Act. On the other hand, another millowner MP supported Hobhouse 's Bill saying that he agreed that, the bill was loudly called for, and, as the proprietor of a large manufactory, admitted that there was much that required remedy. He doubted whether shortening the hours of work would be injurious even to the interests of the manufacturers; as the children would be able, while they were employed, to pursue their occupation with greater vigour and activity. At the same time, there was nothing to warrant a comparison with the condition or the negroes in the West Indies. Hobhouse 's Bill also sought to limit hours worked to eleven a day; the Act as passed (the Cotton Mills Regulation Act: 6 Geo. IV., c. 63) improved the arrangements for enforcement, but kept a twelve - hour day Monday - Friday with a shorter day of nine hours on Saturday. The 1819 Act had specified that a mealbreak of an hour should be taken between 11 a.m. and 2 p.m.; a subsequent Act (60 Geo. III., c. 5) allowing water - powered mills to exceed the specified hours in order to make up for lost time widened the limits to 11 a.m. to 4 p.m.; Hobhouse 's Act of 1825 set the limits to 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. A parent 's assertion of a child 's age was sufficient, and relieved employers of any liability should the child in fact be younger. JPs who were millowners or the fathers or sons of millowners could not hear complaints under the Act. In 1829, Parliament passed an ' Act to Amend the Laws relating to the employment of Children in Cotton Mills & Manufactories ' which relaxed formal requirements for the service of legal documents on millowners (documents no longer had to specify all partners in the concern owning or running the mill; it would be adequate to identify the mill by the name by which it was generally known). The Bill passed the Commons was subject to a minor textual amendment by the Lords (adding the words ' to include ') and then received the Royal Assent without the Commons first being made aware of (or agreeing to) the Lords ' amendment. To rectify this inadvertent breach of privilege, a further Act (making no other change to the Act already passed) was promptly passed on the last day of the Parliamentary session. An Act to repeal the Laws relating to Apprentices and other young Persons employed in Cotton Factories and in Cotton Mills, and to make further Provisions in lieu thereof (1 & 2 Will. IV c39) In 1831 Hobhouse introduced a further bill with - he told the Commons - the support of the leading manufacturers who felt that "unless the House should step forward and interfere so as to put an end to the night - work in the small factories where it was practised, it would be impossible for the large and respectable factories which conformed to the existing law to compete with them. '' The Act repealed the previous Acts, and consolidated their provisions in a single Act, which also introduced further restrictions. Night working was forbidden for anyone under 21 and if a mill had been working at night the onus of proof was on the millowner (to show nobody under - age had been employed). The limitation of working hours to twelve now applied up to age eighteen. Complaints could only pursued if made within three weeks of the offence; on the other hand JPs who were the brothers of millowners were now also debarred from hearing Factory Act cases. Hobhouse 's claim of general support was optimistic; the Bill originally covered all textile mills; the Act as passed again applied only to cotton mills. Dissatisfied with the outcome of Hobhouse 's efforts, in 1832 Michael Thomas Sadler introduced a Bill extending the protection existing Factory Acts gave to children working in the cotton industry to those in other textile industries, and reducing to ten per day the working hours of children in the industries legislated for. A network of ' Short Time Committees ' had grown up in the textile districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, working for a ' ten - hour day Act ' for children, with many millhands in the Ten Hour Movement hoping that this would in practice also limit the adult working day. Witnesses to one of the Committees taking evidence on Peel 's Bill had noted that there were few millworkers over forty, and that they themselves expected to have to stop mill work at that age because of ' the pace of the mill ' unless working hours were reduced. Hobhouse advised Richard Oastler, an early and leading advocate of factory legislation for the woolen industry, that Hobhouse had got as much as he could, given the opposition of Scottish flax - spinners and ' the state of public business ': if Sadler put forward a Bill matching the aims of the Short Time Committees "he will not be allowed to proceed a single stage with any enactment, and... he will only throw an air of ridicule and extravagance over the whole of this kind of legislation ''. Oastler responded that a failure with a Ten Hour Bill would "not dishearten its friends. It will only spur them on to greater exertions, and would undoubtedly lead to certain success '' Sadler 's Bill when introduced indeed corresponded closely to the aims of the Short Time Committees. Hobhouse 's ban on nightwork up to 21 was retained; no child under nine was to be employed; and the working day for under - eighteens was to be no more than ten hours (eight on Saturday). These restrictions were to apply across all textile industries. The Second Reading debate on Sadler 's bill did not take place until 16 March 1832, the Reform Bill having taken precedence over all other legislation. Meanwhile, petitions both for and against the Bill had been presented to the Commons; both Sir Robert Peel (not the originator of the 1802 bill, but his son, the future Prime Minister) and Sir George Strickland had warned that the Bill as it stood was too ambitious: more MPs had spoken for further factory legislation than against, but many supporters wanted the subject to be considered by a Select Committee. Sadler had resisted this "if the present Bill was referred to one, it would not become a law this Session, and the necessity of legislating was so apparent, that he was unwilling to submit to the delay of a Committee, when he considered they could obtain no new evidence on the subject ''. In his long Second Reading speech, Sadler argued repeatedly that a Committee was unnecessary, but concluded by accepting that he had not convinced the House or the Government of this, and that the Bill would be referred to a Select Committee. (Lord Althorp, responding for the Government, noted that Sadler 's speech made a strong case for considering legislation, thought it did little to directly support the details of the Bill; the Government supported the Bill as leading to a Select Committee, but would not in advance pledge support for whatever legislation the Committee might recommend). This effectively removed any chance of a Factories Regulation Act being passed before Parliament was dissolved. Sadler was made chairman of the Committee, which allowed him to make his case by hearing evidence from witnesses of Sadler 's selection, on the understanding that opponents of the Bill (or of some feature of it) would then have their innings. Sadler attempted (31 July 1832) to progress his Bill without waiting for the committee 's report; when this abnormal procedure was objected to by other MPs, he withdrew the Bill. Sadler, as chairman of the committee, reported the minutes of evidence on 8 August 1832, when they were ordered to be printed. Parliament was prorogued shortly afterwards: Sadler gave notice of his intention to reintroduce a Ten - Hour Bill in the next session Sadler, however, was not an MP in the next session: in the first election for the newly enfranchised two member constituency of Leeds he was beaten into third place by Thomas Babington Macaulay a Whig politician of national standing and John Marshall, the son of one of Leeds ' leading millowners. Casting around for a new parliamentary advocate for factory reform, the short - time movement eventually secured the services of Lord Ashley, eldest son of the 6th Earl of Shaftesbury. By the time the new parliament met, public opinion (especially outside the textile districts) had been powerfully affected by ' the report of Mr Sadler 's Committee '. Extracts from this began to appear in newspapers in January 1833 and painted a picture of the life of a mill - child as one of systematic over-work and systematic brutality. The conclusion many papers drew was that Sadler 's Bill should be revived and passed. However, when Ashley introduced a Bill essentially reproducing Sadler 's MPs criticised both the report (since the only witnesses heard had been Sadler 's, the report was unbalanced; since witnesses had not testified on oath, doubts were expressed about the accuracy / veracity of the more lurid accounts of factory life) and Sadler 's conduct. ' An air of ridicule and extravagance ' had been thrown not upon factory legislation, but upon the use of Select Committees for fact - finding on factory conditions. A Factory Commission was set up to investigate and report. Sadler and the Short Time Committees objected to any further fact - finding and attempted to obstruct the work of the Commissioners. Ashley 's Bill proceeded to a Second Reading in early July 1833 (when the likely main recommendations of the Commission were known, but its report was not yet available to MPs); Ashley wanted the Bill to then be considered by a Committee of the whole House and defeated Lord Althorp 's amendment to refer the Bill to a Select Committee. However at Committee stage the first point considered where the Bill differed from the Commission 's was the age up to which hours of work should be limited Ashley lost (heavily) the vote on this, and left it to Althorp to pilot through a Factory Act based upon the Commission 's recommendations. This toured the textile districts and made extensive investigations. It wasted little time in doing so, and even less in considering its report; as with other Whig Commissions of the period it was suspected to have had a good idea of its recommendations before it started work. During the course of the Factory Commission 's inquiries, relationships between it and the Ten Hour Movement became thoroughly adversarial, the Ten Hour Movement attempting to organise a boycott of the Commission 's investigations: this was in sharp contrast with the commissioners ' practice of dining with the leading manufacturers of the districts they visited. The Commission 's report did not support the more lurid details of Sadler 's report - mills were not hotbeds of sexual immorality, and beating of children was much less common than Sadler had asserted (and was dying out). Major millowners such as the Strutts did not tolerate it (and indeed were distinguished by their assiduous benevolence to their employees). Working conditions for mill - children were preferable to those in other industries: (after a visit to the coal mine at Worsley one of the Commission staff had written "as this was said to be the best mine in the place, I can not much err in coming to the conclusion, that the hardest labour in the worst - conducted factory is less hard, less cruel, and less demoralizing than the labour in the best of coal - mines '') Nonetheless, the Commission reported that mill children did work unduly long hours, leading to and that these ill - effects were so marked and significant that Government intervention was justified but where Sadler 's Bill was for a ten - hour day for all workers under eighteen, the Commission recommended an eight - hour day for those under thirteen, hoping for a two - shift system for them which would allow mills to run 16 hours a day. The Factory Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. IV) c103 was an attempt to establish a regular working day in textile manufacture. The act had the following provisions: The Act failed to specify whether lunar or calendar months were intended where the word ' monthly ' was used, and one clause limited hours of work per week where a daily limit had been intended. A short amending Act was therefore passed in February 1834 The 1833 Act had few admirers in the textile districts when it came into force. The short - time movement objected to its substitution for Ashley 's Bill, and hoped to secure a Ten - Hour Bill. Millowners resented and political economists deplored legislatory interference in response to public opinion, and hoped that the Act could soon be repealed (completely or in part). In 1835, the first report of the Factory Inspectors noted that the education clauses were totally impracticable, and relay working (with a double set of children, both sets working eight hours; the solution which allowed Althorp 's Bill to outbid Ashley 's in the apparent benefit to children) was difficult if not impracticable, there not being enough children. They also reported that they had been unable to discover any deformity produced by factory labour, nor any injury to health or shortening of life of factory children caused by working a twelve - hour day. Three of the four inspectors had recommended in their first report that all children 12 or older should be allowed to work twelve hours a day. This was followed by an agitation in the West Riding for relaxation or repeal of the 1833 Act; the short - time movement alleged that workers were being ' leant on ' by their employers to sign petitions for repeal, and countered by holding meetings and raising petitions for a ten - hour act. Charles Hindley prepared a draft bill limiting the hours that could be worked by any mill employing people under twenty - one, with no child under ten to be employed, and no education clauses. Hindley 's bill was published at the end of the 1834 - 5 parliamentary session, but was not taken forward in the next session, being pre-empted by a government bill introduced by Charles Poulett Thomson, the President of the Board of Trade, allowing children twelve or over to work twelve hours a day. The second reading of Poulett Thomson 's Bill was opposed by Ashley, who denounced the bill as a feeler towards total repeal of protection for factory children. The Bill passed its second reading by a majority of only two (178 - 176) - a moral defeat for a government measure. Furthermore, although Poulett Thomson had opened the debate by saying that "at the present moment he was unwilling to re-open the whole factory question '', Peel had said he would vote for the second reading, not because he supported the bill, but because its committee stage would allow the introduction of additional amendments to factory legislation. Poulett Thomson (eventually) abandoned the bill. In 1837 Poulett Thomson announced his intention to bring in a factory bill; consequently Ashley, who had intended to introduce a ten - hour bill, dropped this, promising instead a ten - hour amendment to the government bill. No progress had been made with the government bill when the death of King William, and the consequent dissolution of parliament, brought the session to an end. In the 1838 session another government factory bill was introduced by Fox Maule Under - Secretary of State for the Home Department. Children in silk mills were not to work more than ten hours a day (but this was not backed up by any certification of age). Otherwise, the bill made no changes to age limits or hours of work, but repealed the education clauses of the 1833 Act, replacing them with literacy tests. After a transitional period, children who could not read the New Testament were not to be employed more than nine hours a day; children who could not read an easy reader to be published by the Home Secretary could not be employed. His political opponents mocked the thought of Lord John Russell turning his undoubted talents to the production of a reading primer, and it was soon announced that once the Bill went into committee it would be amended to restore the 1833 education clauses. The second reading of the bill was scheduled for 22 June, but in early June Russell announced that the bill had been abandoned for the session. On 22 June, when the government intended to progress a bill on Irish tithes, Ashley forestalled them, moving the second reading of the factory bill. He complained of the evasive conduct of ministers and government apathy and complacency on factory reform. Peel (who normally, even in opposition, deprecated obstruction of government business by backbenchers) supported Ashley: he held very different views on the issue from Ashley, but the issue was important, contentious, and should not be evaded: "so long as ineffectual attempts at legislation remained on the table of the house, the excitement of the manufacturing districts would continue to be kept up '' Ashley 's motion was lost narrowly 111 to 119. Ashley later attacked the government and its complacency and connivance at the shortcomings in the current Factory Act identified by the government 's own Factory Inspectors: "After these representations... by his own inspectors, how could the noble Lord opposite reconcile it with his conscience as an individual, and with his public duty as a Minister of the Crown, during the whole course of his administration, never to have brought forward any measure for the removal of so tremendous an evil? '' "He wanted them to decide whether they would amend, or repeal, or enforce the Act now in existence; but if they would do none of these things, if they continued idly indifferent, and obstinately shut their eyes to this great and growing evil, if they were careless of the growth of an immense population, plunged in ignorance and vice, which neither feared God, nor regarded man, then he warned them that they must be prepared for the very worst result that could befall a nation. '' In the 1839 session, Fox Maule revived the 1838 Bill with alterations. The literacy tests were gone, and the education clauses restored. The only other significant changes in the scope of the legislation were that working extra hours to recover lost time was now only permitted for water - powered mills, and magistrates could not countersign surgeon 's certificates if they were mill - owners or occupiers (or father, son, or brother of a mill - owner or occupier). Details of enforcement were altered; there was no longer any provision for inspectors to be magistrates ex officio, sub-inspectors were to have nearly the same enforcement powers as inspectors; unlike inspectors they could not examine witnesses on oath, but they now had the same right of entry into factory premises as inspectors. Declaring a schoolmaster incompetent was now to invalidate certificates of education issued by him, and a clause in the bill aimed to make it easier to establish and run a school for factory children; children at schools formed under this clause were not to be educated in a creed objected to by their parents. The bill, introduced in February, did not enter its committee stage until the start of July In committee, a ten - hour amendment was defeated 62 - 94, but Ashley moved and carried 55 - 49 an amendment removing the special treatment of silk mills. The government then declined to progress the amended bill. No attempt was made to introduce a Factory Bill in 1840; Ashley obtained a Select Committee on the working of the existing Factory Act, which took evidence, most notably from members of the Factory Inspectorate, throughout the session with a view to a new Bill being introduced in 1841. Ashley was then instrumental in obtaining a Royal Commission on the employment of children in mines and manufactures, which eventually reported in 1842 (mines) and 1843 (manufactures): two of the four Commissioners had served on the 1833 Factory Commission; the other two were serving factory inspectors. In March 1841 Fox Maule introduced a Factory Bill and a separate Silk Factory Bill. The Factory Bill provided that children were now not to work more than seven hours a day; if working before noon they could n't work after one p.m. The education clauses of the 1839 Bill were retained. ' Dangerous machinery ' was now to be brought within factory legislation. Both the Factory and Silk Factory bills were given unopposed second readings on the understanding that all issues would be discussed at committee stage, both were withdrawn before going into committee, the Whigs having been defeated on a motion of no confidence, and a General Election imminent. The Whigs were defeated in the 1841 general election, and Sir Robert Peel formed a Conservative government. Ashley let it be known that he had declined office under Peel because Peel would not commit himself not to oppose a ten - hour bill; Ashley therefore wished to retain freedom of action on factory issues. In February 1842, Peel indicated definite opposition to a ten - hour bill, and Sir James Graham, Peel 's Home Secretary, declared his intention to proceed with a bill prepared by Fox Maule, but with some alterations. In response to the findings of his Royal Commission, Ashley saw through Parliament a Mines And Collieries Act banning the employment of women and children underground; the measure was welcomed by both front benches, with Graham assuring Ashley "that her Majesty 's Government would render him every assistance in carrying on the measure ''. In July, it was announced that the Government did not intend any modification to the Factory Act in that session. The Royal Commission had investigated not only the working hours and conditions of the children, but also their moral state. It had found much of concern in their habits and language, but the greatest concern was that "the means of secular and religious instruction... are so grievously defective, that, in all the districts, great numbers of Children and Young Persons are growing up without any religious, moral, or intellectual training; nothing being done to form them to habits of order, sobriety, honesty, and forethought, or even to restrain them from vice and crime. '' In 1843, Ashley initiated a debate on "the best means of diffusing the benefits and blessings of a moral and religious education among the working classes... '' Responding, Graham stressed that the issue was not a party one (and was borne out on this by the other speakers in the debate); although the problem was a national one, the government would for the moment bring forward measures only for the two areas of education in which the state already had some involvement; the education of workhouse children and the education of factory children. The measures he announced related to England and Wales; Scotland had an established system of parochial schools run by its established church, with little controversy, since in Scotland there was no dissent on doctrine, only on questions of discipline. In the ' education clauses ' of his Factory Education Bill of 1843, he proposed to make government loans to a new class of government factory schools effectively under the control of the Church of England and the local magistrates. The default religious education in these schools would be Anglican, but parents would be allowed to opt their children out of anything specifically Anglican; if the opt - out was exercised, religious education would be as in the best type of Dissenter - run schools. Once a trust school was open in a factory district, factory children in that district would have to provide a certificate that they were being educated at it or at some other school certified as ' efficient '. The ' labour clauses ' forming the other half of the bill were essentially a revival of Fox Maule 's draft; children could work only in the morning or in the afternoon, but not both. There were two significant differences; the working day for children was reduced to six and a half hours, and the minimum age for factory work would be reduced to eight. Other clauses increased penalties and assisted enforcement. A Second Reading debate was held to flesh out major issues before going into committee. At Lord John Russell 's urging, the discussion was temperate, but there was considerable opposition to the proposed management of the new schools, which effectively excluded ratepayers (who would repay the loan and meet any shortfall in running costs) and made no provision for a Dissenter presence (to see fair play). The provisions for appointment of schoolmasters were also criticised; as they stood they effectively excluded Dissenters. Out of Parliament, the debate was less temperate; objections that the Bill had the effect of strengthening the Church became objections that it was a deliberate attack on Dissent, that its main purpose was to attack Dissent, and that the Royal Commission had deliberately and grossly defamed the population of the manufacturing districts to give a spurious pretext for an assault on Dissent. Protest meetings were held on that basis throughout the country, and their resolutions condemning the bill and calling for its withdrawal were supported by a campaign of organised petitions: that session Parliament received 13,369 petitions against the bill as drafted with a total of 2,069,058 signatures. (For comparison, in the same session there were 4574 petitions for total repeal of the Corn Laws, with a total of 1,111,141 signatures.) Lord John Russell drafted resolutions calling for modification of the bill along the lines suggested in Parliament; the resolutions were denounced as inadequate by the extra-parliamentary opposition. Graham amended the educational clauses, but this only triggered a fresh round of indignation meetings and a fresh round of petitions (11,839 petitions and 1,920,574 signatures). Graham then withdrew the education clauses but this did not end the objections, since it did not entirely restore the status quo ante on education; indeed the education requirements of the 1833 Act now came under attack, the Leeds Mercury declaring education was something individuals could do for themselves "under the guidance of natural instinct and self - interest, infinitely better than Government could do for them ''. Hence "All Government interference to COMPEL Education is wrong '' and had unacceptable implications: "If Government has a right to compel Education, it has right to compel RELIGION! '' Although as late as 17 July Graham said he intended to get the bill though in the current session, three days later the bill was one of those Peel announced would be dropped for that session. In 1844 Graham again introduced a Bill to bring in a new Factory Act and repeal the 1833 Factory Act. The Bill gave educational issues a wide berth, but otherwise largely repeated the ' labour clauses ' of Graham 's 1843 Bill, with the important difference that the existing protection of young persons (a twelve - hour day and a ban on night working) was now extended to women of all ages. In Committee, Lord Ashley moved an amendment to the bill 's clause 2, which defined the terms used in subsequent (substantive) clauses; his amendment changed the definition of ' night ' to 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. - after allowing 90 minutes for mealbreaks only ten - and - a-half hours could be worked; this passed by nine votes. On clause 8, limiting the hours of work for women and young persions, the motion setting a twelve - hour day was defeated (by three votes: 183 - 186) but Lord Ashley 's motion setting the limit at ten hours was also defeated (by seven votes: 181 - 188). Voting on this Bill was not on party lines, the issue revealing both parties to be split into various factions. On clause 8, both ' ten ' and ' twelve ' hours were rejected (with exactly the same members voting) because five members voted against both ' ten ' and ' twelve '. Faced with this impasse, and having considered and rejected the option of compromising on some intermediate time such as eleven hours, Graham withdrew the Bill, preferring to replace it by a new one which amended, rather than repealed, the 1833 Act. A Radical MP warned the government during the debate on clause 8 that Ashley 's first victory could never be undone by any subsequent vote: morally the Ten - Hour question had been settled; Government might delay, but could not now prevent, a Ten - hour Act. However, the new bill left the 1833 definition of ' night ' unaltered (and so gave no opportunity for redefinition) and Lord Ashley 's amendment to limit the working day for women and young persons to ten hours was defeated heavily (295 against, 198 for), it having been made clear that the Ministers would resign if they lost the vote. As a result, the Factory Act of 1844 (citation 7 & 8 Vict c. 15) again set a twelve - hour day, its main provisions being: After the collapse of the Peel administration which had resisted any reduction in the working day to less than 12 hours, a Whig administration under Lord John Russell came to power. The new Cabinet contained supporters and opponents of a ten - hour day and Lord John himself favoured an eleven - hour day. The Government therefore had no collective view on the matter; in the absence of Government opposition, the Ten Hour Bill (also known as the Ten Hour Act) was passed, becoming the Factories Act 1847 (citation 10 & 11 Vict c. 29). This law limited the work week in textile mills (and other textile industries except lace and silk production) for women and children under 18 years of age. Each work week contained 63 hours effective 1 July 1847 and was reduced to 58 hours effective 1 May 1848. In effect, this law limited the workday for all millhands to 10 hours. This law was successfully passed due to the contributions of the Ten Hours Movement. This campaign was established during the 1830s and was responsible for voicing demands towards limiting the work week in textile mills. The core of the movement was the ' Short Time Committees ' set up (by millworkers and sympathisers) in the textile districts, but the main speakers for the cause were Richard Oastler (who led the campaign outside Parliament) and Lord Ashley, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury (who led the campaign inside Parliament). John Fielden, although no orator, was indefatigable in his support of the cause, giving generously of his time and money and - as the senior partner in one of the great cotton firms - vouching for the reality of evils of a long working day and the practicality of shortening it. The Acts of 1844 and 1847 had reduced the hours per day which any woman or young person could work but not the hours of the day within which they could do that work (from 5: 30 a.m. to 8: 30 p.m.). Under the 1833 Act millowners (or some of them) had used a ' relay system ' so that the mill could operate all the permitted hours without any protected person exceeding their permitted workday. The 1833 Act had hoped that two sets of children would be employed and each work a full half - day (the ' true relay ' system, which left the other halfday free for education). Instead, some mills operated a ' false relay ' system in which the protected persons worked split shifts. The false relay system was considered objectionable both because of the effect on the protected persons and because an inspector (or other millowners) could relatively easily monitor the hours a mill ran; it was much more difficult if not impossible to check the hours worked by an individual (as an inspector observed "the lights in the window will discover the one but not the other '') Section 26 of the 1844 Act required that the hours of work of all protected persons "shall be reckoned from the time when any child or young person shall first begin to work in the morning in such factory. '' but nothing in it or in the 1847 Act clearly prohibited split shifts (although this had been Parliament 's intention). The factory inspector for Scotland considered split shifts to be legal; the inspector for Bradford thought them illegal and his local magistrates agreed with him: in Manchester the inspector thought them illegal but the magistrates did not. In 1850 the Court of Exchequer held that the section was to be too weakly worded to make relay systems illegal. Lord Ashley sought to remedy this by a short declaratory Act restoring the status quo but felt it impossible to draft one which did not introduce fresh matter (which would remove the argument that there was no call for further debate). The Home Secretary Sir George Grey was originally noticeably ambivalent about Government support for Ashley 's Bill: when Ashley reported his difficulties to the House of Commons, Grey announced an intention to move amendments in favour of a scheme (ostensibly suggested by a third party) which established a ' normal day ' for women and young persons by setting the times within which they could work so tightly that they were also the start and stop times if they were to work the maximum permitted hours per day. Grey 's scheme increased the hours that could be worked per week, but Ashley (uncertain of the outcome of any attempt to re-enact a true Ten Hours Bill) decided to support it and Grey 's scheme was the basis for the 1850 Act (citation 13 & 14 Vict c. 54). The Short Time Committees had previously been adamant for an effective Ten - hour Bill; Ashley wrote to them, noting that he acted in Parliament as their friend, not their delegate, explaining his reasons for accepting Grey 's "compromise '', and advising them to do so also. They duly did, significantly influenced by the thought that they could not afford to lose their friend in Parliament. The key provisions of the 1850 Act were: Various public meetings in the textile districts subsequently passed motions regretting that the 58 - hour week had not been more stoutly defended, with various stalwarts of the Ten - Hour Movement (various Cobbetts and Fieldens (John Fielden now being dead) and Richard Oastler) offering their support and concurring with criticism of Ashley 's actions, but nothing came of this: the meetings were poorly attended (that at Manchester was attended by about 900) and the Ten - Hour Movement had now effectively run its course. Children (8 - 13) were not covered by this Act: it had been the deliberate intention of the 1833 Act that a mill might use two sets of children on a relay system and the obvious method of doing so did not require split shifts. A further Act of 1853 set similar limits on the hours within which children might work. In April 1855 a National Association of Factory Occupiers was formed "to watch over factory legislation with a view to prevent any increase of the present unfair and injudicious enactments ''. The 1844 Act had required that "mill gearing '' - which included power shafts - should be securely fenced. Magistrates had taken inconsistent views as to whether this applied where the "mill gearing '' was not readily accessible; in particular where power shafting ran horizontally well above head height. In 1856, the Court of Queen 's Bench ruled that it did. In April, 1856, the National Association of Factory Occupiers succeeded in obtaining an Act reversing this decision: mill gearing needed secure fencing only of those parts with which women, young persons, and children were liable to come in contact. (The inspectors feared that the potential hazards in areas they did not normally access might be obvious to experienced men, but not be easily appreciated by women and children who were due the legislative protection the 1856 Act had removed, especially given the potential severe consequences of their inexperience. An MP speaking against the Bill was able to give multiple instances of accidents to protected persons resulting in death or loss of limbs - all caused by unguarded shafting with which they were supposedly not liable to come into contact - despite restricting himself to accidents in mills owned by Members of Parliament (so that he could be corrected by them if had misstated any facts). (Dickens thereafter referred to the NAFO as the National Association for the Protection of the Right to Mangle Operatives. Harriet Martineau criticised Dickens for this, arguing that mangling was the result of workers not being careful and: "If men and women are to be absolved from the care of their own lives and limbs, and the responsibility put upon anybody else by the law of the land, the law of the land is lapsing into barbarism '')) For other parts of the mill gearing any dispute between the occupier and the inspector could be resolved by arbitration. The arbitration was to be by a person skilled in making the machinery to be guarded; the inspectors however declined to submit safety concerns to arbitration by those "who look only to the construction and working of the machinery, which is their business, and not to the prevention of accidents, which is not their business '' In virtually every debate on the various Factories Bills, opponents had thought it a nonsense to pass legislation for textile mills when the life of a mill child was much preferable to that of many other children: other industries were more tiring, more dangerous, more unhealthy, required longer working hours, involved more unpleasant working conditions, or (this being Victorian Britain) were more conducive to lax morals. This logic began to be applied in reverse once it became clear that the Ten Hours Act had had no obvious detrimental effect on the prosperity of the textile industry or on that of millworkers. Acts were passed bringing other textile trades within the scope of the Factories Act: bleaching and dyeworks (1860 - outdoor bleaching was excluded), lace work (1861), calendering (1863), finishing (1864). In 1864 the Factories Extension Act was passed: this extended the Factories Act to cover a number of occupations (mostly non-textile): potteries (both heat and exposure to lead glazes were issues), lucifer match making (' phossie jaw ') percussion cap and cartridge making, paper staining and fustian cutting. In 1867 the Factories Act was extended to all establishments employing 50 or more workers by another Factories Act Extension Act. An Hours of Labour Regulation Act applied to ' workshops ' (establishments employing less than 50 workers); it subjected these to requirements similar to those for ' factories ' (but less onerous on a number of points e.g.: the hours within which the permitted hours might be worked were less restrictive, there was no requirement for certification of age) but was to be administered by local authorities, rather than the Factory Inspectorate. The textile operatives, besides being the first to benefit by factory laws, had by this time become a well - organised body outside their sphere, they had evolved a powerful and well disciplined trade union to represent their interests. The success of the agitation was shown by the passing of the Factory Act 1874 which took half - an - hour a day off textile factories alone, leaving all others still subject to the settlement of 1850. The Factory and Workshop Act 1878 (41 & 42 Vict. c. 16) brought all the previous Acts together in one consolidation. Under the heading Conditions of Employment were two considerable additions to previous legislation: the first is the prohibition on employers to employ women within four weeks after confinement (childbirth); the second the raising the minimum age at which a child can be set to work from ten to eleven The main article gives an overview of the state of Factory Act legislation in Edwardian Britain under the Factory and Workshop Acts 1878 to 1895 (the collective title of the Factory and Workshop Act 1878, the Factory and Workshop Act 1883, the Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1889, the Factory and Workshop Act 1891 and the Factory and Workshop Act 1895.) Minimum working age is raised to 12. The act also introduced legislation regarding education of children, meal times, and fire escapes. The 1937 Act (1 Edw. 8 & 1 Geo. 6 c. 67) consolidated and amended the Factory and Workshop Acts from 1901 to 1929. It was introduced to the House of Commons by the Home Secretary, Sir John Simon, on 29 January 1937 and given Royal Assent on 30 July. This Act consolidated the 1937 and 1959 Acts. As of 2008, the 1961 Act is substantially still in force, though workplace health and safety is principally governed by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 and regulations made under it.

will smith's dogs name in i am legend

I Am Legend (film) - Wikipedia I Am Legend is a 2007 American post-apocalyptic science fiction horror film based on the novel of the same name, directed by Francis Lawrence and starring Will Smith, who plays US Army virologist Robert Neville. The story is set in New York City after a virus, which was originally created to cure cancer, has wiped out most of mankind, leaving Neville as the last human in New York, other than nocturnal mutants. Neville is immune to the virus and he works to develop a cure while defending himself against the hostile mutants. Warner Bros. began developing I Am Legend in 1994, and various actors and directors were attached to the project, though production was delayed due to budgetary concerns related to the script. Production began in 2006 in New York City, filming mainly on location in the city, including a $5 million scene at the Brooklyn Bridge. It is the third feature - film adaptation of Richard Matheson 's 1954 I Am Legend novel, following 1964 's The Last Man on Earth and 1971 's The Omega Man. I Am Legend was released on December 14, 2007, in the United States and Canada, and opened to the largest ever box office (not adjusted for inflation) for a non-Christmas film released in the U.S. in December. The film was the seventh - highest grossing film of 2007, earning $256 million domestically and $329 million internationally, for a total of $585 million. In 2009, a genetically re-engineered measles virus, originally created as a cure for cancer, turns into a lethal strain which kills 94 % of those it infects, mutates 5 % into predatory, nocturnal and vampiric mutants called "Darkseekers '' who are extremely vulnerable to sunlight and other sources of UV, with only the remaining 1 % immune. Three years after the outbreak, US Army virologist Lieutenant Colonel Robert Neville (Will Smith) lives an isolated life in the deserted ruins of New York City, unsure if any other uninfected humans are left in the world. The effects of the virus vary in other species; animals that coexist with humans, like rats and domestic dogs, can be infected, but wild animals, like deer and lions, remain unaffected. The city has fallen into ruins and overgrown vegetation covers crumbling buildings; wild deer roam the streets while being preyed upon by lions that have escaped Central Park Zoo. Neville 's daily routine includes experimentation on infected rats to find a cure for the virus and trips through Manhattan to hunt for food and supplies. He also waits each day for a response to his continuous recorded radio broadcasts, which instruct any uninfected survivors to meet him at midday at the South Street Seaport. Flashbacks reveal that his wife (Salli Richardson) and daughter (Willow Smith) died in a helicopter accident during the chaotic evacuation of Manhattan, prior to the military - enforced quarantine of the island in 2009, in which Neville stays behind on the island as military personnel. Neville 's loneliness is mitigated by the companionship of his German Shepherd Samantha aka Sam (given to him by his daughter Marley as a puppy to protect him before she died in the helicopter crash), interaction with mannequins he has set up as patrons at a video store, and recordings of old television broadcasts. At night, he barricades himself and Sam inside his heavily fortified Washington Square Park home to hide from the Darkseekers. One day, while waiting for survivors, Sam follows a deer into a dark building. Neville cautiously goes in after her and finds the deer 's corpse along with Sam, but the building is infested by a colony of Darkseekers. Both manage to escape unharmed and the attacking Darkseekers are killed by the sunlight. Neville finds a promising treatment derived from his own blood, so he sets a snare trap and captures a female Darkseeker from the colony building, while a male Darkseeker (termed "Alpha Male '' in the script, and played by Dash Mihok) tries to go after them, but is blocked by the sunlight and returns to the shadows. Back in his laboratory in the basement of his house, Neville treats the female without success. The next day, he is ensnared in a trap similar to the one he used to capture the female; by the time he manages to escape, the sun is setting and he is attacked by infected dogs. Neville and Sam manage to kill them, but Sam is bitten in the fight. Neville brings Sam home and injects her with a strand of his serum, but when she shows signs of infection and tries to attack him, Neville is forced to strangle her to death. Heartbroken and driven over the edge by loneliness by his dog 's death, he ventures out and suicidally attacks a group of Darkseekers the next night. He kills a large number of Darkseekers but the rest overwhelm him and he is nearly killed, but is rescued by a pair of immune survivors, Anna (Alice Braga) and a young boy named Ethan (Charlie Tahan), who have traveled from Maryland after hearing one of his broadcasts. They take the injured Neville back to his home, where Anna explains that they survived the outbreak aboard a Red Cross evacuation ship from São Paulo and are making their way to a survivors ' camp in Bethel, Vermont. Neville angrily argues that no such survivors ' camp exists. Neville once again attempts to administer a potential cure to the infected woman in his laboratory, but the next night, a group of Darkseekers, who had followed Anna and Neville back the night before, attacks the house. Neville, Anna, and Ethan retreat into the basement laboratory, sealing themselves in with the female Darkseeker on which Neville has been experimenting. Discovering that the last treatment was successful, Neville tries to assess the situation as the alpha male deliberately rams himself against a glass door to break in. Neville draws a vial of blood from the woman he cured and gives it to Anna, before shutting her and Ethan inside a coal chute in the back of the lab. He then takes a grenade and kills the Darkseekers at the cost of his own life, saving the cure. The next day, before dusk, Anna and Ethan discover that her theory is right as they arrive at the survivors camp in Vermont. They are greeted by some military officers and other survivors and Anna is shown handing the cure to a man. The alpha male stops its attack on the glass door, making a butterfly - shaped smear on it. Neville realizes the alpha male is identifying the female upon which he was experimenting by a butterfly tattoo, and the Darkseekers simply want her back. Amazed that they have the intelligence to try and communicate to him, as he had previously believed the infected had lost all humanity, Neville puts his gun down and returns the female. After Neville wakes the female up, she cries upon seeing the alpha male and they rub heads. Neville softly apologizes, having realised that while the Darkseekers are no longer human, they still retain some of their humanity and emotions. The alpha male keeps the other Darkseekers back and orders them to leave. Shocked by the ordeal, Neville sits down for a moment in his laboratory, realizing that he was the monster in the Darkseekers ' eyes. Looking over the pictures of his numerous test subjects, the implications of his research methods begin to dawn on him, causing him to feel remorse and relief at the same time. The following day, Neville, Anna, and Ethan drive away from the city under a new broadcast, recorded by Anna, with a message to any human survivors that they "are not alone ''. The science - fiction horror genre reemerged in the late 1990s. In 1995, Warner Bros. began developing the film project, having owned the rights to Richard Matheson 's 1954 novel I Am Legend since 1970 and having already made the 1971 adaptation The Omega Man. Mark Protosevich was hired to write the script after the studio was impressed with his spec script of The Cell. Protosevich 's first draft took place in 2000 in San Francisco, and contained many similarities with the finished film, though the Darkseekers (called ' Hemocytes ') were civilized to the point of the creatures in The Omega Man and Anna was a lone morphine addict, as well as the fact that a Hemocyte character named Christopher joined forces with Neville. Warner Bros. immediately put the film on the fast track, attaching Neal H. Moritz as producer. Actors Tom Cruise, Michael Douglas, and Mel Gibson had been considered to star in the film, using a script by Protosevich and with Ridley Scott as director; however, by June 1997, the studio 's preference was for actor Arnold Schwarzenegger. In July, Scott and Schwarzenegger finalized negotiations, with production slated to begin the coming September, using Houston as a stand - in for the film 's setting of Los Angeles. Scott had Protosevich replaced by a screenwriter of his own choosing, John Logan, with whom he spent months of intensive work on a number of different drafts. The Scott / Logan version of I Am Legend was a mix of sci - fi and psychological thriller, without dialogue in the first hour and with a sombre ending. The creatures in Logan 's version were similar to the Darkseekers of the finished film in their animalistic, barbaric nature. The studio, fearing its lack of commercial appeal and merchandising potential, began to worry about the liberties they had given Scott -- then on a negative streak of box office disappointments -- and urged the production team to reconsider the lack of action in the screenplay. After an "esoteric '' draft by writer Neal Jimenez, Warner Bros. reassigned Protosevich to the project, reluctantly working with Scott again. In December 1997, the project was called into question when the projected budget escalated to $108 million due to media and shareholder scrutiny of the studio in financing a big - budget film. Scott rewrote the script in an attempt to reduce the film 's budget by $20 million, but in March 1998, the studio canceled the project due to continued budgetary concerns, and quite possibly to the box office disappointment of Scott 's last three films, 1492: Conquest of Paradise, White Squall, and G.I. Jane. Likewise, Schwarzenegger 's recent films at the time (Eraser and Warner Bros. own Batman & Robin) also underperformed, and the studio 's latest experiences with big budget sci - fi movies Sphere and The Postman were negative, as well. In August 1998, director Rob Bowman was attached to the project, with Protosevich hired to write a third all - new draft, far more action - oriented than his previous versions, but the director (who reportedly wished for Nicolas Cage to play the lead) moved on to direct Reign of Fire and the project did not get off the ground. In March 2002, Schwarzenegger became the producer of I Am Legend, commencing negotiations with Michael Bay to direct and Will Smith to star in the film. Bay and Smith were attracted to the project based on a redraft that would reduce its budget. However, the project was shelved due to Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn 's dislike of the script. In 2004, Akiva Goldsman was asked by head of production Jeff Robinov to produce the film. In September 2005, director Francis Lawrence signed on to helm the project, with production slated to begin in 2006. Guillermo del Toro was originally approached to direct by Smith, but turned it down to direct Hellboy II: The Golden Army. Lawrence, whose film Constantine was produced by Goldsman, was fascinated by empty urban environments. He said, "Something 's always really excited me about that... to have experienced that much loss, to be without people or any kind of social interaction for that long. '' Goldsman took on the project as he admired the second I Am Legend film adaptation, The Omega Man. A rewrite was done to distance the project from the other zombie films inspired by the novel, as well as from the recently released 28 Days Later, although Goldsman was inspired by the scenes of a deserted London in the British horror film to create the scenes of a deserted New York City. A 40 - page scene - by - scene outline of the film was developed by May 2006. When delays occurred on Smith 's film Hancock, which was scheduled for 2007, it was proposed to switch the actor 's films. This meant filming would have to begin in 16 weeks: production was given a green light, using Goldsman 's script and the outline. Elements from Protosevich 's script were introduced, while the crew consulted with experts on infectious diseases and solitary confinement. Rewrites continued throughout filming, because of Smith 's improvisational skills and Lawrence 's preference to keep various scenes silent. The director had watched Jane Campion 's film The Piano with a low volume so as to not disturb his newborn son, and realized that silence could be very effective cinema. Will Smith signed on to play Robert Neville in April 2006. He said he took on I Am Legend because he felt it could be like "Gladiator (or) Forrest Gump -- these are movies with wonderful, audience - pleasing elements, but also uncompromised artistic value. (This) always felt like it had those possibilities to me. '' The actor found Neville to be his toughest acting challenge since portraying Muhammad Ali in Ali (2001). He said that "when you 're on your own, it is kind of hard to find conflict. '' The film 's dark tone and exploration of whether Neville has gone insane during his isolation meant Smith had to restrain himself from falling into a humorous routine during takes. To prepare for his role, Smith visited the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Georgia. He also met with a person who had been in solitary confinement and a former prisoner of war. Smith compared Neville to Job, who lost his children, livelihood, and health. Like the Book of Job, I Am Legend studies the questions, "Can he find a reason to continue? Can he find the hope or desire to excel and advance in life? Or does the death of everything around him create imminent death for himself? '' He also cited an influence in Tom Hanks ' performance in Cast Away (2000). Abbey and Kona, both three - year - old German Shepherd dogs, played Neville 's dog Sam. The rest of the supporting cast consists of Salli Richardson as Zoe, Robert 's wife, and Alice Braga as a survivor named Anna. Willow Smith, Will Smith 's daughter, makes her film debut as Marley, Neville 's daughter. Emma Thompson has an uncredited role as Dr. Alice Krippin, who appears on television explaining her vaccine for cancer that mutates into the virus. Singer Mike Patton provided the guttural screams of the infected "hemocytes '', and Dash Mihok provided the character animation for the infected "alpha male ''. Several filler characters with uncredited roles were in old news broadcasts and flashbacks, such as the unnamed President 's voice (Pat Fraley), and the cast of The Today Show. Akiva Goldsman decided to move the story from Los Angeles to New York City to take advantage of locations that would more easily show emptiness. Goldsman explained, "L.A. looks empty at three o'clock in the afternoon, (but) New York is never empty... it was a much more interesting way of showing the windswept emptiness of the world. '' Warner Bros. initially rejected this idea because of the logistics, but Francis Lawrence was determined to shoot on location, to give the film a natural feel that would benefit from not shooting on soundstages. Lawrence went to the city with a camcorder, and filmed areas filled with crowds. Then, a special effects test was conducted to remove all those people. The test had a powerful effect on studio executives. Michael Tadross convinced authorities to close busy areas such as the Grand Central Terminal viaduct, several blocks of Fifth Avenue, and Washington Square Park. The film was shot primarily in the anamorphic format, with flashback scenes shot in Super 35. Filming began on September 23, 2006. The Marcy Avenue Armory in Williamsburg was used for the interior of Neville 's home, while Greenwich Village was used for the exterior. Other locations include the Tribeca section of lower Manhattan, the aircraft carrier Intrepid, the Kingsbridge Armory in the Bronx, and St. Patrick 's Cathedral. Weeds were imported from Florida and were strewn across locations to make the city look like it had been overgrown with them. The closure of major streets was controversial with New Yorkers. Will Smith said, "I do n't think anyone 's going to be able to do that in New York again anytime soon. People were not happy. That 's the most middle fingers I 've ever gotten in my career. '' A bridge scene was filmed for six consecutive nights in January on the Brooklyn Bridge to serve as a flashback scene in which New York 's citizens evacuate the city. Shooting the scene consumed $5 million of the film 's reported $150 million budget, which was likely the most expensive shoot in the city to date. The scene, which had to meet requirements from 14 government agencies, involved 250 crew members and 1,000 extras, including 160 National Guard members. Also present were several Humvees, three Strykers, a 110 - foot (34 m) cutter, a 41 - foot (12 m) utility boat, and two 25 - foot (7.6 m) response boat small craft, as well as other vehicles including taxis, police cars, fire trucks, and ambulances. Filming concluded on March 31, 2007. Computer - generated imagery (CGI) was used to depict the main spans of the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge collapsing as missiles from passing military jets blew them up to quarantine Manhattan island. Reshoots were conducted around November 2007. Lawrence noted, "We were n't seeing fully rendered shots until about a month ago. The movie starts to take on a whole other life. It 's not until later that you can judge a movie as a whole and go, ' Huh, maybe we should shoot this little piece in the middle, or tweak this a little bit. ' It just so happened that our re-shoots revolved around the end of the movie. '' A week into filming, Francis felt the infected (referred to as "Darkseekers '' or "hemocytes '' in the script), who were being portrayed by actors wearing prosthetics, were not convincing. His decision to use CGI resulted in an increased budget and extended post-production, although the end results were not always well received. The concept behind the infected was that their adrenal glands were open all of the time and Lawrence explained, "They needed to have an abandon in their performance that you just ca n't get out of people in the middle of the night when they 're barefoot. And their metabolisms are really spiked, so they 're constantly hyperventilating, which you ca n't really get actors to do for a long time or they pass out. '' The actors remained on set to provide motion capture. "The film 's producers and sound people wanted the creatures in the movie to sound somewhat human, but not the standard '', so Mike Patton, lead singer of Faith No More, was engaged to provide the screams and howls of the infected. In addition, CGI was used for the lions and deer in the film, and to erase pedestrians in shots of New York. Workers visible in windows, spectators, and moving cars in the distance were all removed. In his vision of an empty New York, Lawrence cited John Ford as his influence: "We did n't want to make an apocalyptic movie where the landscape felt apocalyptic. A lot of the movie takes place on a beautiful day. There 's something magical about the empty city as opposed to dark and scary that was the ideal that the cast and crew wanted. '' I Am Legend was originally slated for a November 21, 2007, release in the United States and Canada, but was delayed to December 14. The film opened on December 26, 2007, in the United Kingdom, and Ireland, having been originally scheduled for January 4, 2008. In December 2007, China temporarily suspended the release of all American films in the country, which is believed to have delayed the release of I Am Legend. Will Smith spoke to the chairman of China Film Group about securing a release date, later explaining, "We struggled very, very hard to try to get it to work out, but there are only a certain amount of foreign films that are allowed in. '' Premieres were held in Tokyo, New York, and London. At the London premiere in Leicester Square, British comedian and actor Neg Dupree was arrested after pushing his way onto the red carpet and running around shouting "I am Negend! ''. The stunt was part of his "Neg 's Urban Sports '' section of comedy game show Balls of Steel. A tie - in comic from DC Comics and Vertigo Comics has been created, I Am Legend: Awakening. The project draws upon collaboration from Bill Sienkiewicz, screenwriter Mark Protosevich, and author Orson Scott Card. The son of the original book 's author, Richard Christian Matheson, also collaborated on the project. The project will advance from the comic to an online format in which animated featurettes (created by the team from Broken Saints) will be shown on the official website. In October 2007, Warner Bros. Pictures, in conjunction with the Electric Sheep Company, launched the online multiplayer game I Am Legend: Survival in the virtual world Second Life. The game is the largest launched in the virtual world in support of a film release, permitting people to play against each other as the infected or the uninfected across a replicated 60 acres (240,000 m) of New York City. The studio also hired the ad agency Crew Creative to develop a website that would be specifically viewable on the iPhone. I Am Legend grossed $77,211,321 on its opening weekend in 3,606 theaters, averaging $21,412 per venue, and placing it at the top of the box office. This set a record for highest - grossing opening for a film for December. The film grossed $256,393,010 in North America and a total of $585,349,010 worldwide. The film was the sixth - highest grossing film of 2007 in North America, and as of April 2014, it remained among the top 100 all - time highest - grossing films both domestically and worldwide (unadjusted for ticket price inflation). The film was released on DVD on March 18, 2008, in two editions: a one - disc release, including the movie with four animated comics ("Death As a Gift '', "Isolation '', "Sacrificing the Few for the Many '', and "Shelter ''), and other DVD - ROM features, and a two - disc special edition that includes all these extras, an alternative theatrical version of the movie with an alternate ending, and a digital copy of the film. On the high - definition end, the movie has been released on the Blu - ray Disc format and HD DVD format along with the DVD release, with the HD - DVD version being released later on April 8, 2008. Both HD releases include all the features available in the two - disc DVD edition. A three - disk Ultimate Collector 's Edition was also released on December 9, 2008. The film has sold 7.04 million DVDs and earned $126.2 million in revenue, making it the sixth - best - selling DVD of 2008. However, Warner Bros. was reportedly "a little disappointed '' with the film 's performance on the DVD market. The soundtrack for I Am Legend was released on January 15, 2008, under the record label Varèse Sarabande. The music was composed by James Newton Howard. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film had an approval rating of 70 % based on 207 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "I Am Legend overcomes questionable special effects and succeeds largely on the strength of Will Smith 's mesmerizing performance. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a rating to reviews, the film has an average score of 65 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. A.O. Scott wrote that Will Smith gave a "graceful and effortless performance '' and also noted the "third - act collapse ''. He felt that the movie "does ponder some pretty deep questions about the collapse and persistence of human civilization ''. Dana Stevens of Slate wrote that the movie lost its way around the hour mark, noting that "the Infected just are n't that scary. '' NPR critic Bob Mondello noted the film 's subtext concerning global terrorism and that this aspect made the film fit in perfectly with other, more direct cinematic explorations of the subject. Richard Roeper gave the film a positive review on the television program At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper, commending Will Smith as being in "prime form '', also saying there are "some amazing sequences '' and that there was "a pretty heavy screenplay for an action film. '' The film has been criticized for diverging from Matheson 's novel, especially in its portrayal of a specifically Christian theme. Much of the negative criticism concerned the film 's third act, with some critics favoring the alternative ending in the DVD release. Doug Walker said the alternate ending was "thought provoking '', and the theatrical ending was "a betrayal '' and "castration ''. Popular Mechanics published an article on December 14, 2007, addressing some of the scientific issues raised by the film: The magazine solicited reactions from Alan Weisman, author of The World Without Us, virologist W. Ian Lipkin, MD, and Michel Bruneau, PhD, comparing their predictions with the film 's depictions. The article raised the most questions regarding the virus ' mutation and the medical results, and pointed out that a suspension bridge like the Brooklyn Bridge would likely completely collapse rather than losing only its middle span. Neville 's method of producing power using gasoline - powered generators seemed the most credible: "This part of the tale is possible, if not entirely likely, '' Popular Mechanics editor Roy Berendsohn says. Philosopher Slavoj Zizek criticized the film politically as being the most regressive adaptation from the novel. He said that while the original novel had a progressive multicultural message where Neville became a "legend '' to the new creatures and is subsequently killed by them (much like vampires were legends to humans), the 2007 film finds a cure for the Darkseekers and it is delivered by a survivor through apparent divine intervention. According to Zizek, this misses the original message and "openly opt (s) for religious fundamentalism. '' I Am Legend earned four nominations for the Visual Effects Society awards, and was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, Outstanding Film and Actor at the Image Awards, and Best Sound at the Satellite Awards. In June 2008, Will Smith won a Saturn Award for Best Actor. Will Smith also won the MTV Movie Awards for Best Male Performance. Director Francis Lawrence said in 2008 that there would be a prequel and that Will Smith would be reprising his role. The plot of the film would reveal what happened to Neville before the infected took over New York. D.B. Weiss was hired to write the script, while Lawrence was in negotiations to return as director on the contingent that the story was interesting enough. Smith later discussed the premise, which would have his character and a team going from New York City to Washington, D.C., as they made their last stand against those infected with the virus. The film would again explore the premise of what it is like to be alone. Lawrence stated, "... the tough thing is, how do we do that again and in a different way? '' In May 2011, Francis Lawrence stated that the prequel was no longer in development saying, "I do n't think that 's ever going to happen. '' In 2012, Warner Bros. announced that negotiations had been made to produce another installment, with the intention of having Will Smith reprise his role. In April 2014, the studio attained a script entitled A Garden at the End of the World, described as a post-apocalyptic variation of The Searchers. Studio executives found so many similarities to I Am Legend in the screenplay, they had the writer Gary Graham rewrite it so it could serve as the next film. Serving as a reboot of the story, the studio hopes to create a franchise of films. Will Smith, who is known for his reluctance to appear in sequels, has not commented on whether he will appear or not.

the mountain from game of thrones real name

Hafþór Júlíus Bjornsson - Wikipedia Hafþór Júlíus "Thor '' Björnsson (Icelandic pronunciation: ​ (ˈhafθour ˈjuːliʏs ˈpjœsːɔn); born November 26, 1988) is an Icelandic professional strongman, actor, and former professional basketball player. He plays Ser Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane in the HBO series Game of Thrones. Hafþór began his sports career as a basketball player. At 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) he started his senior team career with Division I club Breiðablik in 2004. In 2005 he joined FSu Selfoss in the Icelandic Division I. After 10 games it was discovered that he had been playing with a broken bone in his ankle and would require surgery. After recovering from surgery, Hafþór moved to Úrvalsdeild powerhouse KR in 2006. He missed most of the 2006 - 2007 season after a screw in his ankle shattered and had to be fixed by another surgery. For the 2007 -- 2008 season, he moved back to play for FSu Selfoss. For the season he averaged 6.7 points on 63.8 % shooting, helping the team achieve promotion to the Úrvalsdeild. The troublesome ankle forced him to retire from basketball after the season at the age of 20. Between 2004 and 2006 Hafþór played 32 games for the Icelandic junior national basketball teams. In 2006 he played 8 games with Iceland 's U-18 national team in Division A of the U18 European Championship. Hafþór met Icelandic strongman Magnús Ver Magnússon at his gym "Jakaból '' in 2008, and Magnús said that Hafþór seemed a good prospect as a strongman. Hafþór won several strongman contests in Iceland in 2010 including Strongest Man in Iceland, Iceland 's Strongest Viking, Westfjords Viking, and five of six events at the OK Badur Strongman Championships. Hafþór finished in second place at the inaugural Jón Páll Sigmarsson Classic in November 2010, behind Brian Shaw. He won the 2011 Strongest Man in Iceland contest on June 4, 2011, and the 2011 Iceland 's Strongest Man contest on June 18, 2011. Hafþór came fourth in the Giants Live Poland 2011 event on August 6, 2011. Hafþór beat a 1,000 - year - old record set by Orm Storolfsson at the World 's Strongest Viking competition in Norway, where he carried a 10 - metre - long (33 ft), 650 - kilogram (1,430 lb) log for five steps. Hafþór took part in World 's Strongest Man after earning a wild card invitation to the 2011 contest. He came in sixth overall. Taking part again in ensuing years, he placed third in 2012, 2013 and 2015. He finished runner - up in 2014 event to Žydrūnas Savickas and again in the 2016 event to Brian Shaw. In 2017, Hafþór once again was runner up, this time to Eddie Hall. On March 3, 2018, Hafþór made history and broke the Elephant Bar deadlift world record with his successful 472 kg (1,041 lb) third attempt, as well as ranking 1st at the Arnold Strongman Classic 2018. The previous Elephant Bar deadlift world record was held by Jerry Pritchett at 467 kg (1,030 lb), which was set last year at the Arnold Strongman Classic 2017. Hafþór was cast as Ser Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane for the fourth season of the HBO series Game of Thrones in August 2013. This was his first main acting role, and he is the third person to depict the character after Conan Stevens played the role in season 1 and Ian Whyte in season 2. He became the first actor to portray Clegane in more than one continuous season with his appearances in season 4, season 5, season 6 and season 7. Hafþór was cast for the role of Mongkut in the 2017 film Kickboxer: Retaliation. Hafþór played the lead role in the Philadelphia Renaissance Faire during their debut season in 2015. He appeared as "King Thor, '' the leader of a Viking raiding party intent on capturing the city of Amman. Hafþór was born in Reykjavík. His father, Björn, is over 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m) in height and his mother, Ragnheiður, is of similar stature. Hafþór 's grandfather, Reynir, is nearly as tall as Hafþór and "just as broad across the chest ''. Reynir recalled in 2014 that Hafþór worked on the family farm outside Reykjavík as a child and "was always big, even when he was n't tall ''. In March 2017, Hafþór was diagnosed with Bell 's palsy. In 2016, Hafþór co-founded the spirit brand Icelandic Mountain Vodka. The main focus of the company is a seven - time distilled icelandic vodka, as well as having a gin production.

how far is marion indiana from anderson indiana

Marion, Indiana - wikipedia Marion is a city in Grant County, Indiana, United States. The population was 29,948 as of the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of Grant County. It is named for Francis Marion, a Brigadier General from South Carolina in the American Revolutionary War. The city is the home of Indiana Wesleyan University, the largest evangelical Christian university in the Midwest and largest private university in Indiana -- if including online and regional campuses in Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and Illinois. The traditional campus enrolls approximately 2800 students. Since 2016, Jess Alumbaugh has been Marion 's mayor. Marion is also noted for being the birthplace of actor James Dean, and cartoonist Jim Davis, though James Dean and Jim Davis were raised in nearby Fairmount. It was also the location of the wedding of actress Julia Roberts and singer Lyle Lovett in 1993. The city is also the site of the infamous lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith. Marion is located along the Mississinewa River. According to the 2010 census, Marion has a total area of 15.794 square miles (40.91 km), of which 15.71 square miles (40.69 km) (or 99.47 %) is land and 0.084 square miles (0.22 km) (or 0.53 %) is water. As of the census of 2010, there were 29,948 people, 11,828 households, and 6,739 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,906.3 inhabitants per square mile (736.0 / km). There were 13,715 housing units at an average density of 873.0 per square mile (337.1 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 78.1 % White, 14.7 % African American, 0.4 % Native American, 0.7 % Asian, 2.4 % from other races, and 3.6 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.5 % of the population. There were 11,828 households of which 27.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.2 % were married couples living together, 17.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.0 % were non-families. 36.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.91. The median age in the city was 36.2 years. 21.1 % of residents were under the age of 18; 16.3 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.1 % were from 25 to 44; 24.5 % were from 45 to 64; and 16 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.0 % male and 53.0 % female. As of the census of 2000, there are 31,320 people. The population density is 2,355.5 people per square mile (909.2 / km2). There are 13,820 housing units at an average density of 1,039.4 per square mile (401.2 / km2). The racial makeup of the city is 79.64 % White, 15.57 % African American, 0.47 % Native American, 0.68 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 1.43 % from other races, and 2.18 % from two or more races. 3.60 % of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 12,462 households out of which 27.3 % have children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.1 % are married couples living together, 14.7 % have a female householder with no husband present, and 38.8 % are non-families. 33.8 % of all households are made up of individuals and 14.2 % have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.91. In the city, the population is spread out with 23.3 % under the age of 18, 12.5 % from 18 to 24, 26.0 % from 25 to 44, 21.3 % from 45 to 64, and 17.0 % who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females, there are 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 84.1 males. The median income for a household in the city is $30,440, and the median income for a family is $37,717. Males have a median income of $30,258 versus $23,467 for females. The per capita income for the city is $16,378. 16.9 % of the population and 12.6 % of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 23.8 % of those under the age of 18 and 11.3 % of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. The Battle of the Mississinewa was fought in December 1812, just north of the current city of Marion, as an expeditionary force sent by William Henry Harrison against the Miami villages. Today, the battle is reenacted every fall by residents of Grant County and many reenactors and enthusiasts from throughout the United States and Canada during the annual "Mississinewa 1812 '' festival, the largest War of 1812 reenactment in the United States. The Grant County Jail and Sheriff 's Residence, Abijah C. Jay House, Marion Branch, National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers Historic District, Marion Downtown Commercial Historic District, Aaron Swayzee House, George, Jr. and Marie Daugherty Webster House, and J. Woodrow Wilson House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. When Martin Boots and David Branson each donated 30 acres (120,000 m) of land in 1831 for the site of Marion, they chose a location on the left bank of the swift, scenic river which the Miami Indians had named "Mississinewa, '' meaning "Falling water. '' So rapid had been the tide of settlement that it followed by only 19 years the Battle of Mississinewa, 7 miles (11 km) downstream, where U.S. troops and Indians had fought a bloody, pre-dawn encounter in 1812. With the formation of Grant County in 1831, Marion was established as the county seat and its future was assured. The river provided water supply, power, and drainage and it bequeathed a natural beauty as it flowed at the base of hills that marched away on either side. Along with at least 36 other communities in the U.S., Marion was named for the Revolutionary War General Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox '' of South Carolina. Marion grew slowly for more than 50 years as an agricultural trading center supported by a sprinkling of small farm - and forest - related industries. Native Americans were a common sight as they wandered in from Indiana 's last reservation, with its Indian school, Baptist Church, and cemetery, 8 miles (13 km) away. In the 1880s, fields of natural gas were discovered across much of east - central Indiana, and Grant County began to grow at a dizzying pace. Gas City and Matthews were carved out of raw farmland and launched as speculative boom towns, each absorbing existing tiny villages. They attracted several thousand residents before the gas failed and most industries left. As late as the 1940s, Matthews resembled a Western ghost town, before it attracted eleven glass factories and seduced the professional baseball team away from Indianapolis. Grant County 's only covered bridge remains there as a link to the past. However, the gas boom left its legacy. A few industries remained, particularly glass manufacturers. On July 23, 1888, with increasing membership amongst the six National Homes for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers (NHDVS) National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, Congress established the seventh of ten National Homes in Grant County, Indiana to be known as the Marion Branch. Congress allotted an appropriation of $200,000, while Grant County residents provided a natural gas supply for the heating and lighting of this new facility. Marion was selected as a site for the new branch due to the availability of natural gas and the political activities of Colonel George W. Steele, Sr, the 11th Congressional Representative from 1880 to 1890. The Marion Branch Historic District is located at the intersection of 38th Street and Lincoln Boulevard, approximately 21⁄2 miles southeast of the city center of Marion. The boundaries are 38th Street on the north, the railroad right of way on the east, the Mississinewa River on the southeast, Chambers Park on the south and southeast, and Lincoln Boulevard to the west. The 212 - acre (0.86 km) site is roughly square in form with diagonal boundary lines on the southeast and the southwest eliminating those corners of the square. Originally, farming operations on the Home grounds included the area that is now Chambers Park. In 1981, a Determination of Eligibility for the National Register of Historic Places for Federal Properties was made under Criteria A and C. As a result, since 1981, various projects have been reviewed by the Indiana State Preservation Office for compliance under Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. In 1992, the historic district was surveyed by the Indiana Department of Natural Resources as a component of the Grant County inventory of historic sites and structures. This facility is now a part of VA Northern Indiana Health Care System, a dual campus facility associated with the former VA Medical Center Fort Wayne. Unfortunately, the original treatment hospital built in 1889, the greenhouse and cadet quarters are scheduled for demolition. There has been a lack of public interest in restoring these building to their original splendor and as they are currently a hazard for Veterans, the Department has no choice but to destroy these buildings. A lynching occurred in Marion on August 7, 1930. A large mob estimated at 2,000 gathered at the county jail where three young black men were held on charges of killing a white man and raping his girlfriend. Before they could be tried, the three, Thomas Shipp, Abram Smith, and James Cameron, were dragged from the jail and severely beaten. Shipp and Smith were hanged, but Cameron was released when an unidentified man claimed that he had nothing to do with the crimes. In 1931 he was convicted as an accessory to murder and served four years before being paroled. James Cameron went on to serve as the Indiana State Director of Civil Liberties from 1942 to 1950 and founded three local chapters of the NAACP. He served as the first president of the Madison County, Indiana chapter. In 1988 he founded America 's Black Holocaust Museum in Milwaukee to preserve the history of African Americans who had faced the terror and violence of lynching. In 1993, James Cameron received an official apology and a full pardon from the state of Indiana. Cameron later said, "Since the state of Indiana forgave me, I forgive the state of Indiana. '' In 2005, the U.S. Senate also officially apologized to Cameron and others. The event in Marion was notable as the last confirmed lynching of blacks in the Northern United States. Marion 's prosperity plateaued between the end of the gas boom, just prior to World War I, and 1955, when General Motors located a stamping and tool plant there. A new era launched overnight, raising the sights of local residents who migrated to the city in unprecedented numbers with thoughts of a vastly expanded community potential. Except for bedroom communities near metropolitan centers, Marion 's growth during the 1950s exceeded all but one Indiana city with populations of 10,000 - 100,000. One of Marion 's more notable architectural landmarks is the extensive Marion High School campus, which includes an impressive 1,468 seat community auditorium. This is where the Marion Philharmonic Orchestra, the Community School for the Arts, and the Mississinewa Valley Community Band provide musical and dramatic entertainment for Marion 's numerous arts patrons. The city has a lending library, the Marion Public Library. The eight - time state basketball champions, Marion Giants, play in the 7,500 seat Bill Green Athletic Arena. The city operates a 2.75 - mile (4.43 km) Riverwalk from downtown to Matter Park, and there is a newly renovated $9,000,000 YMCA Memorial Coliseum to honor war veterans. This was the previous home of the Giants, which was built after their first State Basketball Title in 1926. A publicly owned mansion, the Hostess House, is used for social functions, and Marion General Hospital has been nationally accredited for approximately a half - century. Marion General was recently named a Magnet hospital. Fewer than 5 % of all hospitals earn this honor. With more than 15,000 students, Indiana Wesleyan University is the fastest - growing university in Indiana and currently the largest private university in the state. The university 's main campus in Marion is home to more than 3,200 undergraduates and nearly 1,000 postgraduates. IWU has one of the largest adult education programs in the Midwest, and dozens of adult learning campuses are located throughout Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky. Indiana Wesleyan University 's 345 - acre (1.40 km) Marion campus has won numerous architectural awards, and the university has spent nearly $250 million in the past 20 years on campus facilities. The university 's award - winning, 1,200 seat, Phillippe Performing Arts Center is used for numerous community events throughout the year, such as Marion Philharmonic Orchestra concerts and the Grant County Spelling Bee. Indiana Wesleyan 's $22 million Chapel, which opened in January 2010, seats 3,800 and is one of the largest auditoriums in the Midwest. As one of the largest facilities of its kind in the nation, it was designed to attract major events to Marion, such as famous musical artists, renowned speakers, and national conventions. A few months after opening, the IWU Chapel was the site of a concert by the internationally recognized band, Switchfoot. The university is currently the largest single employer in the city of Marion and contributes over $1 million annually towards the local economy. Marion 's manufacturing sector produces automotive components, paper products, foundry products, machinery, wire, and cable. The paper plate industry was born in Marion; in its infancy, five of the nation 's nine plants were located in the city. The area surrounding Marion is part of the Corn Belt; as such, agriculture remains a significant component of the region 's economy. Corn, soybean, and hog production are supplemented by specialty crops such as tomatoes. Thomson SA 's Marion facility was shuttered in 2004, leaving the city in an economic slump. On June 13, 2007, the Thomson building 's northern portion was destroyed by a fire. Other Marion plant closures in the past few decades include those of Ball - Foster, SCM (later Ampad) Paper Company, and the Malleable Iron Works (both on the far west side along Miller Avenue). The city has made inroads in attracting new businesses in the mid to late 2000s, however. Marion has been the only Midwest community selected as one of the Top 100 Micro-Enterprises for Economic Development by Site Selection Magazine for the years 2007 and 2008. TriEnda Plastics LLC selection of Marion in 2008 was one of the top 5 Manufacturing Projects in Indiana and received the coveted Silver Shovel award from Area Development Magazine. By spring 2011, TriEnda has ceased production. In the last ten years over $1,113,000 has been invested by private sector employers in Marion (source local newspaper). Christmas City U.S.A. is a local non-profit organization promoting the Christmas season in Marion and Grant County. It organizes and sponsors the Annual Christmas Parade each year the Saturday before Thanksgiving to kick off the Holiday season. It all began in 1965 when the organization had a vision to expand the holiday season beyond the traditional cards and private parties. Directors wanted to foster human relations among residents of all ages and public relations toward nonresidents. In 1970, Christmas City and the Chamber of Commerce joined forces to promote a new look for the city. Postcards, bumper stickers, billboards were designed to establish the city as Christmas City U.S.A. The name was even trademarked to preserve the city 's identity. In 1991, Mayor Ron Mowery, Mark Erlewine, and a group of interested citizens decided to make Marion live up to its name. By combining the Mississinewa Riverwalk -- the 2.25 mile walkway which is used year around for jogging, walking and more -- and holiday lights and lighted displays, the Christmas City Walkway of Lights was established in 1992. The first year, the walkway was home to nearly 56,000 lights and lighted displays; the walkway has grown to include more than 2,000,000 lights and is nearly 4 miles long. The Marion Municipal Airport is located three nautical miles (4 mi, 6 km) southwest of Marion 's central business district. Bold indicates county of 100,000 +

rose of no man's land sailor jerry

The rose of No Man 's Land - wikipedia "The Rose of No Man 's Land '' (or in French "La rose sous les boulets '') is a song written as a tribute to the Red Cross nurses at the front lines of the First World War. Music publisher Leo Feist published a version in 1918 as "La rose sous les boulets '', with French lyrics by Louis Delamarre (in a "patriotic '' format -- four pages at 7 by 10 inches, to conserve paper). A version with English lyrics by Jack Caddigan and James Alexander Brennan was published by Jack Mendelsohn Music in 1945 (two pages). Herman Darewski and others also published versions in 1918 and 1945. While the main published versions were for piano and voice, other versions were arranged for band, orchestra or male quartette. Mechanicals for the phonograph and player piano were also released. Written by Jack Caddigan and James Alexander Brennan: I 've seen some beautiful flowers, Grow in life 's garden fair, I 've spent some wonderful hours, Lost in their fragrance rare; But I have found another, Wondrous beyond compare. There 's a rose that grows on "No Man 's Land '' And it 's wonderful to see, Tho ' its spray 'd with tears, it will live for years, In my garden of memory. It 's the one red rose the soldier knows, It 's the work of the Master 's hand; Mid the War 's great curse, Stands the Red Cross Nurse, She 's the rose of "No Man 's Land ''. Out of the heavenly splendour, Down to the trail of woe, God in his mercy has sent her, Cheering the world below; We call her "Rose of Heaven '', We 've learned to love her so. There 's a rose that grows on "No Man 's Land '' And it 's wonderful to see, Tho ' its spray 'd with tears, it will live for years, In my garden of memory. It 's the one red rose the soldier knows, It 's the work of the Master 's hand; Mid the War 's great curse, Stands the Red Cross Nurse, She 's the rose of "No Man 's Land ''. Written by Louis Delamarre: J'ai vu bien des fleurs s'empourprer, Au jardin de la vie. Et souvent j'aime à m'enivrer De leur senteur bénie. J'en sais une au pur éclat, Sans rival ici - bas. La rose fleurit sous les Boulets, En avant du front elle est De pleurs arrosée Pour bien des années. Dans nos coeurs elle restera, La rose rouge amour du soldat. Dans cette enceinte où rien ne bouge, L'ombre qui parait, Portant la Croix Rouge, C'est la Roses des Boulets. In Jacqueline Winspear 's novel "Maisie Dobbs '', the title character sings this song to a group of badly disfigured veterans of World War I in England.

who is regarded as the finest stringed instrument builder of all time

Antonio Stradivari - wikipedia Antonio Stradivari Italian pronunciation: (anˈtɔːnjo stradiˈvaːri); (1644 -- December 18, 1737) was an Italian luthier and a crafter of string instruments such as violins, cellos, guitars, violas and harps. Stradivari is generally considered the most significant and greatest artisan in this field. The Latinized form of his surname, Stradivarius, as well as the colloquial "Strad '' are terms often used to refer to his instruments. It is estimated that Stradivari produced 1,116 instruments, 960 of which were violins. Around 650 instruments survived, including 450 to 512 violins. Antonio Stradivari 's birthdate, presumably between 1644 and 1649, has been debated amongst historians due to the numerous inconsistencies in the evidence of the latter. The 1668 and 1678 censuses report him actually growing younger, a fact explained by the probable loss of statistics from 1647 -- 49, when renewed belligerency between France 's Modenese and Spain 's Milanese proxies led to a flow of refugees that included Stradivari 's mother. Stradivari 's ancestry consisted of notable citizens of Cremona, dating back to at least the 12th or 13th century. The earliest mention of the family name, or a variation upon it, is in a land grant dating from 1188. The origin of the name itself has several possible explanations; some sources say it is the plural of Stradivare, essentially meaning "toll - man '' in Lombard, while others say that the form "de Strataverta '' derives from Strada averta, which, in Cremonese dialect means "open road. '' Antonio 's parents were Alessandro Stradivari, son of Giulio Cesare Stradivari, and Anna Moroni, daughter of Leonardo Moroni. They married on 30 August 1622, and had at least three children between 1623 and 1628: Giuseppe Giulia Cesare, Carlo Felice, and Giovanni Battista. The baptismal records of the parish of S. Prospero then stop, and it is unknown whether they had any children from 1628 to 1644. This blank in the records may be due to the family leaving Cremona in response to war, famine, and plague in the city from 1628 to 1630, or the records may have been lost due to clerical reforms imposed by Joseph II of Austria in 1788. The latter explanation is supported by the word Cremonensis (of Cremona) on many of Stradivari 's labels, which suggests that he was born in the city instead of merely moving back there to work. Antonio was born in 1644, a fact deducible from later violins. However, there are no records or information available on his early childhood, and the first evidence of his presence in Cremona is the label of his oldest surviving violin from 1666. Stradivari likely began an apprenticeship with Nicola Amati between the ages of 12 and 14, although a minor debate surrounds this fact. One of the few pieces of evidence supporting this is the label of his 1666 violin, which reads, Alumnus Nicolai Amati, faciebat anno 1666. However, Stradivari did not repeatedly put Amati 's name on his labels, unlike many of his other students. Stradivari 's early violins actually bear less resemblance to those of Amati than his later instruments do. M. Chanot - Chardon, a well - known French luthier, asserted that his father had a label of Stradivari 's stating, "Made at the age of thirteen, in the workshop of Nicolò Amati ''. This label has never been found or confirmed. Amati would also have been a logical choice for Antonio 's parents, as he represented an old family of violin makers in Cremona, and was far superior to most other luthiers in Italy. An alternative theory is that Stradivari started out as a woodworker: the house he lived in from 1667 to 1680 was owned by Francesco Pescaroli, a woodcarver and inlayer. Stradivari may even have been employed to decorate some of Amati 's instruments, without being a true apprentice. This theory is supported by some of Stradivari 's later violins, which have elaborate decorations and purfling. Assuming that Stradivari was a student of Amati, he would have begun his apprenticeship in 1656 -- 58 and produced his first decent instruments in 1660, at the age of 16. His first labels were printed from 1660 to 1665, which indicates that his work had sufficient quality to be offered directly to his patrons. However, he probably stayed in Amati 's workshop until about 1684, using his master 's reputation as a launching point for his career. Stradivari married his first wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, on 4 July 1667. Francesca was the young widow of the burgher Giacomo Capra, with whom she had two children. Francesca 's brother had shot Giacomo with a crossbow on the Piazza Garibaldi (formerly the Piazza Santa Agata) in 1664. He was later exiled, though allowed to return to Cremona many years later. After their marriage, Stradivari moved into a house known as the Casa del Pescatore, or the Casa Nuziale, in his wife 's parish. A clue to how they would have met lies in the 1659 Easter census, which lists the Ferraboschi family four houses away from the Amati residence. The couple had a daughter, Giulia Maria, three to four months later. They remained in the house until 1680, during which time they had four more children: Catterina, Francesco, Alessandro, and Omobono Stradivari, as well as an infant son who lived for only a week. It is to be noted that an age difference of four to nine years was uncommon between wedded couples at the time. Stradivari purchased a house now known as No. 1 Piazza Roma (formerly No. 2 Piazza San Domenico) around 1680 for the sum of 7000 lire, 2000 of which he paid at the time of the purchase. The totality of the house was paid for by 1684. The residence was just doors away from those of several other violin making families of Cremona, including the Amatis and Guarneris. Stradivari probably worked in the loft and attic, and he stayed in this house for the rest of his life. Stradivari 's wife Francesca died on 20 May 1698, and received an elaborate funeral five days later. Stradivari married his second wife, Antonia Maria Zambelli, on 24 August 1699. The only information known about her is that she was 35 at the time of the marriage. They had five children from 1700 to 1708 -- Francesca Maria, Giovanni Battista Giuseppe, Giovanni Battista Martino, Giuseppe Antonio, and Paolo. Stradivari died on 18 December 1737, aged 93. He is buried in the Church of San Domenico. The tomb was acquired 8 years prior to his death, having been bought from a Cremonese family, substituting their name for his in the tombstone. His will, dated 1729, is one of the closest approximations we can give to how Stradivari ran his family. Counting his wife, there were eight living heirs at the time Stradivari wrote the draft. Zambelli was left with her clothing, half of her jewelry, bed linens and household items. Antonio declared she would become the responsibility of his two eldest sons. As for Annunciata Caterina, Antonio left her jewelry, income on loans, clothing and linens. Paolo, the youngest child, was to get six finished violins as well as some household effects and cash. Three other children who had joined religious orders were left with their share of inheritance. Maria, a nun, would get an annuity, Alessandro, a priest, would get fixed income on a home mortgage loan and Giuseppe, another priest would get some income on half a share from a pastry shop. There were also annual payments to his two sons of 150 and 300 lire each, 170 lire for Annunciata as well as 100 for Francesca. To put this into perspective, six violins were valued at approximately 1,000 lire. We are now left with two sons from Antonio 's first marriage who worked in the family shop: Omobono and Franceso. As Omobono had left the dwelling aged eighteen in search of new employment possibilities in Naples, he left Antonio to pay for much of his living expenses. In this sense, his father had never really forgiven him for leaving home. Just as Paolo, he would inherit six violins. That was all that was written on the will for him. As For Francesco, who was named his father 's successor, he would inherit the rest of his father 's belongings, the rest of the estate. This included all of the wood tools, stencils, finished violins, patterns, not to mention, his father 's reputation. Many events in the family 's history testify to the substantial wealth Antonio generated. For example, in 1733, Stradivari bought his youngest son a partnership in a local textile firm for the large amount of 25,000 lire. In comparison, he had bought his house in 1680 for 7,000 lire. Also, allowing mild inflation, Antonio made a loan of 12,000 lire in 1714. In 1715, under unknown circumstances, Giuseppe Guarneri borrowed 1,000 lire from Stradivari and later defaulted on the loan. Giuseppe worked almost all his life in Stradivari 's shadow, just as his father, the elder Giuseppe filius Andreae did. Stradivari probably developed his own style slowly. Some of his early violins were smaller, with notable exception to this is the 1697 Hellier violin, which had much larger proportions. Stradivari 's early (pre-1684) violins are in strong contrast to Amati 's instruments from the same time period; Stradivari 's have a stronger, more masculine build, and less rounded curves, with the purfling set farther in. By 1680, Stradivari had acquired at least a small, yet growing, reputation. In 1682, a Venetian banker ordered a complete set of instruments, which he planned to present to King James II of England. The fate of these instruments is unknown. Cosimo de ' Medici bought another five years later. Amati died in 1684, an event followed by a noticeable increase in Stradivari 's production. The years 1684 and 1685 also marked an important development in his style -- the dimensions he used generally increased, and his instruments were more in the style of Amati 's work of the 1640s and 1650s. Stradivari 's instruments underwent no major change in the next five years, although in 1688 he began cutting a more distinct bevel and began outlining the heads of instruments in black, a quite original improvement. Stradivari 's early career is marked by wide experimentation, and his instruments during this period are generally considered of a lesser quality than his later work. However, the precision with which he carved the heads and inserted the purfling quickly marked him as one of the most dextrous craftsmen in the world, a prime example of this being the 1690 "Tuscan '' violin. Pre-1690 instruments are sometimes termed "Amatisé '' but this is not completely accurate; it is largely because Stradivari created many more instruments later on that people try to connect his early work with Amati 's style. By 1680 Stradivari moved to No. 1 Piazza Roma (formerly No. 2 Piazza San Domenico). The house was just doors away from those of several other violin making families of Cremona, including the Amatis and Guarneris. Stradivari probably worked in the loft and attic, and he stayed in this house for the rest of his life. In the early 1690s, Stradivari made a pronounced departure from this earlier style of instrument - making, changing two key elements of his instruments. First, he began to make violins with a larger pattern than previous instruments; these larger violins usually are known as "Long Strads ''. He also switched to using a darker, richer varnish, as opposed to a yellower varnish similar to that used by Amati. He continued to use this pattern until 1698, with few exceptions. After 1698, he abandoned the Long Strad model and returned to a slightly shorter model, which he used until his death. The period from 1700 until the 1720s is often termed the "golden period '' of his production. Instruments made during this time are usually considered of a higher quality than his earlier instruments. Late - period instruments made from the late 1720s until his death in 1737 show signs of Stradivari 's advancing age. These late instruments may be a bit less beautiful than the Golden Period instruments, but many nonetheless possess a fine tone. Heavier and looser craftmanship of the late Stradivari output can be seen in the 1734 ' Habeneck '. San Matteo, the Stradivari parish, as well as San Faustino, the Amati parish, made up the center of Cremonese violin making. They exerted influence not only on one another, in terms of the shape, varnish and sound of instruments, but also on many of their contemporaries; they defined violin making standards for the next 300 years. Even at the beginning of the 18th century, Stradivari 's influence could be seen not only in the work of Cremonese makers, but also international ones, such as Barak Norman 's, one of the first important British makers. In the 1720s Daniel Parker, a very important British luthier, produced fine violins after Stradivari 's work selling anywhere from £ 30,000 to £ 60,000 in recent auctions. Parker based his best instruments on Stradivari 's "long pattern '', having the opportunity to study one or more of the instruments. Well into the 19th century, Jean Baptiste Vuillaume, the leading French luthier of his time, also made many important copies of Strads and Guarneris. In the 18th century, Cremonese luthiers were the suppliers and local players on the demand side. After Stradivari 's death, this drastically changed. Although the Cremonese luthiers remained the suppliers, the demand side consisted of collectors, researchers, imitators, profiteers and speculators. Many local players could no longer afford the sought out instruments and most of the purchased instruments would be hidden in private collections, put in museums, or would be simply put back in their cases, hoping that they would gain value over time. It is then that the so - called ' fever ' for Stradivaris took off. Cozio, Tarisio and Vuillaume were the fathers of this frenzy that would extend well into the 21st century. Also, soon after Stradivari 's death, most of the other major Cremonese luthiers would die, putting an end to the golden period of Cremona 's violin making, which lasted more than 150 years, starting with the Amatis and ending with the Cerutis. Members of the Gagliano family such as Gennaro and Nicolo made excellent copies of the instruments in the 1740s, though the only similarity to Stradivari 's instruments were the execution of the form and arching as well as consistently fine and detailed varnish. Nicolo would usually use the forma B model for his cellos and as the quality of the output steadily declined within the family, the Stradivari models were almost abandoned in Naples. Having acquired many Strads from Paolo Stradivari, Count Cozio commissioned some replicas of the instruments to Giovanni Battista Guadagnini. Although many features of Strads are present in the copies, they still remain heavily influenced by Guadagnini 's workshop principles and represent well the maker 's Turin period. Vincenzo Panormo was also one of the many luthiers who based many of his violins on Strads. He learned about them in Paris around 1779 and 1789 when he worked closely with Léopold Renaudin, another one of Strad 's followers. Stradivari 's influence could also be seen in Spain with the outstanding work of José Contreras of Granada and Madrid. Having the privilege to be exposed to Stradivari 's instruments through the Spanish court, he was experienced enough to replace the scroll of a 1717 Stradivari cello and possibly even make its back and ribs. He had a great ability to imitate the original varnish and intricacy of the instrument. The 19th century was not as eventful in comparison to the previous centuries. Some of the most important luthiers from this part of history include Rota and Chanot. This century was home to the many experimental violins from Francois Chanot and William Sidney Mount (non-Italian makers). The 20th century was the so - called rebirth of Cremonese making, when luthiers such as Rocca, Morassi, Beltrami, Antoniazzi emerged from a seemingly uneventful and experimental period. These makers, sometimes basing their early violins on Strads, would later on make their own models and would inspire each other 's work. Even though Antonio had a very long working life, it is impossible for him to have crafted more than 1000 instruments entirely by himself, meaning that his sons, Francesco and Omobono, as well as possibly a third son, must have been working on and off in his shop. We know that having left the workshop at eighteen, Omobono made a few instruments on his own, such as the ' Blagrove ' and another violin dating from 1732. On his side, Francesco made very few violins independently, such as the 1742 ' Salabue ' and ' Oliveira ', spending his lifetime in his father 's shop. This was one of the main reasons that Francesco had a large part in Antonio 's will, and Omobono a lesser one. One of the major differences between Antonio and his sons ' craftsmanship was the quality of the purfling on their instruments. Francesco and Omobono are referred to as being "startlingly poor '' by John Dilworth in an online article on Tarisio.com about Stradivari 's sons (2015). "Only a handful of instruments are reliably attributed to Francesco alone... (There are only) two authentic labels known: ' Franciscus Stradivarius Cremonensis / Filius Antonii faciebat Anno 1742 '... Notably it omits the A + S stamp that occurs on Antonio 's labels. Another label states ' Sotto la Disciplina d'Antonio / Stradivari F. in Cremona 1737 '. This is of course the year of his father 's death, and the phrase ' sotto la disciplina ', although it appears in a few other instruments, may here be a particular sign of his respect. '' The Hills Violin Shop estimate that Stradivari produced 1,116 instruments, of which 960 were violins. It is also estimated that around 650 of these instruments survive, including 450 to 512 violins. Stradivari 's instruments are regarded as amongst the finest bowed stringed instruments ever created, are highly prized, and are still played by professionals today. Only one other maker, Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù, commands a similar respect among violinists. However, neither blind listening tests nor acoustic analysis have ever demonstrated that Stradivarius instruments are better than other high - quality instruments or even reliably distinguishable from them. Fashions in music have changed over the centuries, and the supremacy of Stradivari 's and Guarneri 's instruments is only widely accepted today. In the past, instruments by Nicolò Amati and Jacob Stainer were preferred for their subtle sweetness of tone. While the usual label for a Stradivarius instrument, whether genuine or false, uses the traditional Latin inscription, after the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890, copies were also inscribed with the country of origin. Since thousands of instruments are based on Stradivari 's models and bear the same name as his models, many unwary people are deceived into purchasing forged Stradivarius instruments, which can be avoided by authenticating the instrument. Some violinists and cellists use Stradivari instruments in their work. Yo - Yo Ma uses the Davidov Stradivarius, Julian Lloyd Webber employs the Barjansky Stradivarius, and, until his death in 2007, Mstislav Rostropovich played on the Duport Stradivarius. The Soil of 1714 is owned by virtuoso Itzhak Perlman. The Countess Polignac is currently played by Gil Shaham. The Vienna Philharmonic uses several Stradivari instruments that were purchased by the National Bank of Austria and other sponsors: Chaconne, 1725; ex-Hämmerle, 1709; ex-Smith - Quersin, 1714; ex-Arnold Rosé, ex-Viotti, 1718; and ex-Halphen, 1727. Viktoria Mullova owns and plays the Jules Falk. The London sales of The Mendelssohn at £ 902,000 ($1,776,940) in 1990 and The Kreutzer for £ 947,500 in 1998 constitute two top - selling Stradivari. A record price paid at a public auction for a Stradivari was $2,032,000 for the Lady Tennant at Christie 's in New York, April 2005. On 16 May 2006, Christie 's auctioned Stradivari 's 1707 Hammer for a new record of US $3,544,000. On 2 April 2007, Christie 's sold a Stradivari violin, the 1729 Solomon, Ex-Lambert, for more than $2.7 million to an anonymous bidder in the auction house 's fine musical instruments sale. Its price, US $2,728,000 including the Christie 's commission, far outdid its estimated value: $1 million to $1.5 million. On 14 October 2010, a 1697 Stradivari violin known as "The Molitor '' was sold online by Tarisio Auctions for a world - record price of $3,600,000 to renowned concert violinist Anne Akiko Meyers: at the time its price was the highest for any musical instrument sold at auction. On 21 June 2011, the Lady Blunt Stradivarius, a 1721 violin, was auctioned by Tarisio to an anonymous bidder for almost £ 10 million, with all proceeds going to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. This was over four times the previous auction record for a Stradivari violin. The c. 1705 Baron von der Leyen Strad was auctioned by Tarisio on 26 April 2012, for $2.6 million. Publicly displayed collections of Stradivari instruments are those of the Library of Congress with three violins, a viola, and a cello, the Agency of National Estates of Spain, with a quartet of two violins, the Spanish I and II, the Spanish Court cello, and the Spanish Court viola, exhibited in the Music Museum at the Royal Palace of Madrid (Palacio Real de Madrid)) and the Royal Academy of Music 's Collections with several instruments by Antonio Stradivari, including the Joachim (1698), Rutson (1694), the Crespi (1699), Viotti ex-Bruce (1709), Kustendyke (1699), Maurin (1718) and the Ex Back (1666) violins, Ex Kux (1714), and the Archinto (1696) violas, the Marquis de Corberon (1726) and the Markevitch (1709) celli. The Musée de la musique in Paris displays several beautiful Stradivari instruments that formerly belonged to the Paris Conservatory. The collection of The New Jersey Symphony Orchestra had the largest number of Stradivari in its string section, purchased in 2003 from the collection of Herbert R. Axelrod, until it recently decided to sell them off. A collection assembled by Rodman Wanamaker in the 1920s contained as many as 65 stringed instruments by such masters as Stradivari, Gofriller, Baptiste and Giuseppe Guarneri. Included was The Swan, the last violin made by Stradivari, and soloist instrument of the great Cuban 19th - century virtuoso Joseph White. The collection, known as The Cappella, was used in concerts with the Philadelphia Orchestra and Leopold Stokowski before being dispersed after Wanamaker 's death. The Vienna Philharmonic uses four violins and one cello. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has three Stradivari violins dated 1693, 1694 and 1717. The National Music Museum, in Vermillion, South Dakota, has in its collection one of two known Stradivari guitars, one of eleven known violas da gamba, later modified into a cello form, one of two known choral mandolins, and one of six Stradivari violins that still retain their original neck. In the interests of conservation, the Messiah Stradivarius violin -- on display in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England -- has not been played at all in recent years. Notes Sources Articles Historical books

when did my chemical romance become a band

My Chemical Romance - wikipedia My Chemical Romance (often abbreviated as MCR) was an American rock band from Newark, New Jersey, active from 2001 to 2013. The band 's best - known lineup consisted of lead vocalist Gerard Way, guitarists Ray Toro and Frank Iero, bassist Mikey Way, and drummer Bob Bryar, accompanied on tour by keyboardist James Dewees since 2007. Founded by Gerard, Mikey, Toro, Matt Pelissier, and later joined by Iero, the band signed to Eyeball Records and released their debut album I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love in 2002. They signed with Reprise Records the next year and released their major label debut Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge in 2004. Shortly after the album 's release, Pelissier was replaced by Bob Bryar. A commercial success, the album was awarded platinum status over a year later. The band eclipsed their previous success with their 2006 concept album, The Black Parade, which gained generally favorable reviews among music critics and was certified double platinum in the United States and the United Kingdom, the band 's first and only double platinum. After the departure of long - time drummer Bob Bryar in March 2010, the band released their fourth studio album, Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys, in November that same year, to positive reviews. After the addition of touring keyboardist James Dewees in 2012 and the release of Conventional Weapons, a series of singles recorded in 2009, released over the course of five months, the band announced its break - up on March 22, 2013, one month after the final release in the Conventional Weapons series. After the band 's split, a greatest hits album entitled May Death Never Stop You was released in March 2014. A tenth anniversary reissue of The Black Parade was released in September 2016 titled The Black Parade / Living with Ghosts. The band was formed by frontman Gerard Way and drummer Matt Pelissier soon after the September 11 attacks. Witnessing the World Trade Center towers fall influenced Way 's life to the extent that he decided to start a band. Way wrote the song "Skylines and Turnstiles '' to express his feelings about September 11 and shortly thereafter, Ray Toro was recruited as the band 's guitarist because at the time Way could not sing and play the guitar simultaneously. The name of the band was suggested by bass guitarist Mikey Way, younger brother of Gerard, who was working in a Barnes & Noble when he was struck by the title of a book by Irvine Welsh named Ecstasy: Three Tales of Chemical Romance. The first recording sessions were undertaken in Pelissier 's attic, where the songs "Our Lady of Sorrows '' and "Cubicles '' were recorded. The band refers to those sessions as "The Attic Demos. '' After hearing the demo and dropping out of college, Mikey Way decided to join the band. While with Eyeball Records, the band met Frank Iero, the lead vocalist and guitarist for Pencey Prep. Following Pencey Prep 's split in 2002, Iero became a member of My Chemical Romance, just days prior to the recording of the band 's debut album. They recorded their debut album, I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love, just three months after the formation of the band and released it in 2002 through Eyeball Records. The album was produced by Thursday frontman Geoff Rickley after the band became friends with him while playing shows in New Jersey. Iero played guitar on two of the tracks, one of which was "Early Sunsets Over Monroeville. '' During this time, the band was booked at the infamous venue, Big Daddy 's, where they began to receive more attention. My Chemical Romance offered free downloads through PureVolume and the social networking website MySpace, where they gained an initial fan base. In 2003, the band signed a deal with Reprise Records. Following a tour with Avenged Sevenfold, the band began working on their second album, which was entitled Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge. Released in 2004, the album went platinum in just over a year. The band released four singles from the album: "I 'm Not Okay (I Promise) '', "Thank You for the Venom '', "Helena '', and "The Ghost of You ''. After returning from a tour of Japan in July 2004, the band replaced Matt Pelissier with Bob Bryar. At the beginning of 2005, the band was featured on the first Taste of Chaos tour, and was also the opening act for Green Day on their American Idiot tour. They then co-headlined Warped Tour 2005 with Fall Out Boy and co-headlined a tour with Alkaline Trio and Reggie and the Full Effect around the US. That same year, My Chemical Romance collaborated with The Used for a cover of the Queen and David Bowie classic, "Under Pressure '', which was released as a benefit single on iTunes and other Internet outlets. In March 2006, the album Life on the Murder Scene was released, incorporating a CD and two DVDs. It included one documentary DVD chronicling the band 's history, and a second DVD with music videos, the making of their videos and live performances. An unauthorized biography DVD Things That Make You Go MMM! was also released in June 2006. The DVD does not actually feature any My Chemical Romance music clips or performances but contains interviews with those who knew the band before much of their fame. A biography titled Something Incredible This Way Comes was also released, written by Paul Stenning and published in 2006. It features information on their beginnings right through to their third album, The Black Parade. My Chemical Romance started recording their third studio album on April 10, 2006 with Rob Cavallo, producer of many of Green Day 's albums. It was originally thought to be titled The Rise and Fall of My Chemical Romance (in reference to The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars by David Bowie), but in an interview with Kerrang! magazine, Gerard Way suggested this was just the album 's working title, stating "It was never the title of the album, more a spoof, or joke. '' On August 3, 2006, the band completed shooting the videos for their first two singles from the album, "Welcome to the Black Parade '' and although not released until January 2007, "Famous Last Words ''. The "Famous Last Words '' video was directed by Sam Bayer, director of Nirvana 's "Smells Like Teen Spirit '' and Green Day 's American Idiot videos. During filming for the second video, band members Gerard Way and Bob Bryar were injured. Way suffered torn ligaments in his ankle, and Bryar a burn to the leg which caused a severe staph infection that needed constant monitoring in the hospital. Consequently, the band was forced to cancel a few tour dates. While these injuries were reported by several news agencies to have been the result of a car accident, a statement released by the band on their website and MySpace page confirmed that these injuries occurred on the set of the video. On August 22, 2006, the band played a special one - off show at the 1800 - capacity London Hammersmith Palais. The show sold out in 15 minutes, prompting tickets to be re-sold on eBay well over the tickets ' face value. The name of the album was announced and 20 people dressed in black capes with their faces obscured paraded around the Hammersmith, followed by a large group of fans and street team members with signs saying "The Black Parade ''. Later during the show, the album title and the UK release date were confirmed. Before the band took the stage, it was announced that My Chemical Romance was unable to play, but they would be replaced by The Black Parade. After initial crowd hostility, it became clear the band was simply performing under a pseudonym in keeping with the theme of the album. Since then, the band would often perform under the alias "The Black Parade '', wearing the costumes seen in the album 's music videos. Gerard Way would adopt the persona of the leader of the marching band, The Black Parade, and vary his behavior and performance accordingly. "Welcome to the Black Parade '' was released as a single on September 11, 2006. On September 26, 2006, the music video for "Welcome to the Black Parade '' was released in the UK, and on September 27 in the US. The single became the band 's first number one on the UK Singles Chart in October 2006. The Black Parade was released on October 23, 2006, in the United Kingdom and on October 24, 2006, in the United States to positive reviews. The Black Parade World Tour commenced on February 22, 2007, with the eventuating 133 shows featuring Rise Against, Thursday and Muse as support acts. Reggie and the Full Effect frontman James Dewees joined the band to play keyboards and synthesizer from there on. In April 2007, it was announced that Mikey Way would temporarily leave the tour to spend time with his new wife, Alicia Simmons - Way. Way 's temporary replacement was Matt Cortez, a friend of the band. During the third leg of the tour, as a support act for Muse, members of My Chemical Romance and their crew, along with members of Muse 's crew, suffered food poisoning, and consequently had to cancel six shows. The band later featured on Linkin Park 's Projekt Revolution tour in 2007, along with Placebo, Mindless Self Indulgence, Saosin, Taking Back Sunday and HIM. My Chemical Romance received mixed accolades for The Black Parade. Kerrang! rated The Black Parade as the fourth - greatest album of 2006. In Rolling Stone magazine 's ranking of the top 50 albums of 2006, The Black Parade was voted the 20th best album of the year. My Chemical Romance went on to win the award for Best International Band at the 2007 NME Awards, and Gerard Way also won the Hero of the Year award. My Chemical Romance was also nominated for Best Alternative Group at the 2007 American Music Awards. The band announced in a blog on their website that they would be going on a final tour in the United States before taking a break. At the same time, they announced they will be releasing a live DVD / CD collection titled The Black Parade Is Dead!, which includes two concerts from October 2007, the final Black Parade concert in Mexico, and a small show at Maxwell 's in New Jersey. The DVD / CD was meant to be released on June 24 in the United States and June 30 in the UK, but was postponed to July 1 because of a technical fault with the Mexico concert. In February 2009, an EP of B - side songs from singles on The Black Parade was released, titled The Black Parade: The B - Sides. In 2009, My Chemical Romance released a new single entitled "Desolation Row '' (a cover of the Bob Dylan song) on February 1, 2009. It was recorded to feature as the end credit track for the 2009 film Watchmen, an adaptation of the graphic novel of the same name. The band then announced that they would be releasing "a collection of nine never - before - seen live videos, straight from the encore set of the Mexico City show from October 2007 '', entitled ¡ Venganza!. The release came on a bullet - shaped flash drive and also contained exclusive photos of the band from the show. It was released on April 29, 2009. On May 27, 2009, My Chemical Romance 's web designer, Jeff Watson, announced via the band 's website that the band was headed to the studio to record their fourth full - length album. The recording took place over the following few weeks with producer Brendan O'Brien, who has worked with AC / DC, Mastodon, and Pearl Jam. In an interview with NME, Gerard Way said the band 's next record would be a rock album, saying, "I think (the next album) will definitely be stripped down. I think the band misses being a rock band. '' In a separate interview with Idiomag, Way commented that the next release would be less theatrical in scope, stating that "it 's not going to be hiding behind a veil of fiction or uniforms and makeup anymore. '' In an interview with PopEater, Way also stated that the next album will be "full of hate. '' He also said "over the years that we 've been hearing ourselves live and hearing us on records, we kind of prefer the live. There 's more of a garage feel and more energy. I 'd like to capture some of that, finally. That 's the goal for the next one. '' On July 31 and August 1, 2009, My Chemical Romance played two "secret '' shows at The Roxy Theater in Los Angeles. The shows were the first concerts the band had played since Madison Square Garden in May 2008. The band also premiered several new songs said to be from their upcoming fourth album during the shows, one reportedly titled "Death Before Disco '', a song that Way said he was particularly excited about. The song was since renamed "Party Poison '' and was included on the new album. Way explained further in a Rolling Stone interview that "it 's a completely different sound for the band -- it 's like an anti-party song that you can party to. I ca n't wait for people to hear it. It brings back, lyrically, some of that wonderful fiction from the first album. '' Gerard Way also said in a November 2009 interview with Rock Sound that the fourth album would be their defining work. "A friend who heard the record recently said he now had no interest in listening to our older work anymore, that we had made all our old material redundant. I took it as a compliment, the next thing you should always make the last thing seem unimportant and I think that will happen when we finally release this album. '' On March 3, 2010, Iero announced on their official website that Bob Bryar had left the band, writing: As of 4 weeks ago, My Chemical Romance and Bob Bryar parted ways. This was a painful decision for all of us to make and was not taken lightly. We wish him the best of luck in his future endeavors and expect you all to do the same. The band did not state reasons on why he left. In a March 2010 MTV interview about the new album, Way explained, "There 's no title yet... I 'm actually kind of excited about that. It 's kind of ' anything goes ' at this point, but I 'm so happy with the songs. '' Though the band since decided on the title of their fourth album, it continued to go unannounced, with various rumors circulating and the band stating on their website that it will be revealed "all in due time '' and in Way 's words, "a special way this time. Maybe some sort of event, something fun, something soon. '' During the San Diego Comic - Con 2010, Way announced that the band had finished recording the fourth studio album. This was later confirmed by Iero on the band 's website, announcing that the album was "done, finished, kaput, in the proverbial can, and being played loudly as we drive way too fast in our respective cars. '' In September, a trailer video was uploaded to My Chemical Romance 's official YouTube page entitled Art is a Weapon, which announced the title of the album: Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys. The video featured the band wearing strangely coloured outfits and battling unusual characters in a desert surrounding, and featuring a sample of music from the song "Na Na Na (Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na) ''. Notable comic book author and the band 's personal friend, Grant Morrison, makes a special appearance, in the role of an enemy and leader of a band of masked characters. On September 22, 2010, the band premiered their song "Na Na Na (Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na) '' on Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show, and Los Angeles - based radio station KROQ - FM. The album was released on November 22, 2010. Rock Sound had a preview of the album and gave a positive review, commenting "the way they 've used everything they learned on ' The Black Parade ' and tightened up in certain places feels natural and confident '' and that it sees "the creativity of the band taking flight musically, graphically and literally. '' Michael Pedicone joined the band as a touring drummer late in 2010, replacing Bryar. During a performance at Wembley Arena on February 12, 2011, Way announced that the band would be appearing at a UK festival later in the year, later confirmed as the Reading and Leeds Festivals, which they headlined. They also performed at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle, England on May 15, 2011. On September 2, 2011, Frank Iero posted a blog on the band 's site stating, "The relationship between My Chemical Romance and Michael Pedicone is over '' and explaining Pedicone was sacked because "he was caught red - handed stealing from the band and confessed to police after our show last night in Auburn, Washington. '' He also mentioned his hope of getting a new drummer in time for their next show and avoiding having to cancel any performances in the process. On September 4, 2011, it was revealed through various sources that Jarrod Alexander will be the new touring drummer for the remainder of the Honda Civic tour. He also performed with them in late October at Voodoo Experience and at their Australian + New Zealand shows at Big Day Out in early 2012. In an interview with Rolling Stone in October 2011, guitarist Frank Iero revealed that new music could be out "by summer ''. On December 18, 2011, the band appeared on Nick Jr. 's Yo Gabba Gabba!, and performed a song called "Every Snowflake Is Different (Just Like You) ''. This was part of a Christmas special for the show. The special included other famous guests such as Tony Hawk and Tori Spelling. In February 2012, members of My Chemical Romance revealed that they had been building a studio in Los Angeles to record music for the band 's fifth album under the working title MCR5, now with touring keyboardist James Dewees as an official member. The band worked with engineer Doug McKean, who previously worked on The Black Parade and Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys. On September 14, 2012, Frank Iero announced through the band 's official website a new project entitled Conventional Weapons. The project revolved around 10 unreleased songs that were recorded in 2009, prior to the making of Danger Days. The band released two songs each month for five months from the Conventional Weapons sessions, starting in October 2012 and finishing in February 2013. According to the October 2012 issue of Q magazine, Frank Iero reported early sessions for MCR 's next album with the new drummer Jarrod Alexander were progressing well. "Jarrod is a rad guy and a fantastic player. It 's been really fun making music with him these past few months, '' Iero commented. On March 22, 2013, the band announced their break - up on their official website, issuing this statement: Gerard Way posted an extended tweet on his Twitter account two days after the website announcement, where he confirmed the disbanding of the group but denied that altercations between band members were the reason for the split. On March 25, 2014, the band released a greatest hits collection, entitled May Death Never Stop You, containing material spreading their entire career, as well a single unreleased track. The track "Fake Your Death '' was made available digitally on February 17. Following the band 's break - up, the members of the band continued to pursue music. Lead vocalist Gerard Way announced his debut solo album Hesitant Alien with the release of an advance - single, "Action Cat ''. Hesitant Alien was released on September 29, 2014 in the UK, and a day later in the U.S. Hesitant Alien was a moderate commercial success, topping the US Billboard Alternative Albums chart and reaching No. 16 on the US Billboard 200. Hesitant Alien also topped the "Ten Essential Albums Of 2014 '' list in Alternative Press. Rhythm guitarist Frank Iero sporadically collaborated with My Chemical Romance keyboardist James Dewees, forming Death Spells and performing in Reggie and the Full Effect (alongside Ray Toro), releasing No Country for Old Musicians on November 19, 2013. Afterwards, he announced via his official website that he signed to Staple Records and would be releasing a full - length solo album entitled Stomachaches under the moniker of "frnkiero andthe cellabration ''. The album featured former My Chemical Romance touring drummer Jarrod Alexander. Stomachaches was released worldwide on August 25, 2014. Bassist Mikey Way formed Electric Century along with Sleep Station vocalist David Debiak in 2014 and released their debut single "I Lied '' in February 2014. The duo announced their debut self - titled EP on March 10, 2015 and was released on Record Store Day on April 18, 2015. Lead guitarist Ray Toro posted a song on his SoundCloud account entitled "Is n't That Something '' on May 24, 2013. On January 1, 2015, he posted a new song, titled "For the Lost and Brave '', on his website, dedicating the song to Leelah Alcorn, a transgender teen who committed suicide. On July 20, 2016, the band posted on their official Twitter and Facebook pages a video with the piano intro from "Welcome to the Black Parade '', ending with a cryptic date, "9 / 23 / 16 ''. The video was also published on the band 's YouTube channel with the video titled "MCRX ''. This led to numerous rumors and reports on the band 's possible reunion until it was revealed to be a reissue of The Black Parade with unreleased demos. The reissue, titled The Black Parade / Living with Ghosts, includes 11 demos and live tracks. Two months before its release, an early version of "Welcome to the Black Parade '', titled "The Five of Us Are Dying '', was made available for streaming. In a discussion of his work on the comic book Doom Patrol, Gerard Way told Billboard, "I would n't count (a reunion) out, but at the same time everybody 's doing stuff in their lives now that they 're really enjoying. '' My Chemical Romance 's general style has been categorized as alternative rock, post-hardcore, punk rock, pop punk, and, most controversially, emo. The band 's official website describes their music as simply "rock '' or "violent, dangerous pop ''. Gerard Way has publicly rejected the term "emo '', describing the genre as "fucking garbage ''. However, Way has reportedly also described the band 's style as "What - else - ya - got - emo ''. The band 's sound usually has elements of punk rock, pop and alternative rock. I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love, the band 's debut album, features a raw sound that has guitar riffs, very energetic vocals and sometimes screaming. The album is considered an emo album with strong influences from punk rock and hardcore punk. I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love also has some influences from heavy metal. The second album Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge was one of the albums that launched the emo genre into the mainstream. The band 's album The Black Parade lacks the post-hardcore elements featured on the first two My Chemical Romance albums and features elements of pop punk, emo and punk rock. The fourth My Chemical Romance album Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys continues the band 's alternative rock and pop punk sound with some new elements of power pop, pop rock and electronic rock. Gerard Way said to Rolling Stone, "we love bands like Queen, where it 's huge and majestic, but also bands like Black Flag and the Misfits, who would go absolutely crazy. '' Way has stated that the band is heavily influenced by Queen, Misfits, Black Flag, Iron Maiden, The Cure, Joy Division, Bauhaus, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and The Smiths / Morrissey. Way has also said that his band patterns their career after that of The Smashing Pumpkins, another band they admire. On May 8, 2008, British tabloid The Sun published an article entitled "Suicide of Hannah, the Secret Emo '', which reported the death of a thirteen - year - old British girl named Hannah Bond, who had hanged herself supposedly because of her involvement with a reported "self - harming ' emo ' cult '', which the newspaper directly associated with My Chemical Romance, and their then - current album The Black Parade, which was said to be linked to her suicide. In the article, coroner Roger Sykes expressed concern that Bond 's "emo '' lifestyle glamorized suicide, and suggested that her obsession with My Chemical Romance was linked to her death. The Sun 's article, and an article in NME about The Sun 's article, had linked My Chemical Romance to the suicide. Supporters of emo music contacted NME to defend the genre against accusations that it promotes suicide. A group of British fans eventually planned a march across London in protest against the depiction of the band in the media. The march was expected to be held on May 31, beginning at Hyde Park 's West Pond and ending outside the offices of tabloid newspaper the Daily Mail, which widely criticized My Chemical Romance and had published general pieces about the dangers of "suicide cults ''. The march was expected to attract 500 -- 1000 protesters, according to the organizers. After concerns by police, the march was called off and instead about 100 fans congregated at Marble Arch. The band repeated the statement "fuck the Daily Mail '' during their gigs in the United Kingdom. The Daily Mail defended its position saying its coverage was "balanced and restrained '' and "in the public interest '', and they were reporting genuine concerns raised by the coroner at the inquest and claim that their coverage of the incident has been misrepresented and confused with rumor. They state that their coverage of the coroner 's remarks and the parents ' comments was in common with that of other newspapers, and point to their publishing of readers ' letters defending the band and positive reviews of the band 's albums and tours. On April 28, 2011, US broadcaster Glenn Beck labelled the My Chemical Romance song "Sing '' as "propaganda '' after it was featured and covered on the US musical drama TV series Glee in February 2011. Beck stated "It 's an anthem saying ' Join us '. How can you and I possibly win against that? '' The lyrics that Beck pointed out were: "Cleaned up corporation progress, dying in the process / Children that can talk about it living on the railways (sic) / People moving sideways / Sell it till your last days / Buy yourself the motivation / Generation nothing / Nothing but a dead scene / Product of a white dream ''. Gerard Way responded to the accusation on the band 's official website, writing, "I think the word Glenn Beck was looking for was ' subversion ' not ' propaganda ', because I do n't know what it would be considered propaganda for -- truth? Sentiment? '' He also said that he was "shocked that no actual fact - checking was done on the lyrics ''. Bassist Mikey Way told the BBC, "If we 're getting reaction from people like that we 're doing something right. '' My Chemical Romance played in many major tours of 2005. The band toured with Green Day in 2005 on the "Green Day Presents American Idiot Tour ''. They were also part of the Warped Tour in the same year. "For a lot of kids, it 's the one thing they look forward to all year, '' said Gerard Way of the Warped Tour. "They save up for it. They get to see all the bands they like in one shot. '' Their set list included mostly songs from Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge. My Chemical Romance co-headlined the main stage with The Used on the Taste of Chaos tour, before starting their first headlining tour, simply named the "My Chemical Romance Tour ''. The tour launched September 15 in Ohio, stopping at 30 locations in the United States, to promote their album, Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge. Supporting were Alkaline Trio and Reggie and the Full Effect. This tour marked the beginning of the heavy theatrics later showcased in many of their live shows. Way expressed his plans for the tour in an interview with MTV, saying, "we 'd talked about bringing out dancers for our headlining tour in the fall, but it 's a big undertaking; you have to have a bus full of dancers. We 've always wanted to do a big theatrical tour. But you have to do it in steps ''. The use of theatrics was evident during The Black Parade World Tour, which supported their album of the same name. The tour featured 133 performances worldwide, featuring three legs in North America, one in Europe, Asia, and South America, and one internationally. The band joined headliners Linkin Park on Projekt Revolution 2007, starting on July 25 and ending on September 3, 2007. The band played a one - hour set on center stage, opening with "This Is How I Disappear '', as flames burst behind the band. The set ended with "Cancer '', occasionally with falling confetti, and fireworks. Following the Projekt Revolution tour, they opened for Bon Jovi in October and then departed for a European Tour with Mindless Self Indulgence. On September 19, 2010, the band announced "The World Contamination Tour '', which took place in parts of the UK, France, Amsterdam and Germany. Final lineup Former members Touring musicians Timeline

which state in the us has the highest population

List of U.S. States and territories by population - wikipedia As of April 1, 2010, the date of the 2010 United States Census, the nine most populous U.S. states contain slightly more than half of the total population. The 25 least populous states contain less than one - sixth of the total population. California, the most populous state, contains more people than the 21 least populous states combined, and Wyoming is the least populous state, with a population less than the 31 most populous U.S. cities. The United States Census counts most persons residing in the United States including citizens, non-citizen permanent residents, and non-citizen long - term visitors. Civilian and military federal employees serving abroad and their dependents are counted in their home state. Based on data from the decennial census, each state is allocated a proportion of the 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives, although each state is guaranteed a minimum of one seat, regardless of population. This apportionment is based on the proportion of each state 's population to that of the fifty states together (without regard to the populations of the District of Columbia, AS, GU, MP, PR, or VI). The Electoral College is the body that, every four years, elects the President and Vice President of the United States. Each state 's representation in the Electoral College is equal to that state 's total number of members in both houses of the United States Congress. The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution effectively grants the District of Columbia, which is separate from any state, three votes. More precisely, the district gets as many votes in the Electoral College as it would have if it were a state, with the caveat that the district can have no more votes than the least populous state (which is currently Wyoming). Currently, this caveat is a moot point since the District of Columbia would only be entitled to one representative if it were a state, and is more populous than only two of the seven states with a single member in the House since 2013. Since the Constitution guarantees every state at least one U.S. Representative and two U.S. Senators, it effectively guarantees every state (and, since the ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the District of Columbia) at least three electoral votes. Thus, the total representation in the Electoral College is 538 members (equal to 100 senators plus 435 representatives, plus 3 members for the District of Columbia).

who appoints the members of state human rights commission in india

Karnataka State human rights Commission - wikipedia The Karnataka State Human Rights Commission was formally constituted by the Government order No. LAW 20 LAG 05 dated 28 June 2005. However, the present chairperson and members were appointed by the Governor of Karnataka vide notification No. LAW 17 HRC 2005 Dt. 23.07. 2007 & 28.07. 2007 According to TPHRA, 1993 (with amendment act 2006), the commission is entitled to perform any of the following functions: It is clarified that though the Commission has the power to inquire in violation of human rights (or instigation thereof) by a public servant. Instances where the human rights are violated by any individual citizen then the Commission can intervene, if there is failure or negligence on the part of a public servant to prevent any such violation.

when was the first mcdonald's opened in australia

McCafé - wikipedia McCafé is a coffee - house - style food and beverage chain, owned by McDonald 's. Conceptualised and launched in Melbourne, Australia in 1993 by McDonald 's Licensee Ann Brown, and introduced to the public with help from McDonald 's CEO Charlie Bell and then - Chairman and future CEO James Skinner, the chain reflects a consumer trend towards espresso coffees. Reports indicated that McCafé outlets generated 15 % more revenue than a regular McDonald 's and, by 2003, were the largest coffee shop brand in Australia and New Zealand. The first one in the United States opened in Chicago, Illinois, in May 2001 when there were about 300 worldwide. In 2004 McCafé opened in Costa Rica and in France, and the next year, the concept was launched in Italy. In 2007, the chain expanded to Japan as part of McDonald 's efforts to boost sales with healthier soup and sandwich offerings and reach out to new customers who favoured traditional coffee shops. Despite being a relatively small part of McDonald 's overall strategy, there are currently 1,300 worldwide. In June 2006 the very first McCafé in Bulgaria opened at the Mall of Sofia. McCafé arrived In Paraguay in 2007. In August 2008, McDonald 's expanded their McCafé concept to South Africa, where the McDonald 's franchise is already a household name and one of the largest fast - food chains in the country. At the end of 2009 McCafé drinks were available at McDonald 's restaurants in the U.S.A. McCafé opened in El Salvador on July 6, 2010, located in McDonald 's restaurants in the Zona Rosa and Próceres Boulevard with the goal of providing the aroma, flavor and texture of 100 % Salvadorian gourmet coffee. McCafé opened in Madrid, Spain on June 28, 2008, located in McDonald 's Montera restaurants. In 2011 McDonald 's started expansion of McCafé in Ukraine. There are 6 McCafés in Kiev, 1 in Lviv, 1 in Odesa, 1 in Dnipropetrovsk and 1 in Kharkiv as of January, 2014. In July 2010 the McCafé added real fruit smoothies to their drink list. In November 2010 they added mocha and hot chocolate to their drink list. In July 2011 they added Frozen Strawberry Lemonade and the Mango Pineapple Smoothie to the U.S. menu. On November 7, 2011, McDonald 's Canada launched McCafé across the nation after being available only in select stores prior to this announcement. With the introduction of McCafé in Canada, participating McDonald 's stores have added mocha, cappuccino, espresso, americano, latte, iced latte, iced mocha and hot chocolate to their menus. With McCafé, McDonald 's is now in direct competition with Coffee Time, Country Style, Second Cup, Starbucks, Tim Hortons, and Timothy 's in the Canadian coffee market. On June 16, 2012, McDonald 's launched the first McCafé Malaysia in Kota Damansara, with a few others subsequently opening in the Bandar Utama, Subang Jaya, Titiwangsa, and Taman Connaught outlets - all currently located in Klang Valley as well as in Greenlane, Birch House, IJM Promenade and Penang International Airport - all in Penang. In Turkey, McCafé operates under the name "McD Café ''. The first coffee shop opened in July 2012 at Sabiha Gökçen Airport. As of April 2016, there are 8 Mcd Cafés on the Asian side of Istanbul, 6 on the European side, 3 in Antalya, 2 each in Adana and Kocaeli, and one each in Afyonkarahisar, Aksaray, Ankara and Kırşehir. In December 2012, McDonald 's announced that it would be bringing the McCafé brand and line of products to all of the McDonald 's restaurants in the United Kingdom. This would include the addition of iced frappés, iced fruit smoothies and a rebranding of the standard McDonald 's coffee to "McCafé. '' On October 14, 2013, McDonald 's launched the first McCafé India in the South Mumbai area in Mumbai, Maharashtra. McDonald 's introduced a coffee line called "McCafé '' nationwide in the United States. In August 2014, the company announced it was going to start to selling its coffee for home brewing in supermarkets across the United States. Manufactured and distributed in partnership with Kraft Foods, the coffee is currently available in prepackaged bags and K - Cups. In December 2015, McDonald 's Canada opened its first standalone McCafe store in Toronto Union Station 's newly built York concourse area. On March 20, 2018, the first McCafé was opened in Minsk, Belarus. It is planned to open 3 more McCafé in Minsk until the end of 2018.

when do high school students get class rings

Class ring - wikipedia A class ring (also known as a graduation, graduate, senior, or grad ring) is a ring worn by students and alumni to commemorate their graduation, generally for a high school, college, or university. Today class rings can be customized, from the material and style that the ring is made of to the color and cut of the gem in the center. There is a wide selection of emblems, pictures, and words that can be added to the sides of the rings and even inside the center gem. The tradition of class rings originated with the class of 1835 at the United States Military Academy at West Point. The Complete Book of Etiquette by Amy Vanderbilt indicates the following protocol for wearing of a class ring. For as long as the wearer is in school, the insignia should face the wearer to remind him / her of the goal of graduation. Upon graduation, the class ring gains the status of a "badge of honor '' similar to a diploma, with the effect that graduation entitles the wearer to display the insignia facing outward so that it faces other viewers. An additional justification for this practice is the rationale that the ring also symbolizes the graduate him / herself: During the wearer 's time in school, he or she focuses on self - development and goals specific to the insular academic environment; upon graduation, the wearer enters the wider world and puts what he or she has learned to work in shaping it. A notable exception to this protocol is the custom followed by older graduating classes of the United States Military Academy at West Point. Today, as in years past, Academy graduates frequently wear their rings on the left hand in observance of the ancient belief, which also underlay the Anglo - American custom of wearing wedding bands on the left hand, that a vein connects the left ring finger to the heart. Prior to graduation, these classes wore the USMA Class Ring with the Class Crest closest to the heart, signifying a given cadet 's bond to his class within the Academy. Following graduation, members of these classes wore (and, for surviving members, still wear) the ring with the Academy Crest closest to the heart, signifying their bond with the Academy as a whole. At the United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, and at The Citadel each cadet 's class ring contains melted gold from rings donated to the respective school from deceased alumni. The Lords of Discipline. "I wear the ring. I wear the ring and I return often to the city of Charleston, South Carolina, to study the history of my becoming a man. '' Author Pat Conroy attended and graduated from The Citadel and wrote the fictional account of a cadet 's journey at a military school set in Charleston, South Carolina. Media related to Class rings at Wikimedia Commons

where did the term road rage come from

Road rage - wikipedia Road rage is aggressive or angry behavior exhibited by a driver of a road vehicle, which includes rude and offensive gestures, verbal insults, physical threats or dangerous driving methods targeted toward another driver or a pedestrian in an effort to intimidate or release frustration. Road rage can lead to altercations, assaults and collisions that result in serious physical injuries or even death. It can be referred to as an extreme case of aggressive driving. The term originated in the United States in 1987 -- 1988 from anchors at KTLA, a television station in Los Angeles, California, when a rash of freeway shootings occurred on the Interstate 405, 110, and 10 freeways in Los Angeles. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motor Club to its members on how to respond to drivers with road rage or aggressive maneuvers and gestures. According to a study by the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety that examined police records nationally, there are more than 1,200 incidents of road rage on average reported per year in the United States, a number of which have ended with serious injuries or even fatalities. These rates rose yearly throughout the six years of the study. A number of studies have found that individuals with road rage were predominantly young (33 years old on average) and 96.6 % male. In Germany, a gun - wielding truck driver was accused of firing at more than 762 vehicles and arrested in 2013, an exceptional case of road rage. According to authorities, the autobahn sniper was motivated by "annoyance and frustration with traffic. '' In some jurisdictions, there can be a legal difference between "road rage '' and "aggressive driving. '' In the U.S., only a few states have enacted special aggressive driving laws, where road rage cases are normally prosecuted as assault and battery (with or without a vehicle), or "vehicular homicide. '' The legal definition of road rage encompasses a group of behaviors expressed while driving, or stemming from traffic - related incidents. The U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration defines road rage as when "The operation of a motor vehicle in a manner that endangers or is likely to endanger persons or property. '' This definition makes the distinction that aggressive driving is a traffic violation and road rage is a criminal offense. A stressed driver 's behavior depends on that driver 's coping abilities. Generally, drivers who scored high on aggression tests used direct confrontation strategies when faced with stress while driving. Strategies include long horn honks, swerving, tailgating and attempting to fight the other driver. Many drivers who experience road rage have admitted that they believe they commit more traffic violations. Driving presents many stresses any time a person is behind the wheel because of high speeds and other drivers making different decisions. As stress increases, the likelihood of a person having road rage increases dramatically, and if a person has road rage, their stress levels increase. Typically, younger males are most susceptible to road rage. According to one study, people who customize their cars with stickers and other adornments are more prone to road rage. The number of territory markers predicted road rage better than vehicle value or condition. Furthermore, only the number of bumper stickers, and not their content, predicted road rage. Road rage is not an official mental disorder recognized in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), although according to an article published by the Associated Press in June 2006, the behaviors typically associated with road rage can be the result of a disorder known as intermittent explosive disorder that is recognized in the DSM. This conclusion was drawn from surveys of some 9,200 adults in the United States between 2001 and 2003 and was funded by the National Institute of Mental Health. Road rage is a relatively serious act: It may be seen as an endangerment of public safety. It is, however, not always possible to judge intent by external observation, so "road ragers '' who are stopped by police may be charged with other offences such as careless or reckless driving, or may be fined. Road ragers may be considered as criminals. In New South Wales, Australia, road rage is considered an extremely serious act. Any person who chases another motorist or shows intimidating and / or bullying towards another road user can be charged with predatory driving, a serious offence that can leave the culprit in jail for up to 5 years. Offenders can also be fined A $100,000 and disqualified from driving, whether or not he or she intended to harm the victim physically. If the predatory driving results in a physical assault or harm, and / or the victim 's car was intentionally damaged, penalties can be much more severe. Additionally, most common - law countries prohibit common assault, which could apply to road rage where the personal safety of the victim is seen to be threatened. The common law regards assault as both a criminal and civil matter, leading to both public criminal penalties and private civil liabilities. Road rage, insults and rude gestures in traffic can lead to fines and even prison sentences to drivers who shout insults or make offensive gestures while driving. In New Zealand, Road Rage in itself is not an offence, but Drivers are usually charged with other offences committed during an act of road rage (usually assault or unlawful possession of an offensive weapon). Drivers have a legal duty to take reasonable care to avoid endangerment of human life when operating a vehicle (s 156 Crimes Act 1961); failure to discharge this duty, such as an act of aggressive driving, can give rise to liability in criminal nuisance (s 146 Crimes Act 1961). Ramming a vehicle constitutes intentional or reckless damage to property, a criminal offence, with a maximum penalty of 7 years imprisonment (s 269 Crimes Act 1961). New Zealand courts currently have no powers to disqualify drivers who physically assault another road user. Road rage is a criminal offence in Singapore. When found guilty, the offender may be jailed for up to two years and / or fined up to $5,000 for causing damage. In the UK, road rage can result in criminal penalties for assault or more serious offences against the person. The Public Order Act 1986 can also apply to road rage. Sections 4A and 5 of the 1986 Act prohibit public acts likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress. Section 4 also prohibits threatening, abusive or insulting words or behaviour with intent to cause a victim to believe that violence will be used against himself or another. In some jurisdictions, such as the Commonwealth of Virginia, it is easier to prosecute road rage as reckless driving instead of aggressive driving simply because the burden of proof does not require "intent '' to successfully convict. It is likely that those causing serious injury or death during "road rage '' incidents will suffer more serious penalties than those applicable to similar outcomes from simple negligence. In April 2007, a Colorado driver was convicted of first - degree murder for causing the deaths of two motorists in November 2005. He will serve a mandatory sentence of two consecutive life terms. Fourteen U.S. states have passed laws against aggressive driving. Only one state, California, has turned "road rage '' into a legal term of art by giving it a particular meaning. In Virginia, aggressive driving is punished as a lesser crime (Class 2 misdemeanor) than reckless driving (Class 1 misdemeanor). A 2007 study of the largest U.S. metropolitan areas concluded that the cities with the least courteous drivers (most road rage) are Miami, Phoenix, New York, Los Angeles, and Boston. The cities with the most courteous drivers (least road rage) are Minneapolis, Nashville, St. Louis, Seattle, and Atlanta. In 2009, New York, Dallas / Fort Worth, Detroit, Atlanta and Minneapolis / St. Paul were rated the top five "Road Rage Capitals '' of the United States.

tinker bell and the great fairy rescue songs

Tinker Bell and the Great fairy Rescue - Wikipedia Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue is a 2010 American computer - animated comedy adventure film and the third installment of the Disney Fairies franchise produced by DisneyToon Studios. and revolves around Tinker Bell, a fairy character created by J.M. Barrie in his play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Would n't Grow Up, and featured in subsequent adaptations, especially in Disney 's animated works. Animated by Prana Studios, the film was produced using Digital 3D modeling. It was released on DVD and Blu - ray by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on September 21, 2010. Unlike the other films in the series, it takes place entirely away from Pixie Hollow. Like the other fairies, Tinker Bell attends fairy camp on the mainland. When she attempts to go find some lost things, Vidia reveals information about a human house nearby, which arouses Tink 's curiosity, prompting her to stray from camp, with Vidia following behind to watch over her. When she reaches the house, she is amazed by their "horseless carriage '', which is actually a car. She takes the time to flitter around under the car, while Vidia tries to get her to leave. Eventually they do, but on their way back to camp, Tink and Vidia stumble upon a fairy - sized house made by Lizzy Griffiths, a human girl who wishes to meet a real fairy. Tink immediately heads in to investigate, despite Vidia 's constant warnings. Tink claims it to be perfectly safe, so Vidia slams the door shut in an attempt to scare her but unintentionally locks Tink inside. When Lizzy begins to approach the house, Vidia tries to free Tink to no avail, resulting in Lizzy discovering Tink inside and taking her home. She prepares to show Tink to her father, Dr. Griffiths, a very busy and serious scientist, but upon seeing all the butterflies he has pinned in display for research, she decides to keep Tink a secret. Meanwhile, Vidia rallies Rosetta, Iridessa, Fawn, Silvermist, Clank and Bobble to rescue Tink. Due to the storm, they are unable to fly, so Clank and Bobble builds a ship. They get of to a good start until reaching a running stream, which destroys the ship. They continue on foot but upon crossing a mudbank, Vidia gets stuck waist deep. While Clank and Bobble try to find something to pull her out, the other fairies are nearly run over by a car but are saved when Iridessa blinds the driver, who then vacates the car, giving the girls a chance to get Vidia out by grabbing onto the driver 's shoelace. Back at the human house, Lizzy reveals her fascination of fairies. Tink is flattered by her obsession and since Tink ca n't leave the house because it 's raining outside, she decides to teach her nearly everything about fairies. They record their information in a new research book given to Lizzy by her father. During this time, they have grown a great friendship. After a while, the rain dies down, and Tink is able to return to camp. She gives Lizzy a hug and makes her way out but before she leaves, she watches Lizzy attempt to show her father the research. Unfortunately, Dr. Griffiths is too busy fixing the house 's leaks to pay her any mind, so Tink returns and fixes the leaks, saving Lizzy 's father from the burden. Afterwards, she makes the choice to release a captive butterfly Dr. Griffiths was planning on showing to a group of scientists. However, thinking that Lizzy was the one who set the butterfly free, he grounds her. Meanwhile, Vidia confesses to the rescue team that it was her fault that Tink has been captured. They comfort Vidia about the situation, informing her that it could have been worse without her presence. Once the rescue team finally reaches the human house, they are attacked by Lizzy 's pet cat, Mr. Twitches. Despite being an animal fairy, Fawn is unable to immediately tame a cat under pressure. A chase ensues before she is able to find catnip, eventually taming the cat. Back at the house, Tink shows Lizzy how to fly in her room with pixie dust. Then her father walks in, forcing Tink to hide in the fairy house. He finds footprints on the ceiling and sternly demands the truth. Lizzy confesses in tears tells him about Tink and shows him the research book. Her father, however, still refuses to believe in fairies, and he and his daughter get into a disagreement. Angered by Dr. Griffiths ' stubbornness, Tink reveals herself and chides him. The sight of the fairy astonishes the scientist and prompts him to capture Tink so that he could take her to London for research, but Vidia arrives just in time and pushes her out the way. Vidia is instead captured by Dr. Griffiths, but Lizzy and the fairies are able to convince him to think otherwise. In the end, Dr. Griffiths apologizes to his daughter for not believing her. Vidia is then freed, and she and Tink form a friendship. Lizzy and her father are now closer than ever. The score to the film was composed and conducted by Joel McNeely, who scored the first two Tinker Bell films. In addition, the following songs were written for the film: On February 16, 2015 Intrada Records (co-branded with Disney) released the soundtrack album. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film was released in cinemas on August 13, 2010, following a premiere held at the May Fair Hotel in London on August 8, attended by Lauren Mote. '' In the United States, the film had an outdoor premiere on August 28, 2010 as part of the Outdoor Cinema Food Fest at La Cienega Park in Beverly Hills, California. Between September 3 and 19, 2010, the film was shown at the El Capitan Theatre, in order to make it eligible for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Disney qualified the film in an unsuccessful effort to expand the category 's final nominations from three to five, as, under the Academy rules in effect that year, five films could only have been nominated in a calendar year in which 16 or more animated films were submitted. The film was released in the United States on DVD and Blu - ray on September 21, 2010. Like the previous two films, Great Fairy Rescue debuted on the Disney Channel in November 2010. Disney Fairies: Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue is an adventure game for the Nintendo DS. Like in the previous games, the player plays as a fairy created by the player on the Mainland around Lizzy 's house, using the touch screen to maneuver the character and play various minigames. The player must, for example, touch an arrow on the screen to move to another map or characters to speak to them. Television: In Irish cinemas, on its opening weekend the film ranked at number # 10, behind Toy Story 3, Knight and Day, Inception, Step Up 3D, The A-Team, The Last Airbender, The Sorcerer 's Apprentice, Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore, and The Karate Kid, and grossed € 30,174 in its first week.

what is the emerald tablet in the alchemist

Emerald Tablet - wikipedia The Emerald Tablet, also known as the Smaragdine Table, or Tabula Smaragdina, is a compact and cryptic piece of the Hermetica reputed to contain the secret of the prima materia and its transmutation. It was highly regarded by European alchemists as the foundation of their art and its Hermetic tradition. The original source of the Emerald Tablet is unknown. Although Hermes Trismegistus is the author named in the text, its first known appearance is in a book written in Arabic between the sixth and eighth centuries. The text was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century. Numerous translations, interpretations and commentaries followed. The layers of meaning in the Emerald Tablet have been associated with the creation of the philosopher 's stone, laboratory experimentation, phase transition, the alchemical magnum opus, the ancient, classical, element system, and the correspondence between macrocosm and microcosm. The text of the Smaragdine Tablet gives its author as Hermes Trismegistus ("Hermes the Thrice - Greatest ''), a legendary Hellenistic combination of the Greek god Hermes and the ancient Egyptian god Thoth. Despite the claims of antiquity, it 's believed to be an Arabic work written between the sixth and eighth centuries. The oldest documentable source of the text is the "Kitab Balaniyus al - Hakim fi'l - ` Ilal Kitāb sirr al - ḫalīqa '' كتاب سر الخليقة و صنعة الطبيعة أو كتاب العلل للحكيم بلنياس (book of Balinas the wise on the Causes) written in Arabic between the sixth and eighth centuries. This volume is attributed to "Balinas '' (or Pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana) In his book, Balinas frames the Emerald Tablet as ancient Hermetic wisdom. He tells his readers that he discovered the text in a vault below a statue of Hermes in Tyana, and that, inside the vault, an old corpse on a golden throne held the emerald tablet. The laws of hermeticism: Following Balinas, an early version of the Emerald Tablet appeared in Kitab Sirr al - Asrar: (Book of the Secret of Creation and the Art of Nature), itself a composite of earlier works, and in Kitab Ustuqus al - Uss al - Thani (Second Book of the Elements of Foundation) attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan. The Smaragdine Tablet was first translated into Latin in the twelfth century by Hugo of Santalla. The text is also in an enlarged thirteenth century edition of Secretum Secretorum (also known as Kitab Sirr al - Asrar). A translation by Isaac Newton is found among his alchemical papers that are currently housed in King 's College Library, Cambridge University. Tis true without lying, certain & most true. That which is below is like that which is above & that which is above is like that which is below to do the miracles of one only thing And as all things have been & arose from one by the mediation of one: so all things have their birth from this one thing by adaptation. The Sun is its father, the moon its mother, the wind hath carried it in its belly, the earth is its nurse. The father of all perfection in the whole world is here. Its force or power is entire if it be converted into earth. Separate thou the earth from the fire, the subtle from the gross sweetly with great industry. It ascends from the earth to the heaven & again it descends to the earth & receives the force of things superior & inferior. By this means you shall have the glory of the whole world & thereby all obscurity shall fly from you. Its force is above all force. For it vanquishes every subtle thing & penetrates every solid thing. So was the world created. From this are & do come admirable adaptations whereof the means (or process) is here in this. Hence I am called Hermes Trismegist, having the three parts of the philosophy of the whole world That which I have said of the operation of the Sun is accomplished & ended. Original edition of the Latin text. (Chrysogonus Polydorus, Nuremberg 1541): Verum, sine mendacio, certum et verissimum: Quod est inferius est sicut quod est superius, et quod est superius est sicut quod est inferius, ad perpetranda miracula rei unius. Et sicut res omnes fuerunt ab uno, meditatione unius, sic omnes res natae ab hac una re, adaptatione. Pater eius est Sol. Mater eius est Luna, portavit illud Ventus in ventre suo, nutrix eius terra est. Pater omnis telesmi totius mundi est hic. Virtus eius integra est si versa fuerit in terram. Separabis terram ab igne, subtile ab spisso, suaviter, magno cum ingenio. Ideo fugiet a te omnis obscuritas. Haec est totius fortitudinis fortitudo fortis, quia vincet omnem rem subtilem, omnemque solidam penetrabit. Sic mundus creatus est. Hinc erunt adaptationes mirabiles, quarum modus est hic. Itaque vocatus sum Hermes Trismegistus, habens tres partes philosophiae totius mundi. Completum est quod dixi de operatione Solis. In its several Western recensions, the Tablet became a mainstay of medieval and Renaissance alchemy. Commentaries and / or translations were published by, among others, Trithemius, Roger Bacon, Michael Maier, Aleister Crowley, Albertus Magnus, and Isaac Newton. The concise text was a popular summary of alchemical principles, wherein the secrets of the philosopher 's stone were thought to have been described. The fourteenth century alchemist Ortolanus (or Hortulanus) wrote a substantial exegesis on The Secret of Hermes, which was influential on the subsequent development of alchemy. Many manuscripts of this copy of the Emerald Tablet and the commentary of Ortolanus survive, dating at least as far back as the fifteenth century. Ortolanus, like Albertus Magnus before him saw the tablet as a cryptic recipe that described laboratory processes using deck names (or code words). This was the dominant view held by Europeans until the fifteenth century. By the early sixteenth century, the writings of Johannes Trithemius (1462 -- 1516) marked a shift away from a laboratory interpretation of the Emerald Tablet, to a literal approach. Trithemius equated Hermes ' one thing with the monad of pythagorean philosophy and the anima mundi. This interpretation of the Hermetic text was adopted by alchemists such as John Dee, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Gerhard Dorn. C.G. Jung identified The Emerald Tablet with a table made of green stone which he encountered in the first of a set of his dreams and visions beginning at the end of 1912, and climaxing in his writing Seven Sermons to the Dead in 1916. Historians of science, Eric John Holmyard (1891 - 1959) and Julius Ruska (1867 - 1949) also studied the tablet in the twentieth century. Because of its longstanding popularity, the Emerald Tablet is the only piece of non-Greek Hermetica to attract widespread attention in the West. In the television series Dark, the mysterious priest Noah has a large image of the Emerald Tablet tattooed on his back. The image also appears on a metal door in the caves that are central to the plot. Several characters are shown looking at copies of the text. In addition, the sixth episode of the series is named after a line from the Latin version, "Sic mundus creatus est. ''

who is the president of congress party in gujarat

Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee - Wikipedia The Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee (GPCC) is the unit of the Indian National Congress for the state of Gujarat. It was formed in 1920 and its first president was Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. The GPCC would organize Indian nationalist campaigns during the Indian freedom struggle, and after independence in 1947, it became responsible for supplying candidates of the Congress in local and state election campaigns. In November 2007, the Congress released a list of its party contestants for the first phase of two - phased elections in Gujarat. Congress lost the elections as the Bharatiya Janata Party got clear majority. Gujarat Pradesh Congress started its first office at Khamasa in Ahmedabad under leadership of Shri Kantilal Ghiya as a first President. In 1971, it was shifted to Shahpur. Then it was shifted to Hawawala Blocks on Ashram Road, Ahmedabad. In 1977, it was shifted to Khanpur in the premises, which was till recently Ahmedabad City Congress Office. Then it was shifted to Vikram Chambers on Ashram Road. Then, the place where Rajiv Gandhi Bhavan stands at present was handed over to Congress by Late Shri Hitendrabhai Desai. Gujarat Congress was run from this premises, till the construction work started for Rajiv Gandhi Bhavan. Meanwhile, it was shifted to Mirzapur earlier and then to Vasna. And on 28 December 2006 Political secretary of Hon. Congress President shri Ahmedbhai Patel hoisted the flag on new building (Rajiv Gandhi Bhavan).

when will winner of american idol 2018 be announced

American Idol (season 16) - wikipedia The sixteenth season of American Idol premiered on March 11, 2018, on the ABC television network. It is the show 's first season to air on ABC. Ryan Seacrest continued his role as the show 's host, while Katy Perry, Luke Bryan, and Lionel Richie joined as judges. Maddie Poppe from Clarksville, Iowa won the season on May 21, 2018, while her boyfriend Caleb Lee Hutchinson was runner - up. Poppe was the first female winner since Candice Glover in season twelve. In early 2017, Variety reported that FremantleMedia was in talks to revive the show for NBC or for its original network, Fox. A dispute between Fremantle and Core Media Group derailed these plans. Then, in May 2017, it was announced that ABC was making a bid to revive the program. Later, ABC announced that it had acquired the rights to the series, and that American Idol would return for the 2017 -- 18 television season. On November 6, 2017, it was announced that the revival season would premiere on March 11, 2018. On July 20, 2017, it was announced on Live with Kelly and Ryan, that Ryan Seacrest would be returning as the host for the revival season. On May 16, 2017, Katy Perry was the first judge to be announced by ABC. On September 24, 2017, Luke Bryan was the second judge to be announced for the revival season. On September 29, 2017, Lionel Richie was the third and final judge to be announced. On February 21, 2018, it was announced that iHeartRadio radio personality Bobby Bones would be the mentor for the Top 24 this season. Radio Disney is broadcasting its first season of American Idol Insider. On April 23, 2018, ABC announced that the April 29, May 6, and May 13 live shows of the season would air across all mainland U.S. time zones, a first for American Idol. In June 2017, it was announced that American Idol would begin two bus tours in 19 cities, later increased to 22, for audition starting August 17, 2017. Those who passed their first audition would go in front of the producers where they would be selected to appear before the judges in different cities. Instead of focusing on a city in each aired episode as in previous seasons, this season each episode showed a compilations of auditions from different cities. During the live broadcast of the 2017 American Music Awards, three contestants who did not pass the audition in front of the judges were given one more chance to allow the public to vote for them. The three candidates were Maris, Britney Holmes and Dominique Smith. The winner of the golden ticket to Hollywood was then revealed the following night on an episode of Dancing with the Stars. Lionel Richie appeared in the show announcing that the public vote was in favor of Britney Holmes, a 28 - year - old vocal coach from Texas, who is headed to Hollywood as the first declared semifinalist of the season. Hollywood Week aired over two episodes on March 26 and April 1. It featured three rounds: Lines of 10, Group Round, and Solo Round. In the first round, each contestant sang individually, and after ten sang, they gathered in a line. Those who impressed the judges and the producers advanced to the next round where the contestants performed in groups of four or five, singing a song together. The remaining auditionees who passed the group rounds performed their final solos to advance in the Showcase Round. The Showcase Round aired on April 2, which featured the top 50 performing for the judges and a live audience at Exchange LA, a nightclub in Los Angeles. The following day, the judges narrowed the number of contestants down from 50 to 24 in the Final Judgement. The top 24 contestants then moved on to perform solos and celebrity duets. The following is a list of the contestants who reached the Top 24 and the song they performed at the Showcase: Color key: The Top 24 contestants were split into two groups of twelve. Prerecorded performances at the Academy in the Heart of LA of the first group aired on April 8 and the second group on April 15. On the following day each week, prerecorded performances of each contestant 's duet aired, as did the judges ' selection of seven contestants from each group to advance to the Top 14. Idol contestants were paired with celebrity singers as their duet partners. The artists who duetted with the Top 24 included: Banners, Aloe Blacc, Bishop Briggs, Cam, Colbie Caillat, Luis Fonsi, Andy Grammer, Lea Michele, Patrick Monahan, Rachel Platten, Bebe Rexha, Sugarland, and Allen Stone. Color key: Color key: The Top 14 performances were taped on April 21, 2018, and aired on Sunday, April 22, followed with the live results on Monday, April 23. Color key: The Top 10 performed Disney songs on Sunday, April 29, 2018. Idina Menzel served as a guest mentor. The Top 7 performed tribute performances to the late Prince and songs from their birth years. Nick Jonas served as a guest mentor. The Top 5 performed songs by Carrie Underwood and songs dedicated to their mothers. Underwood served as mentor for the week and performed with the contestants. The Top 3 performed their winner 's song, a reprise of their favorite performance of the season and a song dedicated to their hometowns, which they visited. Bobby Bones returned as mentor this week. Color key: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the premiere episode holds an approval rating of 70 % based on 20 reviews, with an average rating of 6.51 / 10. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 60 out of 100 based on eight reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''

who sang you don't get me im part of the union

Part of the Union - wikipedia "Part of the Union '' is a song by English band Strawbs featured on their 1973 album Bursting at the Seams and was the band 's most successful single, peaking at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart. It also reached number 10 in the Irish Singles Chart. The writing credits are given to Richard Hudson and John Ford, but the song may be an adaptation of the Woody Guthrie / Almanac Singers ' song "Union Maid ''. The lyrical resemblance is striking although the tune is different. The song was included on the album Bursting at the Seams but is not considered typical of the songs on that album. Indeed, the track was originally recorded without a contribution by band leader Dave Cousins and was to be released under the name of "The Brothers ''. It demonstrates the different, more commercial direction the writing partnership of Hudson and Ford was taking within the band. Although it was believed that the song was intended to ridicule the powerful British trades unions of the time, the song (especially its chorus "You do n't get me I 'm part of the Union '') quickly became popular as an unofficial anthem of the trades union movement. Subsequently, however, the Strawbs have stated that the song was written with genuine celebratory intent. The song resurfaced on the UK television advertisement for insurance company Norwich Union in 1998. The B - side track "Will You Go '' is an arrangement of the Irish folk song "Wild Mountain Thyme '' written by Belfast musician Francis McPeake, dating back to the repertoire of The Strawberry Hill Boys (the original name of Strawbs) In the band 's appearance on BBC 's Top of the Pops, keyboardist Blue Weaver appeared with both piano and pedal harmonium and drummer Richard Hudson appeared with a marching bass drum emblazoned with the words "The Associated Union of Strawbs Workers ''. The original "Brothers '' recording can be found on the box set A Taste of Strawbs. Cockerel Chorus (of "Nice One Cyril '' fame) also recorded the song for inclusion on their 1973 Party Sing - a-long album. Recorded by The Hindle Strikers with T.B.E. in 1984 on the Catch 22 label (CTT001A) - originally they recorded it on cassette unaware that DJs required it on vinyl to play it on the radio. Since 2007 the song whas been included as a standard part of the Strawbs ' live set and was included in their live DVD The Strawbs - Lay Down With The Strawbs, filmed and recorded live at The Robin 2 in Bilston, UK on 5 March 2006.

what was dorothy's surname in the wizard of oz

Dorothy Gale - wikipedia Dorothy Gale is a fictional character created by L. Frank Baum as the main protagonist in many of his Oz novels. She first appears in Baum 's classic children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and reappears in most of its sequels. In addition, she is the main character in various adaptations, notably the classic 1939 film adaptation of the novel, The Wizard of Oz. In later novels, the Land of Oz steadily becomes more familiar to her than her homeland of Kansas. Indeed, Dorothy eventually goes to live in an apartment in the Emerald City 's palace but only after her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry have settled in a farmhouse on its outskirts, unable to pay the mortgage on their house in Kansas. Dorothy 's best friend Princess Ozma, ruler of Oz, officially makes her a princess of Oz later in the novels. In the Oz books, Dorothy is an orphan raised by her aunt and uncle in the bleak landscape of a Kansas farm. Whether Aunt Em or Uncle Henry is Dorothy 's blood relative remains unclear. Uncle Henry makes reference to Dorothy 's mother in The Emerald City of Oz, possibly an indication that Henry is Dorothy 's blood relative. (It is also possible that "Aunt '' and "Uncle '' are affectionate terms of a foster family and that Dorothy is not related to either of them, although Zeb in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz claims to be Dorothy 's second cousin, related through Aunt Em. Little mention is made of what happened to Dorothy 's birth parents, other than a passing reference to her mother being dead.) Along with her small black dog, Toto, Dorothy is swept away by a tornado to the Land of Oz and, much like Alice of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, they enter an alternative world filled with talking creatures. In many of the Oz books, Dorothy is the main heroine of the story. She is often seen with her best friend and the ruler of Oz, Princess Ozma. Her trademark blue and white gingham dress is admired by the Munchkins because blue is their favorite color and white is worn only by good witches and sorceresses, which indicates to them that Dorothy is a good witch. Dorothy has a forthright and take - charge character, exhibiting no fear when she slaps the Cowardly Lion, and organizing the Winkies ' rescue mission of her friends who have been dismembered by the Winged monkeys. She is not afraid of angering the Wicked Witch of the West, as shown when the Witch stole one of Dorothy 's slippers, and in retaliation, Dorothy hurled a bucket of water over her, not knowing water was fatal to the witch. She brazenly rebuffs Princess Langwidere 's threat to take her head for her collection -- "Well, I b'lieve you wo n't. '' (Following Anna Laughlin 's portrayal of the character in the popular 1903 Broadway version of The Wizard of Oz, Baum scripts Dorothy to speak in childlike contractions with Ozma of Oz, which she continues to do throughout the series). This aspect of her character was somewhat lessened by her companionship of Ozma, in whom Baum placed the greater level of wisdom and dignity. Yet even this is complicated by her associations with her cousin, Zeb of Hugson 's Ranch, a rugged, manly boy who does not take well to Oz and can not think of anything much more interesting than defeating the Munchkins ' wrestling champion, which he proves unable to do. Dorothy has several other pets, including her white / pink / purple kitten, Eureka. Popular in crossword puzzles is Dorothy 's cow, Imogene, from the 1902 stage version, and is implied, though unnamed, in the 1910 film. Eric Shanower 's novel, The Giant Garden of Oz, features a cow named Imogene. In the sixth Oz book by Baum, The Emerald City of Oz (1910), when Uncle Henry and Aunt Em are unable to pay the mortgage on the new farmhouse built at the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy brings them to live in Oz; the plot features a tour of Oz as a marvelous, Utopian land in which they have escaped the troubles of Kansas. She becomes princess of Oz and Ozma 's "companion, '' essentially marrying the queen. Dorothy is a standard character, having at least a cameo role in thirteen of the fourteen Oz books written by L. Frank Baum (while she did not appear at all in The Marvelous Land of Oz, she is mentioned several times in that story, as it was her actions in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz that led to the events in the former) and is at least a frequent figure in the nineteen that followed by author Ruth Plumly Thompson, getting at least a cameo in all her books except Captain Salt in Oz (in which neither Oz nor any of its inhabitants appear, though they are mentioned). Major subsequent appearances by Dorothy in the "Famous Forty '' are in The Lost Princess of Oz, Glinda of Oz, The Royal Book of Oz, Grampa in Oz, The Lost King of Oz, The Wishing Horse of Oz, Ozoplaning with the Wizard of Oz, and The Magical Mimics in Oz. Most of the other books focus on different child protagonists, some Ozite, some from other Nonestican realms, and some from the United States, and as such, her appearances in the main series become more and more limited. In Jack Snow 's The Magical Mimics in Oz (1946), Ozma places Dorothy on the throne of Oz while she is away visiting Queen Lurline 's fairy band. The magic of Oz keeps Dorothy young. In The Lost King of Oz (1925), a Wish Way carries Dorothy to a film set in Hollywood, California. She begins to age very rapidly to her late 20s, making up for at least some of the years that have already passed. The Wish Way carries her back to Oz and restores her to her younger self, but she learns then that it would be unwise for her ever to return to the outside world. Baum never states Dorothy 's age, but he does state in The Lost Princess of Oz that she is a year younger than Betsy Bobbin and a year older than Trot, whose age was specified as 10 in Ruth Plumly Thompson 's The Giant Horse of Oz. Thompson 's Oz books show a certain intolerance in Dorothy. In The Cowardly Lion of Oz, circus clown Notta Bit More arrives in the Emerald City "disguised '' as a traditional witch, and Dorothy immediately starts dumping buckets water on him without provocation (although she reacted this way on the assumption that the "witch '' Notta was an evil witch like her old enemy, the Wicked Witch of the West). In The Wishing Horse of Oz, she makes unsavory comments about the dark coloration Gloma and her subjects take on as a disguise, making them somewhat resemble black people. This behavior is not characteristic of Dorothy in Baum 's Oz books. In The Patchwork Girl of Oz, she pushes and slaps through crowds of black Tottenhots to rescue the Scarecrow, whom they are tossing around, but this is more an example of her gumption than any sort of prejudice, as she is otherwise kind and polite to the Tottenhots, and accepts that their ways are different from those who dwell in the Emerald City. The authorized sequels of Sherwood Smith, The Emerald Wand of Oz and Trouble Under Oz, center on the child characters Dori and Em, who live with their Aunt Susan. All three are indirect descendants of Dorothy, though their specific relationship to her is unclear. Philip José Farmer 's 1982 science - fiction novel A Barnstormer in Oz tells the story of aviator Henry "Hank '' Stover -- who is not surprised one beautiful spring day in 1923 when he flies his Curtiss Jenny biplane through a strange green cloud and finds himself in Oz. Hank knows that he is in Oz because his mother, Dorothy Gale - Stover, had been there back in 1890 and later told him of her experiences. Farmer 's premise is that Dorothy only visited Oz once and told her story to a journalist called Frank Baum. This journalist would later create a series of books from Dorothy 's only adventure in Oz. Farmer 's Oz is on the brink of both a civil war and an invasion by the United States Army. Dorothy 's last name is never mentioned in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz or The Marvelous Land of Oz, the first two Oz books. It is disclosed in the third book Ozma of Oz (1907). The last name of Gale was originally mentioned in Baum 's script for the 1902 Broadway stage version of The Wizard of Oz, in which it was originally a setup for a punning joke. (DOROTHY: "I am Dorothy, and I am one of the Kansas Gales. '' SCARECROW: "That accounts for your breezy manner. '') An influence on the creation of Dorothy appears to be the Alice books of Lewis Carroll. Although Baum reportedly found these plots incoherent, he identified their source of popularity as Alice herself, a character with whom child readers could identify; this influenced his choice of a protagonist for his own books. Dorothy 's character was probably named after Baum 's own niece, Dorothy Louise Gage, who died in infancy. Baum 's wife was very attached to her and was deeply grieved by her death, so there is speculation that Baum inserted her name into his stories as a memorial. Elements of Dorothy Gale 's character are possibly derived from Matilda Joslyn Gage, Dorothy Gage 's grandmother. Dorothy Gage is buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Bloomington, Illinois. Lee Sandlin writes that L. Frank Baum read a disaster report of a tornado in Irving, Kansas, in May 1879 which included the name of a victim, Dorothy Gale, who was "found buried face down in a mud puddle. '' In Baum 's 1902 stage musical adaptation, Dorothy was played by Anna Laughlin. In 1908 L. Frank Baum adapted his early Oz novels as The Fairylogue and Radio - Plays, with Romola Remus as Dorothy. This was followed by The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, a motion picture short that Otis Turner, one of the directors of Fairylogue, made without Baum as part of a contract fulfillment. In this 1910 film, Dorothy was played by Bebe Daniels. It was followed by two sequels (the same year), Dorothy and the Scarecrow in Oz and The Land of Oz, both of which included Dorothy, but whether Daniels participated is unknown. Baum subsequently loosely adapted The Wonderful Wizard of Oz into a 1914 motion picture directed by J. Farrell MacDonald titled His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz with Violet MacMillan as Dorothy. Dorothy does not appear in The Patchwork Girl of Oz (1914), although some film books claim that Mildred Harris, who had yet to sign her contract with The Oz Film Manufacturing Company, played the role. The character, is, in fact, eliminated from the film version, although she has a fairly large role in the novel. Dorothy Dwan portrayed Dorothy in the 1925 film Wizard of Oz. In this film, Aunt Em (Mary Carr) informs her on her eighteenth birthday that she was left on their doorstep and is really a princess of Oz destined to marry Prince Kynd (Bryant Washburn), who has currently lost the throne to Prime Minister Kruel (Josef Swickard), in a storyline similar to that of His Majesty the Scarecrow of Oz, only with Dorothy as the love interest. In the end, the story proves to be the dream of a little girl who has fallen asleep listening to the story of Kynd and Kruel, said to be the story of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The film also introduced the idea of the farmhands also being the Scarecrow, Tin Woodsman and Cowardly Lion, albeit as costumes they don in order to conceal themselves in Oz. In the 1939 movie The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy was played by Judy Garland, who received an Academy Juvenile Award for her performance. Since she was sixteen years old at the time of filming, Garland 's maturing figure was bound into a figure - hiding corset. Since fantasy films generally were unsuccessful at that time, MGM portrayed Oz as a head - trauma - induced delirium, instead of a real place. It is implied that Oz is merely Dorothy 's dream since she awakens in bed at the end, though Dorothy is convinced that her journey was all in fact real. A window knocked out Dorothy when the tornado was approaching the farm. After that storm lifted the farmhouse, she and Toto saw a chicken coop, an old lady knitting calmly in a rocking chair with a cat on her lap, a cow, and two men rowing a boat who doff their hats to her as well as miscellaneous debris flying by them. Finally, Dorothy saw Miss Almira Gulch, who was going to abduct Toto to the sheriff, fly on her bicycle outside the window, becoming a witch on a broom. As one of the first movies to be filmed in Technicolor, the director had the color of the famous magic slippers changed from silver to red because the Ruby slippers were more visually appealing on film. She is reunited with Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, their three farm workers (Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion 's alter egos), and Professor Marvel (The Wizard 's alter ego) when she awakens from being unconscious at the end of this film, back at home and safe. Dorothy 's characterization in the 1939 film is more of a damsel in distress, somewhat unlike the adventurous, forthright and bold Dorothy of the books. In the video for Blues Traveler 's 1994 hit song "Run - Around '', Dorothy tries to get into a club where the band is performing. She is portrayed by actress Diana Marquis. In Disney 's 2013 film Oz the Great and Powerful, Dorothy 's maternal origins are hinted at when Annie (Michelle Williams) informs her friend Oscar Diggs that her fiancé 's surname is Gale. The 2007 Sci - Fi Channel miniseries Tin Man reworked her into DG, a descendant of Dorothy 's, and is played by Zooey Deschanel. In this iteration, the trademark dress is actually a diner waitress uniform; the rest of the time she wears a leather jacket and jeans and rides a motorcycle. When she is taken into Oz, she learns that she is actually the princess of the kingdom of Oz, sent to another world and raised by androids to protect her after her sister was possessed by the spirit of an ancient witch that she unleashed by accident. In the 2012 TV miniseries Dorothy and the Witches of Oz, Dorothy (played by Paulie Rojas) is shown as an adult writer and starts regaining suppressed memories of her actual adventures in the Land of Oz when the Wicked Witch of the West plans to conquer the Land of Oz and all of Earth. In Emerald City, Dorothy is an adult when she is taken to Oz, working as a nurse. She is still living with Em and Henry, but here they are identified as her adopted parents, her biological mother having left her with them as a baby and only recently getting back in touch with Dorothy. Months after receiving the letter, Dorothy makes her first official visit to her biological mother when the tornado occurs that takes her to Oz. Faced with an Oz that is increasingly opposed to magic on the Wizard 's orders and accused of the death of the Witch of the East - which was initially an accident and later self - defence when the Witch survived her injuries - Dorothy learns more about her true ties to this world as she searches for answers, accompanied by a police German Shepherd she names ' Toto ' and the amnesic Lucas. The TV series concludes with her returning to Earth after the wizard 's forces are decimated by the Beast Forever, but she is subsequently contacted by Lucas and Toto - both of whom she left behind in Oz - appearing to her in Kansas to ask for help. Dorothy appears in the third and fifth seasons of the TV series Once Upon a Time. In this show, Dorothy is from a fictional version Kansas and not from Earth (dubbed the Land Without Magic in the show). She is portrayed as an adult by Teri Reeves and as a child by Matreya Scarrwener. Dorothy, caught in her Kansas farmhouse during a raging cyclone, is swept away to Oz. Taken in by the protectors of Oz, the sisterhood of witches, she comes to view them as family. One night, she is confronted by Zelena the Witch of the West (Rebecca Mader), while getting water from a well. Zelena intends to get rid of Dorothy as she believes the girl is destined to usurp her seat in the sisterhood. In defense, Dorothy throws a bucket of water at Zelena; causing the witch to melt. Glinda the Witch of the South (Sunny Mabrey), then appears to offer her to take Zelena 's place as the Witch of the West, but Dorothy declines; wishing only to return home. With Glinda 's help, she is taken to see the Wizard and given a pair of silver slippers to travel to any world. Dorothy thanks the Wizard of Oz (Christopher Gorham) and proceeds to click the slippers ' heels three times to send herself home. Only after the girl 's departure, Glinda discovers too late that Zelena masqueraded as the Wizard in order to usher Dorothy out of Oz. Upon returning to Kansas, Dorothy tells her family about her experiences in Oz. However, her family does n't believe her, and attempts to get her admitted into an asylum. Her aunt, Emily Brown (Gina Stockdale) is the only person who believes her, and refuses to let her be admitted. However, Aunt Em dies, gifting Dorothy a puppy named Toto before she does. Years pass, and Dorothy returns to Oz. Learning from the munchkins that Zelena is still alive and no longer fearing the witch, Dorothy storms the palace in time to stop Zelena from stealing the Scarecrow 's (Paul Scheer) brain for a time spell. Dorothy taunts Zelena about having one thing she 'll never obtain, the love of the people, as Zelena prepares a fireball to destroy her. Toto, hopping out of the bag, trots up to the palace curtains, while Dorothy ducks to avoid Zelena 's fireball, which hits an approaching guard. Toto then tugs a string, causing the curtains to fall on Zelena, who fumbles to get free. While she is occupied, Dorothy escapes the palace with the Scarecrow and her dog. Later, she and her companions hide out in a cottage, but Zelena eventually finds them, after putting a tracking spell on Dorothy 's old bicycle. Dorothy does her best to protect the Scarecrow, but Zelena ends up ripping out his brain. Fearlessly standing up to the witch, Dorothy dares Zelena to do her worst, while boasting that she 'll never be afraid of her again. Zelena expresses brief interest in her brave attitude, wondering what made her change. In the end, Zelena leaves Dorothy unharmed to let the people of Oz see that, for once, their great hero has failed them. When Zelena gets banished to Oz once again in a later episode, she steals Dorothy 's dog Toto. When Dorothy tries to rescue Toto, Zelena puts her under a sleeping curse and she can only be awoken by true love 's kiss. At the end of the episode Ruby / Red Ridding Hood wakes Dorothy up by giving Dorothy true loves kiss, making them the show 's first LGBT couple. Dorothy is one of the non-playable characters that appears in the 2015 crossover video game LEGO Dimensions. While on her way to the Emerald City with Toto and her three companions, they encounter Batman who thinks that the Scarecrow is the same one from his world. The interrogation is short lived, as Dorothy and her gang are sucked into a vortex where they are captured by the game 's central antagonist, Lord Vortech. Lord Vortech imprisons Dorothy and uses the Ruby Slippers as one of the foundation elements needed to create his "perfect world ''. Whatever becomes of Dorothy after Vortech 's demise is up for questioning.

when did diary of a wimpy kid book come out

Diary of a Wimpy Kid - wikipedia Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a satirical realistic fiction comedy novel for children and teenagers written and illustrated by Jeff Kinney. It is the first book in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series. The book is about a boy named Greg Heffley and his struggles to fit in as he begins middle school. Diary of a Wimpy Kid first appeared on FunBrain in 2004, where it was read 20 million times. The abridged hardcover adaptation was released on April 1, 2007. The book was named New York Times bestseller among other awards and praise. A film of the same name was released on March 19, 2010. The sequel to the film is Rodrick Rules, followed by Dog Days and The Long Haul. As Greg Heffley is getting ready for his first day of middle school, he is teased by his teenage brother Rodrick, because his mom bought him his supplies for school. He has a little brother, a toddler named Manny, who is "spoiled rotten '' because he gets everything he wants and also gets away with everything he does wrong. His father, named Frank Heffley, does not encourage Greg 's way of life - playing video games all day - rather than going outside and playing sports. During the first day of school, Greg is immediately rejected and is forced to sit with another outcast named Fregley, from whom Greg tries to keep "a safe distance ''. He is initially unsure whether his best friend Rowley Jefferson will be able to fit in, as he considers Rowley to be immature. However, Greg strongly believes that he can become popular. He and Rowley decide to take part in wrestling at school, although Greg quits after losing a match against Fregley. On Halloween, Greg and Rowley go trick - or - treating, but are challenged by teens who spray Greg and Rowley with a water - filled fire extinguisher. Greg tries to threaten them by saying he 's going to call the police, but the teenagers start to chase them. The two friends escape and go to Greg 's grandmother 's house until the teens leave. After getting few presents for Christmas, Greg decides to play a game with Rowley in which Rowley must ride a bike while Greg tries to knock him off. On one of Greg 's tries, the ball gets under the front wheel, which causes Rowley to fall off and break his arm. When Rowley goes to school with a plaster cast, the girls take care of him (carrying his books, feeding him food) which makes Greg jealous. After Rowley 's arm heals, he and Greg decide to enroll in the safety patrol program in which they walk younger kids to their homes. One day, as Greg is walking the kids by himself he chases the young children after scaring them with a stick with worms on it. A neighbour contacts the school and tells them about Greg 's unusual behavior. The principal suspects Rowley, as Greg was wearing Rowley 's jacket. Rowley is suspended from the safety patrol. Greg later decides to confess the truth, but Rowley has already informed on him, resulting in their friendship breaking off. Greg tries to befriend Fregley to make Rowley jealous, although he is uncomfortable around Fregley. Resorting to auditioning for the school play (based on The Wizard of Oz) Greg lands the role as a tree, while Patty Farrel is cast as Dorothy, the protagonist of the novel. During the show 's opening performance, Rodrick brings a camera to film the play. Greg becomes too nervous to sing, confusing the other "trees '' who also fail to sing. Patty gets frustrated and angers Greg, who throws props at Patty, and then everyone gets in the fight, ending the play in chaos. Feeling desolate from being blatantly rejected by everyone, Greg is surprised and a little happy to see Rowley approaching him at recess, until, he discovers that he 's only there to demand back a CD he 'd left with Greg. They get into an awkward fist - fight. While they are fighting, the teens who chased them at halloween are drawn to the chaos crowding around Greg and Rowley tumbling around in the dirt. When the leader of the teen gang scares away the rest of the students, they force Greg and Rowley to eat a moldy piece of cheese that has been left on the school grounds for years. Rowley is the first to eat the cheese - except when it comes to Greg 's turn, he claims that he 's lactose intolerant and that eating cheese will kill him. The principal turns up and the teens disappear. The other students see the cheese in front of Rowley and believe he has eaten from it. Greg takes the blame and claims he ate the cheese. Greg and Rowley mend their friendship. In 2005, FunBrain and Jeff Kinney released an online version of Diary of a Wimpy Kid. The website made daily entries until June 2005. The book became an instant hit and the online version received about 20 million views as of 2007. Many online readers requested a printed version. At the 2006 New York Comic - Con Kinney proposed Diary to Charles Kochman, Editorial Director of the ComicArts division of Abrams Books, who purchased the rights to the book. According to Kochman, the two initially conceived it as a book for adults, believing it would appeal to audiences similar to that of the TV series The Wonder Years. Kochman brought it before the Abrams publishing board, which convinced Kinney and Kochman that it would be better aimed toward children. In 2007, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, an abridged version of the original online book, was published. The main character, Greg, has trouble with family, friends, and his local middle school. He is very concerned about how popular he is at school, and he daydreams a lot about being rich and famous when he grows up. He tries to fit in at his school, but usually he does not succeed. Facing many challenges, Greg attempts to handle them very creatively, but unfortunately his antics often backfire on him. Greg 's best friend has a larger than average frame. He is always willing to do what Greg tells him, including dangerous stunts. Rowley goes on vacations all the time, which annoys Greg. Rowley is a loyal friend, but he sometimes behaves in an immature or childish manner. He also dresses in an unusual way. Greg 's "spoiled '' little brother, a three - year - old toddler. He never gets in trouble no matter what, even when he really deserves it. Manny is just getting toilet trained. Rodrick is Greg 's teenage brother and he never misses a chance to be cruel to Greg. He is known for sleeping excessively in the morning and for his rebellious attitude. Rodrick is part of a garage band called "The Löded Diper ''. Rodrick will do anything to embarrass Greg and will even cause problems for Manny to make everyone 's life miserable. Diary of a Wimpy Kid is the first book in an ongoing book franchise. The second, Rodrick Rules was released February 1, 2008 and was listed on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 117 weeks. The Last Straw, the third book in the series, released on January 13, 2009 was on the New York Times Best Sellers list for 65 weeks, peaking at number one. Dog Days was released October 12, 2009 with 217 pages. The book was ranked at number one on the New York Times Best Sellers List for all 25 weeks of inclusion, making Dog Days the # 1 Best Selling Book of 2009. The Ugly Truth was released November 9, 2010 with 217 pages. The sixth, Cabin Fever was released November 15, 2011. The seventh, The Third Wheel was released on November 13, 2012. The eighth, Hard Luck was released on November 5, 2013 in the United States and on November 6 in the United Kingdom. The ninth, The Long Haul was released on November 4, 2014 in the US and November 5, 2014 in the UK. The tenth, Old School, was released globally on November 3, 2015. The eleventh, Double Down, was published on November 1, 2016. The book won the Blue Peter Book Award 2012, revealed live on British kids channel CBBC on March 1, 2012. Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a 2010 American comedy directed by Thor Freudenthal and based on Jeff Kinney 's book. The film was released on March 19, 2010. It was released on DVD, iTunes, and Blu - ray on August 3, 2010. The movie stars Zachary Gordon as Greg Heffley, Robert Capron as Rowley Jefferson, Steve Zahn as Frank Heffley (Dad), Rachael Harris as Susan Heffley (Mom), Devon Bostick as Rodrick Heffley, Chloë Grace Moretz as Angie Steadman, and Connor & Owen Fielding as Manny Heffley, Greg 's brother.

how to play cross platform on ps4 and pc

List of video Games that Support cross-platform Play - wikipedia Since the Dreamcast, there have been online video games that support cross-platform play. Listed here are the games that support cross-platform with their consoles and computers:

who was the defendant in the landmark case that ended segregation in the public schools

Brown v. Board of Education - wikipedia Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state - sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court 's unanimous (9 -- 0) decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. '' As a result, de jure racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the Civil Rights Movement, and a model for many future impact litigation cases. However, the decision 's fourteen pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court 's second decision in Brown II (349 U.S. 294 (1955)) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed ''. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation. This policy had been endorsed in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which held that as long as the separate facilities for the separate races were equal, segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment ("no State shall... deny to any person... the equal protection of the laws ''). The plaintiffs in Brown asserted that this system of racial separation, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans. Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCO 's 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled The Race Question. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdal 's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944). Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration. The research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Court 's decision. The Clarks ' "doll test '' studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildren 's mental status. The United States and the Soviet Union were both at the height of the Cold War during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court Justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism played on America 's international image. When Justice William O. Douglas traveled to India in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes? '' Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India. '' Chief Justice Earl Warren, nominated to the Supreme Court by President Eisenhower, echoed Douglas 's concerns in a 1954 speech to the American Bar Association, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad,... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile. '' In 1951, a class action suit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools under an 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his local church, and an African American. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend. Brown 's daughter Linda, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to Monroe Elementary, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while Sumner Elementary, a white school, was seven blocks from her house. As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools. The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas '' was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court Justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming, Zelma Henderson, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, and Lucinda Todd. The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88. The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), which had upheld a state law requiring "separate but equal '' segregated facilities for blacks and whites in railway cars. The three - judge District Court panel found that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on negro children, but denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers. The case of Brown v. Board of Education as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: Brown itself, Briggs v. Elliott (filed in South Carolina), Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (filed in Virginia), Gebhart v. Belton (filed in Delaware), and Bolling v. Sharpe (filed in Washington D.C.). All were NAACP - sponsored cases. The Davis case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16 - year - old Barbara Rose Johns organized and led a 450 - student walkout of Moton High School. The Gebhart case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful. The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools ' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools (were) comparable. '' The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school '' but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge '' and that "(n) o such service (was) provided to white children. '' In the Delaware case the district court judge in Gebhart ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal. The NAACP 's chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall -- who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967 -- argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson -- later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the University of Kansas -- conducted the state 's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument. In December 1952, the Justice Department filed a friend of the court brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on foreign - policy considerations of the Truman administration in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States, '' five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from colonial rule. Attorney General James P. McGranery noted that The existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills. The brief also quoted a letter by Secretary of State Dean Acheson lamenting that The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country. British barrister and parliamentarian Anthony Lester has written that "Although the Court 's opinion in Brown made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision. '' In spring 1953, the Court heard the case but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks. The Court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the Court to gather a consensus around a Brown opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument. Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued. Justices Douglas, Black, Burton, and Minton were predisposed to overturn Plessy. Fred M. Vinson noted that Congress had not issued desegregation legislation; Stanley F. Reed discussed incomplete cultural assimilation and states ' rights and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African - American community; Tom C. Clark wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out. '' Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to judicial activism and expressed concerns about the proposed decision 's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican - American students in California school systems following Mendez v. Westminster. However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a White House dinner, where the president told him: "These (southern whites) are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes. '' Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African American plaintiffs. In his reading of the unanimous decision, Justice Warren noted the adverse psychological effects that segregated schools had on African American children. The Chief 's reliance on shoddy social science is widely seen as irresponsible. Brown 's cite of the Kenneth and Mamie Doll Study was criticized by Justice Clarence Thomas in a later concurring opinion for implying black inferiority. According to Susan Firestone, the study itself is dubious in conclusion and unreliable in reproduction. While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the judicial restraint faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the Court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a recess appointment, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment. Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the Court must overrule Plessy to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive Southern resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion. Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justices Jackson and Reed finally decided to drop their dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court. Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion. Reporters who observed the court holding were surprised by two facts. First, the court made a unanimous decision. Prior to the ruling, there were reports that the court members were sharply divided and might not be able to agree. Second, the attendance of Justice Robert H. Jackson who had suffered a mild heart attack and was not expected to return to the bench until early June 1954. "Perhaps to emphasize the unanimity of the court, perhaps from a desire to be present when the history - making verdict was announced, Justice Jackson was in his accustomed seat when the court convened. '' Reporters also noted that Dean Acheson, former secretary of state, who had related the case to foreign policy considerations, and Herbert Brownell, the current attorney general, were in the courtroom. The key holding of the Court was that, even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers, segregation by itself was harmful to black students and unconstitutional. They found that a significant psychological and social disadvantage was given to black children from the nature of segregation itself, drawing on research conducted by Kenneth Clark assisted by June Shagaloff. This aspect was vital because the question was not whether the schools were "equal '', which under Plessy they nominally should have been, but whether the doctrine of separate was constitutional. The justices answered with a strong "no '': (D) oes segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible '' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does... "Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The effect is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to (retard) the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial (ly) integrated school system. ''... The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 on. The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level ''. Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option. Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka 's schools: "They accepted it, '' she said. "It was n't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals. '' The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of McKinley Burnett, NAACP chapter president who organized the case. Monroe Elementary was designated a U.S. National Historic Site unit of the National Park Service on October 26, 1992. Not everyone accepted the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In Virginia, Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. organized the Massive Resistance movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them. See, for example, The Southern Manifesto. For more implications of the Brown decision, see School integration in the United States. Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to implementation of desegregation. In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out his state 's National Guard to block black students ' entry to Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight Eisenhower responded by deploying elements of the 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to Arkansas and by federalizing Arkansas 's National Guard. Also in 1957, Florida 's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an Interposition Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But Florida Governor LeRoy Collins, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods. In Mississippi fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When Medgar Evers sued to desegregate Jackson, Mississippi schools in 1963 White Citizens Council member Byron De La Beckwith murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994. In 1963, Alabama Gov. George Wallace personally blocked the door to Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two black students. This became the infamous Stand in the Schoolhouse Door where Wallace personally backed his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever '' policy that he had stated in his 1963 inaugural address. He moved aside only when confronted by General Henry Graham of the Alabama National Guard, who was ordered by President John F. Kennedy to intervene. In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting Brown, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954 the Greensboro, North Carolina school board declared that it would abide by the Brown ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D.E. Hudgins Jr, a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted integration, putting up legal obstacles to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation. In Moberly, Missouri, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African - American teachers from the local "negro school '' were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal. Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In Harlem, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the Second Great Migration caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but Brown helped stimulate activism among African - American parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on Brown 's principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first freedom schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high - quality, historically - white schools. (New York 's African - American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.) The intellectual roots of Plessy v. Ferguson, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in 1896 under the doctrine of "separate but equal '' were, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The Court buttressed its holding by citing (in footnote 11) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools. Both scholarly and popular ideas of hereditarianism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the Brown decision. The Mankind Quarterly was founded in 1960, in part in response to the Brown decision. William Rehnquist wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases '' when he was a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by ' liberal ' colleagues but I think Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed. '' Rehnquist continued, "To the argument... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are. '' Rehnquist also argued for Plessy with other law clerks. However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson 's tentative views for his own use. '' Justice Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in Brown. Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time. '' In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the Brown decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent. Chief Justice Warren 's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge Learned Hand decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber '' and Herbert Wechsler finding Brown impossible to justify based on neutral principles. Some aspects of the Brown decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, himself an African American, wrote in Missouri v. Jenkins (1995) that at the very least, Brown I has been misunderstood by the courts. Brown I did not say that "racially isolated '' schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed, Brown I itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social - science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government can not discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race.... Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel '' superior to whites sent to lesser schools -- would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant... Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students can not learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (...) Because of their "distinctive histories and traditions, '' black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement. Some Constitutional originalists, notably Raoul Berger in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary, '' make the case that Brown can not be defended by reference to the original understanding of the 14th Amendment. They support this reading of the 14th amendment by noting that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including Michael W. McConnell, a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions, '' argue that the Radical Reconstructionists who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools. Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress a few years following the amendment 's ratification. The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren 's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example, Drew S. Days has written: "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that ' distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality, ' Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943)... '' In his book The Tempting of America (page 82), Robert Bork endorsed the Brown decision as follows: By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long series of cases... The Court 's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state - imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law. In June 1987, Philip Elman, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General 's office during Harry Truman 's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court 's decision, and stated that the NAACP 's arguments did not present strong evidence. Elman has been criticized for offering a self - aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades. However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court 's most outspoken advocates of the judicial restraint philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations. Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President George W. Bush spoke at the opening of the Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site, calling Brown "a decision that changed America for the better, and forever. '' Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling. In an article in Townhall, Thomas Sowell argued that When Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal, '' Dunbar High School was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court. '' In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "Brown II '' the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed, '' a phrase traceable to Francis Thompson 's poem, The Hound of Heaven. Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed '' was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court 's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted "Brown II '' as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years -- and in some cases for a decade or more -- using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private '' schools, and "token '' integration where a few carefully selected black children were admitted to former white - only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools. For example, based on "Brown II, '' the U.S. District Court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964. White students in the county were given assistance to attend white - only "private academies '' that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme Court overturned "Brown II '' in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, declaring that "... the time for mere ' deliberate speed ' has run out, '' and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race. In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott, Jr. (son of the original Brown team member), with assistance from the American Civil Liberties Union, persuaded Linda Brown Smith -- who now had her own children in Topeka schools -- to be a plaintiff in reopening Brown. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools ' policy of "open enrollment '' had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred '' schools that would create both predominantly African American and predominantly European American schools within the district. The district court reopened the Brown case after a 25 - year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs ' request finding the schools "unitary ''. In 1989, a three - judge panel of the Tenth Circuit on 2 -- 1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment. In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District 's request for certiorari and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit 's mandate. After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to Topeka Unified School District No. 501 on July 27, 1999. One of the new magnet schools is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the Brown case and civil rights. Linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience of bring refused enrollment: ... we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just could n't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates. I thought Plessy had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But Plessy had been on the books for 60 years; Congress had never acted, and the same Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools... I saw factors on both sides... I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now, with the statement that Plessy against Ferguson is right and should be reaffirmed. I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that... (A) round the lunch table I am sure I defended it... I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it.

how many chapters are in cinder by marissa meyer

Cinder (novel) - wikipedia Cinder is the 2012 debut young adult science fiction novel of American author Marissa Meyer, published by Macmillan Publishers through their subsidiary Feiwel & Friends. It is the first book in The Lunar Chronicles and is followed by Scarlet. The story is loosely based on the classic fairytale Cinderella. Cinder was selected as one of IndieBound 's Kids ' Next List for winter 2012. The story is set in a futuristic city, New Beijing, when the countries of the world have re-organized to form various new empires and alliances and the moon has been colonized. Asia is now an emperor ruled country known as the Eastern Commonwealth. Letumosis, a disease started by the Lunars and had been nicknamed the "Blue Fever, '' is raging throughout the world and the cure is unknown. The protagonist, Linh Cinder, is a cyborg who operates a mechanic stall at a local street market in New Beijing and lives under the guardianship of her stepmother, Linh Adri. Early in the story, she meets Prince Kai, who asks her to fix a personal android. Cyborgs are treated as second class citizens, so Cinder hides her identity from Kai. Soon, one of Cinder 's stepsisters, Linh Peony, falls sick with letumosis after accompanying Cinder to a junkyard to collect spare parts for a repair. In anger, Cinder 's stepmother "volunteers '' Cinder for plague research. When Cinder is injected with the strain of letumosis, it is discovered that she is immune to the disease. Dr. Erland, the head researcher, starts to do research on Cinder 's immunity, which leads to research on Cinder 's unique physiology, her cyborg implants, and eventually to Cinder 's life prior to becoming a cyborg at the age of eleven, which Cinder has no memory of. At the same time, Prince Kai 's father, Emperor Rikan, dies of the plague, resulting in the prince becoming Emperor of the Eastern Commonwealth. There is pressure to create an alliance between the Earth countries and the Moon country, Luna, led by Queen Levana. The Lunars have the ability to manipulate the bioelectricity of people around them and make them see what they want them to see and even control their thoughts and actions. The proposed alliance is through Emperor Kai marrying Queen Levana, however, Emperor Kai wants to thwart this plan by finding someone else to marry first. He is also searching for information regarding the Lunar Heir. Earthens believed that somehow Princess Selene Channary Janali Blackburn survived a nursery fire set up by Queen Levana. Which is what his personal android was looking for when it broke. Soon after, Cinder 's stepsister dies of the plague and Linh Cinder stores Peony 's ID chip and takes it with her. Because of this, Linh Adri punishes Cinder by smashing Iko, Cinder 's companion android, to pieces and selling the valuable pieces. Dr. Erland reveals to Cinder that she is Lunar, resulting in her immunity to letumosis. However, Cinder displays no Lunar abilities. Cinder fixes Kai 's android, named Nainsi, and discovers that he has been researching Princess Selene, the true heir of Luna, who is believed to have been killed by her aunt, Levana, when she was a child. Cinder also discovers a Lunar chip embedded in Nainsi, which was the reason for the android 's initial breakdown. Through the Lunar chip, which is revealed to be used for direct communication outside the network, Cinder is contacted by a girl with long braids who warns that Levana intends to marry Kai and kill him after she becomes empress. The story culminates with an annual ball, where secrets are discovered and characters have to make a decision on their future. Cinder warns Kai about Levana 's ulterior motives, but her identity as a cyborg and a Lunar are revealed, and she attempts to assassinate Levana. Kai has no choice but to arrest Cinder in the New Beijing Prison and accept Levana 's marriage proposal to save the Earth from Lunar attack. Later in Cinder 's prison cell, Dr. Erland visits Cinder in her cell and reveals that he is a Lunar fugitive who has been living on Earth and that the Lunars created the plague to target Earth and weaken them. He also reveals that Cinder is truly the lost Princess Selene of Luna. The badly injured baby Selene was taken to Earth in secret, where she was saved by going through the cybernetic operation. Cinder 's Lunar abilities had been suppressed by a chip that her stepfather installed in her neck during the operation, however, Dr. Erland tells Cinder that he has disabled it. Cinder now knows that she is the true queen of Luna, and she must rise up against Levana and take back the throne. Critical reception to Cinder has been mostly positive, with the Los Angeles Times calling the book "refreshing '' and praising the character of Cinder. Publishers Weekly also positively reviewed the book, saying that the characters "easy to get invested in ''. Booklist called Cinder a "fresh spin on "Cinderella, '' ". The Wall Street Journal wrote that the book was an "undemanding and surprisingly good - natured read ''. Kidz World stated that Cinder was "an amazing story about love that comes in mysterious packages ''. Kirkus Reviews wrote that the telepathic - enslaver theme was "simplistic and incongruous - feeling '' but said that Cinder "offers a high coolness factor ''. The Horn Book Magazine wrote that Cinder 's reveal was predictable but that the book 's "twists and turns, complex characters, and detailed world - building to redeem itself ''. Tor.com wrote that "while Cinder does have its flaws, it 's a solidly entertaining story, and one of the best re-imaginings of Cinderella I 've seen in ages. '' Reflecting on the novel 's blend of fairy tale and steampunk motifs, literary scholar Terri Doughty concludes that Meyer "rewrites the meme of female passivity as Cinder works through a process of identity formation. Compared to the novel 's female characters that use traditional markers of femininity to disguise their manipulations and cruelties, the cyborg mechanic Cinder emerges as a positive role model for girls. '' Interviewed at the Bologna Children 's Book Fair (Bologna, Italy) in 2012, the author revealed the origin of her novel. She being a "fairy tale geek '', she has spent considerable time tracing the origins of the most common Western children 's stories. Apparently, the first version of Cinderella was written in China in the 9th century (this justifies the fact that Cinderella was the only one able to wear the lost shoe: small feet were considered attractive in ancient China, so the point is that the young lady had the smallest feet in the world). For this reason, Marissa Meyer decided to set her futuristic version in New Beijing, in order to "close the circle '' and re-take the story to its original place. In addition to that, the decision to make Cinder a cyborg started from a hilarious thought: the idea came to her mind that, instead of losing a shoe, Cinderella might lose a whole foot on the stairs. There are four books, a prequel novel, and a collection of novellas in The Lunar Chronicles. The second book in the series, Scarlet, is based on Little Red Riding Hood. The third book, Cress, is based on Rapunzel. Book 3.5 which was released in January 2015 is called Fairest, acts as the fourth book and is a prequel focusing on the main antagonist, Queen Levana. The fifth one (officially book four) is called Winter and was released in November 2015. Both Winter and Fairest are loosely based on the story of Snow White. Meyer has also released three free short stories via the website Wattpad. These are entitled Glitches - set prior to Cinder, The Queen 's Army - set just before Scarlet, and The Little Android which is based on Hans Christian Andersen 's The Little Mermaid. Stars Above, a Lunar Chronicles collection was released in February 2016. This collection included nine stories, five of which have never been published and an excerpt of Marissa Meyer 's stand alone novel, Heartless, which was released on November 8, 2016. Meyer has confirmed there has been interest in a movie adaptation of Cinder and has signed a deal for the movie, although the studio is being kept secret. The author states the studio is currently searching for a director.

what grade were they in in high school musical 1

High School Musical - wikipedia High School Musical is a 2006 American musical television film and the first installment in the High School Musical trilogy directed by Kenny Ortega. It was filmed in 2005 in Salt Lake City. Upon its release on January 20, 2006, it became the most successful film that Disney Channel Original Movie (DCOM) ever produced, with a television sequel, High School Musical 2, released in 2007 and the feature film, High School Musical 3: Senior Year, released theatrically in October 2008. It is the first and only DCOM to have a theatrical sequel. The film 's soundtrack was the best - selling album in the United States, reaching number 1 on the American charts for 2006. High School Musical was Disney Channel 's most watched film that year with 7.7 million viewers in its premiere broadcast in the US, until August 's premiere of The Cheetah Girls 2, which achieved 8.1 million viewers. In the United Kingdom, it received 789,000 viewers for its premiere (and 1.2 million viewers overall during the first week), making it the second most watched program for the Disney Channel (UK) of 2006. On December 29, 2006, it became the first DCOM to be broadcast on the BBC. Globally, High School Musical has been seen by over 225 million viewers. With a plot described by the author and numerous critics as a modern adaptation of Romeo & Juliet, High School Musical is a story about two high school juniors from rival cliques -- Troy Bolton (Zac Efron), captain of the basketball team, and Gabriella Montez (Vanessa Hudgens), a shy transfer student who excels in mathematics and science. Together, they try out for the lead parts in their high school musical, and this causes division among all the school 's students. Despite other students ' attempts to thwart their dreams, Troy and Gabriella resist peer pressure and rivalry, inspiring others along the way not to "stick to the status quo ''. High school diva Sharpay Evans (Ashley Tisdale) and her twin brother Ryan (Lucas Grabeel), will do anything not only to sabotage the friendship and romance between Troy and Gabriella, but also to get the leads in the school musical. High School Musical was filmed at East High School located in Salt Lake City, Utah, the auditorium of Murray High School, and Downtown Salt Lake City. Murray High School was also the set of several other Disney productions: Take Down (1979), Read It and Weep (2006), Minutemen (2008), and High School Musical: Get in the Picture (2008). In January 2016, cast members Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, Corbin Bleu, and Monique Coleman reunited in a Los Angeles high school gym (decorated to resemble the gym used in the film) to celebrate the film 's tenth anniversary. Zac Efron was unable to attend but instead sent in a short video of himself giving acknowledgments toward the cast, crew, and fans of the film. On New Year 's Eve, high school juniors Troy Bolton (Zac Efron) and Gabriella Montez (Vanessa Hudgens) meet at a party while both teens are at a ski lodge during winter break. At the party, the two are called upon to sing karaoke together ("Start of Something New ''). They find that they have a connection and decide to exchange numbers before going their separate ways. On the first day back at school after Christmas break, Troy sees Gabriella in his classroom and she explains that she just moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, and transferred to East High School over the break. Troy then shows Gabriella around school. Drama Club president Sharpay Evans (Ashley Tisdale) arrives, assuming that Gabriella is interested in auditioning. Wanting to eliminate competition, Sharpay investigates the new girl and has the scholastic decathlon captain and Chem Club president, Taylor McKessie (Monique Coleman), find out about Gabriella 's past academic achievements, which results in her and Gabriella becoming great friends. During basketball practice, Troy has trouble focusing because his thoughts are on Gabriella and the idea that he might enjoy singing more than basketball ("Get'cha Head in the Game ''). Gabriella and Troy go to the musical auditions where Sharpay and her twin brother Ryan Evans (Lucas Grabeel) perform ("What I 've Been Looking For ''), but Troy and Gabriella are both too shy to audition. When Gabriella finally gains the confidence to step forward once the auditions are unofficially "over '', Troy offers to sing with her, but drama teacher Ms. Darbus (Alyson Reed) tells them that they are too late and leaves. Kelsi Nielsen (Olesya Rulin), the musical 's composer, trips and drops her music all over the stage. Troy and Gabriella rush to help her, and they sing together as Kelsi plays piano ("What I 've Been Looking For (Reprise) ''). Ms. Darbus overhears them and gives them a callback audition. When the callback list is posted, Sharpay discovers that she has competition for the lead in the musical, and the rest of the Wildcats are shocked that Troy has auditioned. Other students confess their own secret passions and talents ("Stick to the Status Quo ''), alarming both Taylor and Troy 's best friend Chad Danforth (Corbin Bleu). Since Gabriella has agreed to join the scholastic decathlon team, both Taylor and Chad want their teammates to focus on their upcoming competitions rather than the musical. In the locker room, Troy is tricked into saying that Gabriella is not important while she watches through a video conference that the scholastic decathlon team had set up through a webcam. Gabriella gets extremely upset by his betrayal ("When There Was Me and You '') and decides not to audition for the musical. Troy is left confused as to why Gabriella did not want to audition anymore. Realizing their mistake, Chad and the basketball team tell Troy what happened and offer to support him in callbacks. Troy goes to Gabriella 's house and they reconcile. After overhearing Gabriella and Troy practicing, Sharpay has Ms. Darbus change the callback time to coincide with both the basketball championship and the scholastic decathlon to interfere with Gabriella and Troy 's participation. Kelsi overhears the conversation and the basketball team and the decathlon team work together to come up with a plan. On the day of the competitions, Taylor and Gabriella use the school 's computers to delay the championship game and the decathlon, by messing with the power in the gym and causing a chemical reaction that forces an evacuation. Troy and Gabriella rush to the auditorium while Sharpay and Ryan finish performing their callback song ("Bop to the Top ''), confident that their plan worked. After Gabriella and Troy audition ("Breaking Free ''), Ms. Darbus gives the two the lead roles, making Sharpay and Ryan understudies. Both teams win their respective competitions and the entire school gathers in the gym to celebrate ("We 're All In This Together ''). Chad asks Taylor out, and Sharpay makes peace with Gabriella. In a post-credits scene, Zeke Baylor (Chris Warren Jr.) paces alone in the gym as Sharpay runs in declaring the cookies she rejected from him earlier "genius ''. She then hugs him and he says he will make her a crème brûlée. Zeke smiles in victory. The soundtrack was released on January 10, 2006, and debuted at number 133 on the Billboard 200, selling 7,469 copies in its first week. In the album 's third week, for the chart dated February 11, 2006, it climbed to number ten, and has since risen to number one on the Billboard 200 twice (on March 1 and 22) and had shipped 3.8 million copies on December 5, 2006. Out of those copies, more than 3 million copies have been sold by August 2006; it was certified quadruple platinum by the RIAA. On its premiere, the film was a success with 7.7 million viewers. However, the reviews were mixed. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 56 %, while Common Sense Media rated it at 4 / 5 stars. Kevin Carr gave the film a score of 3 / 5 saying, "The filmmakers were just trying to tell a story. Sex, drugs and violence just did n't factor into that equation. '' On the other hand, David Nusair gave the film a negative review with a score of 1.5 / 4 saying, "... it 's difficult to imagine even the most die - hard fan of musicals finding anything here worth embracing. '' Scott Weinberg also gave the film a negative review saying, "A schmaltzy little piece of obvious fluff that 's directed in truly horrendous fashion and populated by cardboard characters who spit out simplistic platitudes and breathy pop tunes. '' The DVD was released on May 23, 2006, under the title, High School Musical: Encore Edition. It created a sales record when 1.2 million copies were sold in its first six days, making it the fastest - selling television film of all time. It is, however, the second DCOM (Disney Channel Original Movie) on DVD to be certified Platinum in DVD sales, the first being The Cheetah Girls. The High School Musical DVD was also released in Australia on July 12, 2006, through Walt Disney and was released on European Region 2 on December 4, 2006, where it went on to reach number one in the UK DVD charts. It was also shown on Disney Channel South Africa, the latest Disney channel at that time in the southern hemisphere. It was the top - selling DVD in Australia in August 2006. In addition, the Region 3 DVD was released on October 10 in Hong Kong. It also released in Taiwan on December 15, 2006. This is the first Region 3 DCOM DVD ever released. It was released in Mexico on November 10 and in Brazil on December 6 to coincide with Christmas and the Rede Globo broadcast of the film. It was released in New Zealand on July 12, 2006, and was awarded most popular pre-teen movie in New Zealand for 2006 High School Musical was the first feature - length video content from the iTunes Store in mid-March 2006. At the time it was available as a 320x240 resolution 487MB download for $9.99 after initially being mistakenly listed for $1.99. The Remix Edition, a 2 - disc Special Edition, was released on December 5, 2006. The Remix DVD was released in France on June 20, 2007. and in Germany on September 13, 2007. The Remix DVD was released in the UK on September 10, 2007. Despite being filmed in the 1.85: 1 aspect ratio, both the original and Remix Edition DVD releases featured a 1.33: 1 "full screen '' version (though not pan and scan as the camera stays directly in the center of the image), the format of the film as shown on the Disney Channel. The widescreen, high definition version is available exclusively on Disney Blu - ray in North America and has subsequently been showing in the UK & Ireland on BBC One and BBC HD, and RTÉ One. The HD version is also available on PlayStation Store Video section and Sony Entertainment on line for the US market. High School Musical 2 is the first sequel. It debuted on August 17, 2007, on Disney Channel in the U.S., and on Family in Canada. The premiere brought in a total of 17.3 million viewers in the United States -- almost 10 million more than its predecessor -- making it (at the time of its airing) the highest - rated Disney Channel Movie to date and the most viewed television film to date. High School Musical 3: Senior Year is the third installment in Disney 's High School Musical franchise. It was released to theaters across the United States on October 24, 2008. Kenny Ortega returned as director and choreographer, as did all six primary actors. Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure is a spin - off and direct - to - DVD film starring Ashley Tisdale. The film features Sharpay Evans trying to get a role in a Broadway show following graduation. The film was released as a Blu - ray and DVD combination pack on April 19, 2011. On July 11, 2016, Disney XD released a half - hour overdubbed version of High School Musical to its YouTube channel in collaboration with Bad Lip Reading, a popular YouTube channel known for making parody dubs of various clips from films, TV shows, songs, sports, and political news stories that perfectly matches the lip movements of the targets. The story in this version is essentially similar to the original with new dialogue, the lead characters now being "Chorky '' and "Lumpkinella '', the latter secretly being a robot who escaped from a secure government facility. High School Musical: El desafio (Argentina) is a spin - off for the Argentine market, based on the book "Battle of the Bands ''. The film arrived in Argentine theaters on July 17, 2008. High School Musical: O Desafio is a spin - off of the American film High School Musical. The Brazilian spin - off is based on the book Battle of the Bands. The film was released in Brazilian theaters on February 5, 2010. Disney High School Musical China (歌舞 青春), also called High School Musical China: College Dreams is a Chinese version of the American series, released in North America on DVD under the Disney World Cinema Brand. Film Business Asia critic Derek Elley rated the adaptation three points out of ten and called the choreography by former Madonna dancer, Ruthy Inchaustegui, and songs "bland ''. However, Elley picked the three songs as "half - memorable '': "the ballad ' Rainy Season ' (梅雨 季) (sung by) two lead (ing characters,) the glitzy ' Perfection ' (完美) (by) the college rich - bitch (,) and (the) climatic ' I Can Fly ' (我 飛 故我 在), which does n't quite succeed at being an anthemnal (sic), uplifting ballad. '' The "High School Musical: The Concert '' tour started on November 29, 2006, kicking off in San Diego, California. The tour continued until January 28, 2007, performing in major cities around the United States, Canada, and Latin America. The concert featured all of the original cast members except for Zac Efron, who was shooting Hairspray. Efron was replaced by Drew Seeley (whose voice was blended with Efron 's during the film). The concert featured the original songs from the film, as well as songs from Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, and Corbin Bleu. On August 1, 2006, Playbill announced that the Stagedoor Manor summer theater camp, featured in the film Camp, would be the first venue to produce High School Musical on - stage. North Shore Music Theater in Beverly, MA had a stage production of High School Musical running until the end of July 2007, featuring Broadway actor Andrew Keenan - Bolger and Kate Rockwell, a semi-finalist on Grease: You 're the One that I Want!, as Sharpay. Pacific Repertory Theatre 's School of Dramatic Arts staged the California premiere in 2007 (which it revived in 2008), and presented the West Coast premiere of High School Musical 2 in January 2009. Theater of the Stars in Atlanta, Georgia was the first professional company to put on High School Musical. "Feld Entertainment '' produced global tour titled, High School Musical: The Ice Tour which had its world premiere in New York City on September 29, 2007. The cast included 2004 World Junior Bronze Medalist Jordan Brauninger and 2004 -- 2005 Australian national champion Bradley Santer. The show contained elements and songs from both the original film and its sequel, High School Musical 2 and featured a special preview of High School Musical 3: Senior Year when the movie of the same name premiered in theaters. In June 2006, Disney Press published High School Musical: The Junior Novel, the novelization of the successful film. This novel hit number one on the New York Times best - selling list and remained on the list for sixteen weeks. As of August 2007, the novel has sold more than 4.5 million copies, with 1 million copies of the novel 's follow - up, High School Musical 2: The Junior Novel, being shipped to American retailers. High School Musical 3: Senior Year: The Junior Novel came out on September 23, 2008. Shortly after the success of the original novel, Disney announced that a book series, entitled Stories from East High, would be published in February 2007 with a new book being published every 60 days until July 2008. Disney Interactive Studios has produced 6 video games based on the High School Musical series, all taking the guise of music video games incorporating songs and plots from the films. During July and August 2008, ABC broadcast a reality competition based on the series, High School Musical: Get in the Picture hosted by Nick Lachey. The winner of the show appeared in a music video during the credits of High School Musical 3. The series premiered to poor ratings, with the show coming in fourth place in its timeslot. In the UK, a reality show titled Hairspray: The School Musical premiered in 2008 on Sky1. It saw a team of vocal coaches, acting coaches and choreographers hold auditions at a regular comprehensive school where a mix of students could audition for a West End production of the hit Broadway musical, Hairspray. Although the musical being performed was not High School Musical, the film was the inspiration behind the show. The show was presented by Denise Van Outen and was credited, along with High School Musical, for inspiring a generation of children in the United Kingdom to get into theatrical work.

reform of the united nations security council with special emphasis on the g4 nations

G4 Nations - Wikipedia The G4 nations comprising Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan are four countries which support each other 's bids for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Unlike the G7, where the common denominator is the economy and long - term political motives, the G4 's primary aim is the permanent member seats on the Security Council. Each of these four countries have figured among the elected non-permanent members of the council since the UN 's establishment. Their economic and political influence has grown significantly in the last decades, reaching a scope comparable to the permanent members (P5). However, the G4 's bids are often opposed by the Uniting for Consensus movement, and particularly their economic competitors or political rivals. The UN currently has five permanent members with veto power in the Security Council: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States - comprising the victors of World War II. The G4 nations are regularly elected to two - year terms on the Security Council as non-permanent members by their respective regional groups: in the 24 - year period from 1987 to 2010, Brazil and Japan were elected for five terms each, Germany for four terms (one term as West Germany and three terms as unified Germany) and India for two terms. Cumulatively, the G4 has spent 64 years on the Security Council since the UN 's inception, with each country serving at least a decade. By comparison, the three permanent members of the Security Council who have maintained their seats since the UN 's founding (France, the UK, and the US) have each accrued 72 years of membership. The People 's Republic of China has held its permanent seat for 46 years, since it replaced the Republic of China in 1971, and Russia has held its permanent seat for 26 years, since it replaced the Soviet Union in 1991. The United Kingdom and France have backed the G4 's bid for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Japan has support from the United States and the United Kingdom. All the permanent members of P5 have supported India 's bids for permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) but China had previously implied that it is only ready to support India 's bid for a permanent seat on United Nations Security Council if India did not associate its bid with Japan. There has been discontent among the present permanent members regarding the inclusion of controversial nations or countries not supported by them. For instance, Japan 's bid is heavily opposed by China, North Korea and South Korea who think that Japan still needs to make additional atonement for war crimes committed during World War II. Under the leadership of Italy, countries that strongly oppose the G4 countries ' bids have formed the Uniting for Consensus movement, or the Coffee Club, composed mainly of regional powers that oppose the rise of some nearby country to permanent member status. In Africa and Europe, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, Namibia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Spain are opposing a seat for Germany. In Latin America, Argentina, Colombia, and Mexico are opposing a seat for Brazil. In South Asia, Pakistan opposing a seat for India. The G4 suggested that two African nations, in addition to themselves, be included in the enlarged UNSC. In several conferences during the summer of 2005, African Union was unable to agree on two nominees: Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa all lay claim to a permanent African UNSC seat. A UN General Assembly in September 2005 marked the 60th anniversary of the UN and the members were to decide on a number of necessary reforms -- including the enlarged Security Council. However the unwillingness to find a negotiable position stopped even the most urgent reforms; the September 2005 General Assembly was a setback for the UN. The G4 retain their goal of permanent UNSC membership for all four nations (plus two African nations). In January 2006, Japan announced it would not support putting the G4 resolution back on the table, not to interfere with any effort by the African Union to unite behind a single plan. And meanwhile, Japan 's continuing relations with the G4 were not mutually exclusive. G4 issued a joint statement on 12 February 2011, in which their foreign ministers agreed to seek concrete outcome in the current session of the UN General Assembly. On 26 September 2015, Narendra Modi invited the leaders of the G4 for a summit following the adoption of UN General Assembly Decision 69 / 560 by consensus, which moved forward for the first time. In 2017, it was reported that the G4 nations were willing to temporarily forgo veto power if granted a permanent UNSC seat.

which daughter element is produced from the alpha decay of 213 85 at

Decay chain - wikipedia In nuclear science, the decay chain refers to a series of radioactive decays of different radioactive decay products as a sequential series of transformations. It is also known as a "radioactive cascade ''. Most radioisotopes do not decay directly to a stable state, but rather undergo a series of decays until eventually a stable isotope is reached. Decay stages are referred to by their relationship to previous or subsequent stages. A parent isotope is one that undergoes decay to form a daughter isotope. One example of this is uranium (atomic number 92) decaying into thorium (atomic number 90). The daughter isotope may be stable or it may decay to form a daughter isotope of its own. The daughter of a daughter isotope is sometimes called a granddaughter isotope. The time it takes for a single parent atom to decay to an atom of its daughter isotope can vary widely, not only between different parent - daughter pairs, but also randomly between identical pairings of parent and daughter isotopes. The decay of each single atom occurs spontaneously, and the decay of an initial population of identical atoms over time t, follows a decaying exponential distribution, e, where λ is called a decay constant. One of the properties of an isotope is its half - life, the time by which half of an initial number of identical parent radioisotopes have decayed to their daughters, which is inversely related to λ. Half - lives have been determined in laboratories for many radioisotopes (or radionuclides). These can range from nearly instantaneous to as much as 10 years or more. The intermediate stages each emit the same amount of radioactivity as the original radioisotope (i.e. there is a one - to - one relationship between the numbers of decays in successive stages) but each stage releases a different quantity of energy. If and when equilibrium is achieved, each successive daughter isotope is present in direct proportion to its half - life; but since its activity is inversely proportional to its half - life, each nuclide in the decay chain finally contributes as many individual transformations as the head of the chain, though not the same energy. For example, uranium - 238 is weakly radioactive, but pitchblende, a uranium ore, is 13 times more radioactive than the pure uranium metal because of the radium and other daughter isotopes it contains. Not only are unstable radium isotopes significant radioactivity emitters, but as the next stage in the decay chain they also generate radon, a heavy, inert, naturally occurring radioactive gas. Rock containing thorium and / or uranium (such as some granites) emits radon gas that can accumulate in enclosed places such as basements or underground mines. All the elements and isotopes we encounter on Earth, with the exceptions of hydrogen, deuterium, helium, helium - 3, and perhaps trace amounts of stable lithium and beryllium isotopes which were created in the Big Bang, were created by the s - process or the r - process in stars, and for those to be today a part of the Earth, must have been created not later than 4.5 billion years ago. All the elements created more than 4.5 billion years ago are termed primordial, meaning they were generated by the universe 's stellar processes. At the time when they were created, those that were unstable began decaying immediately. All the isotopes which have half - lives less than 100 million years have been reduced to 6988280000000000000 ♠ 2.8 × 10 % or less of whatever original amounts were created and captured by Earth 's accretion; they are of trace quantity today, or have decayed away altogether. There are only two other methods to create isotopes: artificially, inside a man - made (or perhaps a natural) reactor, or through decay of a parent isotopic species, the process known as the decay chain. Unstable isotopes decay to their daughter products (which may sometimes be even more unstable) at a given rate; eventually, often after a series of decays, a stable isotope is reached: there are about 200 stable isotopes in the universe. Stable isotopes have ratios of neutrons to protons in their nucleus which are typical about 1 for light elements (e.g. 1 in helium - 4) and gradually increase to around 1.5 for the heaviest elements such as lead (there is no complete stability for anything heavier than lead - 208). The elements heavier than that have to shed weight to achieve stability, most usually as alpha decay. The other common decay method for isotopes with a high neutron to proton ratio (n / p) is beta decay, in which the nuclide changes elemental identity while keeping the same weight and lowering its n / p ratio. For some isotopes with a relatively low n / p ratio, there is an inverse beta decay, by which a proton is transformed into a neutron, thus moving towards a stable isotope; however, since fission almost always produces products which are neutron heavy, positron emission is relatively rare compared to electron emission. There are many relatively short beta decay chains, at least two (a heavy, beta decay and a light, positron decay) for every discrete weight up to around 207 and some beyond, but for the higher weight elements (isotopes heavier than lead) there are only four pathways which encompass all decay chains. This is because there are just two main decay methods: alpha radiation, which reduces the weight by 4 atomic mass units (AMUs), and beta, which does not change the atomic weight at all (just the atomic number and the p / n ratio). The four paths are termed 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2, and 4n + 3; the remainder from dividing the atomic weight by four gives the chain the isotope will use to decay. There are other decay modes, but they invariably occur at a lower probability than alpha or beta decay. (It should not be supposed that these chains have no branches: the diagram below shows a few branches of chains, and in reality there are many more, because there are many more isotopes possible than are shown in the diagram.) Three of those chains have a long - lived isotope (or nuclide) near the top; this long - lived isotope is a bottleneck in the process through which the chain flows very slowly, and keeps the chain below them "alive '' with flow. The three long - lived nuclides are uranium - 238 (half - life = 4.5 billion years), uranium - 235 (half - life = 700 million years) and thorium - 232 (half - life = 14 billion years). The fourth chain has no such long lasting bottleneck isotope, so almost all of the isotopes in that chain have long since decayed down to very near the stability at the bottom. Near the end of that chain is bismuth - 209, which was long thought to be stable. Recently, however, bismuth - 209 was found to be unstable with a half - life of 19 billion billion years; it is the last step before stable thallium - 205. In the distant past, around the time that the solar system formed, there were more kinds of unstable high - weight isotopes available, and the four chains were longer with isotopes that have since decayed away. Today we have manufactured extinct isotopes, which again take their former places: plutonium - 239, the nuclear bomb fuel, as the major example has a half - life of "only '' 24,500 years, and decays by alpha emission into uranium - 235. In particular, we have through the large - scale production of neptunium - 237 successfully resurrected the hitherto extinct fourth chain. The four most common modes of radioactive decay are: alpha decay, beta decay, inverse beta decay (considered as both positron emission and electron capture), and isomeric transition. Of these decay processes, only alpha decay changes the atomic mass number (A) of the nucleus, and always decreases it by four. Because of this, almost any decay will result in a nucleus whose atomic mass number has the same residue mod 4, dividing all nuclides into four chains. The members of any possible decay chain must be drawn entirely from one of these classes. All four chains also produce helium - 4 (alpha particles are helium - 4 nuclei). Three main decay chains (or families) are observed in nature, commonly called the thorium series, the radium or uranium series, and the actinium series, representing three of these four classes, and ending in three different, stable isotopes of lead. The mass number of every isotope in these chains can be represented as A = 4n, A = 4n + 2, and A = 4n + 3, respectively. The long - lived starting isotopes of these three isotopes, respectively thorium - 232, uranium - 238, and uranium - 235, have existed since the formation of the earth, ignoring the artificial isotopes and their decays since the 1940s. Due to the relatively short half - life of its starting isotope neptunium - 237 (2.14 million years), the fourth chain, the neptunium series with A = 4n + 1, is already extinct in nature, except for the final rate - limiting step, decay of bismuth - 209. The ending isotope of this chain is now known to be thallium - 205. Some older sources give the final isotope as bismuth - 209, but it was recently discovered that it is very slightly radioactive, with a half - life of 7026599594400000000 ♠ 1.9 × 10 years. There are also non-transuranic decay chains of unstable isotopes of light elements, for example those of magnesium - 28 and chlorine - 39. On Earth, most of the starting isotopes of these chains before 1945 were generated by cosmic radiation. Since 1945, the testing and use of nuclear weapons has also released numerous radioactive fission products. Almost all such isotopes decay by either β or β decay modes, changing from one element to another without changing atomic mass. These later daughter products, being closer to stability, generally have longer half - lives until they finally decay into stability. No fission products have a half - life in the range of 100 -- 210 k years... ... nor beyond 15.7 M years Legend for superscript symbols ₡ has thermal neutron capture cross section in the range of 8 -- 50 barns ƒ fissile m metastable isomer No naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) þ neutron poison (thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns) † range 4 -- 97 y: Medium - lived fission product ‡ over 200,000 y: Long - lived fission product In the four tables below, the minor branches of decay (with the branching probability of less than 0.0001 %) are omitted. The energy release includes the total kinetic energy of all the emitted particles (electrons, alpha particles, gamma quanta, neutrinos, Auger electrons and X-rays) and the recoil nucleus, assuming that the original nucleus was at rest. The letter ' a ' represents a year (from the Latin annus). In the tables below (except neptunium), the historic names of the naturally occurring nuclides are also given. These names were used at the time when the decay chains were first discovered and investigated. From these historical names one can locate the particular chain to which the nuclide belongs, and replace it with its modern name. The three naturally - occurring actinide alpha decay chains given below -- thorium, uranium / radium (from U-238), and actinium (from U-235) -- each ends with its own specific lead isotope (Pb - 208, Pb - 206, and Pb - 207 respectively). All these isotopes are stable and are also present in nature as primordial nuclides, but their excess amounts in comparison with lead - 204 (which has only a primordial origin) can be used in the technique of uranium - lead dating to date rocks. The 4n chain of Th - 232 is commonly called the "thorium series '' or "thorium cascade ''. Beginning with naturally occurring thorium - 232, this series includes the following elements: actinium, bismuth, lead, polonium, radium, radon and thallium. All are present, at least transiently, in any natural thorium - containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The series terminates with lead - 208. The total energy released from thorium - 232 to lead - 208, including the energy lost to neutrinos, is 42.6 MeV. The 4n + 1 chain of Np - 237 is commonly called the "neptunium series '' or "neptunium cascade ''. In this series, only two of the isotopes involved are found naturally, namely the final two: bismuth - 209 and thallium - 205. A smoke detector containing an americium - 241 ionization chamber accumulates a significant amount of neptunium - 237 as its americium decays; the following elements are also present in it, at least transiently, as decay products of the neptunium: actinium, astatine, bismuth, francium, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium, thallium, thorium, and uranium. Since this series was only studied more recently, its nuclides do not have historic names. One unique trait of this decay chain is that it does not include the noble - gas radon, and thus does not migrate through rock nearly as much as the other three decay chains. The total energy released from californium - 249 to thallium - 205, including the energy lost to neutrinos, is 66.8 MeV. The 4n + 2 chain of U-238 is called the "uranium series '' or "radium series ''. Beginning with naturally occurring uranium - 238, this series includes the following elements: astatine, bismuth, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All are present, at least transiently, in any natural uranium - containing sample, whether metal, compound, or mineral. The series terminates with lead - 206. The total energy released from uranium - 238 to lead - 206, including the energy lost to neutrinos, is 51.7 MeV. The 4n + 3 chain of uranium - 235 is commonly called the "actinium series '' or "plutonium cascade ''. Beginning with the naturally - occurring isotope U-235, this decay series includes the following elements: actinium, astatine, bismuth, francium, lead, polonium, protactinium, radium, radon, thallium, and thorium. All are present, at least transiently, in any sample containing uranium - 235, whether metal, compound, ore, or mineral. This series terminates with the stable isotope lead - 207. The total energy released from uranium - 235 to lead - 207, including the energy lost to neutrinos, is 46.4 MeV. Since the heavy original nuclei always have a greater proportion of neutrons, the fission product nuclei almost always start out with a neutron / proton ratio significantly greater than what is stable for their mass range. Therefore, they undergo multiple beta decays in succession, each converting a neutron to a proton. The first decays tend to have higher decay energy and shorter half - life. These last decays may have low decay energy and / or long half - life. For example, uranium - 235 has 92 protons and 143 neutrons. Fission takes one more neutron, then produces two or three more neutrons; assume that 92 protons and 142 neutrons are available for the two fission product nuclei. Suppose they have mass 99 with 39 protons and 60 neutrons (yttrium - 99), and mass 135 with 53 protons and 82 neutrons (iodine - 135), then the decay chains can be found in the tables below.

where did the birds and the bees analogy come from

The birds and the bees - wikipedia "The Birds and the Bees '' is an English - language idiomatic expression and euphemism that refers to courtship and sexual intercourse. The "Birds and the Bees talk '' (sometimes known simply as "The Talk '') is generally the event in most children 's lives in which the parents explain what sexual relationships are. According to tradition, the birds and the bees is a metaphorical story sometimes told to children in an attempt to explain the mechanics and good consequences of sexual intercourse through reference to easily observed natural events. For instance, bees carry and deposit pollen into flowers, a visible and easy - to - explain parallel to male fertilisation. Another example, birds lay eggs, a similarly visible and easy - to - explain parallel to female ovulation. Word sleuths William and Mary Morris hint that it may have been inspired by words like these from the poet Samuel Coleridge (1825): ' All nature seems at work... The bees are stirring -- birds are on the wing... and I the while, the sole unbusy thing, not honey make, nor pair, nor build, nor sing. ' '' Even earlier instances of this idiomatic expression appear in the Cavalier poet, Thomas Carew 's work, "The Spring '' (c. 1640), in which Carew uses earth and its change of seasons as a metaphorical depiction of women and their sensuality (The Norton Anthology of English Literature 1696). To abet his ends, Carew alludes to the "birds and the bees '' in lines 7 - 8 with the use of "swallow '', "cuckoo '', and "humble - bee '' as seen here (lines included are 5 - 8): "But the warm sun thaws the benumbed earth / And makes it tender; gives a sacred birth / To the dead swallow; wakes in hollow tree / The drowsy cuckoo and the humble - bee / Now do a choir of chirping minstrels bring '' (emphasis added; lines 5 - 9 from "The Spring ''). Dr. Emma Frances Angell Drake (b. 1849) wrote a section of a publication called The Story of Life which was published in 1909. This piece was later picked up and included in Safe Counsel, a product of the Eugenics movement in the late 19th and early 20th century. The author tells her daughters "when you discovered the tiny blue eggs in the robin 's nest and I told you that wrapped in each shell was a baby robin that was growing there, kept warm by the mamma bird... '' the narrative continues on in vague terms without actually describing sexual intercourse. Later she describes the father 's role in reproduction like this; "Sometimes it is the wind which blows the pollen dust from one plant to the other, and sometimes it is the bees gathering honey from the flowers. As they suck the honey from the blossoms some of the plant dust sticks to their legs and bodies, and as they go to another plant in search of sweets this is rubbed off and so the parts of the father and mother plant get together and the seed is made fertile. '' Safe counsel was reprinted at least 40 times from 1893 through 1930 and may have been widely enough repeated to have contributed to the euphemism, "the birds and the bees. '' Several sources give credit to Cole Porter for coining the phrase. One of the musician 's more famous songs was "Let 's Do It, Let 's Fall in Love. '' In Porter 's publication from 1928, the opening line for the chorus carried derogatory racial references like "Chinks '' and "Japs '', later changed following CBS recommendation and NBC adaptation: And that 's why birds do it, bees do it Even educated fleas do it Let 's do it, let 's fall in love

lisa stansfield barry white all around the world

All Around the World (Lisa Stansfield song) - wikipedia "All Around the World '' is a song recorded by British recording artist Lisa Stansfield for her 1989 album, Affection, which became her biggest hit. It was written by Stansfield, Ian Devaney and Andy Morris, and produced by Devaney and Morris. The song received favorable reviews from music critics. Songwriters, Stansfield, Devaney and Morris, received the 1989 Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically. "All Around the World '' was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards. Additionally, Stansfield was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best New Artist. "All Around the World '' was released as the second European single on 16 October 1989. It was remixed by Yvonne Turner, Eddie Gordon, Paul Witts and Steve Anderson. In North America, "All Around the World '' was released as the first single on 15 January 1990 and included remixes created by The 45 King and Richard Sweret. In Japan, the single was released on 7 February 1990. The music video was directed by Philip Richardson. The single is Lisa Stansfield 's only solo No. 1 single (however she also had a No. 1 with Five Live (George Michael and Queen EP)) and first of 8 top ten hits she would achieve in the UK. In 2003, "All Around the World '' was included on Biography: The Greatest Hits. In 2014, the remixes of "All Around the World '' were included on the deluxe 2CD + DVD re-releases of Affection, Face Up and on the People Hold On... The Remix Anthology compilation (also on The Collection 1989 -- 2003). "All Around the World '' became a very successful single, peaking at number one in many countries. In Europe, it reached the top of the chart in Austria (for six weeks), Netherlands (four weeks), Norway (three weeks), United Kingdom (two weeks), Spain (two weeks) and Belgium (one week). It also peaked at number two in Germany, number three in Ireland, Italy and Switzerland, number four in Sweden, and number seven in Finland. In the United States, "All Around the World '' reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100, and also topped for two weeks the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs charts. Stansfield became the first white woman to top the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart since Teena Marie scored in 1988 with "Ooo La La La. '' On the Adult Contemporary Singles, the song peaked at number seven. In Canada, "All Around the World '' reached number three on the Top Singles Chart and Adult Contemporary Chart, and peaked at number one on the Dance / Urban Chart. "All Around the World '' also reached number nine in Australia and number ten in New Zealand. The single was certified Platinum in the United States for selling over one million copies and Gold in the United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, Austria and Sweden. In 1992, Stansfield re-recorded "All Around the World '' as a duet with Barry White. This version was included on her single, "Time to Make You Mine '' (March 1992). All artist royalties from this record were donated to the charity Trading Places. The Peter Stuart - directed music video for the duet version was also released. In November 1992, this duet version was also included on White 's album, Just for You. In 2003, Stansfield released Biography: The Greatest Hits which was promoted by her signature song, "All Around the World. '' In the United States, the promotional single included remixes created by Norty Cotto and reached number thirty - four on the Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs. The digital promo single with remix by Junior Vasquez was also released. In 2014, the remixes of "All Around the World '' were included on the deluxe 2CD + DVD re-releases of Affection, Face Up and on the People Hold On... The Remix Anthology compilation (also on The Collection 1989 -- 2003). Affection re-release includes: Long Version, Around the House Mix and Runaway Love Mix, all from 1989. Face Up 2014 re-release features remixes from 2003: Norty Cotto Remix, Norty 's World Dub and Junior Vasquez Earth Anthem. Finally, People Hold On... The Remix Anthology includes: The Global Quest from 1989, American Club Remix from 1990 and previously unreleased Attack Mix by The 45 King. Australian / European 7 '' single / Japanese CD single European CD single Australian / European 12 '' single European 12 '' single (Remix) UK promotional 12 '' single US 7 '' single US 12 '' single US promotional 12 '' single 1992 European promotional 12 '' single 2003 European promotional CD single 2003 US promotional 12 '' single (Norty Cotto Mixes) 2003 US digital promo 2006 US digital Dance Vault Mixes Other remixes shipments figures based on certification alone

who is the voice of scar on lion king

Scar (Disney) - wikipedia Scar is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 32nd animated feature film The Lion King (1994). The character is voiced by English actor Jeremy Irons, while his singing voice is provided by both Irons and American actor Jim Cummings, the latter of whom was hired to replace Irons when the former damaged his singing voice. Subsequently, Scar makes minor appearances in the film 's sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998) and The Lion King 11⁄2 (2004), in both of which he is voiced entirely by Cummings, as well as appearing in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, in which the role of Scar was originated by American actor John Vickery. Scar was created in 1989 and was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton, and animated by Andreas Deja. The Pride Lands ' reclusive heir presumptive, Scar is introduced in the first film as the uncle of Simba and younger brother of Mufasa. Originally first - in - line to Mufasa 's throne until he is suddenly replaced by nephew Simba, Scar decides to lead an army of hyenas in his plot to take the throne by killing Mufasa and exiling Simba, ultimately blaming his brother 's death on his nephew. Loosely based on King Claudius, the villain of William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet, Scar 's villainy was additionally inspired by German politician Adolf Hitler. As the character 's supervising animator, Deja based Scar 's appearance on that of Irons himself, as well as the actor 's Academy Award - winning performance as Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune (1990). Before Irons was cast, the directors had considered offering the role to actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell. As a character, Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics, who greeted Irons ' performance with equal enthusiasm. However, Scar 's violence, dark color palette and allegedly effeminate mannerisms were initially met with mild controversy, perceived by some as racist and homophobic. Nevertheless, Scar continues to be revered as one of Disney 's greatest villains by various media publications, topping The Huffington Post 's list and ranking within the top ten of similar lists published by Yahoo! Movies, the Orlando Sentinel, E! and CNN. Scar has also been ranked among the greatest villains in film history by Digital Spy and Entertainment Weekly. The Lion King was first conceived in 1988. The film was eventually pitched to Disney executives, one of whom was among the first to observe similarities between author Thomas M. Disch 's treatment and William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet. Although first citing these similarities as initially unintentional, director Rob Minkoff always felt that it was essential "to anchor (the film) with something familiar ''. As directors, Minkoff and Roger Allers aspired to create "an animal picture based in a more natural setting, '' describing the film as "More true - life adventure than mythical epic. '' Although not the first Disney film to have been inspired by Shakespeare 's work, The Lion King remains the studio 's most prominent example due to close parallels between its characters and Hamlet, while both stories revolve around main characters who struggle to come to terms with the reality that they must confront their treacherous uncles and avenge their fathers ' deaths. Scar is based on King Claudius, the antagonist of Hamlet. According to Slate, while Claudius is mostly "a second - rate schemer... consumed by anxiety and guilt, '' Scar very much "delight (s) in his monstrosity; '' both characters are motivated by jealousy. Meanwhile, The Week observed that although both characters ultimately die, Claudius is killed by protagonist Hamlet while Scar dies "at the hand of his former hyena minions, and not Simba himself. '' Additionally, the character shares similarities with Iago from Shakespeare 's play Othello; both antagonists are skilled in exploiting their victims ' fears. The original plot of The Lion King revolved around a rivalry between lions and baboons. A baboon himself, Scar was their leader. After this plot was abandoned, Scar was re-written into a rogue lion lacking any blood relation to both Mufasa and Simba. The writers eventually decided that making Scar and Mufasa brothers would make the film more interesting. An abandoned character, at one point Scar owned a pet python as a sidekick. Because the film was originally intended to be much more adult - oriented, Scar was to have become infatuated with Simba 's childhood friend and eventual love interest Nala, wanting the young lioness to rule alongside him as his queen and consequentially banishing the character when she refuses. This concept was to have been further explored during a reprise of Scar 's song "Be Prepared '', but both the idea and the song were ultimately completely removed from the film because they were deemed too "creepy ''. To further emphasize the character 's villainy and tyranny, the writers loosely based Scar on German politician Adolf Hitler. According to The Jerusalem Post, Scar 's song "Be Prepared '' "features goose - stepping hyenas in a formation reminiscent of a Nuremberg rally. '' This idea was first suggested by story artist Jorgen Klubien. According to the directors, "(a) patronizing quality '' was vital to Scar 's role in the film. Minkoff told the Los Angeles Times, "When Scar puts the guilt trip on Simba, that 's an intense idea... probably something that is not typical of the other Disney pictures, in terms of what the villain does. '' Additionally, Scar serves as a departure from previous Disney villains because they "came off at least as buffoonish as they were sinister ''. Because Scar is the film 's main antagonist, supervising animator Andreas Deja believed that "villains work really well when they 're subtle '', explaining, "to see them think and scheme and plot is much more interesting than showing them beating somebody up. '' By blaming Mufasa 's death on an innocent Simba, Scar ultimately triggers "a cycle of guilt, flight, denial and redemption, as the hero goes into self - imposed exile before finally reconciling with his father 's memory, returning to face his wicked uncle and generally coming of age. '' The character 's first line in The Lion King essentially summarizes the entire film, providing foreshadowing. It reads, "Life 's not fair is it? You see I - well, I... shall never be King. And you... shall never see light of another day, '' subtly revealing the plot as well as "the reason why (Scar) decides to murder his own brother. '' English actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell were originally considered for the role of Scar. However, Curry left the role due to Home Alone 2: Lost in New York, and the role was ultimately won by English actor Jeremy Irons because of his classical theatre training; the directors had deliberately wanted Scar "to come across as a Shakespearean character. '' Successfully recruiting Irons for the film was considered an unprecedented achievement for the studio because, at the time, it was rare for a dramatic actor of Irons ' caliber to agree to voice an animated character, especially immediately after winning an Academy Award. In fact, the Oscar - winning actor nearly declined because, in fear of jeopardizing his successful career, he was "(h) esitant to jump from a dramatic role to an animated feature. '' Prior to The Lion King, Irons was famous for starring as several villains and antagonists in live - action films "geared towards adults. '' Although he had starred in a children 's film before, the actor admitted that it did not mirror the success of The Lion King, a film that has since gained notoriety for its cast of well known, award - winning Hollywood actors, which animation historian Jerry Beck referred to in his book The Animated Movie Guide as "the most impressive list of actors ever to grace an animated film. '' As directors, Minkoff and Allers "work (ed) very closely with the actors to create their performance. '' Describing Irons as "a gentleman and a brilliant actor, '' Allers revealed that the actor was constantly offering "extra interpretations of lines which were fantastic. '' Producer Don Hahn recalled that Irons "really wanted to play with the words and the pacing, '' specifically referring to a scene in which Scar, voiced by Jeremy Irons, coaxes Simba onto a rock and tricks the young cub to stay there and await his father 's arrival alone, dubbing it "a father and son... thing. '' According to Hahn, "The comedy in (Irons ') inflection comes from Scar sounding so disdainful he can barely summon the will to finish the sentence. '' Irons ' physical appearance and mannerisms served as inspiration for Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja, namely his flicking his paw in disgust. Critics have cited physical similarities between Irons and Scar. In a reference to the role that earned Irons an Academy Award, Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune (1990), the writers gave Scar one of von Bülow 's lines, "You have no idea '', which is uttered by Irons in a similar tone. According to author Rachel Stein of New Perspectives on Environmental Justice: Gender, Sexuality, and Activism, Irons relies "on his history of playing sexually perverse, socially dangerous male characters to animate his depiction of Scar. '' On the contrary, Irons revealed to Connect Savannah that the similarities between the voices of Scar and von Bülow were largely unintentional, explaining, "Whatever voice came was arrived at by looking at the initial sketches, and from the freedom the directors gave me to try anything. '' Irons concluded, "The fact that he may occasionally remind you of Claus, comes from the fact that they both share the same voice box. '' While recording Scar 's song "Be Prepared, '' Irons encountered challenges with his voice. The actor reportedly "blew out his voice '' upon belting the line "you wo n't get a sniff without me, '' rendering him incapable of completing the musical number. Consequently, Disney was forced to recruit American voice actor Jim Cummings, who had also been providing the voice of The Lion King 's laughing hyena Ed at the time, to impersonate Jeremy Irons and record the entire of the song. Jim Cummings told The Huffington Post that "(s) tunt singing '' is actually something the actor continues to do regularly, having done the same for American actor Russel Means, voice of Chief Powhatan in Disney 's Pocahontas (1995). Critics observed that Irons "fakes his way... through ' Be Prepared ' in the grand tradition of talk - singing, '' drawing similarities between him and American actor James Cagney and English actor Rex Harrison. Deja revealed that, during a recording session, Irons ' stomach was grumbling. Deja joked, "The growling sound could be heard in his recording, so we had to record that part of his dialog all over again. '' As a result of Irons ' prominent British accent, critics have compared both the actor and Scar to Shere Khan, the villain of Disney 's The Jungle Book (1967), voiced by English actor George Sanders. The studio originally dismissed The Lion King as a risk because, at the time, it was believed that the greatest films starred people. Concerned about the novelty of the film, Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg decided to divide the studio into two separate animated films, The Lion King and Pocahontas, the latter of which was dubbed "the home run '' because it was expected to be the more successful of the two projects. Naturally, Disney 's more seasoned and experienced animators gravitated towards Pocahontas, while the studio 's newer animators were relegated to working on The Lion King, dubbing themselves the "B - team ''. However, Allers received Katzenberg 's decision positively as an opportunity for "newer animators... to step up to leadership roles '', among them Andreas Deja, who became Scar 's supervising animator. Well known for animating several Disney villains, Deja summarized the experience as "more fun than drawing heroes '' because "You have so much more to work with in terms of expressions and acting and drawing-wise than you would have with a nice princess or a prince... where you have to be ever so careful with the draftsmanship ''. Before becoming involved with The Lion King, Deja had already developed a reputation for animating Disney villains. Prior to animating Scar, Deja had just recently served as the supervising animator of Gaston and Jafar, the villains in Disney 's Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Aladdin (1992), respectively. Initially, Deja had been considering the idea of animating a hero as opposed to a villain for a change, contemplating taking on the task of animating Simba instead. However, Deja soon relented upon learning that Scar would be voiced by Irons, feeling that it would be "fun '' to animate a character voiced by such a prestigious actor. Meanwhile, Minkoff and Allers had already had Deja in mind for animating Scar long before the animator approached the directors about the position. The level anthropomorphism used in The Lion King exceeded that of any Disney animated film by which it was preceded. Because Scar is an animal as opposed to a human, Deja and the animators experienced certain challenges and limitations when it came to instilling movement in the character, and thus experimented with manipulating Scar 's facial expressions, specifically the way in which he tilts his head condescendingly, raises his eyebrows and lifts his chin. The animals were each drawn with certain human - like attributes and characteristics in order to help convey emotions and tell the story. Meanwhile, the studio recruited live lions for the animators to study while drawing. As the film 's villain, Scar is the only lion drawn with claws. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described Scar as "a figure of both pity and evil, and of treacherous comedy '' with "Irons... filling this devious coward with elegantly witty self - loathing. '' As an animator, Deja believes that "If you have a great voice to work with, your work is half done. '' Enjoying the way in which Irons "has a way with words and phrasing, '' Deja deliberately based much of Scar 's appearance on the actor himself, specifically the shape of his mouth and facial expressions. Several of the actor 's physical attributes were incorporated into Scar 's design, with Irons admitting to recognizing his own baggy eyes in his character. Additionally, Deja studied Irons ' performances in the films Reversal of Fortune (1990) and Damage (1992) for inspiration, while refusing to watch Disney 's The Jungle Book while working on The Lion King in order to avoid being influenced by the film 's villain Shere Khan, a tiger. Scar sings the musical number "Be Prepared, '' written by songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice, while contemplating Mufasa 's death plot and bringing the hyenas along. Described as the film 's "darkest '' song, a "pompous, '' "fascistic paean to usurpers, '' the musical sequence depicts the lion "as a big - cat fascist. '' According to Business Insider, in addition to loosely basing the character on Adolf Hitler to further emphasize Scar 's tyranny, the filmmakers very much directly based his song "Be Prepared, '' which references Nazism by having Scar 's army of hyenas goose step while addressing them from a high ledge -- similar to the way in which Hitler would have from a balcony -- on the Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will (1935), a film that documents Nazi Germany during 1934. According to Entertainment Weekly, the concept originated from a sketch by story artist Jorgen Klubien, in which Scar was depicted as Hitler. Although hesitant that then - Disney Animation chief Jeffrey Katzenberg would approve, the filmmakers ultimately decided to pursue it, describing the sequence as a "Triumph of the Will - style mock - Nuremberg rally. '' The St. Louis Post-Dispatch reviewed, "those goose - stepping hyenas seem a little much in hindsight, '' while Film School Rejects coined it a "hellish gathering. '' Scar debuted in The Lion King (1994). The jealous younger brother of Mufasa, Scar was next - in - line to take the throne until his nephew Simba, Mufasa 's son, was born, replacing him. Determined to usurp the throne and become king himself, Scar devises a plan to kill both Simba and Mufasa. Cleverly trapping Simba in a vast gorge, Scar signals his hyena minions, Shenzi, Banzai and Ed, to trigger a wildebeest stampede. Although Mufasa saves Simba, the king is weakened, and unable to climb out of the gorge to safety. When Mufasa begs Scar for help, Scar instead throws his brother to his death below. Convincing Simba that he is to blame for Mufasa 's death, Scar advises the prince to run away and never return, then orders the hyenas to pursue and kill him. With his brother murdered and his nephew presumed dead, Scar returns to Pride Rock and tells the pride that both father and son are dead before becoming king. Years go by as Scar squanders the kingdom 's resources and allows his army of hyenas to wreak havoc upon the Pride Lands, which turn barren. Meanwhile, an alive and adult Simba is visited by Mufasa 's ghost, who encourages him to return to the Pride Lands and take his rightful place as king. Aided by his friends Nala, Timon and Pumbaa, Simba arrives at Pride Rock and witnesses Scar striking his mother Sarabi and confronts Scar, who demands that Simba admit to the pride that he killed Mufasa. As he prepares to throw Simba off Pride Rock and have him meet a similar fate to that of his father, Scar whispers that he was the one who killed Mufasa. Enraged, Simba tackles Scar and forces his uncle to admit the truth to the pride, initiating a ferocious battle between the pride, Timon, Pumbaa, Zazu, Rafiki and Scar 's hyenas. Scar tries to escape, but is cornered by Simba on the top of Pride Rock; Scar begs for mercy and even attempts to blame his crimes on the hyenas, unaware that they are listening nearby. Simba ignores Scar and gives him one last chance to run away and never return. When Simba 's back is turned, Scar attacks him and they fight. Simba bests Scar in combat and throws him over the cliff edge and into a pit. Scar survives the fall, but is attacked and killed by the vengeful hyenas. The success of The Lion King spawned a Broadway musical based on the film, directed by Julie Taymor with a book written by The Lion King co-director Roger Allers and screenwriter Irene Mecchi. American actor John Vickery originated the role of Scar. In one scene in the musical, Scar, during the song "The Madness of King Scar '', tries to seduce a young adult Nala and make her his queen. Nala however, rejects Scar 's advances and leaves Pride Rock. Having been killed during the end of The Lion King, Scar 's appearance and presence in its sequel The Lion King II: Simba 's Pride (1998) is, naturally, quite limited in comparison. Story-wise, however, his role remains vital. Upon Scar 's demise, a rivaling pride of lions known as the Outsiders decide to remain loyal to him. The pride is led by Scar 's most faithful follower, Zira. Since Scar had no children of his own, Zira 's son Kovu is chosen to serve as Scar 's heir. Simba banishes the Outsiders to the Outlands, and forbids his daughter Kiara from going there. She goes there anyway, however, and meets and befriends Kovu. Meanwhile, Zira trains Kovu to murder Simba, but when he becomes an adult, he has a change of heart as he begins to develop feelings for Kiara. Scar makes a brief cameo appearance in the film in Simba 's nightmare. In the nightmare, an adult Simba runs down the cliff where his father died, attempting to rescue him. Scar intervenes, however, and then turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff. Scar makes another cameo appearance in a pool of water, as a reflection, after Kovu is exiled from Pride Rock. Scar makes a brief cameo in Disney 's animated feature film Hercules (1997) in the form of a limp lion skin coat worn by Hercules, parodying the Nemean lion. Ironically, Zazu somehow foresaw this predicament in the first film, when he sarcastically told Mufasa "He 'd make a very handsome throw rug ''. Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja also served as the supervising animator of Hercules. The character appears in the 1994 video game The Lion King. According to AllGame, Scar appears towards the end of video game as Simba finally "must defeat his Uncle Scar '' and "stop Scar and reclaim what is rightfully his. '' Scar plays a similar role in the video game The Lion King: Simba 's Mighty Adventure (2000); Simba 's climactic "battle with Scar concludes the first six levels of the game. '' According to IGN, the video game features the voices of the film 's cast, including Jeremy Irons as Scar. Voiced by James Horan, Scar appears as a non-player character in Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure (2003) and Kingdom Hearts II as a villain who ultimately transforms into a Heartless as a result of the character 's own "hatred and jealousy. '' Scar also makes a brief non-speaking cameo appearance in an episode of Timon & Pumbaa, despite that he is deceased at that time. Scar is portrayed through paintings in The Lion Guard television film and appeared as a spirit in the one - hour long special The Rise of Scar, after the series - exclusive villains Janja (the main antagonist hyena) and Ushari (a cobra) learn how to summon him. Scar was voiced on the one - hour special by David Oyelowo. The Lion Guard explains some of his backstory. When Scar was younger -- as per tradition to all second born children of the current reigning "Lion King '' -- he led The Lion Guard who protected The Pride Lands and defended "The Circle of Life '' from all enemies before Kion, and was given a power called "The Roar of the Elders '' which when used, caused the lions of Pride Lands past to roar with him. However, that power went to his head and Scar vainly believed that with this power, he should be the king instead of Mufasa, but when the rest of The Lion Guard refused to aid him in his plot, Scar destroyed them with the Roar. As a result, Scar lost the Roar forever, as he had used it for evil. In the years that followed the Lion Guard 's downfall, Scar continued to plot against his brother. Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics, some of whom praised him as a better character than Simba. Author Peter M. Nichols wrote in his book New York Times Essential Library: Children 's Movies: A Critic 's Guide to the Best Films Available on Video and DVD that Scar "is the most interesting character in the film, '' describing Simba and Mufasa "bores in comparison. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times called Scar a "delectably wicked '' villain. Maslin went on to praise Irons ' voice acting, writing that the actor "slithers through the story in grandiose high style, with a green - eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights. '' Leah Rozen of People described Scar as "a flawless realization of Irons ' special talent. '' Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune lauded Scar as the film 's "best character, '' jokingly describing him as "Irons ' Claus von Bulow with fur. '' Similarly, ComingSoon.net 's Joshua Starnes hailed Scar as "the best part of the film. '' Praising both Scar and Irons ' acting, Starnes continued, "He switches so quickly and easily from campy to deadly its like a showcase for how to do an over-the - top villain right. '' Concluding that "Villains are often the most memorable characters in a Disney animated film, '' Roger Ebert described Scar "one of the great ones. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews reviewed, "Gone is the buffoonery that has marked the recent trio of Ursula, Gaston, and Jafar, '' writing, "Scar is a sinister figure, given to acid remarks and cunning villainy. '' Berardinelli concluded, "The cold - hearted manner in which he causes Mufasa 's death lets us know that this is not a lion to be trifled with. '' "Simba is also influenced by his delectably wicked uncle, Scar (Jeremy Irons). Scar arranges Mufasa 's disturbing on - screen death in a manner that both banishes Simba to the wilderness and raises questions about whether this film really warranted a G rating... For the grown - ups, there is Mr. Irons, who has been as devilishly well - captured by Disney 's graphic artists (Scar 's supervising animator: Andreas Deja) as Robin Williams was in Aladdin. Bored, wicked and royally sarcastic, Mr. Irons 's Scar slithers through the story in grandiose high style, with a green - eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights. ' Oh, and just between us, you might want to work on that little roar of yours, hmm? ' he purrs to Simba, while purporting to be a mentor to his young nephew. Scar, who also gives a reprise of Mr. Irons 's best - known line from Reversal of Fortune, may not be much of a father figure, but he 's certainly great fun. '' A film that features the voices of several well - known A-list actors, namely Irons as Scar, Matthew Broderick as Simba, James Earl Jones as Mufasa and Whoopi Goldberg as Shenzi, The Lion King has since gone on to be acclaimed as "one of the most impressive arrays of voice talents ever utilized in an animated film. '' Critics have repeatedly singled out Irons ' performance, praising it extensively: Cindy White of IGN called Irons ' performance "deliciously smarmy, '' while Andy Patrizio of IGN wrote that Irons voices Scar "in perfect Shakespearean villain mode. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers hailed Irons for "deliver (ing) a triumphantly witty vocal performance that ranks with Robin Williams ' in Aladdin. '' Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle commended Disney for "nail (ing) the voice talents, '' specifically Irons. The Philadelphia Daily News ' Bill Wedo described Irons ' voice as "silken, '' while Graham Young of the Birmingham Mail hailed the actor 's performance as "magnificent. '' Radio Times ' Tom Hutchinson wrote, "Jeremy Irons (is) a vocal standout as the evil uncle Scar. '' Annette Basile of Filmink echoed Hutchinson 's statement, writing that Scar is "voiced with relish by stand - out Jeremy Irons. '' The Guardian 's Philip French opined, "Jeremy Irons is excellent as the suavely villainous lion Scar. '' David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor exalted Irons ' acting, describing him as "positively brilliant. '' Also hailing the film 's cast as "incredible, '' Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighted Irons as a "standout. '' Praising the film for successfully combining "grand - opera melodrama and low - comedy hi - jinks, '' the Orlando Sentinel 's Jay Boyar concluded that "One reason they work so well together is that even most of the serious sections contain an undercurrent of humor, provided... by the deliciously droll voice - performance of Jeremy Irons as Scar. '' Mathew DeKinder of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch felt that Irons successfully "handle (s) all of the dramatic heavy lifting. '' Even film critics who generally disliked the film tended to enjoy Scar 's characterization and Irons ' performance. Terrence Rafferty of The New Yorker wrote, "Among the celebrity voices on the soundtrack, two performances stand out, '' namely, "Jeremy Irons, as the villainous lion Scar '' who "does an elegant, funny George Sanders impersonation. '' (Sanders himself had voiced Shere Khan for Disney in their 1967 version of The Jungle Book). Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun described Irons ' voice as "plummy - rich with rancid irony. '' Television Without Pity 's Ethan Alter admitted to enjoying Scar, praising the character as "a fantastic villain and easily the most fully realized of the film 's characters, thanks both to Jeremy Irons ' marvelously wicked vocal performance and some clever character flourishes on behalf of the animators. '' David Denby of New York, who otherwise criticized the film, felt that "Irons... sounds like he 's having a better time than he 's ever had in movies before. '' In a rare lukewarm review, Anthony Quinn of The Independent felt that Irons ' performance was too campy: "more Liberace than George Sanders. '' According to IGN, Scar, Simba and Mufasa have since become "household names thanks to the (film 's) enormous popularity... but back in 1994 who could have predicted that these characters would enter the lexicon of Disney 's most popular creations? '' Scar is considered to be among Disney 's greatest villains. Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer reviewed Scar as "the most vivid villain in Disney features in generations. '' On a broader scale, Scar is often revered as one of the greatest animated villains of all - time. Entertainment Weekly included the character in the article "10 Over-the - top Animated Movie Villains '', explaining, "you could only expect over-the - top when you pair such a grasping, conniving character with Jeremy Irons ' seductive voice. '' Likewise, Digital Spy 's Alex Fletcher wrote of Scar in his article "Who is Disney 's greatest ever villain? '' that "The scene in which he lets Mufasa... fall into a stampede of wildebeests left lasting emotional trauma on an entire generation. '' The Huffington Post ranked Scar first in its "Definitive Ranking Of 25 Classic Disney Villains '' countdown. Similarly, BuzzFeed also ranked Scar first in the website 's "Definitive Ranking Of The Top 20 Disney Villains '' list, with author Javi Moreno accusing the character of removing "the innocence of an entire generation. '' Scar also topped About.com 's "Top 10 Disney Villains '' countdown; author David Nusair concluded, "There are few figures within Disney 's body of work that are as deliciously reprehensible and vile as Scar... heightened by Jeremy Irons ' gloriously smug voice work. '' Nusair also included Irons among the "Top 5 Celebrity Voice Performances in Animated Films '', acknowledging the fact that although the actor "has played a lot of villains over the course of his career... none have had the lasting impact as Scar from The Lion King. '' The Orlando Sentinel ranked Scar the sixth "greatest Disney villain of all time ''. Similarly, Babble.com also placed the character at number six. Included in the website 's "12 most famous Disney villains from worst to best '' countdown, Yahoo! Movies ranked Scar second best, while Moviefone ranked the character sixth. E! ranked Scar fifth, with author John Boone writing that the character "plotted one of the most painful deaths in Disney history, so you know he 'll never be forgotten. '' Animation World Network ranked Scar the sixth best animated villain. CNN considers Scar one of "Disney 's scariest characters. '' While ranking the character fifth, The Stanford Daily wrote, "From his habit of sadistically toying with his prey to his dumb hyena coven to the way he leads the kingdom of Pride Rock into a period of starvation and sorrow, he 's a backstabbing dictator of an uncle. '' Richard Crouse of Metro cited Scar 's "Long live the King '' as the character 's "Most evil line. '' Additionally, "Be Prepared '' is often revered as one of the greatest Disney villain songs. Official Disney Blogs wrote that the song, with its "hyena backup singers, and the best bone - rattling percussion of all the villains ' songs, '' Scar proves himself "an expert crooner of villainous plots. '' Aside from Disney and animation, Scar is often revered as one of the greatest movie villains of all - time. Digital Spy featured the character who, according to author Simon Reynolds, "underlined the sheer blackness of his heart by ruthlessly killing Simba 's father, '' among the "25 greatest movie villains ''. Similarly, in 2012, Entertainment Weekly ranked the character the twenty - fifth "Most Vile Movie Villain '' ever, while Total Film ranked Scar sixty - seventh in 2014. To - date, Deja remains best known for animating several of Disney 's most famous villains, admitting to preferring animating villains over heroes. However, after The Lion King, Deja finally decided to take a break from animating villains in order to avoid repeating himself, subsequently refusing to animate villain Judge Claude Frollo in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996) in favor of working on Hercules from Hercules (1997), along with Mickey Mouse in the animated short Runaway Brain (1995). Comparing Scar to other villains that he has played, Irons said that he "measures very highly, '' having "charm, '' "Machiavellian qualities '' and being "iconic in some of the things he says. '' Scar became the first Disney villain to successfully explicitly kill someone. Like Disney 's Bambi before it, The Lion King -- dubbed the studio 's "darkest '' film at the time of its release -- was unprecedented in terms of its serious themes, namely guilt, murder, treachery, revenge and death, specifically the on - screen assassination of one of the film 's heroes. According to IGN, "The film 's story concepts of morality and mortality... was new for Disney, '' with The Washington Post predicting that "the death of the heroic Mufasa will be the most widely debated aspect of The Lion King, with people taking sides as to whether such things are good or bad for kids just as they did over the killing of Bambi 's mother. '' Similarly, Variety opined, "a generation that remembers the death of Bambi 's mother as traumatizing should bear that experience in mind when deciding who goes to The Lion King. '' Film critics and parents alike expressed concern that Scar 's violent ways would frighten and disturb younger viewers. Referring to Scar 's murdering of Mufasa, The New York Times questioned "whether this film really warranted a G rating. '' Critics also cautioned Scar 's death; Movieline warned audiences that the film "shows a fairy tale 's dark sense of justice, '' for example when "Scar was eaten by his hyena allies after betraying them. '' ReelViews ' James Berardinelli commented: "Death, something not really touched on in the last three animated Disney tales, is very much at the forefront of The Lion King. In a scene that could disturb younger viewers, Mufasa 's demise is shown. It is a chilling moment that is reminiscent of a certain incident in Bambi. The film also contains a fair share of violence, including a rather graphic battle between two lions. Parents should carefully consider before automatically taking a child of, say, under seven years of age, to this movie. '' The Los Angeles Times warned that "The on - screen death of Mufasa and a violent battle at the finale may disturb small children, '' echoed by The Philadelphia Inquirer. However, film critics also felt that Disney 's treatment of Scar was at times too light - hearted and comedic, with the Deseret News complaining, "a climactic battle between Simba and his evil Uncle Scar... is (a) very bad choice near the end, as Simba and Scar battle in slow - motion, a serious moment that seems unintentionally comic. '' According to The Seattle Times, "Some critics have complained that the movie is too funny and good - natured to accommodate the rather grim story it 's telling. '' Considered "an odd mix of deadly seriousness and slapstick humor... Simba fights Scar to the death '' while "intercut with... Poomba (sic)... doing a parody of Travis Bickel. '' Although universally acclaimed, Scar has sparked considerable controversy regarding the character 's appearance and personality, specifically his darker - colored fur and alleged sexuality. The general public, however, appears to have remained largely oblivious to such concerns according to David Parkinson, author of The Rough Guide to Film Musicals. The Washington Post felt that "Scar clearly is meant to represent an evil African American because ' while Simba 's mane is gloriously red, Scar 's is, of course, black. '' Meanwhile, Scar 's mannerisms and voice which, according to Nightmare on Main Street: Angels, Sadomasochism, and the Culture of Gothic 's author Mark Edmundson, resemble "a cultivated, word - weary, gay man, '' has been deemed homophobic by some commentators because, according to The Independent, "the arch - villain 's gestures are effeminate '' while, in addition to the film being "full of stereotypes, '' the character "speaks in supposed gay cliches. '' Susan Mackey - Kallis, author of The Hero and the Perennial Journey Home in American Film, observed that Scar is "more effeminate (and) less brawny... than '' both Mufasa and Simba. Additionally, "Even though (Scar) would be expected to mate with one of the lioness, he is never seen intimated by any. '' While Disney executives ignored these accusations, Slant Magazine defended the studio, explaining that Scar 's black mane is simply an example of "the animators ' elementary attempts to color - code evil for the film 's target audience. '' Similarly, author Edward Schiappa wrote in his book Beyond Representational Correctness: Rethinking Criticism of Popular Media that Scar 's voice was simply meant "to convey the sort of upper - class snobbishness evinced by George Sanders 's performance as Shere Khan in The Jungle Book. '' More recently, the possibility of an incestuous relationship involving Simba, his mate Nala, Scar and Mufasa has surfaced. According to Johnson Cheu, author of Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, the fact that Scar, Mufasa and Simba appear to be the only male lions present in The Lion King suggests the possibility that either Scar or Mufasa is Nala 's father, which would in turn make Nala either Simba 's half - sister or cousin. However, The Lion Guard identifies Nala 's father as a red - maned unnamed lion who - in his youth - resembled his grandson (and Scar 's great - nephew) Kion.

who does ross end up with on friends

The last one (Friends) - wikipedia "The Last One '' is the series finale of the television sitcom Friends. The episode serves as the seventeenth and eighteenth episode of season ten; the episode 's two parts were classified as two separate episodes. It was written by series creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman, and directed by executive producer Kevin S. Bright. The series finale first aired on NBC in the United States on May 6, 2004, when it was watched by 65.9 million viewers, making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years and the fourth most watched overall television series finale in U.S. history, as well as the most watched episode from any television series throughout the decade 2000s on U.S. television. In Canada, the finale aired simultaneously on May 6, 2004 on Global, and was viewed by 5.16 million viewers, becoming the highest viewed episode of the series, and also becoming highest - viewed and highest - rated episode ever in Canada for a sitcom. The series finale closes several long - running storylines. Ross Geller (David Schwimmer) confesses his love for Rachel Green (Jennifer Aniston), and they decide to resume their relationship; and Monica Geller (Courteney Cox) and Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry) adopt twins and move to the suburbs. The episode 's final scene shows the group leaving their apartments for the final time and going to Central Perk for one last cup of coffee. Prior to writing the episode, Crane, Kauffman and Bright watched finales from other sitcoms for inspiration. Kauffman found that she liked the ones that stayed true to the series. Filming took place at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California; part one was taped on January 16, and part two on January 23. The finale was well received by critics and the cast members. Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow) and Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc) pack the belongings of Monica and Chandler, who have accompanied Erica (Anna Faris) to the hospital. Rachel leaves Ross ' bedroom after their apparent reunion in the previous episode. Erica gives birth to twins, much to the surprise of Monica and Chandler, who were expecting only one child. At his apartment, Joey shows Phoebe his house - warming gift for Monica and Chandler: a chick and duckling to replace the ones that died. Ross arrives and confesses to the pair that he slept with Rachel. Rachel emerges from her bedroom and, to his disappointment, tells Ross that their night together was "the perfect way to say goodbye ''. Later at the Central Perk café, Phoebe convinces Ross to tell Rachel how he feels about her before she leaves for her new job in Paris. As he is about to tell her, Central Perk manager Gunther (James Michael Tyler) confesses his love for Rachel. Back at Monica and Chandler 's apartment, Ross decides not to tell Rachel, for fear of rejection. She prepares to leave to catch her flight, but waits long enough for Monica and Chandler to return with the twins, named Erica (after their biological mother) and Jack (after Monica 's father). After Rachel leaves, Ross has a change of heart, and Phoebe takes him in her taxi to follow Rachel to the airport. Joey returns to his apartment to fetch the chick and the duck he was hiding, but finds they have become trapped in the foosball table. Chandler and Joey decide to break it open when they can not find any other way of getting the birds out. Phoebe 's reckless driving gets her and Ross to JFK Airport and, after buying a ticket to get past security, they search the information boards for Rachel 's flight number. When they can not locate her flight on any of the information boards, Ross calls and checks the number with Monica but discovers they are at the wrong airport; Ross and Phoebe drove to JFK, while Rachel was flying out of nearby Newark Airport. Phoebe phones Rachel, who has already boarded her flight, to stall her for time. When a passenger (Jim Rash) overhears Phoebe saying there is a problem with the fictitious "left phalange '' of the plane, he gets off the plane, prompting everyone else to leave. Chandler and Joey, who are emotionally attached to the foosball table, find they are unable to bear breaking it open, so Monica nonchalantly offers to do it for them. After they retrieve the birds, Chandler suggests Joey keeps them. Phoebe and Ross arrive at the airport as Rachel boards the plane again. Ross tells her he loves her, but she is unable to deal with his confession and gets on the plane anyway. Ross returns home, dejected, and finds a message from Rachel on the phone. She explains her actions and decides to get off the plane, but the message cuts off. Ross panickingly tries fixing the answering machine, wondering to himself out loud if she got off the plane. From behind him, Rachel says she did. They kiss and get back together for good, both agreeing that this is where they want to be. The following morning, the friends gather in Monica and Chandler 's empty apartment. With some time remaining before Monica and Chandler leave for their new house, the six all leave their keys to the apartment on the kitchen counter and decide to go for one last cup of coffee together, to which Chandler sarcastically quips, "Where? ''. The final scene is a shot of the apartment, panning round slowly from the living space to the front door. The series ' creators completed the first draft of the hour - long finale in January 2004, four months prior to its airing on May 6. Before writing the episode, David Crane, Marta Kauffman and Kevin S. Bright decided to watch the series finales of other sitcoms, paying attention to what worked and what did not. Kauffman found that they liked the ones which stayed true to the series, and they found the finale of The Mary Tyler Moore Show to be the gold standard. The writers had difficulty writing the finale, and spent several days thinking about the final scene without being able to write a word. Crane said that they did not want to do "something high concept, or take the show out of the show ''. The music playing as the camera pans across the empty apartment at the end of the episode is "Embryonic Journey '' by Jefferson Airplane. The song "Yellow Ledbetter '' by the band Pearl Jam is also featured in the episode -- after Rachel boards the plane for the first time -- making it the first Pearl Jam song to be licensed for a television show. A spokesperson for the group said it was, "simply a matter of the show 's producers asking permission ''. The episode was filmed in Los Angeles, California on Stage 24 at Warner Bros. Studios, where Friends had been filmed since its second season. The first part was taped on January 16, and the second on January 23, 2004. After the series finale, Stage 24 was renamed "The Friends Stage ''. A month before the filming of the final episode, Aniston said that with each episode it got "harder just to read the lines. '' She explained that the cast was "all just nerves and raw emotions (...) No one knows how to feel. We may need to be sedated on the last night. '' The producers promised a tearful ending, and the cast admitted their crying was not faked when they filmed their scenes. LeBlanc revealed it had been too much for him and the rest of the cast; he said Kudrow started crying first, and when he looked at Aniston and Cox they also appeared emotional. Schwimmer, who LeBlanc thought was the "consummate professional '', was also upset, so LeBlanc "just lost it. '' Maggie Wheeler, who was Chandler 's "on and off '' girlfriend Janice, told People, "the entire cast had to go back and have their makeup redone before starting, '' and that Perry broke the tension by saying, "Somebody is gon na get fired. '' Perry told the New York Daily News that he did not cry, "but I felt like I was about to for like seven hours. '' Although it was planned that some key scenes of the episode would be filmed without an audience in order to avoid leaks of plot spoilers, the producers decided not to worry about the issue and filmed it all in front of the live studio audience. The producers also instigated the rumor that multiple endings would be filmed; in fact, only one was planned and shot. At the start of each Friends episode filming, the cast would ordinarily be introduced to the studio audience one at a time, but this time the cast headed out for their pre-curtain bow together. "That made me cry, '' said Diane Newman, who was the script supervisor of the show. Among the specially invited audience of the taping were Hank Azaria, who played Phoebe 's scientist boyfriend in several episodes over the years; David Arquette, who filmed his then - wife Cox and the others backstage with a video camera; and Wheeler. Missing was Brad Pitt, Aniston 's then - husband; Pitt told the producers he wanted to be surprised when the finale aired on television. Although some guests were invited, around 75 % of the studio audience were ' ordinary ' members of the public so that their reactions would be congruous with the rest of the series. However, friends, family and colleagues of the cast and crew served as extras throughout the episode. NBC heavily promoted the series finale, which was preceded by weeks of hype. The top price for a 30 - second commercial during the U.S. broadcast was approximately $1 million USD. Viewing parties were organized by local NBC affiliates around the United States, including an event at Universal CityWalk featuring a special broadcast of the finale on an outdoor Astrovision screen. It was shown in New York City, where over 3,000 people watched it on big screens in parks. The finale was the subject of two episodes of Dateline NBC, one of which ran for two hours. Prior to the airing of the episode, a one - hour retrospective of clips from previous episodes was shown. Following the finale, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno was filmed on the set of the Friends ' Central Perk cafe, which featured the series ' cast as guests. The advertising rates for the finale averaged $2 million for 30 seconds of commercial time. This currently remains as the largest advertising rate ever for a sitcom, breaking the previous record held by the Seinfeld finale at $1.7 million. The finale was watched by 65.9 million American viewers making it the most watched entertainment telecast in six years, and the most watched episode of the decade 2000s on U.S. television. The Friends finale was the fourth most watched overall series finale in U.S. television history, behind the finales of M * A * S * H, Cheers and Seinfeld, which were watched by 105.9, 84.4 and 76.3 million viewers, respectively. The retrospective episode was watched by under 36 million viewers, and the finale was the second most - watched television show of the year, behind the Super Bowl. The episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards at the 56th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Multi-Camera Sound Mixing for a Series or Special and Outstanding Multi-Camera Picture Editing for a Series, but lost to the final season of Frasier in both categories. Robert Bianco of USA Today described the finale as entertaining and satisfying, and praised it for deftly mixing emotion and humor while showcasing each of the stars. Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald praised Aniston and Schwimmer for their acting, but felt that their characters ' reunion "felt a bit too neat, even if it was what most of the show 's legions of fans wanted. '' Newsday 's Noel Holston called the episode "sweet and dumb and satisfying, '' while Roger Catlin of The Hartford Courant felt that newcomers to the series would be "surprised at how laughless the affair could be, and how nearly every strained gag depends on the sheer stupidity of its characters. '' An editorial in USA Today highlighted the view of many critics who found problem with the aging cast, commenting, "Friends was getting creaky even as it remained popular. '' Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com said that despite the "nauseating hype and the disappointing season and the lackluster finale, it 's important to remember what a great show this was for such a very long time. '' Ken Parish Perkins of the Fort Worth Star - Telegram gave the finale a B grade, calling it "more touching than comical, more satisfying in terms of closure than knee - slappingly funny. '' The cast members reportedly got together in Los Angeles to watch the finale. It was well received by the main cast, who were confident that the fans would have the same reaction. David Schwimmer said, "It 's exactly what I had hoped. We all end up with a sense of a new beginning and the audience has a sense that it 's a new chapter in the lives of all these characters. '' At the taping of the episode, the cast and crew passed around yearbooks, custom - made by the production staff, and signed them for each other. The cast gave the producers inscribed Cartier SA watches, while the producers gave the cast Neil Lane jewelry. As the sets were broken down, the cast and crew each got a chunk of the street outside Central Perk in a glass box as a keepsake. There were 3 separate wrap parties - a dinner at the Aniston - Pitt residence on January 19, 2004, a sit down at cast hangout Il Sole in West Hollywood on January 22, and a big party for 1,000 guests on January 24 at Los Angeles ' Park Plaza Hotel. At the party at the Park Plaza Hotel, The Rembrandts performed the theme song of Friends, "I 'll Be There for You '', and the cast gave a re-enactment of the pilot episode 's first scene.

where does the term four in golf come from

Fore (golf) - Wikipedia "Fore! '', originally an Australian interjection, is used to warn anyone standing or moving in the flight of a golf ball. The mention of the term in an 1881 Australian Golf Museum indicates that the term was in use at least as early as that period. It is believed to come from the military "beware before '', which an artilleryman about to fire would yell alerting nearby infantrymen to drop to the ground to avoid the shells overhead. (Before may mean "in front of (the gun being fired) ''; fore may mean "(look) ahead ''.) Other possible origins include the term being derived from the term "fore - caddie '', a caddie waiting down range from the golfer to find where the ball lands. These caddies were often warned about oncoming golf balls by a shout of the term "fore - caddie '' which was eventually shortened to just "fore! ''. The Colonel Bogey March is based on the descending minor third which the original Colonel Bogey whistled instead of yelling Fore around 1914.

who established the first training program for librarians

Education for librarianship - wikipedia Education for librarianship is the term for the educational preparation for professional librarians. This varies widely in different countries. In the United States and Canada, it generally consists of a master 's degree program in library science. There are also bachelor 's, associate, and certificate programs in library science, which provide formal training of paraprofessional library workers, library technicians, and clerks -- as well as preparation for graduate study in library science. Until the 19th century, the librarian in charge of an academic collection was normally a scholar, often a university professor with a special interest in the library. There were no training programs, and the new librarian was expected to follow the practices of other similar libraries. (Popular libraries in the modern sense had not yet developed.) In the 19th century, although some librarians followed this older pattern, others prepared as apprentices under the direction of established librarians. "Library school '' is a term which has been used to describe an institution of higher learning specializing in the professional training of librarians. The first library school in the United States was established by Melvil Dewey (the originator of the Dewey decimal system) in 1887 at Columbia University. Since then many library schools have been founded in the United States and Canada, with Canada 's first formal librarianship program established at McGill University in 1904. The development of library schools in other countries began in 1915, when librarians ' schools were founded at Leipzig and Barcelona (currently, as a faculty of the Universitat de Barcelona, the latter is the oldest library school in Europe). Many others were founded during World War II. The University of Chicago Graduate Library School became the first library school to confer a master 's degree in library science, which is now the standard professional degree, and later became the first to give a doctoral degree in the field. Other prominent American library schools are located at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign and at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Most library schools in North America offer graduate programs only. Accreditation of these programs is granted by the American Library Association. The bachelor 's degree in Library Science (or Library Economy as it was called in early days) was, for the most part, phased out several decades ago. Librarians in North America typically earn a master 's degree, typically the Master of Library Science (MLS) or the Master of Library and Information Science (MLIS). This degree allows one to work as a practicing librarian in public libraries, academic libraries, school library media centers, and special libraries, while many individuals with the MLS credential work with major library vendors. The degree is also applicable to related sectors such as publishing. Master of Library Science programs are typically structured to offer a combination of required and elective courses in library science and information science. The required courses focus on core library skills such as cataloging, reference, collection development as well as related areas such as the philosophy underlying the profession, information technology and management. Elective courses may include information management, children 's literature, genealogy and archives as well as specialized courses related to different types of libraries. In recent decades, many schools offering librarianship education have changed their names to reflect the shift from print media to electronic media, and to information contained outside of traditional libraries. Some call themselves schools of library and information science (abbreviated to "SLIS '', hence the term "SLISters '' for their students), while others may have dropped the word "library '' altogether. This trend began as early as the 1960s with the recognition that information and access to it was shifting to electronic resources with the development of telecommunications and computer networks and away from the traditional definition of librarianship. This shift led a number of library schools to change or broaden their mission to be more inclusive of information sciences across many disciplines including library sciences, archives, computer sciences and more, and led to the development by a number of schools of an iSchool organization, to advance the field of information as a whole. The normal preparation for a faculty member in a department of library science (or other name) is a Ph. D. in Library science or Information science. In some fields of librarianship, a Ph. D. in another related subject, such as archival studies, is the equivalent, and some faculty have doctorates in various subject fields, as well as an MLS (or similar) degree. In the United States and Canada, a professional librarian normally has a one or two - year master 's degree in library and information science, library science or information science with abbreviations such as MLS, MSLS, MIS, MS - LIS, MISt, MI, MLIS, or MILS. Many professional librarians have degrees obtained from programs accredited by the American Library Association (ALA) and can have specializations within fields such as archives, records management, information architecture, information policy, knowledge management, public librarianship, medical librarianship, law librarianship, special librarianship, academic librarianship, or school (K - 12) librarianship. School librarians often are required to have a teaching credential and school librarian license in addition to a library science degree. Master 's degree programs for school library media specialist initial preparation are also accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), which ALA recognizes. Many, if not most, academic librarians also have a second, subject - based master 's degree. The early history of education for librarians in the U.S. has been explored by Churchwell. The University of Chicago studies in library science assessed the state of education for librarians in 1948. The pivotal role of the first doctoral degree at the University of Chicago Graduate Library School from 1921 - 1951 has been analyzed by John Richardson in his study, The Spirit of Inquiry. Many faculty members at the University of Chicago, Graduate Library School (1928 - 1979) were at the forefront of the field 's development in the twentieth century: Lester Asheim, Lee Pierce Butler, Leon Carnovsky, Herman H. Fussler, Frances E. Henne, Carleton B. Joeckel, Jesse Shera, Peggy Sullivan, Douglas Waples, Louis Round Wilson, Howard Winger, and Robert Wadsworth. The Library Quarterly was first published by the Graduate Library School in 1931. At the turn of the millennium (1999 -- 2000), problems related to the graduate education of professional librarians pervaded professional and academic discourse. These were initially identified by the Council of the American Library Association as the growing elimination of the word "library '' from the names of schools, the seeming lack of attention to core competencies (cataloguing was often mentioned), and the national shortage of professionals to work with particular groups (specifically young people in public libraries and disadvantaged populations), and in particular environments (such as schools). The Final Report of the Steering Committee on the Congress for Professional Education provides an analysis of these issues. The Coalition on Reinventing Information Science, Technology, and Literary Education supported by the Kellogg Foundation provided additional analysis of future educational needs and direction. Bernie Sloan compiled an extensive 2004 bibliography on changes in LIS education. Distinguished service to education for librarianship in the U.S. and Canada is recognized by the annual Beta Phi Mu Award sponsored by the International Honorary Society, Beta Phi Mu. The first award was made in 1954 to Rudolph Hjalmar Gjelsness Dean of the University of Michigan 's Library Science Department from 1940 to 1964. The primary association for faculty teaching in library and information science programs is the Association for Library and Information Science Education. In academic regalia in the United States, the color for library science is lemon. In the UK and some other countries, a librarian can have a three - or four - year bachelor 's degree in library and information studies or information science; separate master 's degrees in librarianship, archive management, and records management are also available. In the United Kingdom, these degrees are accredited by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals and the Society of Archivists. In Germany and some other countries, the first step for an academic librarian is a Ph. D. in a subject field, followed by additional training in librarianship. In Denmark the first step to become a librarian is a 3 - year long bachelor 's degree in Library and Information Science (B.Sc.) at The Royal School of Library and Information Science. The students then have the choice between taking a half - year - long education for librarianship called Librarian D.B or take a 2 - year master 's degree called Master of Library and Information Science (M.L.I. Sc.). All the already mentioned courses takes place in Danish but The Royal School of Library and Information Science also offers an English - speaking 2 - year master 's degree called Master of Library and Information Science (M.L.I. Sc.). Students who complete the bachelor 's degree, the librarianship or one of the master 's degrees offered get work as librarians, information employees or organization staff. The students can also obtain a Ph. D. in Library and Information Science at The Royal School of Library and Information Science (first awarded at The Royal School of Library and Information Science in 2004). The students can also obtain a doctorate in Library and Information Science at The Royal School of Library and Information Science (first awarded at The Royal School of Library and Information Science in 2006). In 1914, the University of the Philippines offered the first courses in Library education in the country. The University would later establish the first separate library school in the country in 1961; the Institute of Library Science, a former department of the now defunct College of Liberal Arts. Librarians usually have a four - year bachelor 's degree in library and information studies, or a master 's degree in LIS or one with a concentration in Library Science. It is also not uncommon for librarians to possess a degree in Education, with a specialization or major in Library Science. With passage of the Republic Act No. 6966 (Repealed in 2003 with the passing of R.A. 9246 or "The Philippine Librarianship Act of 2003 '') in 1990, graduates of library and information science are required to take the licensure examinations for librarians in order to practice librarianship in the Philippines or countries which have reciprocity as regards the practice of the field. In New Zealand, Victoria University of Wellington is the only university providing postgraduate education in librarianship. Qualifications include Master of Information Studies (course based) and Master of Arts (thesis based) as well as postgraduate diploma and certificate in librarianship. Open Polytechnic provides undergraduate librarianship education.

what is the name of the apple app store

App Store (iOS) - wikipedia The App Store is a digital distribution platform, developed and maintained by Apple Inc., for mobile apps on its iOS operating system. The store allows users to browse and download apps developed with Apple 's iOS software development kit. Apps can be downloaded on the iPhone smartphone, the iPod Touch handheld computer, or the iPad tablet computer, and some can be transferred to the Apple Watch smartwatch or 4th - generation or newer Apple TVs as extensions of iPhone apps. The App Store was opened on July 10, 2008, with an initial 500 applications available. As of 2017, the store features over 2.1 million apps. Developers have multiple options for monetizing their applications, ranging from free, free with in - app purchases, and paid. However, App Store has been criticized for a lackluster development environment, prompting the company in June 2016 to announce a "renewed focus and energy '' on the store. Major changes introduced in the following months include ads in search results, a new app subscription model, and the ability for developers to respond to customer reviews. Additionally, Apple began a process to remove old apps that do not function as intended or that do n't follow current app guidelines, with app research firms noticing significant numbers of app removals from the store. Furthermore, with the release of iOS 11 in September 2017, App Store received a complete design overhaul, bringing a greater focus on editorial content and daily highlights, as well as a design similar in style to several of Apple 's built - in iOS apps. The iPhone App Store opened on July 10, 2008. On July 11, the iPhone 3G was released and came pre-loaded with support for App Store. After the success of Apple 's App Store and the launch of similar services by its competitors, the term "app store '' has been adopted to refer to any similar service for mobile devices. However, Apple applied for a U.S. trademark on the term "App Store '' in 2008, which was tentatively approved in early 2011. In June 2011, U.S. District Judge Phyllis Hamilton, who was presiding over Apple 's case against Amazon, said she would "probably '' deny Apple 's motion to stop Amazon from using the "App Store '' name. In July, Apple was denied preliminary injunction against Amazon 's Appstore by a federal judge. The term app has become a popular buzzword; in January 2011, app was awarded the honor of being 2010 's "Word of the Year '' by the American Dialect Society. "App '' has been used as shorthand for "application '' since at least the mid-1990s, and in product names since at least 2006, for example then - named Google Apps. Apple announced Mac App Store, a similar app distribution platform for its macOS personal computer operating system, in October 2010, with the official launch taking place in January 2011 with the release of its 10.6. 6 "Snow Leopard '' update. In February 2013, Apple informed developers that they could begin using appstore.com for links to their apps. In June at its developer conference, Apple announced an upcoming "Kids '' section in App Store, a new section featuring apps categorized by age range, and the section was launched alongside the release of iOS 7 in September 2013. In November 2014, due to pressure from the European Commission, Apple updated App Store so that all apps that have no charge to download are labeled "Get '' instead of the previous "Free '', due to many "free '' apps ' inclusions of paid in - app purchases. In January 2017, reports surfaced that documentation for a new beta for the then - upcoming release of iOS 10.3 detailed that Apple would let developers respond to customer reviews in the App Store, marking a significant change from the previous limitation, which prevented developers from communicating with users. The functionality was officially enabled on March 27, 2017 when iOS 10.3 was released to users. Further details were also released about reviews for users, including that they will be able to rate and review apps in the apps themselves rather than being redirected to the App Store, and that they can mark other users ' reviews as "Helpful '' or "Not Helpful ''. Apple published a document describing proper ways to respond for developers, including being timely, clear and concise, prioritize certain forms of reviews (low - star ratings, certain countries or recent reviews) through filtering in iTunes Connect, and that developer responses go through an approval process before being published. Developers are also forbidden from manipulating or incenting feedback. Developer responses are listed in the App Store as a line underneath the respective user 's review, and users receive a notification / email upon a response from the respective developer, with the option to update their review. In March 2017, App Store submissions containing pricing details, such as "free '', in the name started getting rejected. Developers had previously been advised in developer guides in iTunes Connect and App Store overview pages that they should refrain from the practice, though apps were still approved. Starting in March, some (though not all) apps with "free '' in their titles were being rejected. In October 2016, in an effort to improve app discoverability, Apple rolled out the ability for developers to purchase advertising spots in App Store to users in the United States. The ads, shown at the top of the search results, are based strictly on relevant keywords, and are not used to create profiles on users. Apple expanded search ads to the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand in April 2017, along with more configurable advertising settings for developers. Search ads were expanded to Canada, Mexico and Switzerland in October 2017. In December 2017, Apple revamped its search ads program to offer two distinctive versions; "Search Ads Basic '' is a pay - per - install program aimed at smaller developers, in which they only pay when users actually install their app. Search Ads Basic also features an easier setup process and a restricted monthly budget. "Search Ads Advanced '' is a new name given to the older method, in which developers have to pay whenever users tap on their apps in search results, along with unlimited monthly budgets. At launch, the Basic program is only available in the U.S., with international rollout expected "sometime next year ''. Apple also offers an iTunes Affiliate Program, which lets people refer others to apps and other iTunes content, along with in - app purchases, for a percentage of sales. The commission rate for in - app purchases was reduced from 7 % to 2.5 % in May 2017, while affiliate rates for paid apps, music, movies, books, and TV shows remained at 7 %. App Store received a major design overhaul with the release of iOS 11. The new design features a greater focus on editorial content and daily highlights, and introduces a "cleaner and more consistent and colorful look '' similar to several of Apple 's built - in iOS apps. Prior to September 2017, Apple offered a way for users to manage their iOS app purchases through the iTunes computer software. In September, version 12.7 of iTunes was released, removing the App Store section in the process. However, the following month, iTunes 12.6. 3 was also released, retaining the App Store, with 9to5Mac noting that the secondary release was positioned by Apple as "necessary for some businesses performing internal app deployments ''. In December 2017, Apple announced that developers could offer applications for pre-order, letting them make apps visible in the store between 2 -- 90 days ahead of release. On January 4, 2018, Apple announced that the App Store had a record - breaking holiday season according to a new press release. During the week starting on Christmas Eve, a record number of customers made App Store purchases, spending more than $890 million in that seven - day period. On New Year 's Day 2018 alone, customers made $300 million in purchases. The iOS SDK (Software Development Kit) allows for the development of mobile apps on iOS. While originally developing iPhone prior to its unveiling in 2007, Apple 's then - CEO Steve Jobs did not intend to let third - party developers build native apps for iOS, instead directing them to make web applications for the Safari web browser. However, backlash from developers prompted the company to reconsider, with Jobs announcing in October 2007 that Apple would have a software development kit available for developers by February 2008. The SDK was released on March 6, 2008. The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program. Combined with Xcode, the iOS SDK helps developers write iOS apps using officially supported programming languages, including Swift and Objective - C. Other companies have also created tools that allow for the development of native iOS apps using their respective programming languages. To publish apps on App Store, developers must pay a $99 yearly fee for access to Apple 's Developer Program. Apple has announced that, in the United States in 2018, it will waive the fee for nonprofit organizations and governments. Developers have a few options for monetizing their applications. The "Free Model '' enables free apps, increasing likelihood of engagement. The "Freemium Model '' makes the app download free, but users are offered optional additional features in - app that require payments. The "Subscription Model '' enables ongoing monetization through renewable transactions. The "Paid Model '' makes the app itself a paid download and offers no additional features. The "Paymium Model '' enables paid app downloads and paid in - app content. In - app subscriptions were originally introduced for magazines, newspapers and music apps in February 2011, giving developers 70 % of revenue earned and Apple 30 %. Publishers could also sell digital subscriptions through their website, bypassing Apple 's fees, but were not allowed to advertise their website alternative through the apps themselves. In 2016, multiple media outlets reported that apps had decreased significantly in popularity. Recode wrote that "The app boom is over '', an editorial in TechCrunch stated that "The air of hopelessness that surrounds the mobile app ecosystem is obvious and demoralizing '', and The Verge wrote that "the original App Store model of selling apps for a buck or two looks antiquated ''. Issues included consumer "boredom '', a lack of app discoverability, and, as stated by a report from 2014, a lack of new app downloads among smartphone users. In an interview with The Verge in June 2016, Phil Schiller, Apple 's senior vice president of Worldwide Marketing, said that Apple had a "renewed focus and energy '' on the App Store, and announced multiple significant changes, including advertisements in search results and a new app subscription model. The subscription model saw the firmly established 70 / 30 revenue split between developers and Apple change into a new 85 / 15 revenue split if a user stays subscribed to the developer 's app for a year, and opens the possibility of subscriptions to all apps, not just select categories. App data and insights analyst company App Annie released a report in October 2016, announcing that China had overtaken the United States as Apple 's biggest market in App Store revenue. In the third quarter of 2016, Chinese users spent $1.7 billion vs. approximately $1.5 billion by American users. In June 2017, Apple announced that App Store had generated over $70 billion in revenue for developers since its 2008 launch. On July 10, 2008, Apple 's then - CEO Steve Jobs told USA Today that App Store contained 500 third - party applications for the iPhone and the iPod Touch, and of these 25 percent were free. Ten million applications were downloaded the first weekend. By September, the number of available apps had increased to 3,000, with over 100 million downloads. Over the years, the store has surpassed multiple major milestones, including 50,000, 100,000, 250,000, 500,000, 1 million, and 2 million apps. The billionth application was downloaded on April 24, 2009. The iPad was released in April 2010, with approximately 3,000 apps available. By July 2011, 16 months after the release, there were over 100,000 apps available designed specifically for the device. Apple publishes a list on a yearly basis, giving credit to the apps with the highest number of downloads in the past year. Apple rates applications worldwide based on their content, and determines the age group for which each is appropriate. According to the iPhone OS 3.0 launch event, the iPhone will allow blocking of objectionable apps in the iPhone 's settings. The following are the ratings that Apple has detailed: Applications are subject to approval by Apple, as outlined in the SDK agreement, for basic reliability testing and other analysis. Applications may still be distributed "ad - hoc '' if they are rejected, by the author manually submitting a request to Apple to license the application to individual iPhones, although Apple may withdraw the ability for authors to do this at a later date. As of 2013, Apple employed mostly static analysis for their app review process, which means that dynamic code reassembly techniques could defeat the review process. In June 2017, Apple updated its App Store review guidelines to specify that app developers will no longer have the ability to use custom prompts for encouraging users to leave reviews for their apps. With the release of iOS 11 in late 2017, Apple will also let developers choose whether to keep current app reviews when updating their apps or to reset. Additionally, another update to App Store policies allows users to optionally "tip '' content creators, by voluntarily sending them money. In November 2012, Boyfriend Maker, a dating sim game, was removed due to "reports of references to violent sexual acts and paedophilia '' deemed inappropriate to Boyfriend Maker 's age rating of 4 +. A revised version called Boyfriend Plus was approved by Apple in April 2013. In March 2013, HiddenApps was approved and appeared in App Store. The app provided access to developer diagnostic menus, allowed for stock apps to be hidden, and enabled an opt - out feature for iAds, Apple 's developer - driven advertisement system. The app was removed shortly afterwards for violating guidelines. In April 2013, Apple removed AppGratis, a then - successful app store market that promoted paid apps by offering one for free each day. Apple told All Things Digital that the app violated two of its developer agreement clauses, including "Apps that display Apps other than your own for purchase or promotion in a manner similar to or confusing with the App Store will be rejected '' and "Apps can not use Push Notifications to send advertising, promotions, or direct marketing of any kind ''. Apple did, however, tell the developers they were "welcome to resubmit '' after changing the app, though there was "not much hope that it could survive in anything like its current incarnation ''. In November 2014, Apple removed the marijuana social networking app MassRoots, with the reason given that it "encourage (d) excessive consumption of alcohol or illegal substances. '' In February 2015, MassRoots was reintroduced into the store after Apple changed its enforcement guidelines to allow cannabis social apps in the 23 states where it is legal. In September 2015, it was discovered that "hundreds '' of apps submitted and approved on App Store were using XcodeGhost, a malicious version of the Xcode development software. The issues prompted Apple to remove infected apps from the store and issue a statement that it was "working with the developers to make sure they 're using the proper version of Xcode ''. A security firm later published lists of infected apps, including a China - only version of Angry Birds 2, CamCard, Lifesmart, TinyDeal.com, and WeChat. In the aftermath, Apple stated that it would make Xcode faster to download in certain regions outside the United States, and contacted all developers to ensure they only download the code from the Mac App Store or Apple 's website, and provided a code signature for developers to test if they are running a tampered version of Xcode. In June 2017, a scamming trend was discovered on the store, in which developers make apps built on non-existent services, attach in - app purchase subscriptions to the opening dialogue, then buy App Store search advertising space to get the app into the higher rankings. In one instance, an app by the name of "Mobile protection: Clean & Security VPN '' would require payments of $99.99 for a seven - day subscription after a short trial. Apple has not yet responded to the issues. In addition, Apple has removed software licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) from App Store, due to text in Apple 's Terms of Service agreement imposing digital rights management and proprietary legal terms incompatible with the terms of the GPL. On September 1, 2016, Apple announced that starting September 7, it would be removing old apps that do not function as intended or that do n't follow current review guidelines. Developers will be warned and given 30 days to update their apps, but apps that crash on startup will be removed immediately. Additionally, app names registered by developers can not exceed 50 characters, in an attempt to stop developers from inserting long descriptions or irrelevant terms in app names to improve the app 's ranking in App Store search results. App intelligence firm Sensor Tower revealed in November 2016 that Apple, as promised from its September announcement of removing old apps, had removed 47,300 apps from App Store in October 2016, a 238 percent increase of its prior number of average monthly app removals. In June 2017, TechCrunch reported that Apple had turned its app removal focus on apps copying functionality from other, popular apps. An example cited included "if a popular game like Flappy Bird or Red Ball hits the charts, there will be hundreds or thousands of clones within weeks that attempt to capitalize on the initial wave of popularity ''. The report also noted removals of music apps serving pirated tracks. The publication wrote that, since the initial September app removals began, Apple had removed "multiple hundreds of thousands '' of apps. In December 2017, a new report from TechCrunch stated that Apple had begun enforcing new restrictions on the use of "commercialized template or app generation services ''. Originally introduced as part of Apple 's 2017 developer conference, new App Store guidelines allow the company to ban apps making use of templates or commercial app services. This affected many small businesses, with TechCrunch 's report citing that "local retailers, restaurants, small fitness studios, nonprofits, churches and other organizations '' benefit from using templates or app services due to minimal costs. Developers had received notice from Apple with a January 1, 2018 deadline to change their respective apps. The news caught the attention of Congress, with Congressman Ted Lieu writing a letter to Apple at the beginning of December, asking it to reconsider, writing that "It is my understanding that many small businesses, research organizations, and religious institutions rely on template apps when they do not possess the resources to develop apps in - house '', and that the new rules cast "too wide a net '', specifically "invalidating apps from longstanding and legitimate developers who pose no threat to the App Store 's integrity ''. Additionally, the news of stricter enforcement caused significant criticism from app development firms; one company told TechCrunch that it chose to close down its business following the news, saying that "The 4.2. 6 (rule enforcement) was just a final drop that made us move on a bit faster with that decision (to close) '', and another company told the publication that "There was no way in June (when the guidelines changed) that we would have said, ' that 's going to target our apps '... Apple had told us you are n't being targeted by this from a quality standpoint. So being hit now under the umbrella of spam is shocking to every quality developer out there and all the good actors ''. Furthermore, the latter company stated that "there 's only so much you can do with apps that perform the same utility -- ordering food ''. A third company said that "Rule 4.2. 6 is a concrete illustration of the danger of Apple 's dominant position '', and a fourth said that "They 've wiped out pretty much an entire industry. Not just DIY tools like AppMakr, but also development suites like Titanium ''. Towards the end of the year, Apple updated the guideline to clarify that companies and organizations are allowed to use template apps, but only as long as they directly publish their app on their own; it remained a violation of the rule for commercial app services to publish apps for the respective clients. In January 2017, Apple complied with a request from the Chinese government to remove the Chinese version of The New York Times ' app. This followed the government 's efforts in 2012 to block the Times ' website after stories of hidden wealth among family members of then - leader of China, Wen Jiabao, were published. In a statement, an Apple spokesperson told the media that "we have been informed that the app is in violation of local regulations '', though would not specify which regulations, and added that "As a result the app must be taken down off the China app store. When this situation changes the app store will once again offer the New York Times app for download in China ''. The following July, it was reported that Apple had begun to remove listings in China for apps that circumvent government Internet censorship policies and new laws restricting virtual private network (VPN) services. Apple issued a statement, explaining that the app removals were a result of developers not complying with new laws in China requiring a government license for businesses offering VPNs, and that "These apps remain available in all other markets where they do business ''. In an earnings call the following month, Cook elaborated on the recent news, explainining that "We would obviously rather not remove the apps, but like we do in other countries, we follow the law wherever we do business ''. Besides VPN services, a number of Internet calling apps, including Microsoft 's Skype, were also removed from the Chinese App Store in 2017, with Apple telling The New York Times that, similar to the VPN apps, these new apps also violated local law. Microsoft explained to BBC News that its Skype app had been "temporarily removed '' and that it was "working to reinstate the app as soon as possible '', though many news outlets reported on the Chinese government 's increased efforts and pressure to crack down on Internet freedom. Following Apple CEO Tim Cook 's appearance at China 's World Internet Conference in December 2017, in which Cook stated that Apple and China share a vision of "developing a digital economy for openness and shared benefits '', free speech and human rights activists criticized Cook and the company. Maya Wang at Human Rights Watch told The Washington Post that "Cook 's appearance lends credibility to a state that aggressively censors the internet, throws people in jail for being critical about social ills, and is building artificial intelligence systems that monitors everyone and targets dissent... The version of cyberspace the Chinese government is building is a decidedly dystopian one, and I do n't think anyone would want to share in this ' common future. ' Apple should have spoken out against it, not endorsed it. '' U.S. Senator Patrick Leahy told CNBC that "American tech companies have become leading champions of free expression. But that commitment should not end at our borders... Global leaders in innovation, like Apple, have both an opportunity and a moral obligation to promote free expression and other basic human rights in countries that routinely deny these rights. '' Cook told Reuters that "My hope over time is that some of the things, the couple of things that 's been pulled, come back. I have great hope on that and great optimism on that ''. However, TechCrunch 's Jon Russell criticized this line of thinking, writing that "Firstly, Apple did n't just remove a "couple of things '' from the reach of China - based users ", but rather "a couple of hundred '' apps, acknowledging that "even that is under counting ''. Furthermore, Russell listed censorship efforts by the Chinese government, including VPN bans and restrictions on live video and messaging apps, and wrote that "Apple had little choice but to follow Beijing 's line in order to continue to do business in the lucrative Chinese market, but statements like Cook 's today are dangerous because they massively underplay the severity of the situation ''. Florida Senator Marco Rubio also criticized Cook 's appearance at the World Internet Conference, describing the situation as "here 's an example of a company, in my view, so desperate to have access to the Chinese market place that they are willing to follow the laws of that country even if those laws run counter to what those companies ' own standards are supposed to be ''. In August 2018, as a result of Chinese regulations, 25,000 illegal apps were pulled down by Apple from the App Store in China.

how old do you have to be to be a chief bridesmaid

Bridesmaid - wikipedia The bridesmaids are members of the bride 's party in a wedding. A bridesmaid is typically a young woman, and often a close friend or relative. She attends to the bride on the day of a wedding or marriage ceremony. Traditionally, bridesmaids were chosen from unwed young women of marriageable age. The principal bridesmaid, if one is so designated, may be called the chief bridesmaid or maid of honor if she is unmarried, or the matron of honor if she is married. A junior bridesmaid is a girl who is clearly too young to be married, but who is included as an honorary bridesmaid. In the United States, typically only the maid / matron of honor and the best man are the official witnesses for the wedding license. Often there is more than one bridesmaid: in modern times the bride chooses how many to ask. Historically, no person of status went out unattended, and the size of the retinue was closely calculated to be appropriate to the family 's social status. A large group of bridesmaids provided an opportunity for showing off the family 's social status and wealth. Today, the number of bridesmaids in a wedding party is dependent on many variables, including a bride 's preferences, the size of her family, and the number of attendants her partner would like to have as well. The male equivalent is the groomsman, also known in British English as an usher; in the United States, the role of attending to the groom has diverged from that of escorting guests to their seats, and the two positions are no longer synonymous and are often if not usually filled by different persons. In some cultures, such as in Norway, the Netherlands and Victorian Britain, it has been customary for bridesmaids to be small girls rather than grown women. They may carry flowers during the wedding procession and pose with the married couple in bridal photos. In modern English - speaking countries, this role is separate from that of the bridesmaid, and the small child performing it is known as a flower girl. Although many exceed the minimum, the bridesmaids ' required duties are very limited. They are required to attend the wedding ceremony and to assist the bride on the day of the wedding. Bridesmaids in Europe and North America are often asked to assist the bride with planning the wedding and a wedding reception. In modern times, a bridesmaid often participates in planning wedding - related events, such as a bridal shower or bachelorette party, if there are any. These, however, are optional activities; according to etiquette expert Judith Martin, "Contrary to rumor, bridesmaids are not obliged to entertain in honor of the bride, nor to wear dresses they can not afford. '' If it is customary in the bride 's area to have a bridesmaids luncheon, then it is hosted, and therefore organized and paid for, by the bride. A junior bridesmaid has no responsibilities beyond attending the wedding. The duties and costs of being a bridesmaid are parsed out between a bride and her attendants in a variety of ways. Since modern bridesmaids, unlike their historical counterparts, can no longer rely on having their clothes and travel expenses paid for by the bride 's family, and are sometimes even told they must pay for parties that the bride wants to have before the wedding, it has become customary for the bride to present the bridesmaids with gifts as a sign of gratitude for the support and financial commitment that comes with their roles. It has become equally customary for women who are invited to serve as bridesmaids to first ask about the amount of time, energy, and money that the bride expects from them before accepting this position, and to decline or resign if this is more than they will be able to give. In some American weddings, each bridesmaid may be asked to spend US $1,700 or more, with travel to destination weddings and pre-wedding parties usually being the biggest expense. Some bridesmaids have particular duties. For instance, the mead of honor is to provide a constant source of fortified honey drink, to keep the bridal party festive. And the made of on her has, diplomatically, important romantic duties vis - a-vis the bride 's friends and family. In the United Kingdom, the term "maid of honour '' originally referred to the female attendant of a queen. The term bridesmaid is normally used for all bridal attendants in the UK. However, when the attendant is married, or is a mature woman, the term matron of honour is often used. The influence of American English has led to the chief bridesmaid sometimes being called the maid of honour. In North America, a wedding party might include several bridesmaids, but the maid of honor is the title and position held by the bride 's chief attendant, typically her closest friend or sister. In modern - day weddings some brides opt to choose a long - time male friend or brother as their head attendant, using the title best man or man of honor. The activities of the principal bridesmaid may be as many or as varied as she allows the bride to impose upon her. Her only required duty is to participate in the wedding ceremony. Typically, however, she is asked for help with the logistics of the wedding as an event, such as addressing invitations, and for her help as a friend, such as attending the bride as she shops for her wedding dress. On the day of the wedding, her principal duty is to provide practical and emotional support. She might assist the bride with dressing and, if needed, help the bride manage her veil, a bouquet, a prayer book, or the train of her wedding dress during the day. In a double - ring wedding, the chief bridesmaid is often entrusted with the groom 's wedding ring until it is needed during the ceremony. Many brides ask bridesmaids if they are adults, to be legal witnesses who sign the marriage license after the ceremony. If there is a reception after the wedding, the maid of honor may be asked to offer a toast to the newlywed. The origin of the Western bridesmaid tradition likely arose from a combination of many factors. The most - likely factors include, but are n't limited to, socioeconomic class and status, family size, socialization standards of the day, and religion. Others cite the Biblical story of Jacob, and his two wives Leah and Rachel, who both literally came with their own maids as detailed in the Book of Genesis (29: 24, 46: 18) as the origin of bridesmaids. These women were handmaidens (servants or slaves) instead of social peers. Some sources state that, in ancient times, originally the bride and all the bridesmaids wore the exact same dress and veiled their faces heavily, for the purpose of confusing jealous suitors and evil spirits. In China during the feudal era, the female womb was seen as precious for the production of an heir. Brides were susceptible to kidnapping at weddings by rival clans and hooligans. Shouldering the responsibility to protect the bride, bridesmaids were dressed up like the bride to lower the risk that she might be identified and robbed. As legal protections for marriage were established, this was no longer necessary, and the role of bridesmaid took a more symbolic turn. In the Victorian era, white was the official color for both male groomsmen and female bridesmaids. This trend originated with Queen Victoria when she married Prince Albert wearing a long white wedding dress, and her bridesmaids matched the color of her gown. Media related to Bridesmaids at Wikimedia Commons

who plays ariel's voice in the little mermaid

Jodi Benson - wikipedia Jodi Marie Marzorati Benson (born October 10, 1961) is an American actress, voice actress and soprano singer. She is best known for providing both the speaking and the singing voice of Disney 's Princess Ariel in The Little Mermaid and its sequel, prequel, and television series spinoff. Benson voiced the character Barbie in the 1999 movie Toy Story 2 and its 2010 Academy Award - winning sequel Toy Story 3. She also voiced Barbie in the Toy Story toon Hawaiian Vacation. For her contributions to the Disney company, Benson was named a Disney Legend in 2011. Benson was the original voice of Ariel in the Academy Award - winning Walt Disney Pictures animated feature film The Little Mermaid and continues to perform Ariel and the bubbly voice of "Barbie '' in Disney / Pixar 's Best Picture Golden Globe winner Toy Story 2 and Academy Award winner Toy Story 3. She also gave voice to the spirited "Weebo '' in Disney 's live action Flubber, starring Robin Williams. For Warner Bros., she created the voice of Thumbelina in 1994, a Don Bluth animated feature film with songs by Barry Manilow. Jodi 's other projects include Tinkerbell: Secret of the Wings, The Little Mermaid: Ariel 's Beginning, The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea, Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp 's Adventure, 101 Dalmatians II: Patch 's London Adventure, Balto II: Wolf Quest, and Balto III: Wings of Change. She appeared as Patrick Dempsey 's assistant Sam, in Disney 's live - action feature film Enchanted. While being a Disney Legend, she also voiced Jane Doe and Patsy Smiles in Cartoon Network 's Camp Lazlo. She also voiced the character Tula in Fox 's "Pirates of Dark water '' series. Benson 's debut on Broadway was in the 1983 Kenny Ortega - directed "Marilyn: An American Fable ''. Other Broadway credits include a starring role in the Broadway musical Smile, where she introduced a song called "Disneyland ''. Howard Ashman, the lyricist of Smile, would go on to write the lyrics for The Little Mermaid. She describes the song "Disneyland '' at the "Smile '' Reunion concert held on Sept. 22, 2014, "This is the first piece of the puzzle of my life, the first step of the journey, so to speak ''. Benson also sings "Disneyland '' on a compilation CD called Unsung Musicals. In 1989, Benson appeared in the Broadway musical, Welcome to the Club, alongside Samuel E. Wright, who performed the voice for Sebastian the Crab in The Little Mermaid. In 1992, Benson received a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Musical for her role as Polly Baker in Crazy For You. She played the narrator in Joseph And The Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat in 1998. Benson also played the Queen in a one - night concert version of Rodgers & Hammerstein 's Cinderella at the Nashville Symphony Orchestra in May 2010. She was at the 2012 SYTA conference singing her signature song Part of Your World on Monday, August 27, 2012. Benson has been the guest artist for the Candlelight Processional for 5 years at Walt Disney World including December 10 -- 13, 2012. She joined the "2013 Spring Pops '' on May 14 -- 15, 2013 as a guest soloist with the Boston Pops. Benson can be heard on over a dozen recordings and has a six - part DVD series entitled Baby Faith from the creators of Baby Einstein. Her animated TV series include the Emmy Award - winning Camp Lazlo for the Cartoon Network, The Little Mermaid, Batman Beyond, The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy, The Wild Thornberrys, Barbie, Hercules: Zero to Hero, P.J. Sparkles, and the series Sofia the First for Disney as well as many others. On the concert stage, Benson has performed as a concert soloist with symphonies all over the world, including The Boston Pops, The Philly Pops (conductor: Peter Nero), The Hollywood Bowl Orchestra (conductor: John Mauceri), The National Symphony (conductor: Marvin Hamlisch), Cleveland, Dallas, Tokyo, San Francisco and Chicago Symphonies, to name a few. She starred in the Kennedy Center Honors for Ginger Rogers, and in Disney 's Premiere in Central Park with Pocahontas, The Walt Disney World 25th Anniversary Spectacular and Disney 's 100 Years of Magic. Benson is the resident guest soloist for the Walt Disney Company / Disney Cruise Line and ambassador for feature animation. On June 6, 2016, Benson performed the role of Ariel at the Hollywood Bowl 's concert performance of The Little Mermaid. In late 1986, Benson first heard of the audition for The Little Mermaid through lyricist and playwright Howard Ashman. The two had just worked together in the Broadway show Smile until its run ended early. He knew she would be the perfect fit for the role. After hearing the demo for "Part of Your World '', she sang a small part of it on tape where it was later sent to Disney executives. Before her audition for The Little Mermaid, she was primarily a stage actress. It was Ashman 's first Disney project. In early 1988, Benson won the role of Ariel. Benson was born and raised in a Catholic environment, graduating from Boylan Central Catholic High School in Rockford, IL. She married actor / singer Ray Benson in 1984. They have two children, McKinley and Delaney.

when did jerry become larry on parks and rec

Jerry Gergich - wikipedia Jerry Gergich is a character in the TV series Parks and Recreation, portrayed by Jim O'Heir. From season 1 to season 6 he is referred to as Jerry (even suggesting his mother called him "Gerald ''), for which reason the character is usually referred to by this name in external media; for most of season 6 he is called Larry; from the end of season 6 through much of season 7 he is called Terry; and only near the end of the series is his true name restored: Garry. Garry has appeared in every episode of the series, with the exception of the first - season episode "Canvassing ''. He was credited as a recurring character for the first two seasons, but was promoted to the main cast beginning with season three. He first appeared in the opening credits / theme in the season six episode "Anniversaries '', following the departures of cast members Rashida Jones and Rob Lowe. Garry Gergich, born February 29, 1948 (S4: E16), works for the Department of Parks and Recreation and is a married father of three girls. He first speaks in the Season 1 episode, "The Reporter ''. His surname was first mentioned in the episode "Park Safety ''. He is often the butt of jokes due to his embarrassing history, a collection of awkward moments including plastic surgery after being hit by a fire truck, routinely spilling his cup of soup, and being adopted by a woman with a history of selling marijuana (he did not know that he was adopted until Mark Brendanawicz told him in "Practice Date '' when the members of the Parks department decide to find scandalous information on one another). Despite this, he is overwhelmingly kind and warm - hearted toward his friends in the Parks Department. He has heart problems; he mentions he has a pacemaker in Season 2 Episode 17, and had a heart attack in Season 5 Episode 5. He seems to have a normal family life and excellent artistic talent. In the episode "The Camel '', he paints a pointillist mural of the Pawnee City Hall composed of minuscule pictures of the town 's citizens. In the episode "Telethon '', he is shown to be a skilled pianist, and in the episode "Go Big or Go Home '' he is shown to be an exquisite painter of natural scenes. His opinions and talents often go unnoticed due to a total lack of respect from his co-workers. For example, on one occasion he stumbled over his words saying "murinal '' rather than "mural '', causing an abundance of teasing rather than a reaction to the aforementioned (and beautiful) mural he had created and led to the submission of a group - accepted (and horrendous) mural that was n't selected. Although he never joins in the teasing, Ron Swanson describes Jerry as someone who "shrivels up when you shine a light on him, '' insisting Jerry does his best work alone. Ron also describes Jerry as both the "schlemiel, '' and the "schlemazel, '' of the office, meaning he is both the person who spills the soup and is the person upon whom the soup is spilled. His approach to his job is straightforward, to the point where he is not only thrilled to spend hours stuffing envelopes but is fine with re-doing the entire assignment because he screwed it up. He reveals to Leslie in ' Jerry 's Retirement ' that his lackluster government life was fine with him because he placed more importance on getting home to his happy family. Jerry does have some competence issues, as Donna Meagle revealed in the Season 4 finale that she keeps all of the office 's computer records on backup files because Jerry accidentally erases them on a regular basis. For his part, Jerry mainly tolerates the mocking of his coworkers, since he 's been looking ahead to a peaceful retirement with his full pension. However, he does feel intimidated by his colleagues. For example, in the episode "Park Safety '', he claimed to have been mugged by teenagers rather than owning up to falling into a stream. It is revealed in "Pawnee Rangers '' that one of Jerry 's daughters ' name is Millicent, and Chris is very surprised to find out she is very attractive. Chris asks Jerry if it is okay for him to date her and he agrees. Chris, in an attempt to be completely open about their relationship, continuously tells Jerry intimate details about their dates despite Jerry 's discomfort; Jerry was told by Millicent that she would be breaking up with Chris and made no efforts to either talk her out of it or warn Chris, though he seems sympathetic when Chris is upset over the breakup. Jerry is also one of the few characters in the series to have a healthy and long - lasting relationship with a significant other, as he has been married for almost thirty years. This contrasts with the fact that his coworkers have not fared so well as he has when it comes to relationships (e.g., Ron 's two ex-wives, Tom 's green - card marriage with Wendy, Donna 's preference for casual dating, April 's previous gay boyfriend who also had a boyfriend, Andy 's rocky relationship with Ann, etc.). In the season four premiere, Jerry is revealed to have an enormous penis during office - wide screenings for mumps. Jerry is apparently Roman Catholic; he has performed the sign of the cross when he wanted Leslie to win the city council election that he neglected to vote in; during her debate with Bobby Newport, he is seen with several nuns watching her on television. In "Practice Date '', it is revealed that Jerry has a Facebook page. In Season 5 's "Ron and Diane, '' Ben Wyatt is amazed to find that Jerry 's wife is a gorgeous woman named Gayle (played by Christie Brinkley) who helps him throw lavish parties every Christmas. Ben has become somewhat obsessed over how a woman as stunning as Gayle is married to someone like Jerry, posing such theories as how her father owed Jerry 's father a huge debt and that Gayle has visual agnosia and thinks Jerry is a friendly hat. At the party, the already - seen Millicent is joined by Jerry 's two other daughters, who are equally gorgeous. Tom, April and Andy are barred from the party for being jerks to Jerry (Donna, who backed out of a planned dinner with the group using funds pooled every time Jerry did something stupid in his workday, is allowed in by Ann) and Tom is chastened to realize that he missed years of kind and supportive messages on his email and other platforms when he blocked Jerry for being boring. Leslie notices in "Jerry 's Retirement '' that Jerry, when he is at home and surrounded by his adoring family, is beloved, jovial and so quick that he catches a falling mug. When Tom is despondent over becoming the office 's new Jerry (i.e. the brunt of insults), Ron Swanson sympathizes and they bring the real Jerry back to serve as both an intern and the renewed target of their rudeness. When he returns, April says that his name has been changed to Larry Gengurch, and the remainder of the characters (including Jerry himself) adopt the new name wholeheartedly and without question. In the episode "One in 8,000 '', Leslie ca n't remember why Jerry 's name was changed to Larry, and attributes the decision to him. In a flash - forward at the end of the season 6 finale, he is now called Terry. In the season seven episode, "Donna & Joe '', Donna "accidentally '' misspells the nameplace for Terry 's seat as "Garry '', leading the group to jokingly say his new name is Garry (which he mentions in a side interview is his real name, with Donna knowingly smiling at him). After the death of Mayor Gunderson, Ben and April begin a search for an interim mayor. Ben realizes the ideal candidate is Jerry. Appropriating a number of amenities from Tom 's canceled (but typically over-the - top) engagement celebration, Leslie quickly throws together a lavish party to officially inaugurate Jerry, including fireworks, a red carpet, a hot - air balloon ride, and a choir singing K - Ci and Jojo 's "All My Life. '' In a series of flash - forwards in the final episode, it is shown that Jerry is then elected as mayor in earnest and serves ten terms in office. Jerry eventually dies in 2048 on his 100th birthday as a happy man with a large happy family, while his tombstone features his real name: Garry Gergich, although as a fitting final goodbye his surname is spelled incorrectly as Girgich. Although Jerry Gergich has been a regular character since the pilot episode of Parks and Recreation, O'Heir having originally read for the role of Ron Swanson, the character 's personality was not fully formed until the second season. Series co-creator Michael Schur said they liked actor Jim O'Heir so much that he cast him immediately and "figured we 'd work it out later ''. Jerry 's personality traits began to become established after the episode "Practice Date '' when, during a contest to see who could find the most dirt on each other, city planner Mark Brendanawicz inadvertently reveals that Jerry was adopted. O'Heir was thrilled by this because it meant that the show 's writers were interested in developing his character. Schur said after that script, "We realized that 's who he is: He 's the guy who wants to put his head down and get his pension, but is asking for it all the time. In the next three scripts, it was like throwing chum into the water. Every script after that had 15 slams on Jerry. '' Once this personality was established, the writers felt it important to establish that the other characters liked Jerry, despite their constant mockery of him. O'Heir said in an interview that whenever his co-stars apologize for being mean to him during a scene, he tells them "You 're not doing it to Jim. We 're all actors ''. The episode "Park Safety '' was written as a result. In season 4, it is suggested that Jerry 's actual name is Garry Gergich, and that he only goes by Jerry because one of his first superiors mistakenly called him as such, and "Jerry '' thought it rude to correct him. This seems to contradict, however, season 3 episode 3, "Time Capsule, '' in which it is suggested that Jerry 's proper name is Gerald. In that episode, while reading from Jerry 's mother 's journal, April reveals that in January 1964, "Gerald starred in a school production of Peter Pan... he was a beautiful Tinkerbell. '' In episode 8 of season 4, "Smallest Park '', Jerry shows Tom his old ID badge from when he first started at the parks department. It can be seen that the ID card says "Garry Gergich ''. Several critics have praised both the writing of the character, as well as O'Heir's performance. Hitfix writer Daniel Fienberg praised Jim O'Heir, saying, "Even the background players have begun to shine, including Jim O'Heir's hard - luck Jerry, who I 've crowned my favorite tertiary character on TV. '' O'Heir received particularly positive reviews after the episode "Park Safety. '' The constant mocking of Jerry, however, has received negative criticism. Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said that it made him feel uncomfortable. The character 's name has been a running joke over the course of the series. For most of the series run he is known as "Jerry Gergich ''. In season four, it is twice stated that Jerry 's real name is Garry, but since his first boss misheard him, he goes by Jerry. In the episode "Telethon '', his name is misspelled as "Gerry Grgich '' on the television. From the season 6 episode "Doppelgängers '' everyone starts calling him "Larry Gengurch '' at the encouragement of April, a situation "Larry '' meekly accepts with little protest. In "Ann and Chris '', the men of the department give Chris a gift with their initials on it. Jerry signed it GJLGG which he said stood for "Garry Jerry Larry Gergich Gengurch '' as he was n't sure what names to use. Following the time jump to 2017 at the end of "Moving Up '', he goes by the name of "Terry '' - an explanation is given during the season 7 episode "2017 '' that a new employee that works in the National Park Service also goes by Larry and the group changes his name to Terry. In the season 7 episode "Donna and Joe '', Donna puts his name down as "Garry '' on a seating placard at her wedding, which prompts April to begin calling him Garry, his actual name. Throughout season 7, he also appears on Andy 's television show The Johnny Karate Super Awesome Musical Explosion Show, playing a character named Mailman Barry.

where do the toronto blue jays play home games

Toronto Blue Jays - Wikipedia The Toronto Blue Jays are a Canadian professional baseball team based in Toronto, Ontario. The Blue Jays compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. The team plays its home games at the Rogers Centre. The "Blue Jays '' name originates from the bird of the same name, and blue is also the traditional colour of two of Toronto 's other professional sports teams: the Maple Leafs (ice hockey) and the Argonauts (Canadian football). In addition, the team was originally owned by the Labatt Brewing Company, makers of the popular beer Labatt 's Blue. Colloquially nicknamed the "Jays '', the team 's official colours are royal blue, navy blue, red, and white. An expansion franchise, the club was founded in Toronto in 1977. Originally based at Exhibition Stadium, the team began playing its home games at the SkyDome upon its opening in 1989. Since 2000, the Blue Jays have been owned by Rogers Communications and in 2004, the SkyDome was purchased by that company, which renamed it Rogers Centre. They are the second MLB franchise to be based outside the United States, and currently the only team based outside the U.S. after the first Canadian franchise, the Montreal Expos, became the Washington Nationals in 2005. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Blue Jays went through struggles typical of an expansion team, frequently finishing in last place in its division. In 1983, the team had its first winning season and two years later, they became division champions. From 1985 to 1993, they were an AL East powerhouse, winning five division championships in nine seasons, including three consecutive from 1991 to 1993. During that run, the team also became back - to - back World Series champions in 1992 and 1993, led by a core group of award - winning All - Star players, including Hall of Famer Roberto Alomar, Joe Carter, John Olerud, and Devon White. The Blue Jays became the first (and, to date, only) team outside the US to appear in and win a World Series, and the fastest AL expansion team to do so, winning in its 16th year. After 1993, the Blue Jays failed to qualify for the playoffs for 21 consecutive seasons, until clinching a playoff berth and division championship in 2015. The team clinched a second consecutive playoff berth in 2016, after securing an AL wild card position. Both years, the Jays won the AL Division Series but lost the AL Championship Series. The Blue Jays are one of two MLB teams under corporate ownership, with the other being the Atlanta Braves (Liberty Media). The Blue Jays played their first game on April 7, 1977 against the Chicago White Sox before a home crowd of 44,649. The game is now perhaps best remembered for the minor snowstorm which began just before the game started. Toronto won the snowy affair 9 -- 5, led by Doug Ault 's two home runs. That win would be one of only 54 of the 1977 season, as the Blue Jays finished last in the AL East, with a record of 54 -- 107. After the season, assistant general manager Pat Gillick succeeded Peter Bavasi as general manager of the team, a position he would hold until 1994. In 1978, the team improved their record by five games, but remained last, with a record of 59 -- 102. In 1979, after a 53 -- 109 last place finish, shortstop Alfredo Griffin was named American League co-Rookie of the Year. In addition, the Blue Jays ' first mascot, BJ Birdy, made its debut in 1979. In 1980, Bobby Mattick became manager, succeeding Roy Hartsfield, the Blue Jays ' original manager. In Mattick 's first season as manager, although they remained at the bottom, Toronto almost reached the 70 - win mark, finishing with a record of 67 -- 95, a 14 - win improvement on 1979. Jim Clancy led with 13 wins and John Mayberry became the first Jay to hit 30 home runs in a season. In the strike - divided season of 1981, the Blue Jays finished in last place in the AL East in both halves of the season. They were a dismal 16 -- 42 in the first half, but improved dramatically, finishing the 48 - game second half at 21 -- 27, for a combined record of 37 -- 69. Under new manager Bobby Cox, Toronto 's first solid season came in 1982 as they finished 78 -- 84. Their pitching staff was led by starters Dave Stieb, Jim Clancy, and Luis Leal, and the outfield featured a young Lloyd Moseby and Jesse Barfield. 1982 was also the Blue Jays ' first season outside the bottom, as they finished sixth in the East out of seven teams. In 1983, the Blue Jays compiled their first winning record, 89 -- 73, finishing in fourth place, nine games behind the eventual World Series champions, the Baltimore Orioles. First baseman Willie Upshaw became the first Blue Jay to have at least 100 RBIs in a season. The Blue Jays ' progress continued in 1984, finishing with the same 89 -- 73 record, but this time in a distant second place behind another World Series champion, the Detroit Tigers. After 1984, Alfredo Griffin went to the Oakland Athletics, thus giving a permanent spot to young Dominican shortstop Tony Fernández, who would become a fan favourite for many years. In 1985, Toronto won its first championship of any sort: the first of their six American League East division titles. The Blue Jays featured strong pitching and a balanced offence. Tony Fernández excelled in his first full season, and veteran pitcher Doyle Alexander led the team with 17 wins, including a division - clinching complete game win. Their mid-season call up of relief pitcher Tom Henke also proved to be important. They finished 99 -- 62 (the franchise record for most wins), two games in front of the New York Yankees. The Blue Jays faced the Kansas City Royals in the American League Championship Series (ALCS), and took a three games to one lead (known as the "Drive of ' 85 ''). However, Kansas City won three consecutive games to win the series 4 -- 3, on the way to their first World Series championship. After the playoffs, AL Manager of the Year, Bobby Cox, suddenly left the Blue Jays to become general manager of the Atlanta Braves, the team he previously managed. With Jimy Williams now the skipper, the Blue Jays could not duplicate their success in 1986, sliding to a fourth - place tie at 86 -- 76. Jesse Barfield and George Bell led the way with 40 and 31 home runs, respectively, while Jim Clancy, Mark Eichhorn, and Jimmy Key tied for the team wins lead with 14 each. In 1987, the Blue Jays held a 31⁄2 - game lead with a week to go in the season, then lost their last seven in a row to finish two games back of the Detroit Tigers, getting swept on the last weekend by the Tigers. The Blue Jays finished with a 96 -- 66 record, second best in the major leagues, but to no avail. However, George Bell (. 308 AVG, 47 HR, 134 RBI) was named the AL 's Most Valuable Player (MVP), the first Blue Jay to be named so. In 1988, however, Toronto could not duplicate the successes of the previous season. They tied the Milwaukee Brewers for third in the division at 87 -- 75, only two games behind the division champion Boston Red Sox. Still, the season had numerous highlights. First baseman Fred McGriff hit 34 home runs, and Dave Stieb had back - to - back starts in which he lost a no - hitter with two out and two strikes in the ninth inning. In 1989, the Blue Jays ' new retractable roofed home, SkyDome, opened in mid-season. It also marked the beginning of an extremely successful five - year period for the team. In May, management fired manager Jimy Williams and replaced him with Cito Gaston, the team 's hitting instructor. The club had a dismal 12 -- 24 record at the time of the firing, but went 77 -- 49 under Gaston to win the AL East title by two games, with an 89 -- 73 record. On May 28, George Bell 's walk - off home run, off of Chicago White Sox closer Bobby Thigpen, marked the end of the Exhibition Stadium era. The first game at the new stadium took place on June 5 against the Milwaukee Brewers; the Jays lost 5 -- 3. In the 1989 ALCS, Rickey Henderson led the World Series champion Oakland Athletics to a 4 -- 1 series win. In 1990, the Blue Jays again had a strong season, but finished in second place, two games behind the Boston Red Sox. Dave Stieb pitched his only no - hitter, beating the Cleveland Indians 3 -- 0 in front of a less than capacity crowd at Cleveland Municipal Stadium. As of 2014, it remains the only no - hitter ever pitched by a Blue Jay. During the offseason, the Blue Jays made one of the two biggest trades in franchise history, sending All - Star shortstop Tony Fernández and first baseman Fred McGriff to the San Diego Padres in exchange for outfielder Joe Carter and second baseman Roberto Alomar. The Jays also obtained centre fielder Devon White from the California Angels. These deals, particularly the trade with San Diego, were instrumental in the team 's future success. Carter, Alomar and White would prove to be extremely effective additions, as the Blue Jays again won the division in 1991, as Carter drove in Alomar for the division - winning run. Once again, however, they fell short in the postseason, losing to the Minnesota Twins, who were on the way to their second World Series victory in five seasons, in the ALCS. In 1991, the Blue Jays became the first Major League club ever to draw over four million fans in one season. After the 1991 season had ended, the Blue Jays acquired pitcher Jack Morris, who had led the Minnesota Twins to victory in the World Series by pitching a 10 - inning complete game shutout in Game 7 and had been named the World Series MVP. To add veteran leadership to their explosive offence, Toronto signed Dave Winfield to be the team 's designated hitter. The 1992 regular season went well, as the Jays clinched their second straight AL East crown with a final record of 96 -- 66, four games ahead of the Milwaukee Brewers. They also went the entire season without being swept in any series, becoming the first team in 49 years to accomplish the feat. The Blue Jays met the Oakland Athletics (who had the same record as the Jays and won the AL West by six games over the defending champion Twins) in the ALCS, winning four games to two. The pivotal game of the series was Game 4, considered by many to be one of the most important games in Blue Jays history: the Blue Jays rallied back from a 6 -- 1 deficit after seven innings, capped off by Roberto Alomar 's huge game - tying two - run homer off A 's closer Dennis Eckersley in the top of the ninth. This paved the way for a 7 -- 6 victory in 11 innings, a 3 - games - to - 1 lead in the series and an eventual 4 -- 2 ALCS series win. The Blue Jays then faced the Atlanta Braves in the World Series. The Braves returned after being beaten by the Twins the previous year. The pivotal game in this series turned out to be Game 2, in which reserve player Ed Sprague hit a 9th - inning two - run home run off Braves closer Jeff Reardon to give the Blue Jays a 5 -- 4 lead, which would hold up. After winning Game 3 thanks to Candy Maldonado 's ninth inning RBI hit and Game 4 due to Jimmy Key 's superb 71⁄3 inning pitching effort in which he retired 15 straight batters (five innings), the Jays could not win the Series on home turf as the Braves struck back with a 7 -- 2 win in Game 5. Game 6 in Atlanta, with the Blue Jays leading 3 games to 2, was a very close game. Toronto was one strike away from winning in the bottom of the 9th inning, 2 -- 1, but Otis Nixon singled in the tying run off the Blue Jays ' closer Tom Henke. It was the first run the Toronto bullpen had given up in the series. The game was decided in the 11th inning, when Dave Winfield doubled down the left - field line, driving in two runs. The Braves would again come within one run in the bottom of the 11th, but Jays reliever Mike Timlin fielded Otis Nixon 's bunt, throwing to Joe Carter at first base for the final out. The Blue Jays became the first team based outside of the United States to win the World Series. Pat Borders, the Jays ' catcher, was the unlikely player who was named MVP after hitting. 450 with one home run in the World Series. Oddly, Morris was acquired in large part for his reputation as a clutch postseason pitcher, but he went 0 -- 3 in the playoffs. Morris, however, pitched well in the regular season, becoming the Blue Jays ' first 20 - game winner, with a record of 21 -- 6 and an ERA of 4.04. After the 1992 season, the Blue Jays let World Series hero Dave Winfield and longtime closer Tom Henke go, but signed two key free agents: designated hitter Paul Molitor from the Milwaukee Brewers and perennial playoff success Dave Stewart from the Oakland Athletics. In 1993, the Blue Jays had seven All - Stars: outfielders Devon White and Joe Carter, infielders John Olerud and Roberto Alomar, designated hitter Molitor, plus starting pitcher Pat Hentgen, and closer Duane Ward. In August, the Jays acquired former nemesis Rickey Henderson from the Athletics. The Blue Jays cruised to a 95 -- 67 record, one less win than 1992 and seven games ahead of the New York Yankees, winning their third straight division title. The Jays beat the Chicago White Sox four games to two in the ALCS, and then the Philadelphia Phillies, four games to two, for their second straight World Series victory. The World Series featured several exciting games, including Game 4, played under a slight rain, in which the Blue Jays came back from a 14 -- 9 deficit to win 15 -- 14 and take a 3 games to 1 lead in the series. It remains the highest scoring game in World Series history. Game 6 in Toronto saw the Blue Jays lead 5 -- 1, but give up 5 runs in the 7th inning to trail 6 -- 5. In the bottom of the 9th inning, Joe Carter hit a one - out, three - run walk - off home run to clinch the series off of Phillies closer Mitch Williams. Only the second World Series -- winning walk - off home run in the history of Major League Baseball (following Bill Mazeroski 's in Game 7 in 1960), Carter 's hit differed from the first in that Toronto, while not facing elimination, was trailing in the bottom of the 9th. The home run is also memorable for late Blue Jays broadcaster Tom Cheek 's call: -- Tom Cheek, late Blue Jays radio play - by - play announcer Molitor was named the World Series MVP after hitting. 500 in the series. In the regular season, three Blue Jays -- Olerud, Molitor and Alomar -- finished 1 -- 2 -- 3 for the AL batting crown, led by Olerud 's franchise record. 363 average. It was the first time in 100 years that the top three hitters in the league were from the same team. Expectations were high for the Blue Jays for the 1994 season, following back - to - back championships, but they slumped to a 55 -- 60 record and a third - place finish (16 games back of the New York Yankees) before the players ' strike. It was their first losing season since 1982. Joe Carter, Paul Molitor and John Olerud enjoyed good years at the plate, but the pitching fell off. Juan Guzmán slumped considerably from his first three years (40 -- 11, 3.28 ERA), finishing 1994 at 12 -- 11 with a 5.68 ERA. Three young players, Alex Gonzalez, Carlos Delgado and Shawn Green, did show much promise for the future. At the time of the strike, their fellow Canadian cousins, the Montreal Expos, had the best record in the majors, leading some to consider the possibility of a Canadian three - peat in 1994. Labatt Breweries was bought by Belgian - based brewer Interbrew (which, in 2004, merged with AmBev to become InBev), making the Blue Jays the second baseball team owned by interests outside of North America, after the Blue Jays ' expansion cousins, the Seattle Mariners (by Nintendo of America, which is the American division of the Japanese consumer electronics and software company). On October 31, 1994, Pat Gillick, the longtime Blue Jays general manager, resigned and handed the reins of the team to Toronto native Gord Ash, who would lead the team in its most tumultuous era yet. In the 1995 season, the Blue Jays proved that they had lost their contending swagger of the past 12 years. Although they had most of the same cast of the World Series teams, the Blue Jays freefell to a dismal 56 -- 88 record, last place in the AL East, 30 games behind the Boston Red Sox. 1996 was another mediocre year for the Blue Jays, despite Pat Hentgen 's Cy Young Award (20 -- 10, 3.22 ERA). Ed Sprague had a career year, hitting 36 home runs and driving in 101 runs. However, the team 's 74 wins did put them in 4th place, improving over a last place finish in 1995. The Blue Jays started 1997 with high hopes. Not only did the Jays drastically change their uniforms, they signed former Boston Red Sox ace Roger Clemens to a $24,750,000 contract. Clemens had one of the best pitching seasons ever as he won the pitcher 's Triple Crown, leading the American League with a record of 21 -- 7, a 2.05 ERA, and 292 strikeouts. This was not enough to lead the Blue Jays to the postseason, however, as they finished in last place for the second time in three years with a record of 76 -- 86. Cito Gaston, the longtime manager who led the team to four division titles and two World Series crowns, was fired five games before the end of the season. The season did provide a unique experience for its fans with the advent of Interleague play, when the Blue Jays faced their Canadian rival, the Montreal Expos, for the first official games between the two teams. Before the start of the 1998 season, the Blue Jays acquired closer Randy Myers and slugger Jose Canseco. Gaston was replaced with former Blue Jay Tim Johnson, a relative unknown as a manager. Despite mediocre hitting, strong pitching led by Clemens ' second straight pitching Triple Crown (20 -- 6, 2.65 ERA, 271 strikeouts) sparked the Blue Jays to an 88 -- 74 record -- their first winning season since 1993. However, this was only good enough to finish a distant third, 26 games behind the New York Yankees, who posted one of the greatest records in all of baseball history at 114 -- 48. They were, however, in contention for the wildcard spot until the final week. Before the 1999 season, the Blue Jays traded Clemens to the Yankees for starting pitcher David Wells, second baseman Homer Bush and relief pitcher Graeme Lloyd. They also fired manager Tim Johnson during spring training after he lied about several things (including killing people in the Vietnam War) to motivate his players. The Blue Jays had initially been willing to stand by Johnson. A blizzard of questions about his credibility during spring training, however, led Ash to fire him less than a month before opening day. Johnson was replaced with Jim Fregosi, who managed the Phillies when they lost to the Blue Jays in the 1993 World Series. The offence picked up somewhat in 1999, but the pitching suffered without Clemens, as the Blue Jays finished at 84 -- 78, in third place. After the 1999 season, the Blue Jays ' original mascot for 20 years, BJ Birdy, was replaced by a duo named Ace and Diamond. On November 8, 1999, Toronto traded star outfielder Shawn Green to the Los Angeles Dodgers for left - handed relief pitcher Pedro Borbón and right - fielder Raúl Mondesí. Green had told the Jays that he would not be re-signing when his contract was up at the end of the year (he wished to play closer to his home in Southern California). 2000 proved to be a similar season, as the Jays had an 83 -- 79 record, well out of the wild card race but only a slim 41⁄2 games back of the three - time defending World Series champion Yankees in the AL East, the first time since 1993 they had contended for the division. Carlos Delgado had a stellar year, hitting. 344 with 41 home runs, 57 doubles, 137 RBI, 123 walks and 115 runs. In addition, six other players hit 20 or more home runs, an outstanding feat. On September 1, 2000, Rogers Communications Inc. purchased 80 % of the baseball club for $160 million, with Interbrew (later InBev) maintaining 20 % interest and the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce relinquishing its 10 % share. Rogers eventually acquired the 20 % owned by Interbrew and now has full ownership of the team. The 2001 season marked the 25th anniversary of the franchise 's inception. Buck Martinez, a former catcher and broadcast announcer for the Blue Jays, took over as manager before the season began. The Blue Jays had a disappointing season, as the team fell back under. 500, finishing at 80 -- 82, with mediocre pitching and hitting. Delgado led the team again with 39 home runs and 102 RBI. After the 2001 season ended, the Blue Jays fired Gord Ash, ending a seven - year tenure as general manager. J.P. Ricciardi, then director of player development under Oakland Athletics general manager Billy Beane, was named the Blue Jays ' General Manager and was expected to slash the payroll immediately, to stem the tide of red ink. During the off - season, the team traded or let go several popular players, including Alex Gonzalez, Paul Quantrill, Brad Fullmer and closer Billy Koch to let talented youngsters such as Eric Hinske and Felipe López get a chance to develop into major leaguers. The Blue Jays started the 2002 season with slow progress in performance. Buck Martinez was fired about a third of the way through the season, with a 20 -- 33 record. He was replaced by third base coach Carlos Tosca, an experienced minor league manager. They went 58 -- 51 under Tosca to finish the season 78 -- 84. Roy Halladay was relied on as the team 's ace and rose to the challenge of being the team 's top pitcher, finishing the season with a 19 -- 7 record and 2.93 ERA. The hitters were led once again by Carlos Delgado. Promising young players were assigned to key roles; starting third baseman Eric Hinske won the Rookie of the Year Award at the season 's conclusion, and 23 - year - old centre fielder Vernon Wells had his first 100 RBI season. The 2003 season was a surprise to both team management and baseball analysts. After a poor April, the team had its most successful month ever in May. Carlos Delgado led the majors in RBI, followed closely by Wells. Despite their hitting successes, poor pitching continued to plague the team. Halladay was an exception, winning his first Cy Young Award, going 22 -- 7, with a 3.25 ERA. In July, Shannon Stewart was traded to the Minnesota Twins for Bobby Kielty, another outfielder with a much lower batting average than Stewart 's. Although the Jays finished in third place in their division, Delgado was second in the voting for the American League MVP Award. In the off - season, Kielty was traded to the Oakland Athletics for starter Ted Lilly. The 2004 season was a disappointing year for the Blue Jays right from the beginning. They started the season 0 -- 8 at SkyDome and never started a lengthy winning streak. Much of that was due to injuries to All - Stars Carlos Delgado, Vernon Wells and Roy Halladay among others. Although the additions of starting pitchers Ted Lilly and Miguel Batista and reliever Justin Speier were relatively successful, veteran Pat Hentgen faltered throughout the season and retired on July 24. Rookies and minor league callups David Bush, Jason Frasor, Josh Towers and others filled the void in the rotation and the bullpen; however, inconsistent performances were evident. With the team struggling in last place and mired in a five - game losing streak, manager Carlos Tosca was fired on August 8, 2004, and was replaced by first base coach John Gibbons. Long - time first baseman Carlos Delgado became a free agent in the off - season. Nevertheless, prospects Russ Adams, Gabe Gross, and Alex Ríos provided excitement for the fans. Rookie pitchers David Bush, Gustavo Chacín and Jason Frasor also showed promise for the club 's future. The Blue Jays ' lone MLB All - Star Game representative was Lilly. SkyDome was renamed Rogers Centre and was extensively renovated. The Blue Jays had a good start to the 2005 season. They led the AL East from early to mid-April and held their record around. 500 until late August. The Jays were hit with the injury bug when third baseman Corey Koskie broke his finger, taking him out of the line - up, but the club was pleasantly surprised with the performance of rookie call - up Aaron Hill in his stead. On July 8, just prior to the All - Star break, Blue Jays ace Roy Halladay was struck on the shin by a line drive, resulting in a fractured leg. Though Halladay 's injury was hoped to be minor, the recovery process was met with constant delays, and eventually, he was out for the rest of the season. Prior to his injury, the Blue Jays were in serious wild card contention, but soon fell out of the playoff race. The team received glimpses of the future from September call - ups Guillermo Quiróz, John - Ford Griffin, and Shaun Marcum. Marcum made himself noteworthy by posting an ERA of 0.00 over five relief appearances and eight innings in September. Josh Towers also stepped up, showing largely unseen potential by going 7 -- 5 with a 2.91 ERA in the second half of the season. In 2006, the team experienced its most successful season in years. On July 2, Troy Glaus, Vernon Wells, Roy Halladay, B.J. Ryan, and Alex Ríos were picked to represent the Blue Jays at the All - Star Game. It was the largest number of Blue Jay All - Stars selected for the game since 1993. The team played well in the critical month of September, going 18 -- 10. This, combined with the slumping of the Boston Red Sox, enabled the Blue Jays to take sole possession of second place in the American League East by the end of the season. This marked the first time that the Jays had finished above third place in their division since their World Championship season of 1993, and with the most wins since the 1998 season. On December 18, the Blue Jays announced that they had re-signed centre fielder Wells to a seven - year contract worth $126 million, which came into effect after the 2007 season. The 2007 season was blighted by persistent injuries, with 12 Blue Jays landing on the disabled list. The most serious injury was that of B.J. Ryan, who was out for the entire season having had Tommy John surgery. Prior to the season, the team signed starting pitchers John Thomson, Tomo Ohka, and Víctor Zambrano; each of them was released before the end of the season. However, young starters Shaun Marcum and Dustin McGowan had break - out years, with 12 wins each. On June 24, McGowan pitched a complete game one - hitter. On June 28, Frank Thomas became the 21st major league player to hit 500 career home runs. Aaron Hill also had a break - out year, setting a team record for second baseman with 47 doubles. The Blue Jays ' 2008 season featured a strong pitching staff, which led the major leagues with a 3.49 ERA. For much of the season, however, the team struggled to hit home runs and drive in runs. On May 24, starter Jesse Litsch set a team record, with 38 consecutive innings without giving up a walk. On June 20, following a five - game losing streak and with the Jays in last place in the AL East, management fired John Gibbons and several members of his coaching staff, and re-hired Cito Gaston. Meanwhile, Alex Ríos had 32 stolen bases, making him the first Blue Jay with 30 since 2001. On September 5, Roy Halladay earned his 129th career win, moving him into second spot on Toronto 's all - time wins list. Halladay also came second in the voting for the Cy Young Award, after posting a 20 -- 11 record and 2.78 ERA. The 2009 season saw the addition of two new patches on the Blue Jays ' uniforms: on the right arm, a bright red maple leaf (part of the Canadian flag), and on the left arm, a small black band with "TED '' written on it, in reference to the late team owner Ted Rogers, who died in the off - season. On Opening Day at the Rogers Centre, the Blue Jays, led by Roy Halladay, beat the Detroit Tigers 12 -- 5. Aaron Hill and Roy Halladay both had excellent years and represented the Blue Jays at the 2009 All - Star Game in St. Louis. The Jays started the season well, posting a 27 -- 14 record, however immediately afterwards the Jays fell into a nine - game losing streak and was never able to recover for the remainder of the season. In mid-August, GM J.P. Ricciardi allowed the Chicago White Sox to claim Alex Ríos off waivers. With two games remaining in what was a disappointing season, Ricciardi was fired on October 3. He was replaced by assistant general manager Alex Anthopoulos. Despite a 75 - win season, the Jays saw the strong return of Aaron Hill, who won the American League Comeback Player of the Year Award and the Silver Slugger for second base. Adam Lind, who also had a strong season, earned the Silver Slugger for designated hitter. In the off - season, the Jays ' ace Roy Halladay was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for Kyle Drabek, Travis d'Arnaud, and Michael Taylor; Taylor was immediately traded to the Oakland Athletics for Brett Wallace. The team 's significant free agent signings were that of catcher John Buck and shortstop Álex González. The 2010 season was a surprising 10 - win improvement over the last season. It was a career year for José Bautista, who hit 54 home runs, breaking George Bell 's franchise record of 47. In doing so, he became the 26th player to reach 50 home runs and the first since Alex Rodriguez and Prince Fielder achieved the feat in 2007. The Blue Jays also set a franchise record for the most home runs in a single season as they hit 257, 13 more than their previous record of 244 set by the 2000 Blue Jays. The Blue Jays tied the 1996 Baltimore Orioles for the third most home runs by a team in a single season. Seven players (José Bautista, Vernon Wells, Aaron Hill, Adam Lind, Lyle Overbay, John Buck, and Edwin Encarnación) hit 20 home runs or more throughout the season, tying an MLB record previously set by four teams, including the 2000 Blue Jays. On July 14, the Jays traded Álex González and two minor league prospects -- left - handed pitcher Tim Collins and shortstop Tyler Pastornicky -- to the Atlanta Braves for Jo - Jo Reyes and Yunel Escobar. On August 7, catching prospect J.P. Arencibia made his major league debut. He went 4 - for - 5 with two home runs, including a home run hit on the first pitch he saw. The next day, starting pitcher Brandon Morrow came within one out of a no - hitter, finishing with 17 strikeouts in a complete game one - hitter. Led by new manager John Farrell, the 2011 Blue Jays finished with a. 500 record. After signing a five - year $64 million contract extension, José Bautista followed up his record - setting 2010 season with an arguably better season. He finished with a Major League - leading 43 home runs, along with 103 RBI, 132 walks, and a. 302 average. Rookie J.P. Arencibia also had a successful year, setting a Blue Jays single - season record with 23 home runs by a catcher. In August, third base prospect Brett Lawrie made his Major League debut and hit. 293 with 9 home runs, 4 triples, and 25 RBI, in just 43 games. Starting pitcher and ace Ricky Romero led the team with 15 wins and a 2.92 ERA. He also became an All - Star for the first time in his career. The other starting pitchers were inconsistent, and Farrell used 12 different starters over the course of the season. Jon Rauch and Frank Francisco, both acquired in the off - season, shared the closer role. They both struggled through the first half of the season, though Francisco improved in the last two months of the season, and had six saves in September. On July 31, the Blue Jays retired their first number, Roberto Alomar 's # 12, one week after Alomar became the first Hall of Famer to be inducted as a Blue Jay. The 2012 season was an injury - plagued year for the Blue Jays, having used 31 total pitchers, which set a franchise record. In June, three starting pitchers (Brandon Morrow, Kyle Drabek, and Drew Hutchison) were lost to injury in a span of four days, two of whom required Tommy John surgery; in addition, starters Dustin McGowan and Jesse Litsch missed the entire season due to injury. In the second half of the season, some key players in Toronto 's line - up, including All - Star José Bautista, missed a significant amount of playing time due to injury, sending the team into a freefall and culminating in a 73 -- 89 record. Despite the underachievements of Ricky Romero and Adam Lind, Casey Janssen established himself as a reliable closer (22 SV, 2.52 ERA) and Edwin Encarnación developed into one of the league 's best power hitters (. 280 AVG, 42 HR, 110 RBI). On April 5, 2012 the team opened on the road in Cleveland, where they beat the Indians 7 -- 4 in 16 full innings, during this game they set the record of the longest opening - day game in the Major League history. The previous record of 15 innings had been set by the Washington Senators and Philadelphia Athletics on April 13, 1926, and tied by the Detroit Tigers and the Indians on April 19, 1960. On April 20, the Jays turned a triple play against the Kansas City Royals in a 4 -- 3 win. It was the first triple play they turned since September 21, 1979. During the offseason, the Toronto Blue Jays traded Farrell to the Boston Red Sox per his wishes, and former manager John Gibbons returned to manage the Blue Jays. The Jays also made a blockbuster trade with the Miami Marlins, leading to a series of other blockbuster trades and signings, including with the New York Mets for National League Cy Young winner R.A. Dickey and free agents including Melky Cabrera. On June 8, the Blue Jays played the then - longest game in franchise history by innings, winning 4 -- 3 in 18 innings against the visiting Texas Rangers, which would be broken one season later. The Jays matched their franchise record of 11 consecutive wins in a 13 -- 5 home win over the Baltimore Orioles on June 23. However, the Jays had a losing season overall. Pitcher Roy Halladay signed a one - day contract with the Blue Jays before retiring from baseball, citing injuries. The Jays had a nine - game win streak from May 20 to 28, as well as wins in 18 of 21 between May 15 and June 6. On August 10, the Blue Jays played the longest game in franchise history by both time and innings, winning 6 -- 5 in 19 innings and playing 6 hours, 37 minutes against the visiting Detroit Tigers. During the off - season, the Jays signed Toronto - born catcher Russell Martin through free agency. The Jays acquired Marco Estrada, Devon Travis, All - Star third baseman Josh Donaldson, and Michael Saunders in trades. The Jays claimed Justin Smoak, Andy Dirks, and Chris Colabello off waivers. However, Dirks, along with John Mayberry Jr., were eventually non -- tendered; the Jays later signed Dirks to a minor league contract. Melky Cabrera and Brandon Morrow left through free agency and Juan Francisco was claimed off waivers by the Boston Red Sox. The Jays later traded José Reyes and pitching prospects Miguel Castro, Jeff Hoffman, and Jesus Tinoco to the Colorado Rockies for All - Star shortstop Troy Tulowitzki and reliever LaTroy Hawkins. Two days later, they acquired All - Star pitcher David Price from the Detroit Tigers in exchange for pitching prospects Daniel Norris, Matt Boyd, and Jairo Labourt. The Jays had two 11 - game winning streaks during this season. On September 25, the Blue Jays clinched a playoff berth, ending the longest active playoff drought in North American professional sports (see List of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts). They subsequently claimed the AL East division title on September 30, after defeating the Baltimore Orioles 15 -- 2 in the first game of a doubleheader. The Blue Jays faced the Texas Rangers in the ALDS. After losing back - to - back home games, they won the next three games in a row to take the five - game series, advancing to the ALCS; a three - game comeback series victory had not been accomplished since 2012 by the San Francisco Giants. During game five of the series in Toronto, Blue Jays ' right fielder José Bautista executed what Andrew Keh of The New York Times described as possibly "the most ostentatious bat flip in MLB history '' after hitting a go - ahead, three - run home run off Rangers relief pitcher Sam Dyson. Bautista wrote an article about the bat flip published in November 2015 in The Players ' Tribune. The Blue Jays then faced the Kansas City Royals in the ALCS, losing the series 4 -- 2 in Kansas City; the Royals would eventually win the World Series. After the playoffs, Donaldson was named AL MVP, becoming the first Blue Jay to win the award since George Bell in 1987. Upon the expiration of Paul Beeston 's contract, Mark Shapiro replaced him as president of the Blue Jays. Alex Anthopoulos resigned two months after the hiring of Shapiro. Ross Atkins subsequently took his place. During the off - season, David Price left the Blue Jays through free agency, signing with the Boston Red Sox, while the Blue Jays signed J.A. Happ. On March 4, 2016, infielder Maicer Izturis announced his retirement from baseball. A few weeks later, Brad Penny and Rafael Soriano, both veterans under minor league contract with the Blue Jays, retired from baseball as well. On May 15, 2016, the Blue Jays and the Texas Rangers brawled against each other in Arlington, Texas. The brawl happened when Matt Bush threw a pitch at Jose Bautista, then Bautista made an illegal slide, and Rougned Odor punched Bautista. Bautista was later suspended for one game. On May 31, 2016, the Blue Jays traded for Jason Grilli from the Atlanta Braves. Before the non-waiver trade deadline at 4 pm EDT on August 1, 2016, the Blue Jays traded for Joaquín Benoit, Melvin Upton Jr., Scott Feldman, and Francisco Liriano. On August 25, 2016, the Blue Jays re-acquired popular backup catcher Dioner Navarro in a trade with the Chicago White Sox. This was done before the August 31 trade deadline making Navarro eligible to be on the postseason roster. On October 2, 2016, the Blue Jays clinched their first Wild Card berth with a Detroit Tigers loss to the Atlanta Braves. On October 4, 2016, the Blue Jays defeated the Baltimore Orioles in the American League Wild Card Game in extra innings, via a walk - off three - run home run by Edwin Encarnación in the bottom of the 11th inning. On October 9, 2016, the Blue Jays completed a sweep of the Texas Rangers in the American League Division Series to advance to the American League Championship Series for the second consecutive year. On October 19, 2016, the Blue Jays were eliminated from World Series contention with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Cleveland Indians in Game 5 of the American League Championship Series. On November 11, 2016, it was announced that Toronto had signed designated hitter Kendrys Morales to a three - year, $33 million deal. The contract became official on November 18. On December 5, 2016, Steve Pearce signed a two - year, $12.5 million contract with Toronto. On January 5, 2017, Edwin Encarnación signed a three - year, $60 million contract with the Cleveland Indians. On January 18, 2017, Bautista signed a one - year, $18 million contract with the Blue Jays. The contract includes a $17 million mutual option for the 2018 season, as well as a $20 million vesting option for 2019. The following day, Michael Saunders signed with the Philadelphia Phillies. However, in late June, the Phillies released Saunders and the Jays signed him to a minor league contract. On April 2, one day before the start of the regular season, Melvin Upton Jr. was released. By the end of April, the Jays had the worst record in all of MLB. On July 2, the Jays traded Grilli to the Texas Rangers for Eduard Pinto. Pearce hit two walk - off grand slams in a span of three days: one against the Oakland Athletics on July 27 and another against the Los Angeles Angels on July 30, the latter of which is an ultimate grand slam. The Blue Jays wore special red - and - white uniforms at select games during the 2017 season to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Canada. The Blue Jays have declined their mutual option on José Bautista, allowing him to enter free agency. He eventually signed for the Atlanta Braves and later the New York Mets. The Blue Jays traded two prospects for Yangervis Solarte. Financial World Forbes Bloomberg News In 1977, after just 50 home games, the Blue Jays set an MLB record for a first - year expansion team, with an overall attendance of 1,219,551 during those games. By the end of the season, 1,701,152 fans had attended. In 1991, the Blue Jays became the first MLB team to attract over four million fans, with an attendance of 4,001,526, followed by 4,028,318 in 1992. Each of those records were broken in 1993 by the expansion Colorado Rockies, although the Blue Jays ' 1993 attendance of 4,057,947 stood as an AL record for 12 years until it was broken by the 2005 New York Yankees. Several Blue Jays became very popular in Toronto and across the major leagues, starting with Dave Stieb, whose seven All - Star selections is a franchise record. He is closely followed by Roy Halladay and José Bautista, who were selected six times each, and by Roberto Alomar and Joe Carter, who were selected five times each. Bautista set a major league record in 2011 (which only stood for just one year), with 7,454,753 All - Star votes. In his first season with the Blue Jays in 2015, Josh Donaldson set a new major league record by receiving 14,090,188 All - Star votes. During the seventh - inning stretch of home games, before singing "Take Me Out to the Ball Game '', Blue Jay fans sing and clap to "OK Blue Jays '' by Keith Hampshire and The Bat Boys, which was released in 1983. The song was remixed in 2003, and since then, the new shortened version is played at home games. From 1979 to 1999, BJ Birdy served as the Blue Jays ' sole mascot, played by Kevin Shanahan. In 2000, he was replaced by a duo named Ace and Diamond. After the 2003 season, Diamond was removed by the team, leaving Ace as the team 's sole mascot. Since the 2010s, Ace has been accompanied by his younger brother, Junior. This usually happens on the Jr. Jay Saturday promotions until the end of the 2017 season. The promotions were moved to select Sundays since the 2018 season, since the Blue Jays can no longer hold early Saturday afternoon games to accommodate American national broadcasts on FOX, though FOX did occasionally broadcast Blue Jays games at the Rogers Centre. Since 2012, every Sunday home game, the Blue Jays pay tribute to a member of the Canadian Armed Forces. The Montreal Expos were the Blue Jays ' geographic National League rival, being the other Canadian MLB team before it was relocated. From 1978 to 1986, the teams played an annual mid-season exhibition game, known as the Pearson Cup, named after former Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson. The teams began facing each other in the regular season in 1997, with the advent of interleague play. During the 2003 and 2004 seasons, the Expos ' last two seasons before relocating to Washington, D.C. as the Nationals, the Pearson Cup was awarded after a pair of three - game sets. The Detroit Tigers are the Blue Jays ' geographic and traditional rival, dating back to the 1980s, when the teams were AL East contenders. The Tigers moved to the AL Central in 1998, and the rivalry has died down as a result, with the teams facing each other only six to seven times per year since 2011. Depending on traffic and border delays, Detroit is about a four - hour drive from Toronto. According to The Detroit News, a July 2017 three - game series at Comerica Park against the Blue Jays drew a season - best - to - date total attendance of 115,088. Although the Seattle Mariners are not a divisional rival, many Blue Jays fans from western Canada travel to Seattle when the Blue Jays play there. Depending on traffic and border delays, Seattle is about a three - hour drive from Vancouver. The Seattle Times estimated that Blue Jays fans represented around 70 percent of the crowd in Safeco Field for a June 2017 weekend series. The Blue Jays ' former radio play - by - play announcer, Tom Cheek, called every Toronto Blue Jays game from the team 's inaugural contest on April 7, 1977 until June 3, 2004, when he took two games off following the death of his father -- a streak of 4,306 consecutive regular season games and 41 postseason games. Cheek later died on October 9, 2005 and the team commemorated him during their 2006 season by wearing a circular patch on the left sleeve of their home and road game jerseys. The patch was adorned with the letters ' TC ', Cheek 's initials, as well as a stylized microphone. Cheek is also honoured with a place in the Blue Jays ' "Level of Excellence '' in the upper level of the Rogers Centre; the number 4,306 is depicted beside his name. In 2008, Cheek received the third most votes by fans to be nominated for the Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasting excellence. Cheek finally received the Frick Award, posthumously, in 2013 after nine years on the ballot. Radio broadcasts of Blue Jays games are originated from Sportsnet 590 CJCL in Toronto which, like the Blue Jays, is owned by Rogers Communications. Jerry Howarth, Cheek 's longtime broadcasting partner, is the lead play - by - play announcer, with Mike Wilner as the secondary play - by - play announcer. During the 2007 to 2012 seasons, former Blue Jays catcher Alan Ashby was the colour commentator. Former Blue Jays pitcher Jack Morris served as the colour commentator during the 2013 season, after which he was replaced by former Montreal Expos catcher Joe Siddall since the 2014 season. Former Blue Jays pitcher Dirk Hayhurst filled in for Morris for some games during the 2013 season. Another former catcher for the Blue Jays, Gregg Zaun, has served as the occasional colour commentator since the 2011 season. The Toronto Blue Jays have the largest geographical home market in all of baseball, encompassing all of Canada. Despite this, the number of radio stations that broadcast games is actually quite small. Only twenty radio stations across the country aired at least some Blue Jays games during the 2011 season, which is fewer affiliates than most teams. All Blue Jays games are carried nationally on Sportsnet (which, like the Blue Jays, is owned by Rogers Communications), with Buck Martinez as the play - by - play announcer, and Pat Tabler as the primary colour analyst. On select games, play - by - play is handled by Dan Shulman, with Martinez and Tabler on commentary. Toronto Raptors play - by - play announcer Matt Devlin has also filled in for Martinez in a select number of games. In previous years, the colour analyst role rotated between Pat Tabler, Rance Mulliniks, Darrin Fletcher, and since the 2011 season, Gregg Zaun. Sportsnet became the team 's primary carrier soon after it launched in the late 1990s, and became the team 's exclusive broadcaster in 2010. As of August 2010, Sportsnet One also broadcasts Blue Jays games (often in case of scheduling conflicts with the main Sportsnet channels). Rogers was, however, criticized by fans and critics due to Sportsnet One only being carried by Rogers Cable systems on launch. In September 2012, AMI - tv simulcast three Blue Jays games with described video provided by CJCL correspondent Sam Cosentino, which included explanations of on - screen graphics. Paul Beeston praised AMI 's involvement, stating that "to our knowledge, we are the first sports organization to have our games provided through this revolutionary approach to accommodating the needs of the blind and low - vision community. '' On June 27, 2013, Rogers ' over-the - air Toronto multicultural station Omni. 2 simulcast a Blue Jays game (in which Taiwanese player Chien - Ming Wang was scheduled to start) with commentary in Mandarin, marking the first ever Canadian MLB broadcast in the language. TVA Sports has aired games in French since 2011, with Jacques Doucet on play - by - play and Rodger Brulotte on colour. Sportsnet 's broadcasts of the 2015 American League Division Series involving the Blue Jays were among the highest - rated telecasts in network history, with Game 4 drawing an audience of 4.38 million viewers. The Sports Network (TSN), which (like the Jays) was owned by Labatt from 1984 to 1995, served as the primary cable television outlet for the Blue Jays prior to the launch of Sportsnet. TSN (and later, its sister channel TSN2) continued to carry approximately ten Jays games through the 2009 season until May 2010; most recently, Rod Black handled play - by - play while Tabler served as colour commentator on these telecasts. CBC has carried Blue Jays games intermittently throughout the team 's history, most recently in 2007 and 2008; those broadcasts featured Jim Hughson as the play - by - play announcer, and former Blue Jays Rance Mulliniks and Jesse Barfield on colour commentary. Games also aired on CTV (except in Montreal) from the team 's inception until the late 1990s. The Blue Jays have not appeared over-the - air in Canada in English since 2008. In 2008, Rogers Communications, owner of the Jays, was granted a license by the Canadian Radio - Television Commission (CRTC) to launch a specialty channel, to be named "Baseball TV ''. The channel would have been dedicated to coverage of baseball, combining content from the United States - based MLB Network with original Canadian content. However, the channel was never launched, and instead Rogers sponsored an application by the US version of MLB Network to be made available to Canadian distributors, which was approved by the CRTC. There has been very rare instances of FOX broadcasting Blue Jays games at the Rogers Centre during the regular season. Pitchers Starting rotation Bullpen Catchers Infielders Outfielders Designated hitters Pitchers Catchers Infielders Outfielders Manager Coaches 60 - day disabled list Restricted list 7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated June 19, 2018 Transactions Depth chart Roger Clemens won the pitching triple crown in 1997 and 1998. Seven former Blue Jays, one former manager, and one former general manager, have been elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Second baseman Roberto Alomar, elected to the Hall of Fame in 2011, is the first player to be inducted based primarily on service as a Blue Jay. Roberto Alomar Bobby Cox Pat Gillick Rickey Henderson Paul Molitor Jack Morris Phil Niekro Frank Thomas Dave Winfield Bobby Doerr, a second baseman with the Boston Red Sox, served as a coach with the Jays early in their history, and was the first person associated with the franchise to be elected to the Hall, in 1986. Early Wynn, the Hall of Fame pitcher and 300 - game winner, was a broadcaster for the Blue Jays during their first few years. Tom Cheek Tony Kubek Soon after becoming the first person to be inducted in the Hall of Fame as a Blue Jay, on July 31, 2011, second baseman Roberto Alomar was the first person to have his number retired by the Blue Jays. On March 29, 2018, the Blue Jays retired # 32 in honour of Roy Halladay, who died in a plane crash on November 7, 2017, becoming the second number to be retired by the Blue Jays. The team has also instituted a "Level of Excellence '' on the 400 level of the Rogers Centre, where the following Jays personnel are honoured: Players ' uniform numbers were listed -- and in Tom Cheek 's case, the number of consecutive games he called for the Blue Jays -- until the 2013 All - Star Break, even though, with the exception of Roberto Alomar 's, and Roy Halladay 's these numbers have not been retired. During the 2013 All - Star Break, the Level of Excellence was redesigned for the addition of Carlos Delgado 's name. The redesign removed all uniform numbers from the Level of Excellence aside from Roberto Alomar 's retired # 12, Roy Halladay 's retired # 32 and Tom Cheek 's 4306 for his consecutive games called streak.

1. what assessment findings are associated with injuries of the spinal cord at the thoracic level

Spinal cord injury - wikipedia A spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent. These changes translate into loss of muscle function, sensation, or autonomic function in parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the level of the lesion. Injuries can occur at any level of the spinal cord and can be classified as complete injury, a total loss of sensation and muscle function, or incomplete, meaning some nervous signals are able to travel past the injured area of the cord. Depending on the location and severity of damage along the spinal cord, the symptoms can vary widely, from pain or numbness to paralysis to incontinence. The prognosis also ranges widely, from full recovery in rare cases to permanent tetraplegia (also called quadriplegia) in injuries at the level of the neck, and paraplegia in lower injuries. Complications that can occur in the short and long term after injury include muscle atrophy, pressure sores, infections, and respiratory problems. In the majority of cases the damage results from physical trauma such as car accidents, gunshots, falls, or sports injuries, but it can also result from nontraumatic causes such as infection, insufficient blood flow, and tumors. Efforts to prevent SCI include individual measures such as using safety equipment, societal measures such as safety regulations in sports and traffic, and improvements to equipment. Known since ancient times to be a catastrophic injury and long believed to be untreatable, SCI has seen great improvements in its care since the middle of the 20th century. Treatment of spinal cord injuries starts with stabilizing the spine and controlling inflammation to prevent further damage. Other interventions needed can vary widely depending on the location and extent of the injury, from bed rest to surgery. In many cases, spinal cord injuries require substantial, long - term physical and occupational therapy in rehabilitation, especially if they interfere with activities of daily living. Research into new treatments for spinal cord injuries includes stem cell implantation, engineered materials for tissue support, and wearable robotic exoskeletons. Spinal cord injury can be traumatic or nontraumatic, and can be classified into three types based on cause: mechanical forces, toxic, and ischemic (from lack of blood flow). The damage can also be divided into primary and secondary injury: the cell death that occurs immediately in the original injury, and biochemical cascades that are initiated by the original insult and cause further tissue damage. These secondary injury pathways include the ischemic cascade, inflammation, swelling, cell suicide, and neurotransmitter imbalances. They can take place for minutes or weeks following the injury. At each level of the spinal column, spinal nerves branch off from either side of the spinal cord and exit between a pair of vertebrae, to innervate a specific part of the body. The area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome, and the group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve is called a myotome. The part of the spinal cord that was damaged corresponds to the spinal nerves at that level and below. Injuries can be cervical 1 -- 8 (C1 -- C8), thoracic 1 -- 12 (T1 -- T12), lumbar 1 -- 5 (L1 -- L5), or sacral (S1 -- S5). A person 's level of injury is defined as the lowest level of full sensation and function. Paraplegia occurs when the legs are affected by the spinal cord damage (in thoracic, lumbar, or sacral injuries), and tetraplegia occurs when all four limbs are affected (cervical damage). SCI is also classified by the degree of impairment. The International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI), published by the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA), is widely used to document sensory and motor impairments following SCI. It is based on neurological responses, touch and pinprick sensations tested in each dermatome, and strength of the muscles that control key motions on both sides of the body. Muscle strength is scored on a scale of 0 -- 5 according to the table on the right, and sensation is graded on a scale of 0 -- 2: 0 is no sensation, 1 is altered or decreased sensation, and 2 is full sensation. Each side of the body is graded independently. In a "complete '' spinal injury, all functions below the injured area are lost, whether or not the spinal cord is severed. An "incomplete '' spinal cord injury involves preservation of motor or sensory function below the level of injury in the spinal cord. To be classed as incomplete, there must be some preservation of sensation or motion in the areas innervated by S4 to S5, e.g. voluntary external anal sphincter contraction. The nerves in this area are connected to the very lowest region of the spinal cord, and retaining sensation and function in these parts of the body indicates that the spinal cord is only partially damaged. Incomplete injury by definition includes a phenomenon known as sacral sparing: some degree of sensation is preserved in the sacral dermatomes, even though sensation may be more impaired in other, higher dermatomes below the level of the lesion. Sacral sparing has been attributed to the fact that the sacral spinal pathways are not as likely as the other spinal pathways to become compressed after injury due to the lamination of fibers within the spinal cord. Spinal column injury is trauma that causes fracture of the bone or instability of the ligaments in the spine; this can coexist with or cause injury to the spinal cord, but each injury can occur without the other. Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality exists when SCI is present but there is no evidence of spinal column injury on radiographs. Abnormalities might show up on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), but the term was coined before MRI was in common use. Central cord syndrome, almost always resulting from damage to the cervical spinal cord, is characterized by weakness in the arms with relative sparing of the legs, and spared sensation in regions served by the sacral segments. There is loss of sensation of pain, temperature, light touch, and pressure below the level of injury. The spinal tracts that serve the arms are more affected due to their central location in the spinal cord, while the corticospinal fibers destined for the legs are spared due to their more external location. The most common of the incomplete SCI syndromes, central cord syndrome usually results from neck hyperextension in older people with spinal stenosis. In younger people, it most commonly results from neck flexion. The most common causes are falls and vehicle accidents; however other possible causes include spinal stenosis and impingement on the spinal cord by a tumor or vertebral disk. Anterior cord syndrome, due to damage to the front portion of the spinal cord or reduction in the blood supply from the anterior spinal artery, can be caused by fractures or dislocations of vertebrae or herniated disks. Below the level of injury, motor function, pain sensation, and temperature sensation are lost, while sense of touch and proprioception (sense of position in space) remain intact. These differences are due to the relative locations of the spinal tracts responsible for each type of function. Brown - Séquard syndrome occurs when the spinal cord is injured on one side much more than the other. It is rare for the spinal cord to be truly hemisected (severed on one side), but partial lesions due to penetrating wounds (such as gunshot or knife wounds) or fractured vertebrae or tumors are common. On the ipsilateral side of the injury (same side), the body loses motor function, proprioception, and senses of vibration and touch. On the contralateral (opposite side) of the injury, there is a loss of pain and temperature sensations. Posterior cord syndrome, in which just the dorsal columns of the spinal cord are affected, is usually seen in cases of chronic myelopathy but can also occur with infarction of the posterior spinal artery. This rare syndrome causes the loss of proprioception and sense of vibration below the level of injury while motor function and sensation of pain, temperature, and touch remain intact. Usually posterior cord injuries result from insults like disease or vitamin deficiency rather than trauma. Tabes dorsalis, due to injury to the posterior part of the spinal cord caused by syphilis, results in loss of touch and proprioceptive sensation. Conus medullaris syndrome is an injury to the end of the spinal cord, located at about the T12 -- L2 vertebrae in adults. This region contains the S4 -- S5 spinal segments, responsible for bowel, bladder, and some sexual functions, so these can be disrupted in this type of injury. In addition, sensation and the Achilles reflex can be disrupted. Causes include tumors, physical trauma, and ischemia. Cauda equina syndrome (CES) results from a lesion below the level at which the spinal cord splits into the cauda equina, at levels L2 -- S5 below the conus medullaris. Thus it is not a true spinal cord syndrome since it is nerve roots that are damaged and not the cord itself; however it is common for several of these nerves to be damaged at the same time due to their proximity. CES can occur by itself or alongside conus medullaris syndrome. It can cause low back pain, weakness or paralysis in the lower limbs, loss of sensation, bowel and bladder dysfunction, and loss of reflexes. Unlike in conus medullaris syndrome, symptoms often occur on only one side of the body. The cause is often compression, e.g. by a ruptured intervertebral disk or tumor. Since the nerves damaged in CES are actually peripheral nerves because they have already branched off from the spinal cord, the injury has better prognosis for recovery of function: the peripheral nervous system has a greater capacity for healing than the central nervous system. Signs (observed by a clinician) and symptoms (experienced by a patient) vary depending on where the spine is injured and the extent of the injury. A section of skin innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a dermatome, and injury to that part of the spine can cause pain, numbness, or a loss of sensation in the related areas. Paraesthesia, a tingling or burning sensation in affected areas of the skin, is another symptom. A person with a lowered level of consciousness may show a response to a painful stimulus above a certain point but not below it. A group of muscles innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a myotome, and injury to that part of the spinal cord can cause problems with movements that involve those muscles. The muscles may contract uncontrollably (spasticity), become weak, or be completely paralysed. Spinal shock, loss of neural activity including reflexes below the level of injury, occurs shortly after the injury and usually goes away within a day. The specific parts of the body affected by loss of function are determined by the level of injury. The effects of injuries at or above the lumbar or sacral regions of the spinal cord (lower back and pelvis) include decreased control of the legs and hips, genitourinary system, and anus. People injured below level L2 may still have use of their hip flexor and knee extensor muscles. Bowel and bladder function are regulated by the sacral region. It is common to experience sexual dysfunction after injury, as well as dysfunction of the bowel and bladder, including fecal and urinary incontinence. It is also possible for the bladder to fail to empty, leading to a potentially harmful buildup of urine. One sign of spinal cord injury that emergency providers may find is priapism, an erection of the penis. In addition to the problems found in lower - level injuries, thoracic (chest height) spinal lesions can affect the muscles in the trunk. Injuries at the level of T1 to T8 result in inability to control the abdominal muscles. Trunk stability may be affected; even more so in higher level injuries. The lower the level of injury, the less extensive its effects. Injuries from T9 to T12 result in partial loss of trunk and abdominal muscle control. Thoracic spinal injuries result in paraplegia, but function of the hands, arms, and neck are not affected. One condition that occurs typically in lesions above the T6 level is autonomic dysreflexia (AD), in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels, high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke. It results from an overreaction of the system to a stimulus such as pain below the level of injury, because inhibitory signals from the brain can not pass the lesion to dampen the excitatory sympathetic nervous system response. Signs and symptoms of AD include anxiety, headache, nausea, ringing in the ears, blurred vision, flushed skin, and nasal congestion. It can occur shortly after the injury or not until years later. Other autonomic functions may also be disrupted. For example, problems with body temperature regulation mostly occur in injuries at T8 and above. Another serious complication that can result from lesions above T6 is neurogenic shock, which results from an interruption in output from the sympathetic nervous system responsible for maintaining muscle tone in the blood vessels. Without the sympathetic input, the vessels relax and dilate. Neurogenic shock presents with dangerously low blood pressure, low heart rate, and blood pooling in the limbs -- which results in insufficient blood flow to the spinal cord and potentially further damage to it. Spinal cord injuries at the cervical (neck) level result in full or partial tetraplegia (also called quadriplegia). Depending on the specific location and severity of trauma, limited function may be retained. Additional signs and symptoms of cervical injuries include low heart rate, low blood pressure, problems regulating body temperature, and breathing dysfunction. If the injury is high enough in the neck to impair the muscles involved in breathing, the person may not be able to breathe without the help of an endotracheal tube and mechanical ventilator. Spinal cord injuries are most often caused by physical trauma. Forces involved can be hyperflexion (forward movement of the head); hyperextension (backward movement); lateral stress (sideways movement); rotation (twisting of the head); compression (force along the axis of the spine downward from the head or upward from the pelvis); or distraction (pulling apart of the vertebrae). Traumatic SCI can result in contusion, compression, or stretch injury. It is a major risk of many types of vertebral fracture. Pre-existing asymptomatic congenital anomalies can cause major neurological deficits, such as hemiparesis, to result from otherwise minor trauma. In the US, Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of SCIs; second are falls, then violence such as gunshot wounds, then sports injuries. In some countries falls are more common, even surpassing vehicle crashes as the leading cause of SCI. The rates of violence - related SCI depend heavily on place and time. Of all sports - related SCIs, shallow water dives are the most common cause; winter sports and water sports have been increasing as causes while association football and trampoline injuries have been declining. Hanging can cause injury to the cervical spine, as may occur in attempted suicide. Military conflicts are another cause, and when they occur they are associated with increased rates of SCI. Another potential cause of SCI is iatrogenic injury, caused by an improperly done medical procedure such as an injection into the spinal column. SCI can also be of a nontraumatic origin. Nontraumatic lesions cause anywhere from 30 to 80 % of all SCI; the percentage varies by locale, influenced by efforts to prevent trauma. Developed countries have higher percentages of SCI due to degenerative conditions and tumors than developing countries. In developed countries, the most common cause of nontraumatic SCI is degenerative diseases, followed by tumors; in many developing countries the leading cause is infection such as HIV and tuberculosis. SCI may occur in intervertebral disc disease, and spinal cord vascular disease. Spontaneous bleeding can occur within or outside of the protective membranes that line the cord, and intervertebral disks can herniate. Damage can result from dysfunction of the blood vessels, as in arteriovenous malformation, or when a blood clot becomes lodged in a blood vessel and cuts off blood supply to the cord. When systemic blood pressure drops, blood flow to the spinal cord may be reduced, potentially causing a loss of sensation and voluntary movement in the areas supplied by the affected level of the spinal cord. Congenital conditions and tumors that compress the cord can also cause SCI, as can vertebral spondylosis and ischemia. Multiple sclerosis is a disease that can damage the spinal cord, as can infectious or inflammatory conditions such as tuberculosis, herpes zoster or herpes simplex, meningitis, myelitis, and syphilis. Vehicle - related SCI is prevented with measures including societal and individual efforts to reduce driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, distracted driving, and drowsy driving. Other efforts include increasing road safety (such as marking hazards and adding lighting) and vehicle safety, both to prevent accidents (such as routine maintenance and antilock brakes) and to mitigate the damage of crashes (such as head restraints, air bags, seat belts, and child safety seats). Falls can be prevented by making changes to the environment, such as nonslip materials and grab bars in bathtubs and showers, railings for stairs, child and safety gates for windows. Gun - related injuries can be prevented with conflict resolution training, gun safety education campaigns, and changes to the technology of guns (such as trigger locks) to improve their safety. Sports injuries can be prevented with changes to sports rules and equipment to increase safety, and education campaigns to reduce risky practices such as diving into water of unknown depth or head - first tackling in association football. A radiographic evaluation using an X-ray, CT scan, or MRI can determine if there is damage to the spinal column and where it is located. X-rays are commonly available and can detect instability or misalignment of the spinal column, but do not give very detailed images and can miss injuries to the spinal cord or displacement of ligaments or disks that do not have accompanying spinal column damage. Thus when X-ray findings are normal but SCI is still suspected due to pain or SCI symptoms, CT or MRI scans are used. CT gives greater detail than X-rays, but exposes the patient to more radiation, and it still does not give images of the spinal cord or ligaments; MRI shows body structures in the greatest detail. Thus it is the standard for anyone who has neurological deficits found in SCI or is thought to have an unstable spinal column injury. Neurological evaluations to help determine the degree of impairment are performed initially and repeatedly in the early stages of treatment; this determines the rate of improvement or deterioration and informs treatment and prognosis. The ASIA Impairment Scale outlined above is used to determine the level and severity of injury. The first stage in the management of a suspected spinal cord injury is geared toward basic life support and preventing further injury: maintaining airway, breathing, and circulation and immobilizing the spine. In the emergency setting, anyone who has been subjected to forces strong enough to cause SCI is treated as though they have instability in the spinal column and is immobilized to prevent damage to the spinal cord. Injuries or fractures in the head, neck, or pelvis as well as penetrating trauma near the spine and falls from heights are assumed to be associated with an unstable spinal column until it is ruled out in the hospital. High - speed vehicle crashes, sports injuries involving the head or neck, and diving injuries are other mechanisms that indicate a high SCI risk. Since head and spinal trauma frequently coexist, anyone who is unconscious or has a lowered level of consciousness as a result of a head injury is immobilized. A rigid cervical collar is applied to the neck, and the head is held immobile with blocks on either side and the person is strapped to a backboard. Extrication devices are used to move people without moving the spine if they are still inside a vehicle or other confined space. Modern trauma care includes a step called clearing the cervical spine, ruling out spinal cord injury if the patient is fully conscious and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol, displays no neurological deficits, has no pain in the middle of the neck and no other painful injuries that could distract from neck pain. If these are all absent, no immobilization is necessary. If an unstable spinal column injury is moved, damage may occur to the spinal cord. Between 3 and 25 % of SCIs occur not at the time of the initial trauma but later during treatment or transport. While some of this is due to the nature of the injury itself, particularly in the case of multiple or massive trauma, some of it reflects the failure to immobilize the spine adequately. SCI can impair the body 's ability to keep warm, so warming blankets may be needed. Initial care in the hospital, as in the prehospital setting, aims to ensure adequate airway, breathing, cardiovascular function, and spinal immobilization. Imaging of the spine to ascertain presence of SCI may need to wait if emergency surgery is needed to stabilize a life - threatening injury. Acute SCI merits treatment in an intensive care unit, especially injuries to the cervival spinal cord. Patients with SCI need repeated neurological assessments and treatment by neurosurgeons. If the systolic blood pressure falls below 90 mmHg within days of the injury, blood supply to the spinal cord may be reduced, resulting in further damage. Thus it is important to maintain the blood pressure using a central venous catheter, intravenous fluids, and vasopressors, and to treat cases of shock. Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury. The treatment for shock from blood loss (hypovolemic shock) is different from that for neurogenic shock, and could harm people with the latter type, so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock. However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time. Another important aspect of care is prevention of hypoxia (insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream), which could deprive the spinal cord of much - needed oxygen. People with cervical injuries may experience a dangerously slowed heart rate; treatment to speed it up include atropine and electrical cardiac pacing. Swelling can cause further damage to the spinal cord by reducing the blood supply and causing ischemia, which can give rise to an ischemic cascade with a release of toxins that damages neurons. Thus treatment is often geared toward limiting this secondary injury. People are sometimes treated with drugs to reduce swelling. The corticosteroid drug methylprednisolone is commonly used within eight hours of the injury, but its use is controversial because of side effects. Studies have shown high dose methylprednisolone may improve outcomes if given within 6 hours of injury. However, the improvement shown by clinical trials has been inconclusive, and comes at the cost of increased risk of serious infection or sepsis, gastrointestinal bleeding, and pneumonia. Thus organizations that set clinical guidelines have increasingly stopped recommending methylprednisolone in the treatment of acute SCI. Surgery may be necessary, e.g. to relieve excess pressure on the cord, to stabilize the spine, or to put vertebrae back in their proper place. In cases involving instability or compression, failing to operate can lead to worsening of the condition. Surgery is also necessary when something is pressing on the cord, such as bone fragments, blood, material from ligaments or intervertebral discs, or a lodged object from a penetrating injury. Although the ideal timing of surgery is still debated, studies have found that earlier surgical intervention (within 24 hours of injury) is associated with better outcomes. Sometimes a patient has too many other injuries to be a surgical candidate this early. Surgery is controversial because it has potential complications (such as infection), so in cases where it is not clearly needed (e.g. the cord is being compressed), doctors must decide whether to perform surgery based on aspects of the patient 's condition and their own beliefs about its risks and benefits. In cases where a more conservative approach is chosen, bed rest, cervical collars, immobilizing devices, and optionally traction are used. Surgeons may opt to put traction on the spine to remove pressure from the spinal cord by putting dislocated vertebrae back into alignment, but herniation of intervertebral disks may prevent this technique from relieving pressure. Gardner - Wells tongs are one tool used to exert spinal traction to reduce a fracture or dislocation and to immobilize the affected areas. SCI patients often require extended treatment in specialized spinal unit or an intensive care unit. The rehabilitation process typically begins in the acute care setting. Usually the inpatient phase lasts 8 -- 12 weeks and then the outpatient rehabilitation phase lasts 3 -- 12 months after that, followed by yearly medical and functional evaluation. Physical therapists, occupational therapists, recreational therapists, nurses, social workers, psychologists and other health care professionals work as a team under the coordination of a physiatrist to decide on goals with the patient and develop a plan of discharge that is appropriate for the person 's condition. In the acute phase physical therapists focus on the patient 's respiratory status, prevention of indirect complications (such as pressure ulcers), maintaining range of motion, and keeping available musculature active. For people whose injuries are high enough to interfere with breathing, there is great emphasis on airway clearance during this stage of recovery. Weakness of respiratory muscles impairs the ability to cough effectively, allowing secretions to accumulate within the lungs. As SCI patients suffer from reduced total lung capacity and tidal volume, physical therapists teach them accessory breathing techniques (e.g. apical breathing, glossopharyngeal breathing) that typically are not taught to healthy individuals. Physical therapy treatment for airway clearance may include manual percussions and vibrations, postural drainage, respiratory muscle training, and assisted cough techniques. Patients are taught to increase their intra-abdominal pressure by leaning forward to induce cough and clear mild secretions. The quad cough technique is done lying on the back with the therapist applying pressure on the abdomen in the rhythm of the cough to maximize expiratory flow and mobilize secretions. Manual abdominal compression is another technique used to increase expiratory flow which later improves coughing. Other techniques used to manage respiratory dysfunction include respiratory muscle pacing, use of a constricting abdominal binder, ventilator - assisted speech, and mechanical ventilation. The amount of functional recovery and independence achieved in terms of activities of daily living, recreational activities, and employment is affected by the level and severity of injury. The Functional Independence Measure (FIM) is an assessment tool that aims to evaluate the function of patients throughout the rehabilitation process following a spinal cord injury or other serious illness or injury. It can track a patient 's progress and degree of independence during rehabilitation. People with SCI may need to use specialized devices and to make modifications to their environment in order to handle activities of daily living and to function independently. Weak joints can be stabilized with devices such as ankle - foot orthoses (AFOs) and knee - AFOs, but walking may still require a lot of effort. Increasing activity will increase chances of recovery. Spinal cord injuries generally result in at least some incurable impairment even with the best possible treatment. The best predictor of prognosis is the level and completeness of injury, as measured by the ASIA impairment scale. The neurological score at the initial evaluation done 72 hours after injury is the best predictor of how much function will return. Most people with ASIA scores of A (complete injuries) do not have functional motor recovery, but improvement can occur. Most patients with incomplete injuries recover at least some function. Chances of recovering the ability to walk improve with each AIS grade found at the initial examination; e.g. an ASIA D score confers a better chance of walking than a score of C. The symptoms of incomplete injuries can vary and it is difficult to make an accurate prediction of the outcome. A person with a mild, incomplete injury at the T5 vertebra will have a much better chance of using his or her legs than a person with a severe, complete injury at exactly the same place. Of the incomplete SCI syndromes, Brown - Séquard and central cord syndromes have the best prognosis for recovery and anterior cord syndrome has the worst. People with nontraumatic causes of SCI have been found to be less likely to suffer complete injuries and some complications such as pressure sores and deep vein thrombosis, and to have shorter hospital stays. Their scores on functional tests were better than those of people with traumatic SCI upon hospital admission, but when they were tested upon discharge, those with traumatic SCI had improved such that both groups ' results were the same. In addition to the completeness and level of the injury, age and concurrent health problems affect the extent to which a person with SCI will be able to live independently and to walk. However, in general people with injuries to L3 or below will likely be able to walk functionally, T10 and below to walk around the house with bracing, and C7 and below to live independently. One important predictor of motor recovery in an area is presence of sensation there, particularly pain perception. Most motor recovery occurs in the first year post-injury, but modest improvements can continue for years; sensory recovery is more limited. Recovery is typically quickest during the first six months. Spinal shock, in which reflexes are suppressed, occurs immediately after the injury and resolves largely within three months but continues resolving gradually for another 15. Sexual dysfunction after spinal injury is common. Problems that can occur include erectile dysfunction, loss of ability to ejaculate, insufficient lubrication of the vagina, and reduced sensation and impaired ability to orgasm. Despite this, many people learn ways to adapt their sexual practices so they can lead satisfying sex lives. Although life expectancy has improved with better care options, it is still not as good as the uninjured population. The higher the level of injury, and the more complete the injury, the greater the reduction in life expectancy. Mortality is very elevated within a year of injury. Complications of spinal cord injuries include pulmonary edema, respiratory failure, neurogenic shock, and paralysis below the injury site. In the long term, the loss of muscle function can have additional effects from disuse, including atrophy of the muscle. Immobility can lead to pressure sores, particularly in bony areas, requiring precautions such as extra cushioning and turning in bed every two hours (in the acute setting) to relieve pressure. In the long term, people in wheelchairs must shift periodically to relieve pressure. Another complication is pain, including nociceptive pain (indication of potential or actual tissue damage) and neuropathic pain, when nerves affected by damage convey erroneous pain signals in the absence of noxious stimuli. Spasticity, the uncontrollable tensing of muscles below the level of injury, occurs in 65 -- 78 % of chronic SCI. It results from lack of input from the brain that quells muscle responses to stretch reflexes. It can be treated with drugs and physical therapy. Spasticity increases the risk of contractures (shortening of muscles, tendons, or ligaments that result from lack of use of a limb); this problem can be prevented by moving the limb through its full range of motion multiple times a day. Another problem lack of mobility can cause is loss of bone density and changes in bone structure. Loss of bone density (bone demineralization), thought to be due to lack of input from weakened or paralysed muscles, can increase the risk of fractures. Conversely, a poorly understood phenomenon is the overgrowth of bone tissue in soft tissue areas, called heterotopic ossification. It occurs below the level of injury, possibly as a result of inflammation, and happens to a clinically significant extent in 27 % of people. People with SCI are at especially high risk for respiratory and cardiovascular problems, so hospital staff must be watchful to avoid them. Respiratory problems (especially pneumonia) are the leading cause of death in people with SCI, followed by infections, usually of pressure sores, urinary tract infections and respiratory infections. Pneumonia can be accompanied by shortness of breath, fever, and anxiety. Another potentially deadly threat to respiration is deep venous thrombosis (DVT), in which blood forms a clot in immobile limbs; the clot can break off and form a pulmonary embolism, lodging in the lung and cutting off blood supply to it. DVT is an especially high risk in SCI, particularly within 10 days of injury, occurring in over 13 % in the acute care setting. Preventative measures include anticoagulants, pressure hose, and moving the patient 's limbs. The usual signs and symptoms of DVT and pulmonary embolism may be masked in SCI cases due to effects such as alterations in pain perception and nervous system functioning. Urinary tract infection (UTI) is another risk that may not display the usual symptoms (pain, urgency and frequency); it may instead be associated with worsened spasticity. The risk of UTI, likely the most common complication in the long term, is heightened by use of indwelling urinary catheters. Catheterization may be necessary because SCI interferes with the bladder 's ability to empty when it gets too full, which could trigger autonomic dysreflexia or damage the bladder permanently. The use of intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder at regular intervals throughout the day has decreased the mortality due to kidney failure from UTI in the first world, but it is still a serious problem in developing countries. An estimated 24 -- 45 % of people with SCI suffer disorders of depression, and the suicide rate is as much as six times that of the rest of the population. The risk of suicide is worst in the first five years after injury. In young people with SCI, suicide is the leading cause of death. Depression is associated with an increased risk of other complications such as UTI and pressure ulcers that occur more when self - care is neglected. Breakdown of age at time of injury in the US from 1995 -- 1999. Worldwide, the incidence (number of new cases) since 1995 of SCI ranges from 10.4 to 83 people per million per year. This wide range of numbers is probably partly due to differences among regions in whether and how injuries are reported. In North America, about 39 people per every million incur SCI traumatically each year, and in Western Europe the incidence is 16 per million. In the United States, the incidence of spinal cord injury has been estimated to be about 40 cases per 1 million people per year or around 12,000 cases per year. In China, the incidence is approximately 60,000 per year. The estimated prevalence (number of people living with SCI) in the world ranges from 236 to 4187 per million. Estimates vary widely due to differences in how data are collected and what techniques are used to extrapolate the figures. Little information is available from Asia, and even less from Africa and South America. In Western Europe the estimated prevalence is 300 per million people and in North America it is 853 per million. It is estimated at 440 per million in Iran, 526 per million in Iceland, and 681 per million in Australia. In the United States there are between 225,000 and 296,000 individuals living with spinal cord injuries, and different studies have estimated prevalences from 525 to 906 per million. SCI is present in about 2 % of all cases of blunt force trauma. Anyone who has undergone force sufficient to cause a thoracic spinal injury is at high risk for other injuries also. In 44 % of SCI cases, other serious injuries are sustained at the same time; 14 % of SCI patients also suffer head trauma or facial trauma. Other commonly associated injuries include chest trauma, abdominal trauma, pelvic fractures, and long bone fractures. Males account for four out of five traumatic spinal cord injuries. Most of these injuries occur in men under 30 years of age. The average age at the time of injury has slowly increased from about 29 years in the 1970s to 41. Rates of injury are at their lowest in children, at their highest in the late teens to early twenties, then get progressively lower in older age groups; however rates may rise in the elderly. In Sweden between 50 and 70 % of all cases of SCI occur in people under 30, and 25 % occur in those over 50. While SCI rates are highest among people age 15 -- 20, fewer than 3 % of SCIs occur in people under 15. Neonatal SCI occurs in one in 60,000 births, e.g. from breech births or injuries by forceps. The difference in rates between the sexes diminishes in injuries at age 3 and younger; the same number of girls are injured as boys, or possibly more. Another cause of pediatric injury is child abuse such as shaken baby syndrome. For children, the most common cause of SCI (56 %) is vehicle crashes. High numbers of adolescent injuries are attributable in a large part to traffic accidents and sports injuries. For people over 65, falls are the most common cause of traumatic SCI. The elderly and people with severe arthritis are at high risk for SCI because of defects in the spinal column. In nontraumatic SCI, the gender difference is smaller, the average age of occurrence is greater, and incomplete lesions are more common. SCI has been known to be devastating for millennia; the ancient Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus from 2500 BC, the first known description of the injury, says it is "not to be treated ''. Hindu texts dating back to 1800 BC also mention SCI and describe traction techniques to straighten the spine. The Greek physician Hippocrates, born in the fifth century BC, described SCI in his Hippocratic Corpus and invented traction devices to straighten dislocated vertebrae. But it was not until Aulus Cornelius Celsus, born 30 BC, noted that a cervical injury resulted in rapid death that the spinal cord itself was implicated in the condition. In the second century AD the Greek physician Galen experimented on monkeys and reported that a horizontal cut through the spinal cord caused them to lose all sensation and motion below the level of the cut. The seventh - century Greek physician Paul of Aegina described surgical techniques for treatment of broken vertebrae by removing bone fragments, as well as surgery to relieve pressure on the spine. Little medical progress was made during the Middle Ages in Europe; it was not until the Renaissance that the spine and nerves were accurately depicted in human anatomy drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius. In 1762 a surgeon named Andre Louis removed a bullet from the lumbar spine of a patient, who regained motion in the legs. In 1829 the surgeon Gilpin Smith performed a successful laminectomy that improved the patient 's sensation. However, the idea that SCI was untreatable remained predominant until the early 20th century. In 1934, the mortality rate in the first two years after injury was over 80 %, mostly due to infections of the urinary tract and pressure sores. It was not until the latter half of the century that breakthroughs in imaging, surgery, medical care, and rehabilitation medicine contributed to a substantial improvement in SCI care. The relative incidence of incomplete compared to complete injuries has improved since the mid-20th century, due mainly to the emphasis on faster and better initial care and stabilization of spinal cord injury patients. The creation of emergency medical services to professionally transport people to the hospital is given partial credit for an improvement in outcomes since the 1970s. Improvements in care have been accompanied by increased life expectancy of people with SCI; survival times have improved by about 2000 % since 1940. Scientists are investigating various avenues for treatment of spinal cord injury. Therapeutic research is focused on two main areas: neuroprotection and neuroregeneration. The former seeks to prevent the harm that occurs from secondary injury in the minutes to weeks following the insult, and the latter aims to reconnect the broken circuits in the spinal cord to allow function to return. Neuroprotective drugs target secondary injury effects including inflammation, damage by free radicals, excitotoxicity (neuronal damage by excessive glutamate signaling), and apoptosis (cell suicide). Several potentially neuroprotective agents that target pathways like these are under investigation in human clinical trials. Stem cell transplantation is an important avenue for SCI research: the goal is to replace lost spinal cord cells, allow reconnection in broken neural circuits by regrowing axons, and to create an environment in the tissues that is favorable to growth. A key avenue of SCI research is research on stem cells, which can differentiate into other types of cells -- including those lost after SCI. Types of cells being researched for use in SCI include embryonic stem cells, neural stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, Schwann cells, activated macrophages, and induced pluripotent stem cells. Hundreds of stem cell studies have been done in humans, with promising but inconclusive results. An ongoing Phase 2 trial in 2016 presented data showing that after 90 days, 2 out of 4 subjects had already improved two motor levels and had thus already achieved its endpoint of 2 / 5 patients improving two levels within 6 -- 12 months. Six - month data is expected in January 2017. Another type of approach is tissue engineering, using biomaterials to help scaffold and rebuild damaged tissues. Biomaterials being investigated include natural substances such as collagen or agarose and synthetic ones like polymers and nitrocellulose. They fall into two categories: hydrogels and nanofibers. These materials can also be used as a vehicle for delivering gene therapy to tissues. One avenue being explored to allow paralyzed people to walk and to aid in rehabilitation of those with some walking ability is the use of wearable powered robotic exoskeletons. The devices, which have motorized joints, are put on over the legs and supply a source of power to move and walk. Several such devices are already available for sale, but investigation is still underway as to how they can be made more useful.

what is the difference between professor and doctor uk

Academic ranks in the United Kingdom - wikipedia Academic ranks in the United Kingdom are the titles, relative importance and power of academic employees. In the United Kingdom, like most Commonwealth countries (excluding Australia and Canada), as well as in Ireland, traditionally a professor held either an established chair or a personal chair. An established chair is established by the university to meet its needs for academic leadership and standing in a particular area or discipline and the post is filled from a shortlist of applicants; only a suitably qualified person will be appointed. A personal chair is awarded specifically to an individual in recognition of their high levels of achievements and standing in their particular area or discipline. In most universities, professorships are reserved for only the most senior academic staff, and other academics are generally known as ' lecturers ', ' senior lecturers ' and ' readers ' (in some Commonwealth countries such as Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the title ' associate professor ' can be used instead of ' reader '). In some countries, senior lecturers are generally paid the same as readers, but the latter is awarded primarily for research excellence, and traditionally carries higher prestige. Traditionally, heads of departments and other senior academic leadership roles within a university were undertaken by professors. During the 1990s, however, the University of Oxford introduced Titles of Distinction, enabling their holders to be termed professors or readers while holding academic posts at the level of lecturer. This results in a two - tier professoriate, with statutory professors -- or named chairs -- having higher status than the relatively recently created category of titular professors. Similar hierarchies among the professoriate exist in a small number of other UK universities. The University of Exeter, University of Reading, University of Warwick and Kingston University have adopted the style of ' associate professor ' in lieu of ' reader '. The varied practices these changes have brought about have meant that academic ranks in the United Kingdom and in Australia are no longer quite as consistent as they once were. The same trend to move towards the North American system is also observed in the former British colony of Hong Kong. Academic ranks there are now becoming more consistent again, with The University of Hong Kong, the oldest university in the territory, having switched to the North American system. In general in the UK the title of ' professor ' is reserved for full professors; lecturers and readers are properly addressed by their academic qualification (Dr for a PhD, EdD etc. and Mr / Mrs / Miss / Ms otherwise). In New Zealand and Singapore associate professors are by courtesy addressed as "Professor ''. In official functions, however, associate professors are addressed as doctor or associate professors and not professors. As in the USA, the title of ' professor emeritus ' may be awarded to a retired or former professor, who may well retain formal or informal links with the institution where the chair was formerly held. Many professorships are named in honour of a distinguished person or after the person who endowed the chair. Some chairs have a long history and considerable prestige attached, such as the Gresham professorships, which date back to the 16th Century, Regius professorships or the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Some academic societies and professional institution also award or designate certain post holders or members as ' professor ' usually being personal awards. The College of Teachers, formerly the College of Preceptors, is a long - standing example of this as are the amalgamated bodies included in the Society of Teachers in Business Education. Somewhat confusingly, instructors at many music conservatoires in the UK are known as professors; for example ' professor of violin '. This designation is quite different from the standard British use of the term and has more in common with the American usage, where the term is applied to any instructor at a college or university. Related to this usage, small - town music teachers, even if they held no degrees, were sometimes called "professors '' in years past in the United States. In the United Kingdom and Ireland the term ' professor ' is properly and in formal situations given to singing and instrumental tutors in the music colleges / conservatories of music, usually the older and more august ones: The Royal College of Music, Royal Academy of Music, Royal Northern College of Music, Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama, Royal Irish Academy of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama, Trinity College of Music and Birmingham Conservatoire. The expression has become almost obsolete for singing and instrumental tuition in the universities. The same convention applies throughout Europe in the National Colleges of Music. Research and teaching career pathway (academic staff whose responsibilities encompass both research and teaching) Research and teaching career pathway at Oxford Research career pathway (academic staff whose main focus is research) Teaching career pathway (academic staff whose main focus is essential teaching, educational needs, and for senior grades, often pedagogic research) Note that some universities (for example, the University of Glasgow) give the same titles as Research & Teaching track academics to give parity to the roles. Emeritus ranks Visiting ranks (common titles for visiting academics) Administrative ranks: England, Wales, and Northern Ireland Administrative ranks: Scotland

what were the elements of the traditional european style of combat

Historical European martial arts - wikipedia Historical European martial arts (HEMA) refers to martial arts of European origin, particularly using arts formerly practised, but having since died out or evolved into very different forms. While there is limited surviving documentation of the martial arts of Classical Antiquity (such as Ancient Greek wrestling or Gladiatorial combat), surviving dedicated technical treatises or combat manuals date to the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. For this reason, the focus of HEMA is de facto on the period of the half - millennium of ca. 1300 to 1800, with a German and an Italian school flowering in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (14th to 16th centuries), followed by Spanish, French, English and Scottish schools of fencing in the modern period (17th and 18th centuries). Arts of the 19th century such as classical fencing, and even early hybrid styles such as Bartitsu may also be included in the term HEMA in a wider sense, as may traditional or folkloristic styles attested in the 19th and early 20th centuries, including forms of folk wrestling and traditional stick fighting methods. The term Western martial arts (WMA) is sometimes used in the United States and in a wider sense including modern and traditional disciplines. During the Late Middle Ages, the longsword had a position of honour among these disciplines, and sometimes historical European swordsmanship (HES) is used to refer to swordsmanship techniques specifically. Modern reconstructions of some of these arts arose from the 1890s and have been practiced systematically since the 1990s. There are no known manuals predating the Late Middle Ages (except for fragmentary instructions on Greek wrestling, see P. Oxy. III 466), although Medieval literature (e.g., Icelandic sagas, Byzantine Acritic Songs, the Epic of Digenis Acritas and Middle High German epics) record specific martial deeds and military knowledge; in addition, historical artwork depicts combat and weaponry (e.g., the Bayeux tapestry, the Synopsis of Histories, in Greek: ' Σύνοψις Ἱστοριῶν ', by John Skylitzes, the Morgan Bible). Some researchers have attempted to reconstruct older fighting methods such as Pankration, Byzantine Hoplomachia, Viking Swordsmanship and Gladiatorial Combat by reference to these sources and practical experimentation. The so - called MS I. 33 (also known as the Walpurgis or Tower Fechtbuch), dated to ca. 1300, is the oldest surviving fechtbuch, teaching sword and buckler combat. The central figure of late medieval martial arts, at least in Germany, is Johannes Liechtenauer. Though no manuscript written by him is known to have survived, his teachings were first recorded in the late 14th century MS 3227a. From the 15th century into the 17th, numerous Fechtbücher (German "fencing - books '') were produced, of which some several hundred are extant; a great many of these describe methods descended from Liechtenauer 's. Normally, several modes of combat were taught alongside one another, typically unarmed grappling (Kampfringen or abrazare), dagger (Degen or daga, often of the rondel variety), long knife (Messer) or Dussack, half - or quarterstaff, pole arms, longsword (langes Schwert, spada longa, spadone), and combat in plate armour (Harnischfechten or armazare), both on foot and on horseback. Some Fechtbücher have sections on dueling shields (Stechschild), special weapons used only in judicial duels. Important 15th - century German fencing masters include Sigmund Ringeck, Peter von Danzig, Hans Talhoffer and Paulus Kal, all of whom taught the teachings of Liechtenhauer. From the late 15th century, there were "brotherhoods '' of fencers (Fechtbruderschaften), most notably the Marx brothers (attested 1474) and the Federfechter. An early Burgundian French treatise is Le jeu de la hache ("The Play of the Axe '') of ca. 1400. The earliest master to write in the Italian was Fiore dei Liberi, commissioned by the Marquis di Ferrara. Between 1407 and 1410, he documented comprehensive fighting techniques in a treatise entitled Flos Duellatorum covering grappling, dagger, arming sword, longsword, pole - weapons, armoured combat and mounted combat. The Italian school is continued by Filippo Vadi (1482 -- 1487) and Pietro Monte (1492, Latin with Italian and Spanish terms) Three early (before Silver) natively English swordplay texts exist, all very obscure and of uncertain date; they are generally thought to belong to the latter half of the 15th century. In the 16th century, compendia of older Fechtbücher techniques were produced, some of them printed, notably by Paulus Hector Mair (in the 1540s) and by Joachim Meyer (in the 1570s). In the 16th century, German fencing had developed sportive tendencies. The treatises of Paulus Hector Mair and Joachim Meyer derived from the teachings of the earlier centuries within the Liechtenauer tradition, but with new and distinctive characteristics. The printed fechtbuch of Jacob Sutor (1612) is one of the last in the German tradition. In Italy, the 16th century is a period of big change. It opens with the two treatises of Bolognese masters Antonio Manciolino and Achille Marozzo, who describe a variation of the eclectic knightly arts of the previous century. From sword and buckler to sword and dagger, sword alone to two - handed sword, from polearms to wrestling (though absent in Manciolino), early 16th - century Italian fencing reflects the versatility that a martial artist of the time was supposed to achieve. Towards the mid-century, however, polearms and companion weapons beside the dagger and the cape gradually begin to fade out of treatises. In 1553, Camillo Agrippa is the first to define the prima, seconda, terza and quarta guards (or hand - positions), which would remain the mainstay of Italian fencing into the next century and beyond. From the late 16th century, Italian rapier fencing attained considerable popularity all over Europe, notably with the treatise by Salvator Fabris (1606). During the Baroque period, wrestling fell from favour among the upper classes, being now seen as unrefined and rustic. The fencing styles practice also needed to conform with the new ideals of elegance and harmony. This ideology was taken to great lengths in Spain in particular, where La Verdadera Destreza "the true art (of swordsmanship) '' was now based on Renaissance humanism and scientific principles, contrasting with the traditional "vulgar '' approach to fencing inherited from the medieval period. Significant masters of Destreza included Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza ("the father of Destreza '', d. 1600) and Luis Pacheco de Narváez (1600, 1632). Girard Thibault (1630) was a Dutch master influenced by these ideals. The French school of fencing also moves away from its Italian roots, developing its own terminology, rules and systems of teaching. French masters of the Baroque period include Le Perche du Coudray (1635, 1676, teacher of Cyrano de Bergerac), Besnard (1653, teacher of Descartes), François Dancie (1623) and Philibert de la Touche (1670). In Italy, 17th century swordsmanship is dominated by Salvator Fabris, whose De lo schermo overo scienza d'arme of 1606 exerted great influence not only in Italy but also in Germany, where it all but extinguished the native German traditions of fencing. Fabris was followed by Italian masters such as Nicoletto Giganti (1606), Ridolfo Capo Ferro (1610), Francesco Alfieri (1640), Francesco Antonio Marcelli (1686) and Bondi ' di Mazo (1696). The Elizabethan and Jacobean eras produce English fencing writers, such as the Gentleman George Silver (1599) and the professional fencing master Joseph Swetnam (1617). The English verb to fence is first attested in Shakespeare 's Merry Wives of Windsor (1597). The French school of fencing originates in the 16th century, based on the Italian school, and develops into its classic form in the Baroque period. In the 18th century Late Baroque / Rococo period, the French style of fencing with the smallsword and later with the foil (fleuret), in origin a training weapon for smallsword fencing. By the year 1715, the rapier had been largely replaced by the lighter smallsword throughout most of Europe, although treatments of the former continued to be included by authors such as Donald McBane (1728), P.J.F. Girard (1736) and Domenico Angelo (1763). In the course of the 18th century, the French school became the western European standard to the extent that Angelo, an Italian - born master teaching in England, published his L'Ecole des Armes in French in 1763. It was extremely successful and became a standard fencing manual over the following 50 years, throughout the Napoleonic period. Angelo 's text was so influential that it was chosen to be included under the heading of "Éscrime '' in the Encyclopédie of Diderot. In the course of the 19th century, Western martial arts became divided into modern sports on one hand and applications that retain military significance on the other. In the latter category are the methods of close - quarter combat with the bayonet besides use of the sabre and the lance by cavalrists and of the cutlass by naval forces. Apart from fencing with bladed weapons, European combat sports of the 19th century include boxing, savate in France, numerous regional forms of folk wrestling, and numerous styles of stick fighting. Wrestling, javelin, fencing, archery, and boxing continue some of the martial arts of Europe in modified sport form. Fencing in the 19th century transformed into a pure sport. While duels remained common among members of the aristocratic and officer classes, they became increasingly frowned upon in society during the course of the century, and such duels as were fought to the death were increasingly fought with pistols, not bladed weapons. Styles of stick fighting include walking - stick fighting (including Irish bata or shillelagh, French la canne and English singlestick or cane) and Bartitsu (an early hybrid of Eastern and Western schools popularized at the turn of the 20th century). Some existing forms of European stick fighting can be traced to direct teacher - student lineages from the 19th century. Notable examples include the methods of Scottish and British Armed Services singlestick, la canne and Bâton français, Portuguese Jogo do Pau, Italian Paranza or Bastone Siciliano and some styles of Canarian Juego del Palo. In the 19th century and early 20th century, the greatstick (pau / bâton / bastone) was employed by some Portuguese, French and Italian military academies as a method of exercise, recreation and as preparation for bayonet training. A third category might be traditional "folk styles '', mostly folk wrestling. Greco - Roman wrestling was a discipline at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896. Inclusion of Freestyle wrestling followed in 1904. Attempts at reconstructing the discontinued traditions of European systems of combat began in the late 19th century, with a revival of interest in the Middle Ages. The movement was led in England by the soldier, writer, antiquarian and swordsman, Alfred Hutton. Hutton learned fencing at the school founded by Domenico Angelo. In 1862, he organized in his regiment stationed in India the Cameron Fencing Club, for which he prepared his first work, a 12 - page booklet entitled Swordsmanship. After returning from India in 1865, Hutton focused on the study and revival of older fencing systems and schools. He began tutoring groups of students in the art of ' ancient swordplay ' at a club attached to the London Rifle Brigade School of Arms in the 1880s. In 1889, Hutton published his most influential work Cold Steel: A Practical Treatise on the Sabre, which presented the historical method of military sabre use on foot, combining the 18th century English backsword with modern Italian duelling sabre. Hutton 's pioneering advocacy and practice of historical fencing included reconstructions of the fencing systems of several historical masters including George Silver and Achille Marozzo. He delivered numerous practical demonstrations with his colleague Egerton Castle of these systems during the 1890s, both in order to benefit various military charities and to encourage patronage of the contemporary methods of competitive fencing. Exhibitions were held at the Bath Club and a fund - raising event was arranged at Guy 's Hospital. Among his many acolytes were Egerton Castle, Captain Carl Thimm, Colonel Cyril Matthey, Captain Percy Rolt, Captain Ernest George Stenson Cooke, Captain Frank Herbert Whittow, Esme Beringer, Sir Frederick and Walter Herries Pollock. Despite this revival and the interest that it received in late Victorian England, the practice died out soon after the death of Hutton in 1910. Interest in the physical application of historical fencing techniques remained largely dormant during the first half of the 20th century due to a number of factors. Similar work, although more academic than practical in nature, occurred in other European countries. In Germany, Karl Wassmannsdorf conducted research on the German school and Gustav Hergsell reprinted three of Hans Talhoffer 's manuals. In France there was the work of the Academie D'Armes circa 1880 - 1914. Italy 's Jacopo Gelli and Francesco Novati published a facsimile of the "Flos Duellatorum '' of Fiore dei Liberi, and Giuseppe Cerri 's book on the Bastone drew inspiration from the two - handed sword of Achille Marozzo. Baron Leguina 's bibliography of Spanish swordsmanship is still a standard reference today. Throughout the 20th century a small number of researchers, principally academics with access to some of the sources, continued exploring the field of historical European martial arts from a largely academic perspective. In 1972, James Jackson published a book called Three Elizabethan Manuals of Fence. This work reprinted the works of George Silver, Giacomo di Grassi, and Vincentio Saviolo. In 1965, Martin Wierschin published a bibliography of German fencing manuals, along with a transcription of Codex Ringeck and a glossary of terms. In turn, this led to the publication of Hans - Peter Hils ' seminal work on Johannes Liechtenauer in 1985. In the 1980s and 1990s, Patri J. Pugliese began making photocopies of historical treatises available to interested parties, greatly spurring on research. 1994 saw the rise of the Hammerterz Forum, a publication devoted entirely to the history of swordsmanship. During the late 1990s, translations and interpretations of historical sources began appearing in print as well as online. Since the 1990s, there have emerged flourishing Historical European Martial Arts communities in Europe, North America, Australia and the wider English - speaking world. These groups are engaged in attempting to reconstruct Historical European Martial Arts using various training methods. Although the focus generally is on the martial arts of Medieval and Renaissance masters, nineteenth and early twentieth century martial arts teachers are also studied and their systems are reconstructed, including Edward William Barton - Wright, the founder of Bartitsu; combat savate and stick fighting master Pierre Vigny; London - based boxer and fencer Rowland George Allanson - Winn; French journalist and self - defence enthusiast Jean Joseph - Renaud; and British quarterstaff expert Thomas McCarthy. Research into Italian sword forms and their influence on the French styles of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries has been undertaken by Rob Runacres of England 's Renaissance Sword Club. Italian traditions are mainly investigated in Italy by Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo, where you can find studies dedicated to the Bolognese tradition, to the Italian medieval tradition by Luca Cesari and Marco Rubboli, and to the Florentine tradition by Alessandro Battistini. The martial traditions of the Netherlands are researched by Reinier van Noort, who additionally focuses on German and French martial sources of the 17th century. The ongoing study of the Germanic Langes Messer is most notably represented by the work of Jens Peter Kleinau and Martin Enzi. Leading researchers on Manuscript I. 33 's style of fence include Roland Warzecha, at the head of the Dimicator fencing school as well as Herbert Schmidt of Ars Gladii. Other fencing traditions are represented in the scholarship of Stephen Hand and Paul Wagner of Australia 's Stoccata School of Defence, focusing on a range of systems, ranging from the works of George Silver and the techniques depicted in the Royal Armouries ' Manuscript I. 33 to the surviving evidence for how large shields were used, rapier according to Saviolo and Swetnam and Scottish Highland broadsword. Christian Henry Tobler is one of the earliest researchers on the German school of swordsmanship. Early publications included books by Terry Brown, John Clements, David M. Cvet (self - published in 2001) and Christian Tobler. In 2003 Stephen Hand edited a collection of scholarly papers titled SPADA, followed by a second volume in 2005. Since the mid 2000s the rate of publication of HEMA related texts has greaty increased. A list of current publications is included below. Since 1998, Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo has organized an annual championship in Italy. Due to the excessive number of participants, in 2011 this competitive event was split in two separate events: military weapons (in autumn) and civil weapons (in spring), extending the organization in a larger coalition of Italian HEMA clubs. Civilian weapons include single sword, sword and cape, sword and dagger, and sword and Brocchiero (Buckler). The military weapons are the two - handed sword, spear, shield and spear, sword and targe, and sword and wheel. The civil weapons championship is one of the largest HEMA tournaments in the world. Since 1999 a number of HEMA groups have held the Western Martial arts Workshop (WMAW) in the United States. In 2000, The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts (ARMA), then known as the "Historical Armed Combat Association '' (HACA), hosted the Inaugural Swordplay Symposium International conference bringing together many of the then leading researchers from the US, Europe and Australia. Since 2003 ARMA has held the ARMA International Gathering every two to three years. The Fiore - oriented Schola Saint George has hosted a Medieval Swordsmanship Symposium annually in the United States since 2001. The annual Australian Historical Swordplay Convention, primarily a teaching event was hosted and attended by diverse Australian groups from 1999 to 2006. It was held in Brisbane in 1999 and 2006, Sydney in 2000 and 2004, Canberra in 2001 and 2005, the Gold Coast in 2003 and Melbourne in 2004. Since 2009, Swordplay, a tournament event has been run each year in Brisbane. FightCamp has been running since 2004 and it is organized by London - based Schola Gladiatoria. Since 2006 a Swedish annual event called Swordfish has been taking place every year in Gothenburg, hosted by the Gothenburg Historical Fencing School (GHFS). It is currently one of the biggest HEMA tournaments in the world and is generally considered to be the "world cup of HEMA ''. Since 2006 a Canadian event called Nordschlag has been taking place annually in Edmonton, Alberta, hosted by The Academy of European Swordsmanship (The AES). It is Canada 's first interprovincial tournament, and currently largest Canadian tournament, and has participants from all over Western Canada. The event also includes a full day workshop that features international and local instructors. Since 2010, The annual Pacific Northwest HEMA Gathering has been hosted by multiple schools and clubs in the Pacific Northwest. The tournament includes longsword, singlestick, glima, and one rotating weapon which is changed every year. The location of the event changes every year, and has been located at Fort Casey and Pacific Lutheran University. Since 2011, a biannual event called the Vancouver International Swordplay Symposium, has been held in Vancouver, Canada. Hosted by Academie Duello, this event has brought instructors, authors and researchers from around the world for workshops, lectures and seminars. Since 2013 an annual event, Fechtschule Edinbugh, and event focusing on 16th Century Fencing has been hosted in Edinburgh, UK, by the Stork 's Beak: School of Historical Swordplay. This Event has attracted many practitioners from around the world. Since 2014, the Purpleheart Armoury Open has been held in Houston, TX. Formerly Fechtshule America, the Purpleheart Armoury Open is one of the largest and fastest growing HEMA competitions in North America. In 2015 Australia 's Stoccata School of Defence hosted a revival of the World Broadsword Championship in Sydney, Australia. This event, held throughout the late 19th century in England, the United States and Australia was last won by Parker in Sydney in 1891. Parker was never challenged. The 2015 event was won by Paul Wagner of Sydney, also the current holder of the Glorianna Cup, the broadsword championship of Britain. Lewis Hand of Hobart, Australia won the junior title. In the tradition of the 19th century title, the championship is held in the home town of the current Champion. As such the next championship will be held in Sydney in early 2017. Jousting tournaments have become more common, with Jousters travelling Internationally to compete. These include a number organised by an expert in the Joust, Arne Koets, including The Grand Tournament of Sankt Wendel and The Grand Tournament at Schaffhausen In 2001, the Historical European Martial Arts Coalition (HEMAC) was created to act as an umbrella organization for groups in Europe, with 4 sets of goals: In 2003, the Australian Historical Swordplay Federation became the umbrella organization for groups in Australia. In 2010, several dozen HEMA schools and clubs from around the world united under the umbrella of the HEMA Alliance, a US - based martial arts federation dedicated to developing and sharing the Historical European Martial Arts and assisting HEMA schools and instructors with such things as instructor certification, insurance, and equipment development.

what kind of wood is jenga made from

Jenga - Wikipedia Jenga is a game of physical skill created by Leslie Scott, and currently marketed by Hasbro. Players take turns removing one block at a time from a tower constructed of 54 blocks. Each block removed is then placed on top of the tower, creating a progressively taller and more unstable structure. The name jenga is derived from kujenga, a Swahili word which means "to build ''. Jenga is played with 54 wooden blocks. Each block is three times longer than its width, and one fifth as thick as its length 1.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 7.5 cm (0.59 in × 0.98 in × 2.95 in). Blocks have small, random variations from these dimensions so as to create imperfections in the stacking process and provide additional challenge to the game. To set up the game, the included loading tray is used to stack the initial tower which has eighteen levels of three blocks placed adjacent to one another along their long side and at right angles to the previous level (so, for example, if the blocks in the first level lie lengthwise north - south, the second - level blocks will lie east - west). Once the tower is built, the person who built the tower gets the first move. Moving in Jenga consists of taking one and only one block from any level (except the one below the incomplete top level) of the tower, and placing it on the topmost level to complete it. Only one hand should be used at a time when taking blocks from the tower. Blocks may be bumped to find a loose block that will not disturb the rest of the tower. Any block that is moved out of place must be returned to its original location before removing another block. The turn ends when the next person to move touches the tower or after ten seconds, whichever occurs first. The game ends when the tower falls, or if any piece falls from the tower other than the piece being knocked out to move to the top. The winner is the last person to successfully remove and place a block. Jenga was created by Leslie Scott, the co-founder of Oxford Games Ltd, based on a game that evolved within her family in the early 1970s using children 's wooden building blocks the family purchased from a sawmill in Takoradi, Ghana. A British national, Scott was born in East Africa, where she was raised speaking English and Swahili, before moving to live in Ghana, West Africa. Scott launched the game she named and trademarked as "Jenga '' at the London Toy Fair in January 1983 and sold it through her own company, Leslie Scott Associates. The blocks of the first sets of Jenga were manufactured for Scott by the Camphill Village Trust in Botton, Yorkshire. The V&A Museum of Childhood has exhibited one of the original sets of Jenga since 1982. In 1984, Robert Grebler, an entrepreneur from California who was the brother of a close friend of Scott, contacted her and expressed interest in importing and distributing Jenga in Canada. In April 1985, Grebler acquired from Scott the exclusive rights to Jenga for the United States and Canada, and then in October of that year, Scott assigned the worldwide rights in Jenga to Grebler, which he in turn assigned to Pokonobe Associates. Convinced of Jenga 's potential, Grebler had invited two cousins to form Pokonobe Associates with him in 1985 to increase distribution of Jenga. Pokonobe then licensed Irwin Toy to sell Jenga in Canada and to be master licensee worldwide. Irwin Toy licensed Jenga to Schaper in the United States and when that company was bought by Hasbro, Jenga was launched under the Milton Bradley banner in 1987. Eventually, Hasbro became licensee in most countries around the world. As of late 2017, according to Pokonobe Associates, owners of the Jenga brand, over 80 million Jenga games, equivalent to more than 4.3 billion Jenga blocks, have been sold worldwide. The packaging copy of one edition of the Jenga game claims that Robert Grebler may have built the tallest Jenga tower ever at 40 ​ ⁄ levels. Grebler built the tower in 1985 while playing with an original Jenga set produced by Leslie Scott in the early 1980s. Throw ' n Go Jenga is a variant originally marketed by Hasbro. It consists of blocks that are various colors plus a six - sided die. It is currently marketed by Art 's Ideas. Jenga Truth or Dare was an adult variation of Jenga also marketed by Hasbro. This version looked like regular Jenga except there were three colors of blocks instead of just the natural color of Jenga. Jenga Xtreme used parallelogram - shaped blocks that could create some interesting leaning towers. Casino Jenga: Las Vegas Edition employed roulette - style game play, featuring a felt game board, betting chips, and additional rules. In addition, there have been a number of collector edition Jenga games, featuring the colors and logos of the Boston Red Sox, Oakland Raiders, New York Yankees, and John Deere, among others. Hello Kitty Jenga, Transformers Jenga, Tarzan Jenga, Tim Burton 's The Nightmare Before Christmas Jenga, Donkey Kong Jenga, Bob 's Burgers Jenga, National Parks Jenga, Jenga Ocean, and Walking Dead Jenga are some of the licensed variations of Jenga. Jenga XXL and Jenga Giant are licensed giant Jenga games manufactured and distributed by Art 's Ideas. There are Jenga Giant variations which can reach 5 feet (150 cm) or higher in play. Jenga XXL starts at over 4 feet (1.2 m) high and can reach 8 feet (2.4 m) or higher in play. Rules are the same as in classic Jenga, except players can use two hands to move the eighteen - inch - long blocks. Jenga Pass Challenge includes a handheld platform that the game is played on. Players remove a block while holding the platform, then pass the platform to the next player. This variant includes only half the number of blocks, 27, which means the tower starts at nine levels high instead of eighteen. Jenga World Tour for Nintendo Wii and DS was released by Atari on December 7, 2007. A version of the Jenga game for the Nintendo Wii from Electronic Arts was part of Hasbro 's Family Game Night 2 offering. An iOS version exists, released in late 2010 by NaturalMotion Games. NaturalMotion has also released versions for Android phones and Mac computers.

who was the quarterback for the ravens before joe flacco

List of Baltimore Ravens starting quarterbacks - wikipedia These quarterbacks have started at least one game for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League. They are listed in order of the date of each player 's first start as quarterback for the Ravens. The number of games they started during the season is listed in parentheses. Here is a list of Ravens starting quarterbacks during the postseason and the number of games they started. As of Week 6 of the 2017 season.

who is adam in the guardians of the galaxy

Adam Warlock - Wikipedia Adam Warlock, originally known as Him or Adam, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character 's earliest appearances were in Fantastic Four # 66 -- 67 (cover - dates Sept. 1967 and Oct. 1967) and Thor # 165 -- 166 (June -- July 1969). He was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, and significantly developed by Roy Thomas and Jim Starlin. Debuting in the Silver Age of comic books, the character has appeared in over four decades of Marvel publications, and starred in the titles Marvel Premiere and Strange Tales as well as five eponymous volumes and several related limited series. Adam Warlock has been associated with Marvel merchandise including animated television series, and video games. The character 's origin was shown in Fantastic Four # 66 (Sept 1967) in a story written by Stan Lee and pencilled and co-plotted by Jack Kirby. The character also appeared in Fantastic Four # 67 (Oct 1967) and Thor # 165 - 166 (June -- July 1969). Because his role in the Fantastic Four story was minor, sources disagree on which issue is the character 's true first appearance. Writer and then Marvel editor - in - chief Roy Thomas and penciler Gil Kane significantly revamped Him as the allegorical Messiah Adam Warlock in Marvel Premiere # 1 (April 1972). In 2009, Thomas explained he had been a fan of the soundtrack to the musical Jesus Christ Superstar and sought to bring the story to comic books in a superhero context: "Yes, I had some trepidation about the Christ parallels, but I hoped there would be little outcry if I handled it tastefully, since I was not really making any serious statement on religion... at least not overtly. '' Choosing to use a preexisting character while keeping the series locale separate from mainstream Marvel Earth, Thomas created Counter-Earth, a new planet generated from a chunk of Earth and set in orbit on the opposite side of the sun. Thomas and Kane collaborated on the costume, with the red tunic and golden lightning bolt as their homage to Fawcett Comics ' 1940s - 1950s character Captain Marvel. The story continued in the series The Power of Warlock, which ran eight issues (Aug. 1972 - Oct. 1973), with some plotlines concluded in The Incredible Hulk vol. 2, # 176 - 178 (June - Aug. 1974). In a 2009 retrospective survey of the character, writer Karen Walker said the series ... continued the story of Adam 's attempts to drive the Man - Beast (a fallen - angel figure) out of Counter-Earth, but drifted toward standard superhero stories with pseudo-Biblical references injected into them. Warlock spends much of his time trying to convince the High Evolutionary not to destroy the planet, and the rest of his time battling the Man - Beast and his minions. Although the concept of a superhero savior was still present, it often came across as forced, and certainly contradictory to the idea of a pacifistic savior. It is questionable whether the concept could really work in a medium driven by physical conflict. Writer - artist Jim Starlin revived Warlock in Strange Tales # 178 - 181 (Feb. - Aug. 1975). Warlock 's adventures became more cosmic in scope as Starlin took the character through an extended storyline referred to as "The Magus Saga ''. The reimagined title continued the numbering of The Power of Warlock and began with Warlock # 9 (Oct. 1975) and ran seven issues. The bimonthly series was initially written and drawn by Starlin, but was eventually co-penciled and inked by Steve Leialoha. Some plot threads were concluded in Marvel Team - Up # 55 (March 1977), Avengers Annual # 7 (Nov. 1977) and Marvel Two - in - One Annual # 2 (Dec. 1977). Starlin, in a 2009 interview, recalled, I had quit (the cosmic superhero series) Captain Marvel over a dispute at that point, but I settled the dispute with Marvel and I was going to come back (to that title). But (a different team was in place). So Roy (Thomas) asked me (what character) I wanted to do. So I went home that night and pulled out a bunch of comics. I came across, in the Fantastic Four, Him, and came back the next day and said that 's who I wanted to do, and that night I started working on it... I had basically taken Captain Marvel, a warrior, and turned him into sort of a messiah - type character. So when I got to Warlock, I said to myself, ' I got a messiah right here to start off with; where do I go from there? ' And I decided a paranoid schizophrenic was the route to take. Artist Alan Weiss recalled in a 2006 interview there was a "lost '' Adam Warlock story, which if completed would have been reminiscent of the Jonathan Swift novel Gulliver 's Travels. Portions of it were printed in the second volume of Marvel Masterworks: Warlock. The remainder of the artwork was lost in a New York City taxicab in 1976. Warlock 's adventures were reprinted, with new Starlin covers, in the six - issue limited series Special Edition Warlock (Dec. 1982 - May 1983). This reprint series was itself reprinted, with yet another set of new Starlin covers, as Warlock vol. 2 (May - Oct. 1992). Although regarded as deceased at the time, Warlock made a brief appearance in Marvel Two - in - One # 63 (May 1980). Eleven years later, Starlin revived the character and two members of his supporting cast in the miniseries Infinity Gauntlet # 1 - 6 (July - Dec. 1991). This plot development was a continuation of a larger storyline that began with the resurrection of Thanos in Silver Surfer vol. 3, # 34 (Feb. 1990). Following the events of The Infinity Gauntlet, Warlock and several compatriots starred in the series Warlock and the Infinity Watch. Initially written by Starlin and drawn by Angel Medina, it ran 42 issues (Feb. 1992 - Aug. 1995). Its plots tied directly into the limited series Infinity War (June - Nov. 1992) and Infinity Crusade (June - Dec. 1993). Warlock starred in several limited series, including Silver Surfer / Warlock: Resurrection # 1 - 4 (March -- June 1993); The Warlock Chronicles # 1 - 8 (July 1993 - Feb. 1994); and Warlock vol. 3, # 1 - 4 (Nov. 1998 - Feb. 1999), by writer - penciler Tom Lyle. The character was featured in the intercompany crossovers between Marvel Comics and the Malibu Comics "Ultraverse '' in the one - shot Rune / Silver Surfer (April 1995 in indicia, June 1995 on cover); Rune vol. 2, # 1 - 7 (Sept. 1995 - April 1996), and the two - issue Ultraverse Unlimited (June and Sept. 1996). Following the unrelated, 1999 - 2000 series Warlock vol. 4, featuring the alien cybernetic character Warlock of the New Mutants team, Adam Warlock co-starred with Thanos in the limited series The Infinity Abyss # 1 - 6 (Aug. - Oct. 2002); Marvel Universe: The End # 1 - 6 (May - Aug. 2003; first four issues biweekly); and Thanos # 1 - 6 (Dec. 2003 - April 2004). A version of the character starred in the four - issue limited series Warlock vol. 5 (Nov. 2004 - Feb. 2005), by writer Greg Pak and artist Charles Adlard. After appearances in Annihilation Conquest: Quasar # 1 - 4 (Sept. - Dec. 2007) and Annihilation Conquest # 1 - 6 (Nov. 2007 - April 2008), he was a key character in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 2, # 1 - 25 (July 2008 - April 2010), The Thanos Imperative # 1 (June 2010) and the Ignition one - shot (May 2010). The character appeared in Thanos Annual # 1 (July 2014), and in the original graphic novels Thanos: The Infinity Revelation (August 2014) and Thanos: The Infinity Relativity (June 2015), written by Jim Starlin; Warlock appeared in the graphic novel Thanos: The Infinity Finale as well as in the connected mini-series The Infinity Entity (both published in 2016), also written by Starlin. Scientists on Earth calling themselves the Enclave created an artificial, perfect human, who initially calls himself "Him ''. After rebelling against his creators, and having a conflict with Thor, Him decides to leave Earth and travels into space. He encounters the High Evolutionary, who gives him the name "Warlock ''. The High Evolutionary requests Warlock 's help in saving the artificially created planet Counter-Earth from the evil Man Beast and gives Warlock the green Soul Gem (also referred to as the "Soul Jewel ''), which allows Warlock to capture souls of other beings. When he arrives on Counter-Earth, Warlock is given the name Adam by four teenagers who befriend him. After the Man Beast 's defeat, Warlock leaves Counter-Earth to find a new purpose. In his travels through space, Warlock encounters the Universal Church of Truth, an intergalactic religious organization led by the corrupt Magus. Warlock allies with Pip the Troll, the assassin Gamora, and Gamora 's employer and adoptive father, Thanos of Titan, to oppose the Magus. Eventually, Warlock discovers that the Magus is a future version of himself who traveled back in time after being driven insane by the use of his Soul Gem. Warlock chooses to alter his timeline by visiting himself a few months into the future and steals his own soul to prevent the Magus from ever existing. Warlock then continues his journeys, knowing he has seen his own death but not knowing exactly when it will happen. When the Stranger attempts to steal Warlock 's Soul Gem, Warlock learns about five other related gems. Thanos gains possession of these gems with the intention of destroying Earth 's sun. When Thanos causes mortal harm to Pip and Gamora, Warlock takes their souls to end their suffering. Warlock then enlists the aid of the Avengers, Captain Marvel, and Moondragon to stop Thanos. During the battle, Warlock 's younger self appears and takes the older Warlock 's soul. Inside the gem, Adam is reunited with Pip, Gamora and others in a utopia known as Soul World. Warlock 's soul is temporarily freed from the Soul Gem, allowing him to turn Thanos to stone and save Earth. After being resurrected, Thanos once again collects the Infinity Gems, forming them into the Infinity Gauntlet. When the Silver Surfer and Drax the Destroyer oppose Thanos, he captures them in the Soul Gem. In the world of the Soul Gem, the Surfer meets Adam Warlock and convinces him that his help is needed again to defeat Thanos. Warlock agrees and Pip and Gamora decide to accompany him. Warlock transmits himself and his two friends into new bodies and leads a group of Earth 's superheroes, defeating Thanos. Warlock obtains the Gauntlet, becoming a near - supreme being of the universe. The cosmic Living Tribunal, whose power and authority exceeds Warlock 's, decides that Warlock can not be trusted to keep the Infinity Gauntlet and instructs him to divide the gems among other beings of Warlock 's choosing. Warlock keeps the soul gem for himself and gives one gem each to Pip, Gamora, Drax the Destroyer, Moondragon, and a reformed Thanos. Warlock dubs the group the Infinity Watch. During Warlock 's temporary possession of the Gauntlet, he purged good and evil from his being, leaving him entirely a creature of logic. His good and evil aspects take on lives as two new physical beings -- the evil half becomes a new incarnation of the Magus, while the good half is a woman calling herself the Goddess. When they threaten the universe, Warlock defeats them with the aid of the Watch and other superheroes, absorbing them into the Soul Gem. The Infinity Watch disbands when the infinity gems are stolen by Rune, a vampire from a parallel universe. Warlock pursues Rune, recovering the gems and returning to his native universe. Warlock plays a role in protecting the universe several more times, including threats from clones of Thanos, the Heart of the Universe, and the interdimensional being Hunger. In the 2007 - 8 "Annihilation: Conquest '' storyline, Moondragon and Phyla - Vell later seek Warlock 's help to free the alien Kree from the invading Phalanx. Once the Phalanx is defeated, Warlock joins the newly formed Guardians of the Galaxy. While with the Guardians, Warlock attempts to repair damage to the spacetime continuum, which causes him to become the Magus. Once again leading the Universal Church of Truth, the Magus allies himself with Lord Mar - Vell, but is killed when he fails a mission. The Universal Church of Truth resurrects the Magus as a child, but he is quickly captured and imprisoned by the Annihilators. His cocoon remains under the watch of the Annihilators. While on a new quest, Thanos encounters Warlock 's soul in Death 's domain. It follows Thanos back to the living world, where it regains human form. Warlock accompanies Thanos on a journey as their universe merges with another one. Due to the convergence, Warlock is retroactively replaced by his counterpart from the other universe. Extremely disgruntled by the experience, the new Warlock left Thanos to ponder his situation, and he eventually ended up on "New Krall '' acting as a gladiator in a fighting pit. Thanos receives a message through time / space from his omnipotent former self to seek this new Adam Warlock who is now unnaturally more powerful than before. Agreeing, Thanos first seeks Pip the Troll to teleport to New Krall and then contacts Gamora to also go to Adam, as they both are his closest friends and can keep him from doing any damage to the universe. During this time Annihilus begins a re-invasion of the Positive Zone searching for an immense power source that turns out to be Adam himself and launches a devastating siege on New Krall. The Shi'ar, led by Gladiator (also looking for the power source), appear and Annihilus, now with the power of the Hulk and a new fear projection ability, defeats them. Pip swiftly teleports Adam, Gamora, the Guardians of the Galaxy, and himself back to the Guardians ' ship to safety and are joined by Thanos, where they discover the universe that Adam created was not destroyed, but became a part of him and has given him the power of Eternity and Infinity. Thanos enhances Pip 's abilities to teleport the ship to Annihilus ' empire to stop Annihilus once and for all, but are overwhelmed by Annihilus, who teleports Thanos into limbo and takes Adam prisoner (by placing a neural disruptor on him), forcing the Guardians to retreat. Pip stays behind, stating Adam is his only friend and he will not abandon him. The comatose Adam is placed into Annihilus ' ship 's power source to use him as battery. Pip, after hiding on Annihilus ' ship for three months, finds the comatose Adam and launches a rescue mission, killing his guards and striking Adam repeatedly to waken him. Finally awakening, Adam unconsciously destroys the universe and is left floating in a void. Panicking, Adam calls out for Thanos and wills the Titan back into existence. Thanos then proposes to Adam a plan to beseech the One Above All to recreate the universe. The One Above All agrees, on the condition Adam act as the universe 's new Living Tribunal. Adam and Thanos restore the universes and immediately kill Annihilus and his fleet, ending his threat once and for all. Finally, on Thanos ' request, the "new '' Living Tribunal resurrects the original Adam Warlock from the point he was killed moments before the convergence took place. The true Adam, alive again, decides to take Thanos ' advice to go back to "the existence that is his ''. He immediately goes to Pip the Troll, who runs to his friend with open arms, and they return to their old life of adventure. For reasons unknown, Adam finds himself within the Soul World where he is approached by an aspect of himself that reveals that the Infinity Stones are coming together once more which will ensure a calamity. This encounter is soon revealed to be one of many nightmares that are plaguing Adam so he travels to the Soul World again where he meets an aspect of Gamora 's soul that remained trapped there after she left long ago. Despite her pleas for him to release her from it, Adam denied being capable of doing so claiming he does not recognize her altogether and that he no longer possesses the Soul Gem. Escaping the Soul World, Warlock emerged from his cocoon in the world of the living, where he was greeted by Kang the Conqueror. During the "Infinity Countdown '' storyline, Adam Warlock realizes that he 's at an unspecified time with Kang the Conqueror, whom, with some convincing, shows a recap of Warlock 's history until finally revealing that the Infinity Stones are once more being gathered and shows a vision of the future - which Kang calls "Infinity 's End '' - in which an unseen calamity has befallen the universe after the Infinity Stones were reunited. Kang also reveals to Adam that they had tried to prevent the current outcome 112 times, but now Kang decides another course of action: he will send Warlock to retrieve the Soul Stone in exchange for Warlock giving him the Time Stone. Warlock reluctantly agrees as he explains that he hopes keeping the two gems apart will prevent disaster. Warlock arrives in ancient Egypt, where he meets the pharaoh Rama Tut, an earlier version of Kang. Rama Tut shows Warlock where he can find the Soul Stone in the future, in the hands of Warlock 's "dark reflection '' the Magus. Rama Tut then seals Warlock in a tomb where he 'll awaken thousands of years in the future with a chance to claim the Soul Stone. Rama Tut 's guards, under his orders, commit suicide by poisoning, as Rama Tut claims that no one can know of the plot. Adam Warlock and Kang the Conqueror ambush the Guardians of the Galaxy during their trip to the planet Oblitus. Gamora attempted to take the Soul Gem from Adam Warlock. When Drax the Destroyer held onto the Soul Gem, he discovered that the Soulworld inside is corrupted. Drax knocked out Gamora and made off with Adam Warlock and Kang the Conqueror. As the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy do n't want to help Gamora pursue Adam Warlock and Kang the Conqueror, she went off on her own. Adam Warlock is among the Infinity Gem holders contacted by Doctor Strange who states that they must reform the Infinity Watch to safeguard the Infinity Gems from such calamities like Thanos. In all of his incarnations, the character possessed superhuman strength; speed; durability; stamina; agility and the ability to manipulate cosmic energy for energy projection, flight and recuperation (e.g., creating a cocoon for self - preservation and regeneration), and immortality (although he can be killed, he can not truly die as Death can not claim his soul). However, for a time, Warlock (during his Him incarnation) sacrificed the majority of these powers by prematurely emerging from his cocoon in order to defend the High Evolutionary. In compensation, the High Evolutionary gave Him the Soul Gem. Warlock 's power increased with each resurrection. He can manipulate energy and manifest matter. He later could use "quantum magic '' and manipulate quantum energy to create force fields; teleport; travel faster than light, and detect or produce wormholes and other irregularities in space. Additionally, Warlock also possesses spiritual powers independent from the Soul Gem, and is capable of resurrecting himself and other beings by taking deceased bodies and transmuting them. The character also can perform exorcisms, and view the aura and soul of an individual. He is highly resistant to the soul - manipulating powers of others. As a cosmic being, he possess acute "ultra senses '' (enhanced perceptions that allows cosmic awareness and can perceive both cosmic and mystic occurrences) and is considered an "astral outsider '', a position that prevents other cosmic beings from fully understanding and accurately perceiving his next actions. The Gem possesses a consciousness of its own and demonstrates a vampiric hunger for the life energies of organic beings. It contains an idyllic pocket universe that hosts all the souls the Gem has ever taken. With it, Adam Warlock also has the power to devolve the followers of Man - Beast into the animals from which they evolved, as well as revert the Brute into Counter-Earth Reed Richards. This power comes from his soul gem. There have been three incarnations of the Magus (/ ˈmeɪɡəs /), all of whom are the dark aspect of Adam Warlock. The original Magus is an older, evil Adam Warlock who has traveled to the past and rules a religious empire called the Universal Church of Truth. To ensure his own creation, he guides his younger self through a series of actions that will result in him becoming the Magus. With the aid of Thanos, Warlock alters his future and destroys the Magus 's timeline, erasing him from existence. When Warlock acquires the Infinity Gauntlet, he expels good and evil from his soul, unintentionally giving them corporeal forms. The evil half names himself the Magus and attempts to gain the Infinity Gauntlet for himself. He fails, and Warlock traps him in the Soul Gem. Since he is only part of a soul, he can not interact with the other inhabitants of Soul World and exists only as a phantom. The Magus escapes the Soul Gem in an immaterial form, absorbing the life energies of others to regain tangibility. He is defeated by Genis - Vell and reverts to an ethereal entity. The Magus retaliates by wounding Genis ' friend Moondragon and claiming she is destined to become his slave. Warlock becomes the third Magus when he repairs damage to the spacetime continuum. This Magus works for the evil Lord Mar - Vell and is killed when he fails a mission. The Universal Church of Truth resurrects him as a child, who is then imprisoned by the Annihilators. After Warlock 's rebirth, he learns the Magus is gathering the Infinity Stones with the intention of destroying the universe and has already found the Soul Stone. After finding it on the surface of Ego the Living Planet with help from Contemplator 's head, Magus did not get to enjoy his success for long as the Ultron / Hank Pym ambushed and apparently killed him so he could claim the gem for himself. The Goddess is the embodiment of Adam Warlock 's goodness, created when he uses the Infinity Gauntlet to remove the quality from himself. She appears as a central figure in the 1993 limited series Infinity Crusade. She assembles a collection of Cosmic Cubes and forges them into a Cosmic Egg. Using its power, she recreates Counter-Earth, dubbing it Paradise Omega. Embarking on a crusade to eliminate sin, the Goddess uses telepathy to control spiritual beings across the universe, recruiting them to her cause. When Warlock and Earth 's other heroes learn of her plan to destroy all sin by destroying anything capable of sin, they rally against her. She is defeated when her followers learn her true goal, and is absorbed into the soul gem. In the Earth X limited series, Mar - Vell is reincarnated as the child of the synthetic Adam Warlock / Him and Kismet / Her. This alternate reality is similar to that of Earth - 616, up to the point when a cosmic event of great proportions took place and destroyed Earth - 19141 which was then replaced by a new reality commanded by Thanos until it was eventually restored by Adam Warlock, who defeated Thanos and absorbed this reality 's energies into himself moments before of being merged into Earth - 616. Adam Warlock was then able to resurrect the original version of himself, and proceeded to become the new Living Tribunal as part of the deal he struck with the Above - All - Others.

when did the macbook pro 13 retina come out

MacBook Pro - Wikipedia The MacBook Pro (sometimes abbreviated as MBP) is a line of Macintosh portable computers introduced in January 2006 by Apple Inc. It is the high - end model of the MacBook family and is currently available in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. A 17 - inch version was available between April 2006 and June 2012. The first generation MacBook Pro is externally similar to the PowerBook G4 it replaces, but uses Intel Core processors instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch model was introduced first, in January 2006; the 17 - inch model followed in April. Both received several updates and Core 2 Duo processors later that year. The product 's second iteration, known as the "unibody '' model, has a casing made from a single piece of aluminum. It debuted in October 2008 in 13 - and 15 - inch screen sizes. In January 2009, the 17 - inch model was updated with the same unibody design. Subsequent updates brought upgraded Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and introduced Intel 's Thunderbolt technology. Apple released the third generation of MacBook Pro with a 15 - inch screen during WWDC 2012 and discontinued the 17 - inch variant. The previous generation 13 - and 15 - inch unibody models continued to sell with updated processors. The third generation model is thinner than its predecessor and is the first to include a high - resolution Retina Display. A 13 - inch variant was released in October 2012. The fourth generation MacBook Pro was announced on October 27, 2016. It replaces the function keys with an interactive, multi-touch "Touch Bar '' and a Touch ID sensor integrated into the Power button. The original 15 - inch MacBook Pro was announced on January 10, 2006 by Steve Jobs at the Macworld Conference & Expo. The 17 - inch model was unveiled on April 24, 2006. The first design was largely a carryover from the PowerBook G4, but uses Intel Core CPUs instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15 - inch MacBook Pro weighs the same as the 15 - inch aluminum PowerBook G4, but is 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) deeper, 0.4 inches (1.0 cm) wider, and 0.1 inches (0.25 cm) thinner. Other changes from the PowerBook include a built - in iSight webcam and the inclusion of MagSafe, a magnetic power connector designed to detach easily when yanked. These features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the optical drive in the PowerBook G4 and can not write to dual layer DVDs. Both the original 15 - and 17 - inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard / 34 slots, which replace the PC Card slots found in the PowerBook G4. All first generation 15 - inch models have two USB 2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17 - inch models have three USB 2.0 ports as well as one FireWire 400 port. When first introduced, the MacBook Pro did not come with FireWire 800 or S - Video ports, although FireWire 800 was added in the next 15 - inch model revision and is present in every version of the 17 - inch design. S - Video capability can be attained through the use of a DVI to S - Video adapter. External displays with up to a 2,560 × 1,600 pixel resolution are supported through a dual - link DVI port. All models include a built - in Gigabit Ethernet port, Bluetooth 2.0, and 802.11 a / b / g. Later models include support for the draft 2.0 specification of 802.11 n and Bluetooth 2.1. Apple refreshed the entire MacBook Pro line on October 24, 2006 to include Intel Core 2 Duo processors. Memory capacity was doubled for each model, to 1 GB on the low - end 15 - inch and 2 GB for the high - end 15 - and 17 - inch models. FireWire 800 was added to the 15 - inch models. Hard drive capacity was increased, although video card options stayed the same. The MacBook Pro line received a second update on June 5, 2007 with new Nvidia Geforce 8600M GT video cards and faster processor options. LED backlighting was added to the 15 - inch model 's screen, and its weight was reduced from 5.6 pounds (2.5 kg) to 5.4 pounds (2.4 kg). Furthermore, the speed of the front - side bus was increased from 667 MHz to 800 MHz. On November 1, 2007, Apple added the option of a 2.6 GHz Santa Rosa platform Core 2 Duo CPU as well as reconfigured hard drive options. On February 26, 2008, the MacBook Pro line was again updated. LED backlighting was added as an option for the 17 - inch model. Processors were updated to "Penryn '' cores, which are built on the 45 nanometer process (65 nanometer "Merom '' cores were previously used), and hard drive and memory capacities were increased. Multi-touch capabilities, first introduced with the MacBook Air earlier that year, were brought over to the MacBook Pro 's trackpad. When the 15 - inch unibody MacBook Pro was introduced on October 14, 2008, the pre-unibody model with the same screen size was discontinued, while the 17 - inch pre-unibody model continued to be sold. The original case design was discontinued on January 6, 2009, when the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was also updated with unibody construction. Some reviewers applauded the MacBook Pro for its doubling or tripling the speed of the PowerBook G4 in some areas. For example, the 3D rendering program Cinema 4D XL was 3.3 times as fast (2.3 times faster), and its boot - up time was more than twice as quick. The MacBook Pro generally outperformed the PowerBook G4 in performance analyzer utility tests XBench and Cinebench. Reviewers lauded the screen 's maximum brightness, 67 percent higher than the PowerBook G4; the excellent horizontal viewing angles; the matte options; and the bright, crisp, and true colors. Although the screen offered fewer vertical pixels (1,440 × 900 in the MacBook Pro instead of 1,440 × 960 in the PowerBook), one reviewer called the screen "nothing less than stellar ''. Reviewers praised the new MagSafe power adapter, although one reviewer said it disconnected too easily in some instances. They also praised the backlit keyboard, large trackpad, and the virtually silent operation of the machine. The new laptop also offered better wireless performance. One reviewer criticized the decision to underclock the ATI Mobility Radeon X1600 graphics card by about 30 percent its original speed. The notebook was also noted for running hot. Users complained that upgrading system memory was harder than in older Apple notebooks. Since the dimensions for the 15 - inch MacBook Pro were tweaked slightly from the 15 - inch PowerBook G4, older accessories such as notebook sleeves did not work with the new models. Some users noted a slight flickering when the screen was on lower brightness settings. Apple increased the battery capacity by 10 Wh, going from 50 in the PowerBook G4 to 60, but the more powerful Core Duo CPU required more power. Battery life therefore remained about the same as in previous models, at three - plus hours. SuperDrive: 8 × DVD - DL discs reads. 4 × DVD+ / - R & RW recording. 24 × CD - R and 10 × CD - RW recording (optional for 15 - inch) SuperDrive: 4 × DVD + R writes, 8 × DVD+ / - R read, 4 × DVD+ / - RW writes, 24 × CD - R, and 10 × CD - RW recording (17 - inch) On October 14, 2008, in a press event at company headquarters, Apple officials announced a new 15 - inch MacBook Pro featuring a "precision aluminum unibody enclosure '' and tapered sides similar to those of the MacBook Air. Designers shifted the MacBook Pro 's ports to the left side of the case, and moved the optical disc drive slot from the front to the right side, similar to the MacBook. The new MacBook Pros had two video cards, which the user could switch between: the Nvidia GeForce 9600M GT with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory and a GeForce 9400M with 256 MB of shared system memory. Although the FireWire 400 port was removed, the FireWire 800 port was retained. The DVI port was replaced with a Mini DisplayPort receptacle. The original unibody MacBook Pro came with a user - removable battery; Apple claimed five hours of use, with one reviewer reporting results closer to four on a continuous video battery stress test. Apple said that the battery would hold 80 percent of its charge after 300 recharges. The unibody - construction MacBook Pro largely follows the styling of the original aluminum iMac and the MacBook Air and is slightly thinner than its predecessor, albeit wider and deeper due to the widescreen display. The screen is high - gloss, covered by an edge - to - edge reflective glass finish, while an anti-glare matte option is available in the 15 - and 17 - inch models in which the glass panel is removed. The entire trackpad is usable and acts as a clickable button. The trackpad is also larger than the first generation model 's, giving more room for scrolling and multi-touch gestures. When the line was updated in April 2010, inertial scrolling was added, making the scrolling experience much like that of the iPhone and iPad. The keys, still backlit, are now that of Apple 's now - standard sunken keyboard with separated black keys. During the MacWorld Expo keynote on January 6, 2009, Phil Schiller announced a 17 - inch MacBook Pro with unibody construction. This version diverged from its 15 - inch sibling with an anti-glare "matte '' screen option (with the glossy finish standard) and a non user - removable lithium polymer battery. Instead of traditional round cells inside the casing, the lithium - ion polymer batteries are shaped and fitted into each laptop to maximally utilize space. Adaptive charging, which uses a chip to optimize the charge flow to reduce wear and tear, extends the battery 's overall life. Battery life for the 17 '' version is quoted at eight hours, with 80 percent of this charge remaining after 1,000 charge - discharge cycles. At Apple 's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 8, 2009, it was announced that the 13 - inch unibody MacBook would be upgraded and re-branded as a MacBook Pro, leaving only the white polycarbonate MacBook in the MacBook line. It was also announced that the entire MacBook Pro line would use the non user - removable battery first introduced in the 17 - inch MacBook Pro. The updated MacBook Pro 13 - and the 15 - inch would each have up to a claimed seven hours of battery life, while the 17 - inch would keep its eight - hour capacity. Some sources even reported up to eight hours of battery life for the 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pros during casual use, while others reported around six hours. Like the 17 - inch MacBook Pro, Apple claims that they will last around 1,000 charge cycles while still containing 80 percent of their capacity. Graphics card options stayed the same from the previous release, although the 13 - inch and the base model 15 - inch, came with only the GeForce 9400M GPU. The screens were also improved, gaining a claimed 60 percent greater color gamut. All of these mid 2009 models also included a FireWire 800 port and all except the 17 - inch models would receive an SD card slot. The 17 - inch model would retain its ExpressCard / 34 slot. For the 13 - inch MacBook Pro, the Kensington lock slot was moved to the right side of the chassis. In August 2009, Apple extended the "matte '' anti-glare display option to the 15 - inch MacBook Pro. On April 13, 2010, Intel Core i5 and Core i7 CPUs were introduced in the 15 - and 17 - inch models, while the 13 - inch retained the Core 2 Duo with a speed increase. The power brick was redesigned and a high - resolution display (of 1,680 × 1,050) was announced as an option for the 15 - inch models. The 13 - inch gained an integrated Nvidia GeForce 320M graphics processing unit (GPU) with 256 MB of shared memory, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models were upgraded to the GeForce GT 330M, with either 256 or 512 MB of dedicated memory. The 15 - and 17 - inch models also have an integrated Intel GPU that is built into the Core i5 and i7 processors. The 15 - inch model also gained 0.1 pounds (0.045 kg). Save for a third USB 2.0 slot, all the ports on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro are the same in type and number as on the 15 - inch version. All models come with 4 GB of system memory that is upgradeable to 8 GB. Battery life was also extended further in this update, to an estimated ten hours for the 13 - inch and 8 -- 9 hours on the 15 - and 17 - inch MacBook Pros. This was achieved through both greater power efficiency and adding more battery capacity. One reviewer reported about six hours of battery life through a continuous video battery stress test in the 15 - inch and another, who called the battery life "unbeatable '', reported nearer to eight in the 13 - inch through their "highly demanding battery drain test ''. Thunderbolt technology, Sandy Bridge dual core Intel Core i5 and i7 (on the 13 - inch model) or quad - core i7 (on the 15 - and 17 - inch models) processors, and a high definition FaceTime camera were added on February 24, 2011. Intel HD Graphics 3000 come integrated with the CPU, while the 15 - and 17 - inch models also utilize AMD Radeon HD 6490M and Radeon HD 6750M graphics cards. Later editions of these models, following the release of OS X Lion, replaced the dashboard (F4) key with a launchpad key. The chassis bottoms are also engraved differently from the 2010 models. The Thunderbolt serial bus platform can achieve speeds of up to 10 Gbit / s, which is up to twice as fast as the USB 3.0 specification, 20 times faster than the USB 2.0 specification, and up to 12 times faster than FireWire 800. Apple says that Thunderbolt can be used to drive displays or to transfer large quantities of data in a short amount of time. On June 11, 2012, Apple showcased its upgraded Mac notebooks, OS X Mountain Lion, and iOS 6 at the Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) in San Francisco. The new MacBook Pro models were updated with Ivy Bridge processors and USB 3.0 ports, and the default RAM on premium models was increased to 8 GB. Following this announcement, the 17 - inch model was discontinued. After a media event on October 22, 2013 Apple discontinued all second generation MacBook Pros except for the entry - level 2.5 GHz 13 - inch model. Apple discontinued the 13 - inch 2nd generation MacBook Pro on October 27, 2016. Prior to its discontinuation it was Apple 's only product to still include an optical drive and a Firewire port, and only laptop with a hard disk drive and Ethernet port. Some reviewers praised the new laptop 's performance and compact size, the quality of the screen, and sturdy unibody build, which allowed easier upgrading of internal components as compared to the original models. Some reviewers also noted that the new MacBook Pro ran more quietly and at cooler temperatures than first generation machines. Others, however, criticized the amount of heat generated by the new design. Reviewers lamented the loss of a matte screen option for the 2008 unibody MacBook Pro, noting the reflectiveness of the screen in sunlight, even when its brightness was turned all the way up. CNET 's Dan Ackerman commented of the mid-2009 models: "According to Apple, the new display offers a wider color gamut, and the screen certainly looks bright and colorful, but we wish the same matte - screen option offered on the 17 - inch MacBook Pro was available across the line... While the LED screen means a thinner lid and some battery life benefits, the edge - to - edge glass covering the entire display panel grabs stray light rays with ease, making the glossy screen hard to see in some lighting conditions. '' By 2011, matte screens were offered for both the 15 '' and 17 '' models. Furthermore, the addition of Mini DisplayPort instead of the more popular HDMI was criticized. The relatively low number of ports and lower end technical specifications when compared to similarly priced laptops from other brands were also bemoaned. Laptop Magazine 's Michael Prospero praised the 2010 15 - inch model 's display, calling it "bright and crisp ''. He further commented, "While reflections from the glossy display were n't overwhelming, it 's also nice to know there 's an antiglare option -- though only for the higher resolution display. Still, colors were bright, blacks were deep and dark, and viewing angles were excellent both vertically and horizontally. '' He also lauded the quality of the iSight webcam, the responsiveness of the touchpad, the microphone and speakers, as well as the performance of the new CPUs for the 15 '' model and the long battery life. Complaints included the price of the laptop, the low number of USB ports, and the lack of HDMI. CNET praised the automatic graphics switching features of the 15 - and 17 - inch 2010 models as well as the graphics cards themselves. Acclaim was also given to the Core i5 and i7 CPUs, the multi-touch trackpad, and the addition of audio capabilities to the Mini DisplayPort video output. They also called for the addition of HDMI and the Blu - ray optical disc format, saying that most other computers in the MacBook Pro 's price range possessed these features. CNET also criticized the option of a higher resolution screen in the 15 - inch model, saying that "the higher - resolution screen should be included by default. '' 2.53 GHz (T9400) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (T9600) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache 2.8 GHz (T9600) (15 '' and 17 '' only) Intel Core 2 Duo Penryn with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache Optional 3.06 GHz (T9900) with 6 MB on - chip L2 cache (15 '' and 17 '' only) Since the RAM and the hard drive on some generations of MacBook Pro are user serviceable parts, there are aftermarket modifications to enhance the system with up to 16GB of DDR3 - 1600 RAM (maximum capacity and frequency depend on the hardware in question), 7200 - rpm hard drives or third party SSDs. Early and Late 2011 models reportedly suffer from manufacturing problems leading to overheating, graphical issues, and eventually complete GPU and logic board failure. A similar but nonidentical issue affected iMac GPUs which were later recalled by Apple. The problem was covered by many articles in Mac - focused magazines, starting late 2013 throughout 2014. In August 2014 the law firm Whitfield Bryson & Mason LLP had begun investigating the problem to determine if any legal claim exists. On October 28, 2014, the firm announced that it has filed a class - action lawsuit in a California federal court against Apple. The lawsuit will cover residents residing in both California and Florida who have purchased a 2011 MacBook Pro notebook with an AMD graphics card. The firm is also investigating similar cases across the United States. On February 20, 2015, Apple instituted the "MacBook Pro Repair Extension Program for Video Issues ''. This "will repair affected MacBook Pro systems, free of charge ''. The program covered affected MacBook Pro models until December 31, 2016 or four years from original date of sale. On June 11, 2012 at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference in San Francisco, Apple introduced the third generation MacBook Pro, marketed as the "MacBook Pro with Retina display '' to differentiate it from the predecessor model. The new model includes Intel 's third generation Core i7 processors (Ivy Bridge microarchitecture), USB 3.0, and a high - resolution 15.4 '' IPS 2880 × 1800 - pixel Retina Display. Other new or changed features include a second Thunderbolt port, a HDMI port, and a thinner MagSafe port, dubbed the "MagSafe 2 ''. Apple introduced a 13 - inch version on October 23, 2012 with specifications similar but slightly inferior to the 15 - inch version 's, such as less powerful processors. The new models omit Ethernet and FireWire 800 ports, though Apple offers Thunderbolt adapters for both interfaces. They also omit a SuperDrive, making the 15 - inch model Apple 's first professional notebook since the PowerBook 2400c to ship without a built - in optical drive. Instead of a hard disk drive, the new models ship with a solid state drive housed in a proprietary flash module design rather than a 2.5 '' notebook drive. Apple also claims improved speakers and microphones and a new system for cooling the notebook with improved fans. The new case design does not have a Kensington lock slot, so alternative products are required to physically secure the computer. The Retina models also have fewer user - accessible upgrade or replacement options than previous MacBooks. Unlike in previous generations, the memory is soldered onto the logic board and is therefore not upgradable. The solid state drive is not soldered and can be replaced by users, although it has a proprietary connector and form factor. The battery is glued into place; attempts to remove it may destroy the battery and / or trackpad. The entire case uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools. While the battery is glued in, recycling companies have stated that the design is only "mildly inconvenient '' and does not hamper the recycling process. On February 13, 2013, Apple announced updated prices and processors for the MacBook Pro with Retina Display and increased the RAM of the high - end 15 - inch model to 16 GB. On October 22, 2013, Apple updated the line with Intel 's Haswell processors and Iris Graphics, 802.11 ac Wi - Fi, Thunderbolt 2, and PCIe - based flash storage. The chassis of the 13 - inch version was slightly slimmed to 0.71 inches (18 mm) to match the 15 - inch model. The lower - end 15 - inch model only included integrated graphics while the higher - end model continued to include a discrete Nvidia graphics card in addition to integrated graphics. Support for 4K video output via HDMI was added but limited the maximum number of external displays from three to two. On July 29, 2014 Apple announced updated prices and processors for the Haswell MacBook Pro with Retina Display. On March 9, 2015, the 13 - inch model was updated with Intel Broadwell processors, Iris 6100 graphics, faster flash storage, increased battery life, and a Force Touch trackpad. On May 19, 2015, the 15 - inch model was also updated with similarly fast flash storage, increased battery life, the Force Touch trackpad, and an AMD Radeon R9 discrete graphics card on the higher - end model. The higher - end 15 - inch model also added support for dual - cable output to 5120 × 2880 displays. The 15 - inch models were released with the same Intel Haswell processors and Iris Pro graphics as the 2014 models due to a delay in shipment of newer Broadwell quad - core processors. Apple continued to sell the 2015 15 - inch model until July 2018. The Retina Display MacBook Pro largely follows the design of the previous generation with its aluminum enclosure and separated black keys. The most apparent body changes are a thinner chassis and a display with a redesigned hinge and thinner bezel and the removal of the internal optical drive. The power button is moved from the upper right corner of the chassis onto the keyboard, taking the place of the optical disc eject button. At 0.71 inches (18 mm) thick, the 15 - inch model is 25 percent thinner than its predecessor. The model name is no longer placed at the bottom of the screen bezel; instead, it is found on the underside of the chassis, similar to an iOS device. It is the first Macintosh laptop to not have its model name visible during normal use, as every prior laptop had its model name on the screen bezel or keyboard. The third generation MacBook Pro received positive reviews of the Retina Display, flash storage and power. It was criticized, however, for its high price and lack of an Ethernet port and optical drive. Roman Loyola of Macworld said that the Retina MacBook Pro was "groundbreaking '' and made people "rethink how they use technology ''. He praised the inclusion of USB 3.0 and the slimmer body. Dan Ackerman of CNET commented "I 've previously called the 15 - inch MacBook Pro one of the most universally useful all - around laptops you can buy. This new version adds to that with HDMI, faster ports, and more portability. But it also subtracts from that with its exclusion of an optical drive and Ethernet port, plus its very high starting price. The Pro and Retina Pro are clearly two laptops designed for two different users, and with the exception of all - day commuters who need something closer to a MacBook Air or ultrabook, one of the two branches of the MacBook Pro family tree is still probably the most universally useful laptop you can buy. '' Joel Santo Domingo of PC Magazine gave the MacBook Pro an "Editor 's Choice '' rating. He praised its "brilliant Retina display '', the thin design, port selection and speedy storage, and highlighted the expandability via Thunderbolt ports which support up to seven devices each. David Pogue of The New York Times praised the 15 - inch model 's screen, keyboard, sound, start - up time, cosmetics, battery life, storage, and RAM capacity. They criticized the lack of a SuperDrive, pricing, and the MagSafe 2 power connector 's lack of backwards compatibility with the older MagSafe design. The Retina Display on the MacBook Pro have been criticized for "image retention '', specifically for displays manufactured by LG. In 2017, one year after the introduction of the fourth generation of the MacBook Pro, the original lead developer of Tumblr Marco Arment wrote an evocative article in which he declared the third - generation MacBook Pro the best laptop ever made. The sentiment was shared by many users of various social platforms. Since the battery is glued in and can not be easily disassembled for recycling (an EPEAT requirement), Apple received criticisms about the machine 's ability to be recycled. Greenpeace spokesman Casey Harrell said Apple "has pitted design against the environment -- and chosen design. They 're making a big bet that people do n't care, but recycling is a big issue. '' Wired also criticized Apple 's recyclability claims, stating "(t) he design may well be comprised of ' highly recyclable aluminum and glass ' -- but my friends in the electronics recycling industry tell me they have no way of recycling aluminum that has glass glued to it like Apple did with both this machine and the recent iPad. '' Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 3720QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3820QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.9 GHz (i7 - 3520M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge processor with 4 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 3540M) dual - core Intel Core i7 Ivy Bridge with 4 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.6 GHz (i5 - 4288U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4558U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i5 - 4308U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Haswell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.0 GHz (i7 - 4578U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Haswell with 4 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.9 GHz (i5 - 5287U) dual - core Intel Core i5 Broadwell with 3 MB shared L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz (i7 - 5557U) dual - core Intel Core i7 Broadwell with 4 MB shared L3 cache Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.7 GHz (i7 - 3740QM) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 3840QM) with 8 MB on - chip L3 cache Optional 2.3 GHz (i7 - 4850HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.6 GHz (i7 - 4960HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.5 GHz (i7 - 4870HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Optional 2.8 GHz (i7 - 4980HQ) with 6 MB on - chip L3 cache and 128 MB L4 cache (Crystalwell) Apple unveiled fourth generation 13 - and 15 - inch MacBook Pro models during a press event at their headquarters on October 27, 2016. All models, except the baseline 13 - inch model, introduced the Touch Bar, a multi-touch enabled OLED strip built into the top of the keyboard in place of the function keys. The Touch Bar models also include a sapphire - glass covered Touch ID sensor at the right end of the Touch Bar which doubles as a power button. The models also introduce a "second - generation '' butterfly mechanism keyboard that provided more travel than the first iteration implemented on the Retina MacBook. The 13 - inch model has a trackpad that is 46 % larger than its predecessor while the 15 - inch model has a trackpad twice as large as the prior generation. All ports have been replaced with either two or four combination USB - C 3.1 ports that support Thunderbolt 3 and dual DisplayPort 1.2 signals, any of which can be used for charging. The MacBook Pro is incompatible with some older Thunderbolt 3 certified peripherals, including Intel 's own reference design for Thunderbolt 3 devices. Furthermore, macOS on MacBook Pro blocks certain classes of Thunderbolt 3 compatible devices from working by blacklisting them. Devices using HDMI, previous generation Thunderbolt, and USB will require an adapter to connect to the MacBook Pro. The models come with a 3.5 mm headphone jack, although TOSLINK functionality of older generation MacBook Pros has been removed. Other updates to the MacBook Pro include dual and quad - core Intel "Skylake '' Core i5 and i7 processors, improved graphics, and displays that offer a 25 % wider color gamut, 67 % more brightness, and 67 % more contrast. All versions are able to output to a 5K display, with the 15 - inch models capable of two. The 15 - inch models include a discrete Radeon Pro 450, 455 or 460 graphics card in addition to the integrated Intel graphics. Additionally, Apple introduced a cheaper lower - end 13 - inch model which lacks the Touch Bar in favor of function keys, and has only two USB - C ports. The flash storage in the Touch Bar models is soldered to the logic board and is not upgradeable, while in the 13 - inch model without Touch Bar, it is removable, but not replaceable, as it is a proprietary format of SSD storage. On June 5, 2017 Apple updated the line with Intel Kaby Lake processors and newer graphics cards. Additionally, the 13 - inch model now comes with a 128GB storage option, down from the base 256GB storage. On July 12, 2018 Apple updated the Touch Bar models with Intel Coffee Lake quad - core processors in 13 - inch models and six - core processors in 15 - inch models, updated graphics cards, third - generation butterfly keyboards, Bluetooth 5, T2 SoC Chip, True Tone display technology, and larger capacity batteries. The 15 - inch model can also be configured with up to 4TB of storage, 32GB of DDR4 memory and a Core i9 processor. The fourth generation MacBook Pro follows the design of the previous two generations with an all - metal unibody enclosure and separated black keys. A few apparent design changes are a thinner chassis, thinner screen bezel, larger trackpad, the OLED Touch Bar, and shallower butterfly mechanism keyboard with less key separation than the previous models. The speakers grilles have been relocated to the sides of the keyboard on the 13 - inch variant. Tear downs show that the speaker grilles on the 13 - inch model with Touch Bar are "largely cosmetic '', and that sound output mostly comes through the side vents. The fourth generation MacBook Pro comes in two finishes, the traditional silver color and a darker "space gray '' color. The MacBook Pro model name returns to the bottom of the screen bezel in Apple 's San Francisco font after being absent from the third generation. As with the Retina MacBook, the new models replace the backlit white Apple logo on the rear of the screen with a glossy black opaque version. MagSafe, a magnetic charging connector, has been replaced with USB - C charging. Unlike MagSafe, which provided an indicator light within the user 's field of view to indicate the device 's charging status, the USB - C charger has no visual indicator. Instead, the MacBook Pro emits a chime when connected to power. The Macintosh startup chime that has been used since the first Macintosh in 1984 is now disabled by default. The laptop now boots automatically when the lid is opened. Ars Technica noted that the second - generation keyboard with firm keys was a "drastic departure '' from previous Retina MacBook keyboards. It further noted that resting palms may brush the trackpad occasionally causing inadvertent cursor jumps onscreen as the laptop interprets this as input, without one 's hands or wrists actually resting on it. Also noted was an increase of bandwidth and approximately 40 percent increased read speed of the flash storage. Engadget praised the thinner, lighter design, improved display and audio, and increased speed of the graphics and flash storage, but criticized the lack of ports and price. Wired praised the display, calling it "the best laptop display I 've ever seen '', as well as praising the Touch Bar, though it criticized the need of adapters for many common connectors. Likewise, The Verge concluded that "using (the new MacBook) is alienating to anyone living in the present. I agree with Apple 's vision of the future. I 'm just not buying it today. '' Engadget voiced their concerns that "by doing things like removing full - sized USB ports, the memory card reader and even the Function row, Apple seems to have forgotten how many of us actually work ''. Heavy keyboard users criticized the Touch Bar, noting that command - line tools like Vim rely on keyboard usage, and the Touch Bar does not provide the tactile feedback necessary for "blind '' usage of Function keys. Miriam Nielsen from the Verge said about the Touch Bar experience: "When I tried to intentionally use the Touch Bar, I felt like a kid learning how to type again. I had to keep looking down at the bar instead of looking at the images I was actually trying to edit. '' She also pointed out that after learning the Touch Bar one can not work as efficiently on any other computer. Developers have their share of headaches because they can not rely on the Touch Bar being present on every machine that runs their software. Even if Apple makes the Touch Bar an integral part of macOS, it will take "many years '' for it to become ubiquitous, in the meantime anything in the Bar needs to be available through another part of the interface. Other items of critique were non-compatibility between Thunderbolt 2 and 3 devices, frequently unpleasant fan whine noises in idle CPU states on the larger screen (15 ") models were reported, where the two integrated fans run all the time by default. The coprocessor powering the touch bar and higher TDP of the stronger CPU models are responsible for this behavior. The battery life of the new models also received mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. Apple addressed the latter by hiding the display of estimated battery time remaining entirely in a macOS update. Consumer Reports did not initially recommend the 2016 MacBook Pro models, citing inconsistent and unpredictable battery life in its lab testing (which involves the consecutive loading of multiple websites). However, Apple and Consumer Reports found that the results had been affected by a bug caused by disabling caching in Safari 's developer tools. Consumer Reports performed the tests again with a patched macOS, and retracted its original assessment. iFixit gave the models score of 1 out of 10 for repairability, noting that memory, the processor, and flash storage are soldered to the logic board, while the battery is glued to the case. The entire assembly uses proprietary pentalobe screws and can not be disassembled with standard tools. A report by AppleInsider has claimed that the updated butterfly keyboard fails twice as often as previous models, often due to particles stuck beneath the keys. Repairs for stuck keys have been estimated to cost more than $700. In May 2018, two class action lawsuits were filed against Apple regarding the keyboard issue with one alleging a "constant threat of nonresponsive keys and accompanying keyboard failure '' and accusing Apple of not alerting consumers to the issue. In June 2018, Apple announced a Service Program to "service eligible MacBook and MacBook Pro keyboards, free of charge ''. The 2018 models added a membrane underneath keys to prevent malfunction from dust. Testing on the 2018 Core i9 15 - inch model shows thermal throttling slows performance, according to PC Magazine "the Core i9 processor Apple chose to use inside the MacBook Pro (i9 - 8950K) has a base clock frequency of 2.9 GHz, which is capable of bursting up to 4.8 GHz when necessary. However, testing carried out by YouTuber Dave Lee makes it clear the Core i9 ca n't even maintain 2.9 GHz, let alone 4.8 GHz. In fact, it ends up running at 2.2 GHz due to the heat generated inside the chassis forcing it to throttle... This is n't a problem with Intel 's Core i9, it 's Apple 's thermal solution. '' On July 24, Apple released a software fix for the new 2018 Macbook Pros which addressed the thermal throttling issue. Apple said "there is a missing digital key in the firmware that impacts the thermal management system and could drive clock speeds down under heavy thermal loads on the new MacBook Pro ''. A "limited number '' of 13 - inch MacBook Pro units without Touch Bar, manufactured between October 2016 and October 2017, may have the built - in battery expanded, which is also known as "swelling ''. Apple initiated a free replacement program for eligible units. Some users are reporting kernel panics on 2018 MacBook Pro units. The T2 chip may be to blame for this issue. Apple is already aware of the issue and performing an investigation. Optional 2.4 GHz i7 - 6660U, up to 3.4 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz i5 - 6287U, up to 3.5 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.3 GHz i7 - 6567U, up to 3.6 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache 2.7 GHz quad - core Intel Core i7 Skylake (6820HQ), up to 3.6 GHz, 8MB L3 cache Optional 2.9 GHz i7 - 6920HQ, up to 3.8 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache Optional 2.5 GHz i7 - 7660U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.3 GHz i5 - 7287U, up to 3.7 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache Optional 3.5 GHz i7 - 7567U, up to 4.0 GHz, 4 MB L3 cache 2.9 GHz quad - core Intel Core i7 Kaby Lake (7820HQ), up to 3.9 GHz, 8MB L3 cache Optional 3.1 GHz i7 - 7920HQ, up to 4.1 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache Optional 2.7 GHz i7 - 8559U, up to 4.5 GHz, 8 MB L3 cache 2.6 GHz six - core Intel Core i7 Coffee Lake (8850H), up to 4.3 GHz, 9 MB L3 cache Optional 2.9 GHz i9 - 8950HK, up to 4.8 GHz, 12 MB L3 cache Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only Optional 16 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only Optional 32 GB RAM configuration available at time of purchase only AMD Radeon Pro 450 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.6 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory, or Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory AMD Radeon Pro 555 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.8 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory AMD Radeon Pro 555X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.2 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 560X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory AMD Radeon Pro 455 with 2 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.7 GHz) Configurable to Radeon Pro 460 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory AMD Radeon Pro 560 with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.9 GHz) AMD Radeon Pro 560X with 4 GB of GDDR5 memory and automatic graphics switching (2.6 GHz) The macOS operating system has been pre-installed on all MacBook Pros since release, starting with version 10.4. 4 (Tiger). Along with OS X, iLife has also shipped with all systems, beginning with iLife ' 06. The MacBook Pro comes with the successor to BIOS, Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) 1.1. EFI handles booting differently from BIOS - based computers, but provides backwards compatibility, allowing dual and triple boot configurations. In addition to OS X, the Microsoft Windows operating system is installable on Intel x86 - based Apple computers. Officially, this is limited to both 32 - bit and 64 - bit versions of Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 with the necessary hardware drivers included with the Boot Camp software. Other x86 operating systems such as Linux are also unofficially supported. This is made possible by the presence of the Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation Apple has provided on top of EFI. As the MacBook Pro uses a different hardware platform from earlier PowerPC (PPC) - based Macintoshes, versions of OS X prior to Lion can run PPC applications only via the Rosetta emulator, which exacts some performance penalty, can not emulate some lower - level PPC code, and does not support 64 - bit (G5 specific) PPC features. Rosetta is not present in Lion and later, so PPC applications can not be run under those versions of OS X.

radar for europa assessment and sounding ocean to near-surface (reason)

Radar for Europa Assessment and sounding: ocean to Near - surface - wikipedia The Radar for Europa Assessment and Sounding: Ocean to Near - surface (REASON) is a multi-frequency, multi-channel ice penetrating radar system that will be flown on board the Europa Clipper mission to Jupiter 's moon Europa. REASON investigation will provide the first direct measurements of Europa 's ice shell surface character and subsurface structure. The REASON instrument makes innovative use of radar sounding, altimetry, reflectometry, plasma and particles analyses. These investigations will use a dual - frequency radar emitting HF (9 MHz) and VHF (60 MHz) with concurrent shallow and deep sounding. Both VHF and HF radiating elements are mounted on a single boom, reducing antenna mass. The mission plan also includes using REASON as a nadir altimeter capable of measuring tides to test ice shell and ocean hypotheses as well as characterizing roughness across the surface to identify potential landing sites for a future Europa Lander. The REASON instrument will also be able to spot pockets of water within the ice shell that could serve as a passageway for chemicals on the moon 's surface to the ocean below -- an environment where life could potentially develop. The instrument was developed by the Jackson School of Geosciences, and its Principal Investigator is Donald Blankenship. REASON will be fabricated by engineers from NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the University of Iowa. The scientific objectives of the REASON investigation are:

background of the author of death of a salesman

Arthur Miller - wikipedia Arthur Asher Miller (October 17, 1915 -- February 10, 2005) was an American playwright, essayist, and figure in twentieth - century American theater. Among his most popular plays are All My Sons (1947), Death of a Salesman (1949), The Crucible (1953) and A View from the Bridge (1955, revised 1956). He also wrote several screenplays and was most noted for his work on The Misfits (1961). The drama Death of a Salesman has been numbered on the short list of finest American plays in the 20th century alongside Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night and Tennessee Williams 's A Streetcar Named Desire. Miller was often in the public eye, particularly during the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee; and was married to Marilyn Monroe. In 1980, Miller received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. He received the Prince of Asturias Award and the Praemium Imperiale prize in 2002 and the Jerusalem Prize in 2003, as well as the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Lifetime Achievement Award. Miller was born on October 17, 1915, in Harlem, in the New York City borough of Manhattan, the second of three children of Augusta (Barnett) and Isidore Miller. Miller was Jewish, and of Polish Jewish descent. His father was born in Radomyśl Wielki, Galicia (then part of Austria - Hungary, now Poland), and his mother was a native of New York whose parents also arrived from that town. Isidore owned a women 's clothing manufacturing business employing 400 people. He became a wealthy and respected man in the community. The family, including his younger sister Joan Copeland, lived on West 110th Street in Manhattan, owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens, and employed a chauffeur. In the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to Gravesend, Brooklyn. As a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to help the family. After graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School, he worked at several menial jobs to pay for his college tuition. At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and worked for the student paper, the Michigan Daily. It was during this time that he wrote his first play, No Villain. Miller switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain. The award brought him his first recognition and led him to begin to consider that he could have a career as a playwright. Miller enrolled in a playwriting seminar taught by the influential Professor Kenneth Rowe, who instructed him in his early forays into playwriting; Rowe emphasized how a play is built in order to achieve its intended effect, or what Miller called "the dynamics of play construction ''. Rowe provided realistic feedback along with much - needed encouragement, and became a lifelong friend. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest of his life, establishing the university 's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in 2000. In 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood Award. After his graduation in 1938, he joined the Federal Theatre Project, a New Deal agency established to provide jobs in the theater. He chose the theater project despite the more lucrative offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th Century Fox. However, Congress, worried about possible Communist infiltration, closed the project in 1939. Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write radio plays, some of which were broadcast on CBS. In 1940, Miller married Mary Grace Slattery. The couple had two children, Jane and Robert (born May 31, 1947). Miller was exempted from military service during World War II because of a high school football injury to his left kneecap. 1940 was also the year his first play was produced; The Man Who Had All the Luck won the Theatre Guild 's National Award. The play closed after four performances with disastrous reviews. In 1947, Miller 's play All My Sons, the writing of which had commenced in 1941, was a success on Broadway (earning him his first Tony Award, for Best Author) and his reputation as a playwright was established. Years later, in a 1994 interview with Ron Rifkin, Miller said that most contemporary critics regarded All My Sons as "a very depressing play in a time of great optimism '' and that positive reviews from Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times had saved it from failure. In 1948, Miller built a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut. There, in less than a day, he wrote Act I of Death of a Salesman. Within six weeks, he completed the rest of the play, one of the classics of world theater. Death of a Salesman premiered on Broadway on February 10, 1949, at the Morosco Theatre, directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony Award for Best Author, the New York Drama Circle Critics ' Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The play was performed 742 times. In 1949, Miller exchanged letters with Eugene O'Neill regarding Miller 's production of All My Sons. O'Neill had sent Miller a congratulatory telegram; in response, he wrote a letter that consisted of a few paragraphs detailing his gratitude for the telegram, apologizing for not responding earlier, and inviting Eugene to the opening of Death of a Salesman. O'Neill replied, accepting the apology, but declining the invitation, explaining that his Parkinson 's disease made it difficult to travel. He ended the letter with an invitation to Boston, which never occurred. In 1955, a one - act version of Miller 's verse drama A View from the Bridge opened on Broadway in a joint bill with one of Miller 's lesser - known plays, A Memory of Two Mondays. The following year, Miller revised A View from the Bridge as a two - act prose drama, which Peter Brook directed in London. A French - Italian co-production Vu du pont, based on the play, was released in 1962. In June 1956, Miller left his first wife, Mary Slattery, whom he married in 1940, and married film star Marilyn Monroe. They had met in 1951, had a brief affair, and remained in contact since. Monroe had just turned 30 when they married, and having never had a real family of her own, was eager to join the family of her new husband. Monroe began to reconsider her career and the fact that trying to manage it made her feel helpless. She admitted to Miller, "I hate Hollywood. I do n't want it anymore. I want to live quietly in the country and just be there when you need me. I ca n't fight for myself anymore. '' She converted to Judaism to "express her loyalty and get close to both Miller and his parents '', writes biographer Jeffrey Meyers. Monroe told her close friend, Susan Strasberg: "I can identify with the Jews. Everybody 's always out to get them, no matter what they do, like me. '' Soon after she converted, Egypt banned all of her movies. Away from Hollywood and the culture of celebrity, Monroe 's life became more normal; she began cooking, keeping house and giving Miller more attention and affection than he had been used to. His children, aged twelve and nine, adored her and were reluctant to return to their mother when the weekend was over. As she was also fond of older people, she got along well with his parents, and the feeling was mutual. Later that year, Miller was subpoenaed by the HUAC, and Monroe accompanied him. In her personal notes, she wrote about her worries during this period: I am so concerned about protecting Arthur. I love him -- and he is the only person -- human being I have ever known that I could love not only as a man to which I am attracted to practically out of my senses -- but he is the only person -- as another human being that I trust as much as myself... Miller began work on writing the screenplay for The Misfits in 1960, directed by John Huston and starring Monroe. But it was during the filming that Miller and Monroe 's relationship hit difficulties, and he later said that the filming was one of the lowest points in his life. Monroe was taking drugs to help her sleep and more drugs to help her wake up, which caused her to arrive on the set late and then have trouble remembering her lines. Huston was unaware that Miller and Monroe were having problems in their private life. He recalled later, "I was impertinent enough to say to Arthur that to allow her to take drugs of any kind was criminal and utterly irresponsible. Shortly after that I realized that she would n't listen to Arthur at all; he had no say over her actions. '' Shortly before the film 's premiere in 1961, Miller and Monroe divorced after their five years of marriage. Nineteen months later, Monroe died of a likely drug overdose. Huston, who had also directed her in her first major role in The Asphalt Jungle in 1950, and who had seen her rise to stardom, put the blame for her death on her doctors as opposed to the stresses of being a star: "The girl was an addict of sleeping pills and she was made so by the God - damn doctors. It had nothing to do with the Hollywood set - up. '' Miller later married photographer Inge Morath in February 1962. She had worked as a photographer documenting the production of The Misfits. The first of their two children, Rebecca, was born September 15, 1962. Their son, Daniel, was born with Down syndrome in November 1966. Against his wife 's wishes, Miller had him institutionalized, first at a home for infants in New York City, and then at the Southbury Training School in Connecticut. Miller never visited Daniel at the school and rarely spoke of him. Miller and Inge remained together until her death in 2002. Arthur Miller 's son - in - law, actor Daniel Day - Lewis, is said to have visited Daniel frequently, and to have persuaded Arthur Miller to meet with him. In 1952, Elia Kazan appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Kazan named eight members of the Group Theatre, including Clifford Odets, Paula Strasberg, Lillian Hellman, J. Edward Bromberg, and John Garfield, who in recent years had been fellow members of the Communist Party. After speaking with Kazan about his testimony, Miller traveled to Salem, Massachusetts to research the witch trials of 1692. The Crucible, in which Miller likened the situation with the House Un-American Activities Committee to the witch hunt in Salem in 1692, opened at the Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953. Though widely considered only somewhat successful at the time of its release, today The Crucible is Miller 's most frequently produced work throughout the world. It was adapted into an opera by Robert Ward in 1961. Miller and Kazan were close friends throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, but after Kazan 's testimony to the HUAC, the pair 's friendship ended, and they did not speak to each other for the next ten years. The HUAC took an interest in Miller himself not long after The Crucible opened, denying him a passport to attend the play 's London opening in 1954. Kazan defended his own actions through his film On the Waterfront, in which a dockworker heroically testifies against a corrupt union boss. When Miller applied in 1956 for a routine renewal of his passport, the House Un-American Activities Committee used this opportunity to subpoena him to appear before the committee. Before appearing, Miller asked the committee not to ask him to name names, to which the chairman, Francis E. Walter (D - PA) agreed. When Miller attended the hearing, to which Monroe accompanied him, risking her own career, he gave the committee a detailed account of his political activities. Reneging on the chairman 's promise, the committee demanded the names of friends and colleagues who had participated in similar activities. Miller refused to comply, saying "I could not use the name of another person and bring trouble on him. '' As a result, a judge found Miller guilty of contempt of Congress in May 1957. Miller was sentenced to a fine and a prison sentence, blacklisted, and disallowed a US passport. In 1958, his conviction was overturned by the court of appeals, which ruled that Miller had been misled by the chairman of the HUAC. Miller 's experience with the HUAC affected him throughout his life. In the late 1970s he became very interested in the highly publicized Barbara Gibbons murder case, in which Gibbons ' son Peter Reilly was convicted of his mother 's murder based on what many felt was a coerced confession and little other evidence. City Confidential, an A&E Network series, produced an episode about the murder, postulating that part of the reason Miller took such an active interest (including supporting Reilly 's defense and using his own celebrity to bring attention to Reilly 's plight) was because he had felt similarly persecuted in his run - ins with the HUAC. He sympathized with Reilly, whom he firmly believed to be innocent and to have been railroaded by the Connecticut State Police and the Attorney General who had initially prosecuted the case. In 1964 After the Fall was produced, and is said to be a deeply personal view of Miller 's experiences during his marriage to Monroe. The play reunited Miller with his former friend Kazan: they collaborated on both the script and the direction. After the Fall opened on January 23, 1964, at the ANTA Theatre in Washington Square Park amid a flurry of publicity and outrage at putting a Monroe - like character, called Maggie, on stage. Robert Brustein, in a review in the New Republic, called After the Fall "a three and one half hour breach of taste, a confessional autobiography of embarrassing explicitness... there is a misogynistic strain in the play which the author does not seem to recognize... He has created a shameless piece of tabloid gossip, an act of exhibitionism which makes us all voyeurs,... a wretched piece of dramatic writing. '' That same year, Miller produced Incident at Vichy. In 1965, Miller was elected the first American president of PEN International, a position which he held for four years. A year later, Miller organized the 1966 PEN congress in New York City. Miller also wrote the penetrating family drama, The Price, produced in 1968. It was Miller 's most successful play since Death of a Salesman. In 1969, Miller 's works were banned in the Soviet Union after he campaigned for the freedom of dissident writers. Throughout the 1970s, Miller spent much of his time experimenting with the theatre, producing one - act plays such as Fame and The Reason Why, and traveling with his wife, producing In The Country and Chinese Encounters with her. Both his 1972 comedy The Creation of the World and Other Business and its musical adaptation, Up from Paradise, were critical and commercial failures. Miller was an unusually articulate commentator on his own work. In 1978 he published a collection of his Theater Essays, edited by Robert A. Martin and with a foreword by Miller. Highlights of the collection included Miller 's introduction to his Collected Plays, his reflections on the theory of tragedy, comments on the McCarthy Era, and pieces arguing for a publicly supported theater. Reviewing this collection in the Chicago Tribune, Studs Terkel remarked, "in reading (the Theater Essays)... you are exhilaratingly aware of a social critic, as well as a playwright, who knows what he 's talking about. '' In 1983, Miller traveled to China to produce and direct Death of a Salesman at the People 's Art Theatre in Beijing. The play was a success in China and in 1984, Salesman in Beijing, a book about Miller 's experiences in Beijing, was published. Around the same time, Death of a Salesman was made into a TV movie starring Dustin Hoffman as Willy Loman. Shown on CBS, it attracted 25 million viewers. In late 1987, Miller 's autobiographical work, Timebends, was published. Before it was published, it was well known that Miller would not talk about Monroe in interviews; in Timebends Miller talks about his experiences with Monroe in detail. During the early - mid 1990s, Miller wrote three new plays: The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991), The Last Yankee (1992), and Broken Glass (1994). In 1996, a film of The Crucible starring Daniel Day - Lewis, Paul Scofield, Bruce Davison, and Winona Ryder opened. Miller spent much of 1996 working on the screenplay to the film. Mr. Peters ' Connections was staged Off - Broadway in 1998, and Death of a Salesman was revived on Broadway in 1999 to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary. The play, once again, was a large critical success, winning a Tony Award for best revival of a play. In 1993, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. Miller was honored with the PEN / Laura Pels International Foundation for Theater Award for a Master American Dramatist in 1998. In 2001 the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) selected Miller for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government 's highest honor for achievement in the humanities. Miller 's lecture was entitled "On Politics and the Art of Acting. '' Miller 's lecture analyzed political events (including the U.S. presidential election of 2000) in terms of the "arts of performance, '' and it drew attacks from some conservatives such as Jay Nordlinger, who called it "a disgrace, '' and George Will, who argued that Miller was not legitimately a "scholar. '' In 1999, Miller was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest prizes in the arts, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankind 's enjoyment and understanding of life. '' In 2001, Miller received the National Book Foundation 's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters. On May 1, 2002, Miller was awarded Spain 's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as "the undisputed master of modern drama. '' Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of lymphatic cancer at the age of 78. The following year Miller won the Jerusalem Prize. In December 2004, 89 - year - old Miller announced that he had been in love with 34 - year - old minimalist painter Agnes Barley and had been living with her at his Connecticut farm since 2002, and that they intended to marry. Within hours of her father 's death, Rebecca Miller ordered Barley to vacate the premises, having consistently opposed the relationship. Miller 's final play, Finishing the Picture, opened at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago, in the fall of 2004, with one character said to be based on Barley. It was reported to be based on his experience during the filming The Misfits, though Miller insisted the play is a work of fiction with independent characters that were no more than composite shadows of history. Miller died of bladder cancer and heart failure, at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. He had been in hospice care at his sister 's apartment in New York since his release from hospital the previous month. He died on the evening of February 10, 2005 (the 56th anniversary of the Broadway debut of Death of a Salesman), aged 89, surrounded by Barley, family and friends. His body was interred at Roxbury Center Cemetery in Roxbury. Arthur Miller 's career as a writer spanned over seven decades, and at the time of his death, Miller was considered to be one of the greatest dramatists of the twentieth century. After his death, many respected actors, directors, and producers paid tribute to Miller, some calling him the last great practitioner of the American stage, and Broadway theatres darkened their lights in a show of respect. Miller 's alma mater, the University of Michigan, opened the Arthur Miller Theatre in March 2007. As per his express wish, it is the only theatre in the world that bears Miller 's name. Other notable arrangements for Miller 's legacy are that his letters, notes, drafts and other papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin. Arthur Miller is also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame. He was inducted in 1979. In 1993 he received the Four Freedom Award for Freedom of Speech. The Arthur Miller Foundation was founded to honor the legacy of Miller and his New York City Public School Education. The mission of the foundation is: "Promoting increased access and equity to theater arts education in our schools and increasing the number of students receiving theater arts education as an integral part of their academic curriculum. '' Other initiatives include certification of new theater teachers and their placement in public schools; increasing the number of theater teachers in the system from the current estimate of 180 teachers in 1800 schools; supporting professional development of all certified theater teachers; providing teaching artists, cultural partners, physical spaces, and theater ticket allocations for students. The foundation 's primary purpose is to provide arts education in the New York City school system. The current chancellor of the foundation is Carmen Farina, a large proponent of the Common Core State Standards Initiative. Alec Baldwin, Ellen Barkin, Katori Hall, Dustin Hoffman, Scarlett Johansson, Tony Kushner, Michael Mayer, Jim McElhinney, Julianne Moore, Liam Neeson, Lynn Nottage, David O. Russell, Liev Schreiber all serve on the Master Arts Council. Son - in - law Daniel Day - Lewis serves on the current board of directors. The foundation celebrated Miller 's 100th birthday with a one - night - only performance of Miller 's seminal works in November 2015. The Arthur Miller Foundation currently supports a pilot program in theater and film at the public school Quest to Learn in partnership with the Institute of Play. The model is being used as an in - school elective theater class and lab. The objective is to create a sustainable theater education model to disseminate to teachers at professional development workshops. Miller donated thirteen boxes of his earliest manuscripts to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 1961 and 1962. This collection included the original handwritten notebooks and early typed drafts for Death of a Salesman, The Crucible, All My Sons, and other works. In January, 2018, the Ransom Center announced the acquisition of the remainder of the Miller archive totaling over 200 boxes. The full archive will be available for research after it is catalogued, no later than November, 2019. Miller successfully synthesized diverse dramatic styles and movements in the belief that a play should embody a delicate balance between the individual and society, between the singular personality and the polity, and between the separate and collective elements of life. He thought himself a writer of social plays with a strong emphasis on moral problems in American society and often questioned psychological causes of behavior. He also built on the realist tradition of Henrik Ibsen in his exploration of the individual 's conflict with society but also borrowed Symbolist and expressionist techniques from Bertolt Brecht and others. Some critics attempt to interpret his work from either an exclusively political or an exclusively psychological standpoint but fail to pierce the social veil that Miller creates in his work. Miller often stressed that society made his characters what they are and how it dictated all of their fears and choices. While Miller comes under criticism for his reputation, most critics note him as a dramatist of the family. One of his greatest strengths is his penetrating insight into familial relationships. Often, Miller positions his characters are living in service of their family. The conventions of the family play, such as patterns, setting, and style of representation were set canonically by Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee Williams, and Miller. In these plays, white men are privileged with their family and social responsibility; typically, these men are lower class. Miller maintained that family relationships and families must be immersed in social context. Miller is known for the consciousness of the characters in his play. In his plays, he confronts a level of banality with the roller coaster of guilt and responsibility. Some strong examples of characters who portray this struggle between their conscious and their social responsibility are Joe Keller in All My Sons and John Proctor in The Crucible. Miller often creates consequences for characters who ignore or violate their social responsibilities. Miller 's determination to deal with the eternal themes of life, death and human purpose is one of his most prominent themes across his works. This theme spans from Willy Loman 's dedication to providing for his family and his inherent belief that his death would leave a legacy, to John Proctor 's willingness to die to preserve his name. Nearly all of Miller 's protagonists struggle with the mark they leave on life and what it means to die. In Death of a Salesman -- originally entitled "The Inside of His Head '' -- Miller brilliantly solves the problem of revealing his main character 's inner discord, rendering Willy Loman as solid as the society in which he tries to sell himself. Indeed, many critics believe that Miller has never surpassed his achievement in this play, which stands as his breakthrough work, distinguished by an extremely long Broadway run, by many revivals, and by many theater awards, including the Pulitzer Prize in 1949. Death of a Salesman seems destined to remain an American classic and a standard text in American classrooms. Willy Loman desperately wants to believe that he has succeeded, that he is "well liked '' as a great salesman, a fine father, and a devoted husband. That he has not really attracted the admiration and popularity at which he has aimed is evident, however, in the weariness that belabors him from the beginning of the play. Nearing retirement he suffers a drastic decrease in sales work, a dissatisfying marriage, and a turbulent relationship with his sons which inexorably leads to his suicide with the justification that the insurance will finally provide for his family. Eddie Carbone is the central character in A View from the Bridge and is not positioned as the protagonist or the antagonist. He is a longshoreman who lives with his wife, Beatrice, and his 17 - year - old niece, Catherine. When his family from Italy, Rodolpho and Marco, migrate illegally and begin to live with him, the small world that he operates in is disrupted. Eddie becomes conflicted and ultimately self - destructive over his sexual attraction to his niece and her involvement with one of his Italian tenants. His character arc culminates as he becomes an informer to the immigration authorities which leads to a confrontation with one of his tenants. Marco labels him as an informer and Eddie perceives this as a permanent blemish on his good name. This confrontation ultimately leads to his death, leaving Eddie as one of Miller 's examples of tragic figures. John Proctor is the protagonist of one of Miller 's most controversial works, The Crucible. He is a faithful farmer who lives by a strict moral code that he violates by succumbing to an affair with a young girl, Abigail, who serves in his home. After Proctor rejects her, Abigail spitefully accuses John 's wife of witchcraft, involving him in a string of affairs that challenge his beliefs and convictions. In his attempts to save his wife, he is convicted of witchcraft as well, and will only be acquitted if he confesses to his crime and signs his name to a piece of paper. Proctor is a strong, vital man in the prime of his life both in his confession of witchcraft and the subsequent passion with which he defends his name at the cost of his life. Critics have long admired the playwright 's suspenseful handling of the Keller family 's burden in the play All My Sons. The critical character in this work is Joe Keller, who permitted defective parts to remain in warplanes that subsequently crash. Not only does Joe Keller fail to recognize his social responsibility, but also he allows his business partner to take the blame and serve the prison term for the crime. Gradually, events combine to strip Keller of his rationalizations. He argues that he never believed that the cracked engine heads would be installed and that he never admitted his mistake because it would have driven him out of business at the age of sixty - one, when he would not have another chance to "make something '' for his family, his highest priority. Joe 's irresponsibility is exposed through his son 's questioning of his very humanity. Joe 's suicide results from the tremendous guilt and self - awareness that arises during the play. Maggie is a character that appears in Arthur Miller 's partially autobiographical play, After the Fall. She is both one of his most criticised and controversial characters, and one of his most famous ones. She is a thinly veiled version of Marilyn Monroe, Miller 's former wife, and thus her suicide attempts after her and Quentin 's divorce, and her depression is from reality. This is one of the reasons that reviews upon its first release were generally negative, owing to the similarities between fact and fiction. However, academic scholars find her to be one of the best, if not the best, of Miller 's creations, as the play presents readers with a superb portrait of a woman facing a mental crisis. It also shows Monroe in comparison to the reasons for her marriage to Miller - for example, the fact that Miller took her seriously, and was ready to treat her as more than just an object, like everybody else. Miller also highlights his own feelings after Monroe 's death by showing Quentin 's, and his regret that he had been unable to save her from herself. Christopher Bigsby wrote Arthur Miller: The Definitive Biography based on boxes of papers Miller made available to him before his death in 2005. The book was published in November 2008, and is reported to reveal unpublished works in which Miller "bitterly attack (ed) the injustices of American racism long before it was taken up by the civil rights movement ''. In his book Trinity of Passion, author Alan M. Wald conjectures that Miller was "a member of a writer 's unit of the Communist Party around 1946, '' using the pseudonym Matt Wayne, and editing a drama column in the magazine The New Masses. Two months after Miller died Peter O'Toole called him a "bore '' and Roger Kimball went on record saying that Miller 's artistic accomplishments were meager. Critical Articles Organizations Archive Databases Websites Interviews Obituaries

what does the v mean in court cases

Legal case - wikipedia A legal case is a dispute between opposing parties resolved by a court, or by some equivalent legal process. A legal case may be either civil or criminal. In each legal case there is an accuser and one or more defendants. A civil case, more commonly known as a lawsuit or controversy, begins when a plaintiff files a document called a complaint with a court, informing the court of the wrong that the plaintiff has allegedly suffered because of the defendant, and requesting a remedy. The remedy sought may be money, an injunction, which requires the defendant to perform or refrain from performing some action, or a declaratory judgment, which determines that the plaintiff has certain legal rights. The remedy will be prescribed by the court if the plaintiff wins the case. A civil case can also be arbitrated through arbitration, which may result in a faster settlement, with lower costs, than could be obtained by going through a trial. The plaintiff must make a genuine effort to inform the defendant of the case through service of process, by which the plaintiff delivers to the defendant the same documents that the plaintiff filed with the court. At any point during the case, the parties can agree to a settlement, which will end the case, although in some circumstances, such as in class actions, a settlement requires court approval in order to be binding. Cases involving separation including asset division, support (a.k.a. maintenance or alimony), and matters related to children are handled differently in different jurisdictions. Often, the court 's procedure for dealing with family cases is very similar to that of a civil case (it requires service and disclosure, and will issue judgments). Divorce and separation from a spouse is one of the most stressful situations, as rated by the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale, and so family proceedings are increasingly being "divorced '' from the often very formal and impersonal process of civil proceedings, and given special treatment. A criminal case, in common law jurisdictions, begins when a person suspected of a crime is indicted by a grand jury or otherwise charged with the offense by a government official called a prosecutor or district attorney. A criminal case may in some jurisdictions be settled before a trial through a plea bargain. Typically, in a plea bargain, the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge than that which was originally brought by the grand jury or prosecuter. A defendant who goes to trial risks greater penalties than would normally be imposed through a plea bargain. Legal cases, whether criminal or civil, are premised on the idea that a dispute will be fairly resolved when a legal procedure exists by which the dispute can be brought to a factfinder not otherwise involved in the case, who can evaluate evidence to determine the truth with respect to claims of guilt, innocence, liability, or lack of fault. Details of the procedure may depend on both the kind of case and the kind of system in which the case is brought - whether, for example, it is an inquisitorial system or a solo In most systems, the governing body responsible for overseeing the courts assigns a unique number / letter combination or similar designation to each case in order to track the various disputes that are or have been before it. The outcome of the case is recorded, and can later be reviewed by obtaining a copy of the documents associated with the designation previously assigned to the case. However, it is often more convenient to refer to cases -- particularly landmark and other notable cases -- by a title of the form Claimant v Defendant (e.g. Arkell v Pressdram). Where a legal proceeding does not have formally designated adverse parties, a form such as In re, Re or In the matter of is used (e.g. In re Gault). The "v '' separating the parties is an abbreviation of the Latin versus, but, when spoken in Commonwealth countries, it is normally rendered as "and '' or "against '' (as in, for example, Charles Dickens ' Jarndyce and Jarndyce). Where it is considered necessary to protect the anonymity of a natural person, some cases may have one or both parties replaced by a standard pseudonym (Jane Roe in Roe v. Wade) or by an initial (D v D). In titles such as R v Adams, however, the initial "R '' is usually an abbreviation for the Latin Rex or Regina, i.e. for the Crown. (For an explanation of other terms that may appear in case titles, see the Glossary of legal terms.)

ncaa men's basketball first team all american

2018 NCAA Men 's Basketball All - Americans - wikipedia An All - American team is an honorary sports team composed of the best amateur players of a specific season for each team position -- who in turn are given the honorific "All - America '' and typically referred to as "All - American athletes '', or simply "All - Americans ''. Although the honorees generally do not compete together as a unit, the term is used in U.S. team sports to refer to players who are selected by members of the national media. Walter Camp selected the first All - America team in the early days of American football in 1889. The 2018 NCAA Men 's Basketball All - Americans are honorary lists that include All - American selections from the Associated Press (AP), the United States Basketball Writers Association (USBWA), the Sporting News (TSN), and the National Association of Basketball Coaches (NABC) for the 2017 -- 18 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season. All selectors choose at least a first and second 5 - man team. The NABC, TSN and AP choose third teams, while AP also lists honorable mention selections. The Consensus 2018 College Basketball All - American team is determined by aggregating the results of the four major All - American teams as determined by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Since United Press International was replaced by TSN in 1997, the four major selectors have been the aforementioned ones. AP has been a selector since 1948, NABC since 1957 and USBWA since 1960. To earn "consensus '' status, a player must win honors based on a point system computed from the four different all - America teams. The point system consists of three points for first team, two points for second team and one point for third team. No honorable mention or fourth team or lower are used in the computation. The top five totals plus ties are first team and the next five plus ties are second team. Although the aforementioned lists are used to determine consensus honors, there are numerous other All - American lists. The ten finalists for the John Wooden Award are described as Wooden All - Americans. The ten finalists for the Senior CLASS Award are described as Senior All - Americans. Other All - American lists include those determined by USA Today, Fox Sports, Yahoo! Sports and many others. The scholar - athletes selected by College Sports Information Directors of America (CoSIDA) are termed Academic All - Americans. AP Honorable Mention: On March 12, 2018, the College Sports Information Directors of America (CoSIDA) announced the 2018 Academic All - America team, with Jevon Carter headlining the NCAA Division I team as the men 's college basketball Academic All - American of the Year. The following is the 2017 -- 18 Academic All - America Division I Men 's Basketball Team as selected by CoSIDA: The ten finalists for the Senior CLASS Award are called Senior All - Americans. The first and second teams, as well as the award winner, were announced during the lead - in to the Final Four. The overall award winner is indicated in bold type.

the possibility of evil by shirley jackson theme

The Possibility of Evil - wikipedia "The Possibility of Evil '' is a 1965 short story by Shirley Jackson. Published on December 18, 1965, in the Saturday Evening Post, a few months after her death, it won the 1966 Edgar Allan Poe Award for best mystery short story. It has since been reprinted in the 1996 collection Just an Ordinary Day as well as "Elements of English 10 '' for high school students. While not as well - known or read as her later classic, "The Lottery '', it later became a set work in high school English classes. The title of this story bears reference to the malicious and cold - hearted letters that are being circulated around the village in which there is ' no possibility of evil. ' This means that the novel is a contrast and that the village, in fact, represents Strangeworth herself, a poor old lady in which there is no trace of cruelty. This is not only a display of dramatic irony, but also a reference of the contrast between us as humans on the inside, and the people we choose to show others. Miss Adela Strangeworth lives on Pleasant Street in her ancestral home. She is described prominently as a harmless old lady in the beginning of the story. Through conversations with the people in her town, it is evident that Miss Strangeworth often believes that she owns the town, and has great interest in the townspeople. She also takes great pride in the orderliness of her house, as well as her family roses. However, Miss Strangeworth is not such a quiet figure in her town; she often writes anonymous letters to her neighbors, which are rarely based on fact and more on what gossip she has heard during her walks down the streets. When she is mailing some of them, one is dropped on the ground and one of her neighbors (whom she had once made a subject of her uncouth letters) notices, and, feeling kind, delivers it to the intended recipient (unaware the letter is meant to be anonymous). The next morning, Miss Strangeworth receives a similarly written letter, informing her that her roses, a source of her familial pride, have been destroyed. The story examines many themes, such as a person being two - faced, as well as how a single person can make a mark on a community. Miss Strangeworth: Miss Adela Strangeworth is a pensioner living on Pleasant Street, who is pleased with her lifestyle, the rest of the village 's respect for her, and, above all, her roses. She often goes into town, is sociable and is liked. However, behind this, she also sends poison pen letters to other members of the village. Many literary critics believe that a great deal of symbolism is in her name. Strangeworth seems to come from stranger, which tells the reader that she is, deep down, a stranger to all of the rest of the village, despite their belief that they know her. Mr Lewis: A friendly and likable character that Miss Strangeworth sees on her visit around the village. Receives a poison pen letter. Mrs Harper: Another character who receives a letter from Miss Strangeworth. She is deeply affected and does n't even desire to talk after the receival. Dave: A likable boy who accidentally exposes Miss Strangeworth. Critics have commented Dave to be an anti-villain, that is to say, hated in the eyes of the protagonist, yet truly a good person. He has also been commented to be both Miss Strangeworth 's savior and her destruction. This book often demonstrates many points that are noticeable in other Jackson works: teasing the reader with what the reader knows in comparison to the narrator is shown in We Have Always Lived in the Castle, for example. It is also written with casual style, odd owing to the seriousness of many of the situations. As with The Lottery, many believed this to be non-fiction for precisely this reason. It also deals with the "casual cruelty in the everyday '' that Jackson explores in almost all of her short stories. This short story explores many themes, usually mentioned in Analysis, such as a person having two sides to them, the dents that people make upon a community, and how they restore them, and the revenge of the fallen. There is also a frequently commented upon debate on the symbolism of the roses. The most common metaphor is that the roses represent Strangeworth 's impression on the rest of the community, how they all respect her. However, upon her discovery, her roses are tarnished. However, some argue that the roses represent the guilt that Strangeworth hides behind a much polished and examined display of non-knowing. Joyce Carol Oates described the story as ' terrifying ' and it is generally regarded as one of Jackson 's finest works. It was commented in an unrelated Daily Telegraph article that this was the point in which Shirley Jackson had reached maturity as an author, a process that began and continued long after the early & famous publication of Jackson 's controversial short story, The Lottery. This is a common opinion that has also been voiced by many other admirers of Jackson such as Paul Theroux and Neil Gaiman. It has even been commented by some critics to be Shirley Jackson 's masterpiece, and superior to The Lottery, We Have Always Lived in the Castle and The Haunting of Hill House. "The Possibility of Evil '' was once put into an attempt for a movie adaptation, as has happened for The Haunting of Hill House and The Lottery, in which Miss Strangeworth uses her letters to murder those in the community that she believed were preventing it from brilliance. However, it has since been given up on, and many of the intended team for the movie have proceeded to follow other pursuits instead. However, though the majority of reviews have been indisputably positive, in an article in The Spectator on Jackson, the columnist referred to this being, though above average for her usual work, undeserving of the acclaim that it has gathered, that it gained success only through it being published soon after Jackson 's death. The examples of somebody being two faced can be seen in numerous Jacksons, such as Trial by Combat, The Villager, The Witch, Charles, The Dummy, Of Course, and Got A Letter From Jimmy. The examples of dramatic irony can be found in Charles, Afternoon in Linen and Colloquy.

has there ever been an olympics in the us

List of Olympic Games scandals and controversies - wikipedia The Olympic Games is a major international multi-sport event. During its history, both the Summer and Winter Games were a subject of many scandals, controversies, and illegal drug uses. Some states have boycotted the Games on various occasions, often as a sign of protest against the International Olympic Committee, often having racial discrimination or contemporary politics of other participants. After both World Wars, the losing countries were not invited. Other controversies include decisions by referees and even gestures made by athletes.

where does the u.s. government get its authority to tax

Taxing and spending Clause - wikipedia The Taxing and Spending Clause (which contains provisions known as the General Welfare Clause) and the Uniformity Clause, Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 of the United States Constitution, grants the federal government of the United States its power of taxation. While authorizing Congress to levy taxes, this clause permits the levying of taxes for two purposes only: to pay the debts of the United States, and to provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. Taken together, these purposes have traditionally been held to imply and to constitute the federal government 's taxing and spending power. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; One of the most often claimed defects of the Articles of Confederation was its lack of a grant to the central government of the power to lay and collect taxes. Under the Articles, Congress was forced to rely on requisitions upon the governments of its member states. Without the power to independently raise its own revenues, the Articles left Congress vulnerable to the discretion of the several State governments -- each State made its own decision as to whether it would pay the requisition or not. Some states were not giving Congress the funds for which it asked by either paying only in part, or by altogether ignoring the request from Congress. Without the revenue to enforce its laws and treaties, or pay its debts, and without an enforcement mechanism to compel the States to pay, the Confederation was practically rendered impotent and was in danger of falling apart. The Congress recognized this limitation and proposed amendments to the Articles in an effort to supersede it. However, nothing ever came of those proposals until the Philadelphia Convention. The power to tax is a concurrent power of the federal government and the individual states. The taxation power has been perceived over time to be very broad, but has also, on occasion, been curtailed by the courts. United States v. Butler stated that the clause also granted "a substantive power... to appropriate '', not subject to the limitations imposed by the other enumerated powers of Congress. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises This power is considered by many to be essential to the effective administration of government. As argued under the Articles, the lack of a power to tax renders government impotent. Typically, the power is used to raise revenues for the general support of government. But, Congress has employed the taxing power in uses other than solely for the raising of revenue, such as: In 1922, the Supreme Court struck down a 1919 tax on child labor in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co., commonly referred to as the "Child Labor Tax Case ''. The Court had previously held that Congress did not have the power to directly regulate labor, and found the law at issue to be an attempt to indirectly accomplish the same end. This ruling appeared to have been reinforced in United States v. Butler, in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the processing taxes instituted under the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were an unconstitutional attempt to regulate state activity in violation of the Tenth Amendment. However, despite its outcome, Butler affirmed that Congress does have a broad power to tax, and to expend revenues within its discretion. With the power to tax implicitly comes the power to spend the revenues raised thereby in order to meet the objectives and goals of the government. To what extent this power ought to be utilized by the Congress has been the source of continued dispute and debate since the inception of the federal government, as will be explained below. However, interpretations recognizing an implicit power to spend have been questioned. The Supreme Court has also found that, in addition to the power to use taxes to punish disfavored conduct, Congress can also use its power to spend to encourage favored conduct. In South Dakota v. Dole, the Court upheld a federal law which withheld highway funds from states that did not raise their legal drinking age to 21. Several Constitutional provisions address the taxation and spending authority of Congress. These include both requirements for the apportionment of direct taxes and the uniformity of indirect taxes, the origination of revenue bills within the House of Representatives, the disallowal of taxes on exports, the General Welfare requirement, the limitation on the release of funds from the treasury except as provided by law, and the apportionment exemption of the Sixteenth Amendment. Additionally, Congress and the legislatures of the various states are prohibited from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax by the Twenty - fourth Amendment. The Constitution provides in the Origination Clause that all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives. The idea underlying the clause is that Representatives, being the most numerous branch of Congress, and most closely associated with the people, know best the economic conditions of the people they represent, and how to generate revenues for the support of government in the least burdensome manner. Additionally, Representatives are regarded the most accountable to the people, and thus are least likely to exercise the taxing power abusively or injudiciously. to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; Of all the limitations upon the power to tax and spend, the General Welfare Clause appears to have achieved notoriety as one of the most contentious. The dispute over the clause arises from two distinct disagreements. The first concerns whether the General Welfare Clause grants an independent spending power or is a restriction upon the taxing power. The second disagreement pertains to what exactly is meant by the phrase "general welfare. '' The two primary authors of The Federalist Papers set forth two separate, conflicting interpretations: Although The Federalist was not reliably distributed outside of New York, the essays eventually became the dominant reference for interpreting the meaning of the Constitution as they provided the reasoning and justification behind the Framers ' intent in setting up the federal government. While Hamilton 's view prevailed during the administrations of Presidents Washington and Adams, historians argue that his view of the General Welfare Clause was repudiated in the election of 1800, and helped establish the primacy of the Democratic - Republican Party for the subsequent 24 years. This assertion is based on the motivating factor which the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions played upon the electorate; the Kentucky Resolutions, authored by Thomas Jefferson, specifically criticized Hamilton 's view. Further, Jefferson himself later described the distinction between the parties over this view as "almost the only landmark which now divides the federalists from the republicans... '' Associate Justice Joseph Story relied heavily upon The Federalist as a source for his Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. In that work, Story excoriated both the Madisonian view and a previous, strongly nationalistic view of Hamilton 's which was rejected at the Philadelphia Convention. Ultimately, Story concluded that Thomas Jefferson 's view of the clause as a limitation on the power to tax, given in Jefferson 's opinion to Washington on the constitutionality of the national bank, was the correct reading. However, Story also concluded that Hamilton 's view on spending, articulated in his 1791 Report on Manufactures, is the correct reading of the spending power. Prior to 1936, the United States Supreme Court had imposed a narrow interpretation on the Clause, as demonstrated by the holding in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co., (1922) in which a tax on child labor was an impermissible attempt to regulate commerce beyond that Court 's equally narrow interpretation of the Commerce Clause. This narrow view was overturned in 1936 in United States v. Butler. There, the Court agreed with Justice Story 's construction, holding the power to tax and spend is an independent power; that is, the General Welfare Clause gives Congress power it might not derive anywhere else. However, the Court did limit the power to spending for matters affecting only the national welfare. The Court wrote: (T) he (General Welfare) clause confers a power separate and distinct from those later enumerated, is not restricted in meaning by the grant of them, and Congress consequently has a substantive power to tax and to appropriate, limited only by the requirement that it shall be exercised to provide for the general welfare of the United States.... It results that the power of Congress to authorize expenditure of public moneys for public purposes is not limited by the direct grants of legislative power found in the Constitution.... But the adoption of the broader construction leaves the power to spend subject to limitations.... (T) he powers of taxation and appropriation extend only to matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare. The tax imposed in Butler was nevertheless held unconstitutional as a violation of the Tenth Amendment reservation of power to the states. Shortly after Butler, in Helvering v. Davis, the Supreme Court interpreted the clause even more expansively, disavowing almost entirely any role for judicial review of Congressional spending policies, thereby conferring upon Congress a plenary power to impose taxes and to spend money for the general welfare subject almost entirely to Congress 's own discretion. In South Dakota v. Dole (1987) the Court held Congress possessed power to indirectly influence the states into adopting national standards by withholding, to a limited extent, federal funds where a state did not mean certain conditions required by Congress. Following that ruling, the Court later held by a 7 -- 2 vote in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012) that Congress conditioning a state 's receipt of the entirety of its federal Medicaid funds on whether said state elected to expand its Medicaid program in accordance with the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was an unconstitutionally coercive use of Congress 's spending power. To date, the Hamiltonian view of the General Welfare Clause predominates in case law. Historically, however, the Anti-Federalists were wary of such an interpretation of this power during the ratification debates in the 1780s. Due to the objections raised by the Anti-Federalists, Madison was prompted to author his contributions to The Federalist Papers, attempting to quell the Anti-Federalists ' fears of any such abuse by the proposed national government and to counter Anti-Federalist arguments against the Constitution. Proponents of the Madisonian view also point to Hamilton 's limited participation in the Constitutional Convention, particularly during the time frame in which this clause was crafted, as further evidence of his lack of constructive authority. An additional view of the General Welfare Clause that is not as well known, but as authoritative as the views of both Madison and Hamilton, can be found in the pre-Revolutionary writings of John Dickinson, who was also a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention. In his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767), Dickinson wrote of what he understood taxing for the general welfare entailed: The parliament unquestionably possesses a legal authority to regulate the trade of Great Britain, and all her colonies. Such an authority is essential to the relation between a mother country and her colonies; and necessary for the common good of all. He who considers these provinces as states distinct from the British Empire, has very slender notions of justice, or of their interests. We are but parts of a whole; and therefore there must exist a power somewhere, to preside, and preserve the connection in due order. This power is lodged in the parliament; and we are as much dependent on Great Britain, as a perfectly free people can be on another. I have looked over every statute relating to these colonies, from their first settlement to this time; and I find every one of them founded on this principle, till the Stamp Act administration. All before, are calculated to regulate trade, and preserve or promote a mutually beneficial intercourse between the several constituent parts of the empire; and though many of them imposed duties on trade, yet those duties were always imposed with design to restrain the commerce of one part, that was injurious to another, and thus to promote the general welfare. The raising of a revenue thereby was never intended. -- (emphasis in the original) The idea Dickinson conveyed above, explains University of Montana Law Professor Jeffrey T. Renz, is that taxing for the general welfare is but taxation as a means of regulating commerce. Renz expands upon this point: If we excise "general welfare '' from the Tax Clause, we are presented with the claim that Congress may not levy duties for purposes other than paying the debts and providing for the common defense. Indeed, omitting the general welfare phrase would eliminate nearly all duties for regulatory purposes. A strong argument could be made that while Congress might have the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce, the omission of "general welfare '' from the Tax Clause was intended to deny it the power to regulate commerce by means of duties. The narrow construction of the General Welfare Clause is unusual when compared to similar clauses in most State constitutions, and many constitutions of other countries. Virtually every state constitution has a general welfare clause which is interpreted as granting the state an independent power to regulate for the general welfare. An international example is provided with a report from the Supreme Court of Argentina: In Ferrocarril Central Argentino c / Provincia de Santa Fe, 569 the Argentine Court held that the General Welfare clause of the Argentine Constitution offered the federal government a general source of authority for legislation affecting the provinces. The Court recognized that the United States utilized the clause only as a source of authority for federal taxation and spending, not for general legislation, but recognized differences in the two constitutions. The final phrase of the Taxing and Spending Clause stipulates: but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. Here, the requirement is that taxes must be geographically uniform throughout the United States. This means taxes affected by this provision must function "with the same force and effect in every place where the subject of it is found. '' However, this clause does not require revenues raised by the tax from each state be equal. Justice Story characterized this requirement in a light more relevant to practicality and fairness: It was to cut off all undue preferences of one state over another in the regulation of subjects affecting their common interests. Unless duties, imposts, and excises were uniform, the grossest and most oppressive inequalities, vitally affecting the pursuits and employments of the people of different states, might exist. In other words, it was another check placed on the legislature in order to keep a larger group of states from "ganging up '' to levy taxes benefiting them at the expense of the remaining, smaller group of states. A somewhat notable exception to this limitation has been upheld by the Supreme Court. In United States v. Ptasynski, the Court allowed a tax exemption which was quasi-geographical in nature. In the case, oil produced within a defined geographic region above the Arctic Circle was exempted from a federal excise tax on oil production. The basis for the holding was that Congress had determined the Alaskan oil to be of its own class and exempted it on those grounds, even though the classification of the Alaskan oil was a function of where it was geographically produced. To understand the nuance of the Court 's holding, consider this explanation: Congress decides to implement a uniform tax on all coal mining. The tax so implemented distinguishes between different grades of coal (e.g., anthracite versus bituminous versus lignite) and exempts one of the grades from taxation. Even though the exempted grade could potentially be defined by where it is geographically produced, the tax itself is still geographically uniform. Language elsewhere in the Constitution also expressly limits the taxing power. Article I, Section 9 has more than one clause so addressed. Clause 4 states: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. Generally, a direct tax is subject to the apportionment rule, meaning taxes must be imposed among the states in proportion to each state 's population in respect to that state 's share of the whole national population. For example: As of the 2000 Census, nearly 34 million people populated California (CA). At the same time, the national population was 281.5 million people. This gave CA a 12 percent share of the national population, roughly. Were Congress to impose a direct tax in order to raise $1 trillion before the next census, the taxpayers of CA would be required to fund 12 percent of the total amount: $120 billion. Before 1895, direct taxes were understood to be limited to "capitation or poll taxes '' (Hylton v. United States) and "taxes on lands and buildings, and general assessments, whether on the whole property of individuals or on their whole real or personal estate '' (Springer v. United States). The decision in Springer went further in declaring that all income taxes were indirect taxes -- or more specifically, "within the category of an excise or duty. '' However, in 1895 income taxes derived from property such as interest, dividends, and rent (imposed under an 1894 Act) were treated as direct taxes by the Supreme Court in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co. and were ruled to be subject to the requirement of apportionment. As the income taxes imposed under the 1894 Act were not apportioned in such a manner, they were held unconstitutional. It was not the income tax per se, but the lack of a provision for its apportionment as a direct tax which made the tax unconstitutional. The resulting case law prohibiting unapportioned taxes on incomes derived from property was later eliminated by the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment in 1913. The text of the amendment was clear in its aim: The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on income, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Shortly after, in 1916, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad that under the Sixteenth Amendment income taxes were constitutional even though unapportioned, just as the amendment had provided. In subsequent cases, the courts have interpreted the Sixteenth Amendment and the Brushaber decision as standing for the rule that the amendment allows income taxes on "wages, salaries, commissions, etc. without apportionment. '' Article I, Section 9, Clause 5 provides a further limitation: No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. This provision was an important protection for the southern states secured during the Constitutional Convention. With the grant of absolute power over foreign commerce given to the federal government, the states whose economies relied chiefly on exports realized that any tax laid by the new central government upon a single item of export would apply very unevenly amongst all the states and favor states which did not export that good. In 1996, the Supreme Court held this provision prohibits Congress to tax any goods in export transit, and further forbids taxes on any services related to such export transit. Shortly after, the Supreme Court reaffirmed this provision in United States v. United States Shoe Corp. in 1998. As part of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986, a harbor maintenance tax (26 U.S.C. § 4461) was imposed at the ad valorem (percentile) rate of 0.125 % the value of the cargo instead of at a rate dependent entirely upon the cost of the service provided by the port. The Court unanimously affirmed the ruling of the lower Federal Circuit Court that a "user fee '' imposed in such a manner is, in fact, a tax on exports and unconstitutional. However, Congress may tax goods not in transit even though they are intended for export so long as the tax is not imposed solely for the reason that the good will be exported. For example, a tax imposed on all medical supplies would be constitutional even though there is a likelihood a portion of those supplies will be exported. The constraints placed upon the Taxing and Spending Clause and the subsequent powers derived therefrom do not stop at the Taxing Power. While such holdings are rare and unlikely under contemporary jurisprudence, the Supreme Court has shown in the past its possible willingness to intervene on Congressional spending where its effects amount to a disguised regulation on private activity. The case illustrative of this is United States v. Butler. In this case, the Court held that Congress had imposed a coercive federal regulatory scheme on farm production under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (AAA). By entering into contracts with farmers who reduced their output of selected crops, Congress had placed non-participating farmers at a distinct disadvantage to farmers who cooperated. As such, the program was not truly voluntary as it left the farmers no real choice; the options for the farmers were either cooperation or financial ruin. Under those circumstances, the regulatory scheme essentially required submission of farmers to a regulatory scheme Congress had no power to impose on its own. The holding of the Butler case stemmed from the legal theory of that era, which held that regulation of production fell outside of Congress 's commerce power. While the Court today is much more likely to defer to Congressional spending via the Commerce Clause, there are still circumstances where such spending may not be justifiable or validated by that power. While clearing the hurdle of regulatory spending may be easier today than in the past, another significant hurdle exists in the unconstitutional conditions doctrine. Under this principle, the government may not use its spending power to purchase the constitutional rights of the spending 's beneficiaries. Furthermore, entitlements may not be denied on grounds that violate a constitutionally protected right. The Court has typically held this spending limitation as only applying to First Amendment rights where the choice imposed is unreasonable or vague, or where the beneficiary essentially is put into a position where acceptance of the conditions becomes obligated. In 1988, the holding in South Dakota v. Dole reaffirmed the authority of Congress to attach conditional strings to the receipt of federal funds by state or municipal governments. In addition to the requirement that spending be for the general welfare, however, the Court devised more scrutinous criteria for determining the constitutionality of the conditions imposed: At dispute in Dole was a condition placed on the receipt of federal highway funds: elevation of the drinking age. Any state in which persons less than 21 years of age could lawfully possess and consume alcohol would consequently lose five percent of the federal highway funds allocated by Congress. The Court found the second and last conditions met since the requirement for the funds was germane to highway safety. Additionally, the loss of only five percent of the amount was not found so substantial as to be coercive in the eyes of the Court (as opposed to losing half or all of the funds might be). In 2012, the court held for the first time in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that Congress had used its power under the spending clause in a way that was impermissibly coercive. Article I, Section 9, Clause 7 imposes accountability on Congressional spending: No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. The first half of this clause indicates that Congress must have appropriated by law the funds to be spent before the funds can be released from the Treasury. It serves as a powerful check of the legislature on the executive branch, as it further secures Congress 's power of the purse. This provision, when also combined with the bicameral nature of Congress and the quorum requirements of both the Senate and the House of Representatives, serves as a constitutional check and balance on the legislature itself, preventing most spending that in effect does not implicitly have broad support with respect to both representational popular will in the House of Representatives and inter-regional approval in the Senate. Congress attempted to limit appropriations logrolling via riders with the Line Item Veto Act of 1996. The U.S. Supreme Court later struck down the act on grounds that it violated the Presentment Clause.

number of countries in europe that hosted the olympics

Winter Olympic Games - wikipedia The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver) is a major international sporting event held once every four years for sports practised on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, were held in Chamonix, France. The modern Olympic games were inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority. The original five Winter Olympics sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 by World War II, and resumed in 1948. Until 1992 the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the IOC to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four - year cycles in alternating even - numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994. The Winter Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Some others, including curling and bobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use of performance - enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter (as well as Summer) Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems. The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by twelve different countries. The Games have been held four times in the United States (in 1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002); three times in France (in 1924, 1968 and 1992); and twice each in Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948). Also, the Games have been held just once each in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), Russia (2014) and South Korea (2018). The IOC has selected Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics and the host of the 2026 Winter Olympics will be selected in September 2019. As of 2018, no city in the southern hemisphere has applied to host the cold - weather - dependent Winter Olympics, which are held in February at the height of the southern hemisphere summer. To date, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. Six of those countries have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States. The only country to have earned a gold medal at every Winter Olympics is the United States. Norway leads the all - time medal table for the Winter Olympics both on number of gold and overall medals, followed by the United States and Germany. A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in Stockholm, Sweden in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the IOC and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10 - time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles. Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I. The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week '' under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week '' (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the Winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics. St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed - skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years. The next Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid, New York, was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was long and expensive for most competitors, who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title, and Eddie Eagan of the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold medal in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6 -- 16 February. This was the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games. World War II interrupted the holding of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were then to be held at Garmisch - Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 Games were cancelled following the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Due to the ongoing war, the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled. St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty - eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals -- more than any Games to that point. The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim, and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition. After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Soviet immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete ''. The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full - time. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom. The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. It was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $80,000,000. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first winter Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village, the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run. The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice to the sports venues. Soviet speed - skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by winning all four speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run. Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events. French alpine ski racer Jean - Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for US $2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games. Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages. The organisers claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes ' expense. The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and, as of 2018, only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in the slalom. The 1976 Winter Olympics had initially been awarded in 1970 to Denver, Colorado in the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado 's centennial and the United States Bicentennial. However, in November 1972 the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3: 2 margin. The IOC responded by offering the Games to Vancouver - Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had previously been an official candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC 's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but the IOC opted instead to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal. In 1980 the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics took place at these Games, when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. This was an attempt by the IOC to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem as those used by Taiwan. As a result, China participated for the first time since 1952. American speed - skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or World record in every one of the five events in which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter). Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the "Miracle on Ice '', the American hockey team composed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal. Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front - runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well - organised and not affected by the run - up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean; their Boléro routine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal. In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days. New events were added in ski - jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year. The 1992 Winter Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region, with 18 events held in the city of Albertville and the remaining events spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom. The 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held separately from the Summer Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the 91st IOC Session (1986) to separate the summer and winter Games and place them in alternating even - numbered years. Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games and it was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women 's figure skating competition drew media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was controversially won by Oksana Baiul who became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13 - year - old Kim Yoon - Mi became the youngest - ever Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women 's 3,000 meter speed skating relay. Russia won the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground. Juan Antonio Samaranch described Lillehammer as "the best Olympic Winter Games ever '' in his closing ceremony speech. The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States were favoured to win the tournament as they both fielded numerous NHL players, but surprisingly neither team won any medals and it was the Czech Republic who prevailed. Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-G and the giant slalom. Tara Lipinski of the United States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won the Ladies ' Singles, a record that had stood since Sonja Henie of Norway won the same event, also aged 15, in St. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set in speed skating largely due to the introduction of the clap skate. The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These Games were the first to take place since the September 11 attacks of 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America '', and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members. German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie - Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short - track speed skating event. The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short - track speed skating events. Sun - Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun - Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women 's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G, Kjetil - Andre Aamodt of Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three different Olympics, winning the Super-G in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation '' and received a two - year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver. In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women 's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal - winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. Russia 's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under - performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty - one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China. Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics. The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 miles) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana. The Games were the most expensive so far, with a cost of £ 30 billion (USD 51 billion). On the snow, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen took two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen took three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongside Raisa Smetanina and Stefania Belmondo. Snowboarder Ayumu Hirano became the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in the halfpipe competition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Dutch dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events. Ireen Wüst was their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first skater to break the 100 - point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, luger Armin Zöggeler took a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games. Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £ 600 million in elite sport, Russia initially topped the medal table, taking 33 medals including thirteen golds. However Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the Russian Federal Security Service in opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with "clean '' urine. A subsequent investigation commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency led by Richard McLaren concluded that a state - sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from "at least late 2011 to 2015 '' across the "vast majority '' of Summer and Winter Olympic sports. On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia would be banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics with immediate effect and by the end of 2017 the IOC Disciplinary Commission had disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead. On 6 July 2011, Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the 2018 Winter Olympics over Munich, Germany, and Annecy, France. This was the first time that South Korea had been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018. More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The Olympic Stadium and many of the sports venues were situated in the Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, while a number of other sports venues were located in the Gangneung Olympic Park in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung. The lead - up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the tensions between North and South Korea and the ongoing Russian doping scandal. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete neutrally in Pyeongchang as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) but they were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag. The Games saw the addition of big air snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the programme. On the ice, the Netherlands again dominated the speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skater Sven Kramer won gold in the men 's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, with Marit Bjørgen winning bronze in the women 's team sprint and gold in the 30 kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæbo became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing when he won the men 's sprint at age 21. Noriaki Kasai of Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games. Ester Ledecká of the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two different sports at a single Winter Games. Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics. The host city for the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing in northern China, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The 2022 Winter Olympics will take place between 4 and 20 February 2022. The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Games (both summer and winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical ''. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities. According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for "... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games. '' Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In actual fact, Nagano 's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long - term effects have not materialised as anticipated. The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs into the future with no appreciable post-Olympic value. The Winter games has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men 's downhill needs an 800 meter altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC will not agree to it taking place a great distance from the main host city. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena. Due to cost issues, the only candidate cities for the 2022 Winter Olympics were in dictatorship countries, and a number of European countries declined due to political doubt over costs. Both the 2006 and 2010 Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues and transport infrastructure already existed. The IOC has enacted several initiatives to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, the commission has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation; this consequently rules out a large portion of the developing world. Finally, any prospective host city planning to bid for the Games is required to add a "legacy plan '' to their proposal, with a view to the long - term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region. In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance - enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug - testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999. The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood - doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of haemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi 's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with. The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the ' 90s. The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host - city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes. The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People 's Republic of China '' (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China '' (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China ''. The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei '' and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day. The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to "those... which are practised on snow or ice. '' Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are: more parity in the national medal tables; more interest in the Winter Olympics; and higher global television ratings. ^ Note 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 2. A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 3. The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 Games as an event within the sport of Biathlon. Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it 's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski - acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled - dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It included cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding. The table below uses official data provided by the IOC. Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves. Bibliography

mrs bucket from charlie and the chocolate factory

List of Charlie and the Chocolate factory characters - wikipedia The following is a list of characters in the Roald Dahl book Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the former 's film adaptations, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. In the novels and films, Willy Wonka is the odd owner of an extremely prosperous factory making candies and chocolates. The inciting action of the story occurs when Wonka holds a contest, hiding five Golden Tickets within the wrappers of chocolate bars, promising their discoverers a tour of his factory and a lifelong supply of his creations. Implications stand in all three versions that he allows four of his five finalists to disgrace themselves, in the hope that one does not. In the book, Wonka is described by Roald Dahl as having a goatee and "marvelously '' bright eyes, a high and "flutey '' voice, a face "alight of fun and laughter '', and quick little jerky movements "like a squirrel ''. He is enthusiastic, eccentric, charming, talkative, and friendly, but at times insensitive, and has been given to glossing criticisms of himself. In the 1971 film Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Gene Wilder. While his personality remains generally the same as in the original, he is more melancholy here, and frequently quotes books and poems, including William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Is it my soul that calls upon my name? '') or John Masefield 's "Sea Fever '' ("All I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ''), and the famous "Candy is dandy, but liquor is quicker '' from "Reflections on Ice Breaking '' by Ogden Nash, among many others. Toward the end of the film, he tests protagonist Charlie 's conscience by pretending to deny him any reward, but assumes an almost paternal role when Charlie proves honest. And as Charlie places the gobstopper on Wonka 's desk, Wonka declares Charlie the winner and apologies for his anger and tell him to meet his assistant Mr. Wilkinson (known earlier as "Slugworth ''). He explains they had to test him and Charlie passed. As they go to the Wonkavator, Wonka tells Charlie that the real grand prize is the entire chocolate factory and makes Charlie Bucket the new owner of the Willy Wonka Chocolate factory (as Willy Wonka retires), and the entire family can move in and live there. Wonka also reminds Charlie not to forget about the man who suddenly gets everything he ever wanted: he lives happily ever after. In the 2005 film Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, he is portrayed by Johnny Depp. In this version, a back - story was added that Willy Wonka 's father (being a dentist) would not let him eat sweets because of the potential risk to his teeth, and that the young Wonka left home to become a chocolatier. The conflict was so bad on young Wonka (portrayed by Blair Dunlop), that he took no interest in the kids when they arrived and could n't even say the word "parent ''. He later gains a soft spot for Charlie and offers him a spoon from the chocolate river. Toward the end of the film, Charlie reconciles the two. Charlie Bucket is a title character and the protagonist of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, its sequel Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, and the film adaptations of these books. He is depicted as a kind - hearted, nice, selfless, sweet, brave, but poor boy that lives with his mother, father and his four grandparents. In 1971, he has a newspaper route after school. He and his family follow the progress of the hunt for the Golden Tickets in newspapers, in films, and on television. Unlike the first four finalists, Charlie is honest and generous. In the 1971 film, Charlie was portrayed by Peter Ostrum, in his only film appearance. His nationality is never explicitly stated, but in the 1971 film, he speaks with an American accent, and in the 2005 film, he speaks with an English accent. The filmmakers have stated that it was their intention that Charlie 's hometown be kept ambiguous. In the novel, at the end of the tour, Wonka declares Charlie heir to the factory for his refusal of vice, and Charlie 's family are permitted to move into the factory. In the 1971 film, Charlie wins the factory when he returns an Everlasting Gobstopper given to him by Wonka, thereby passing Wonka 's moral test. In the 2005 film, Wonka initially refuses to allow Charlie 's family to join them in the factory, and Charlie rejects Wonka 's offer. When Charlie helps Wonka reconcile with his father, the family move into the factory and Charlie becomes Wonka 's partner. Grandpa Joe is one of Charlie 's four bed - ridden grandparents. He is usually stubborn, senile, and paranoid, but still kind, caring, grandfatherly, excitable, and supportive. He tells Charlie (and the reader) the story of Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory and the mystery of the secret workers. When Charlie finds the Golden Ticket, Grandpa Joe leaps out of bed in joy, and later accompanies Charlie on the factory tour. In the sequel book, Grandpa Joe accompanies Charlie, Willy Wonka, and all members of Charlie 's family in the Great Glass Elevator and assists the rescue of the Commuter Capsule from the Vermicious Knids. Grandpa Joe 's age is given as "ninety - six and a half '' in "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory '', making him the eldest of Charlie 's grandparents, but in the musical, it is stated he is almost ninety and a half. The character was played by Jack Albertson in the 1971 film adaptation Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory. In this film, he is often excitable, paranoid, stubborn and appears anxious that Charlie won the contest, and becomes angry when Charlie is dismissed without reward, despite the fact that they both violated the rules by stealing Fizzy Lifting Drinks and not following the tour, which indicated that Charlie violated the contract, unaware that Wonka had found out what they had done. He tells Charlie that he expects him to find all five Golden Tickets and most certainly expects Charlie to find one when he receives a Wonka Bar for his birthday. The character was played by David Kelly in the 2005 film adaptation, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Veteran actor Gregory Peck was originally selected to play the role, but he died in 2003 before filming began. This version of the character is written as more calm than the 1971 version. An original backstory to Grandpa Joe 's past was added to Tim Burton 's film, wherein it is said that Joe worked for Wonka until the latter fired all his workers from his factory due to constant corporate espionage by rival confectionery manufacturers. When he returns to the factory with Charlie for the tour, Wonka asks if he was a spy working for a competing factory before he humbly welcomes him back. Augustus Gloop is an obese, greedy, gluttonous boy, the first person to find a Golden Ticket and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He hails from fictitious Dusselheim, Germany in the 1971 film, and Düsseldorf, Germany in the 2005 film. His mother takes great pride in his gluttonous eating and seems to enjoy the attention of the media. In the novel and both films, he is portrayed as "enormously fat ''. Augustus is the first to be removed from the tour: while drinking from the Chocolate Room 's Chocolate River, he accidentally falls into the river and is drawn through a pipe to the factory 's Fudge Room. His parents are summoned to retrieve him from the mixing - machine. In the book, he is depicted leaving the factory, having lost most of his weight, and covered in melted chocolate. In the 1971 film, despite eating constantly, he has decent table manners, is not as obese as he is in the book, and is polite to Charlie and the other finalists. He is portrayed by Michael Bollner in this film. Since Bollner could not speak fluent English at the time of the film 's production, the 1971 Augustus has fewer lines and less screen time. In the 2005 film, Augustus is always shown consuming chocolate. He has a binge eating disorder and often has food smeared on his face. He is a bully towards Charlie in the one instance when they interact, as Augustus offers Charlie a bite of his Wonka Bar and then retracts it, saying Charlie should have brought some himself. As in the book, he is shown leaving the factory toward the end of the story; but in this version, he is his normal size, licking his fingers to remove the adherent chocolate he is still coated in. The actor, Philip Wiegratz, wore a fat suit for the production. In the book, both of Augustus 's parents accompany him to the factory. Both film versions contradict this, however, and have only his mother go with him. In the 2013 London musical, Augustus Gloop is known as "the Bavarian Beefcake '' in his Alpine community. His mother and father indulge his eating habits with sweets and pieces of sausage of which they (and sometimes Augustus) butcher themselves. In his number, "More of Him to Love '', Frau Gloop reveals that she had vital organs removed to retrieve Augustus from the womb. They arrive at the factory wearing traditional Eastern European clothing, with Augustus in a red, argyle sweater and green shorts. When Augustus falls into the chocolate river Wonka summons the diversionary pumping system to divert the flow, while Oompa Loompas dressed in red boiler suits sing, "Auf Wiedersehen Augustus Gloop '', as they prepare the chocolate, while Augustus travels through the main industrial pipe, occasionally getting stuck. Violet Beauregarde is the third person to find a Golden Ticket, and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She is the vain, self - centered, snobby, and gum - obsessed child. Violet chews gum obsessively and boasts that she has been chewing the same piece "for three months solid '', a world record which Violet proclaims was previously held by her best friend Cornelia Prinzmetel. She is also aggressively competitive, prideful and has won trophies for gum chewing. In the 1971 film, she is shown to be from Miles City, Montana, while in the 2005 film, she is from Atlanta, Georgia. When Wonka shows the group around the Inventing Room, he stops to display a new type of gum he is working on. The gum doubles as a three - course meal which is composed of tomato soup, roast beef and baked potato, and blueberry pie and ice cream. Violet is intrigued and, despite Wonka 's protests, snatches and chews the gum. She is delighted by its effects but, when she reaches the dessert, blueberry pie, her skin starts turning a somewhat blue color and her body begins to swell up, filling with juice. Eventually, Violet 's head, legs, and arms get sucked into her gigantic body, but she is still mobile and is able to waddle. When her swelling stops, she resembles a round blueberry, causing Wonka to have the Oompa - Loompas roll her to the Juicing Room to have the juice squeezed out of her in fear she may explode. She is last seen leaving the factory with the other children, restored to her normal size but with indigo skin like of a blueberry. Wonka says there is nothing that can be done to change Violet 's skin back to its original pigment. In the 1971 film, Violet is impatient, arrogant, self - centered, vain, and impulsive. She is accompanied by her father, Sam Beauregarde, a fast - talking car salesman who tries to advertise his business during Violet 's television interview. She demeans Cornelia Prinzmetel more than she did in the book. She was polite to everyone, except for Veruca. She has a notable rivalry with Veruca Salt, with whom she persistently argues. Her blueberry form is relatively small, and her hair color remains unchanged. Violet is informed that she must be juiced immediately before she explodes and is last seen en route to the Juicing Room, with her father following her. In the 2005 film, Violet has a rude, impatient and competitive personality. Aside from gum - chewing, she also has many other interests that reflect her obsession with always winning, such as karate. She is accompanied by her single mother, Scarlett Beauregarde (a former baton champion herself) whose own competitive personality appears to have had an influence on her daughter, as Scarlett expresses pride over Violet 's 263 trophies and medals. Cornelia Prinzmetel was not mentioned in this film. Violet is also shown to be anti-social and bullying when she briefly insults Charlie, snatching a piece of confectionery from his hand and calling him a loser when he tries to interact with her. She turns blue, although her lips remain red, and swells up into a 10 - foot blueberry before being rolled off to the Juicing Room by the Oompa Loompas to prevent her from bursting. Violet is shown leaving the factory gymnastically cartwheeling as a consequence of her increased flexibility, which she is actually happy about, although her mother is less than pleased with her daughter 's permanently indigo color. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Violet Beauregarde is portrayed as an African - American, Californian fame - hungry wan na - be, with her agent / father Eugene Beauregarde parlaying her mundane talent of gum chewing into celebrity status, with multitude of endorsements including her own TV show, line of perfume, and a clothing boutique franchise. Her theme is called "The Double - Bubble Duchess ''. It is revealed that Violet 's chewing "skill '' was picked up when she was a baby and her mom tried to get her to stop talking all the time. Violet and her father are escorted by an entourage to the factory entrance. Violet comes dressed in a sparkly purple and pink disco jumper and a pink backpack. Upon swelling in the influence of the experimental gum (which consisted of tomato soup, roast chicken, potatoes and gravy, Fizzy Orange, cheese and crackers and blueberry pie), she panics and runs away as the Oompa Loompas break into a disco number, "Juicy '', and roller skate along the stage as Violet lifts into the air, resembling a giant purple disco - ball. Mr. Beauregarde phones his lawyer excitedly, with intent to profit from Violet 's new size, until Violet explodes. Wonka 's only reassurance of her survival is the prospect of rescuing the pieces and de-juicing them. In the Broadway version, the song "Juicy '' is cut out (the only child - exit song to be cut from the London version), and Violet instead becomes a blueberry and explodes in the background while Wonka explains how he met the Ooompa - Loompas to the group. Veruca Salt is a greedy, demanding, manipulative and stingy brat and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. She demands every single thing she wants (and more), the second person to find a Golden Ticket, the third eliminated from the tour. A selfish, rotten brat who shows her wealthy family no mercy and has absolutely no regard for other people 's property, Veruca frequently pesters her parents to purchase a variety of different objects for her. In the 2005 film, it is revealed that she owns a pony, two dogs, four cats, six rabbits, two parakeets, three canaries, a parrot, a turtle, and a hamster, totalling up to 21 pets. But when she interferes with the trained squirrels used by Willy Wonka to select the best nuts to bake into chocolate bars, she is judged as a "bad nut '' by the squirrels and discarded into the adjacent ' garbage chute ' and her dad being with her follows suit. Both are later seen leaving the factory "covered in garbage ''. When she sees the Glass Elevator, she asks her dad to buy her one which causes him to retort that the only thing she 'll be getting is a bath. When she demands one again, her dad simply glares at her causing her to remain silent but sulk. Her nationality was never specified in Dahl 's novel, but she hails from an upper - class family in the United Kingdom in both films. In the 1971 film adaptation, Veruca has a fiery temper, rudely demands various desires nonstop, brags about her wealth, and chastises anyone who questions her. In this film it is not squirrels but geese that lay special golden chocolate - filled eggs for Easter, one of which she demands as a new pet. She and Violet, in this film, bicker on two occasions. Veruca is eliminated at the end of her musical number in the film ("I Want it Now '') after climbing a machine designed to tell whether or not the geese 's eggs are "good '' or "bad '' eggs, and it judges her as a bad one. Her father then follows and is also deemed bad. In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Veruca and her father manage to escape the furnace right before it ignites while trapping Tom inside. Veruca demands to be taken home and have her father make her a different chocolate factory, but Mr. Salt, having had enough of Veruca 's spoiled and selfish behavior, finally decides to discipline her as the near - death experience seems to have finally gotten to him. In the 2005 film adaptation, Veruca 's elimination remains virtually the same as in the book, with only a few changes made. Her demeanor is less vehement, but more obnoxious, compared to the 1971 version. When she leaves the factory (covered in trash), she demands a facsimile of the Great Glass Elevator. However, her father, having learned a good parenting lesson from the Oompa - Loompas and finally realizing how much he has spoiled her, sternly tells her that she will only be getting a bath that day instead, and shoots her a fierce glare for trying to argue any further. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Veruca Salt is a British billionaire 's daughter, dressed in a pink ballerina tutu and baby seal fur coat - "clubbed and tickled pink ''. Her father, Sir Robert Salt, is portrayed as a spineless dolt for giving his daughter her wishes. In the Nut Sorting Room, Veruca runs foul of the nut - testing squirrels who deem her a ' bad nut ' when she tries to steal one. This summons oversized squirrels with Oompa Loompas riding on their backs. They sing a nightmarish ballet "Veruca 's Nutcracker Sweet '' that concludes with Veruca and her father sent down the garbage chute. In the Broadway version, Veruca 's nationality is changed to Russian, and the squirrels tear her apart limb by limb, but Wonka assures the group that the Ooompa - Loompas will be able to put her back together. Mike Teavee, a boy that does nothing but watch television, the fourth Golden Ticket finder, and one of the four main antagonists of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. He was described as adorned with eighteen toy pistols that he ' fires ' while watching gangsters on TV. He is bad - tempered, slothful but also intelligent. How he found his Golden Ticket is never explained in the book or 1971 film as he is too absorbed in his television viewing to talk to the press about it. In the 2005 film, he does have an explanation on how he found the Golden Ticket: he used an algorithm to find it as an intellectual exercise. In the book, both of Mike 's parents tour the factory with him. During a display of miniaturization technology, used to transport chocolate, Mike shrinks himself to a tiny size, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take the Teavee family to the Gum - Stretcher Room to get Mike stretched back to normal. Mike is last seen exiting the factory, now 10 ft (3 m) tall because the Oompa - Loompas overstretched him. After he got shrunk when his parents lament that he wo n't be able to attend school, Mike happily says he can continue watching TV. His angry father then blames the TV for Mike 's poor behavior and decides to unplug it and throw it out the window when they get home, much to Mike 's displeasure. In the 1971 film, Mike is played by Paris Themmen and his surname is spelled "Teevee '' in the credits. Mike is nine years old and accompanied to the factory by his high - strung mother. He is from Arizona, enjoys Western films and wears cowboy attire. He makes constant references to television shows throughout the factory tour and comes across as somewhat of a know - it - all. Although easily annoyed, he does not have any major anger issues and gets along relatively well with the other kids. In the 2005 film, 13 - year - old Mike is (portrayed by Jordan Fry) interests are updated to the Internet and video games (especially gory first - person shooters), in addition to television viewing. In this version, he is from Denver, Colorado, and is portrayed as more disrespectful. Whenever he says something critical of Wonka 's company, or his ideas, Wonka reacts as if Mike is mumbling, even though he does not. He is able to find the Golden Ticket by using math and logic, though he admits he does not even like chocolate. When Mike demands to know why candy is pointless, Charlie tries to reason with him, saying candy does n't have to have a point. When they arrive in the Television Chocolate Room, Mike points that Wonka could use his teleportation device to revolutionize mankind, as opposed to distributing his products. When Mr. Teavee tries to reason with Mike, the boy insults Wonka. After the incident in the Television Chocolate room, Willy Wonka has an Oompa - Loompa take Mr. Teavee and Mike to the Taffy - Puller Room to have Mike stretched back to normal. When Mike and his father are later seen leaving the factory, Mike is 10 ft (3 m) tall as well as incredibly thin and flat. In the 2013 Sam Mendes London musical, Mike Teavee (now age 10) lives in a suburban neighborhood with his disinterested father Norman Teavee and neurotic, alcoholic mother, Doris Teavee. Their opening number, "It 's Teavee Time! '' has Mrs. Teavee presenting her family as a normal, functioning household, downplaying Mike 's violent tendencies like setting a cat on fire, chloroforming a nurse, and stealing a German tank. In the Department of the Future, where Wonka transmits chocolate by television, Mike anxiously jumps into the machine and transmits himself, much to his mother 's horror. Wonka summons the monitors to see on which channel Mike has ended, as the Oompa Loompas rave around the room, singing, ' Vidiots '. Near the end, Mrs. Teavee joins the rave, as they conclude that Mike still has a future on ' Mike.com '. When Mike is shrunk as a result of the transporter, Mrs. Teavee happily takes him home as he can no longer cause trouble and she can take care of him like when he was a baby. In the Broadway version of the musical, lyrics in Mike 's song and some of Mike 's mannerisms reference Donald Trump. In the book, Arthur Slugworth is one of Willy Wonka 's rival chocolatiers. Slugworth, along with Wonka 's other rivals Mr. Fickelgruber and Mr. Prodnose, sent in spies to steal the secret recipes to Wonka 's treats, which he plagiarized, nearly ruining Wonka 's factory. After Wonka re-opens his factory (operated exclusively by Oompa - Loompas), Slugworth is never heard from again, but it is stated that Fickelgruber would give each of his front teeth to enter Wonka 's inventing room (laboratory / chocolate room in the book) for three minutes. In the 1971 movie, Willy Wonka states that Slugworth would give his false teeth to get in for just five minutes. Slugworth has a much larger role as an enigmatic villain in the 1971 film. Inside Bill 's Candy Shop, Wonka 's products and signs are the most visible; but Slugworth 's Sizzlers are also prominent, and one is even sold to a child. Also seen are signs for Fickelgruber 's candy. Grandpa Joe describes Slugworth as the worst of Wonka 's rivals. As each Golden Ticket is found, a sinister man approaches the finder and whispers something into his or her ear. After Charlie finds the last ticket, the same man approaches Charlie as well, introduces himself as Arthur Slugworth, and bribes the child to bring him one piece of the newly invented ' Everlasting Gobstopper ', allowing him to plagiarize the formula and prevent the future invention from ruining his business. Two of the children (Veruca and Mike) respond to Slugworth 's bribe; but Charlie, when tempted, returns the Everlasting Gobstopper to Wonka. Wonka eventually reveals that the tempter is not Slugworth, but his own employee Mr. Wilkinson, and that his offer was a moral test of character. Slugworth / Wilkinson was played by Günter Meisner, a West German actor, while his speaking voice is provided by an uncredited Walker Edmiston. Slugworth only makes a split - second appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory where he alongside Mr. Ficklegruber and Mr. Prodnose are sending spies to steal ingredients from Wonka 's factory. He is here played by Philip Philmar. In the Tom and Jerry version of the 1971 film, Slugworth is the main antagonist, instead of an enigmatic villain. When he first meets Charlie, he sings a cover of Veruca 's song, "I Want it Now! '' and also sings it as a duet with Veruca during her downfall. He teams up with Spike to steal a Gobstopper from the factory, but the two are thwarted by Charlie, Tom, and Jerry. Despite being more emphasized as a villain, he is still revealed to be Wonka 's employee Mr. Wilkinson much to Tom & Jerry 's dismay. Nevertheless, the cat and mouse get the last word on Slugworth / Wilkinson (and Spike) by shrinking them with the Wonkavision tech. Mr. Turkentine is Charlie Bucket 's school teacher and appears in the first film in 1971, but not in the book or the 2005 film. He has an odd sense of humor, which he uses to express knowledge. He asks Charlie to assist him in making a medicine using several scientific elements for the class but the project is interrupted due to the frantic golden ticket search for Willy Wonka. Mr. Turkentine when hearing the news about the golden tickets during the project dismisses the class and runs out. Later when it is revealed that all the tickets have supposedly been found ending with a Paraguayan millionaire he decides to use Wonka bars as an example to teach his class about percentages. He uses a few students as examples for the class, including Charlie. Charlie however reveals that he only opened two Wonka bars during the search and so to help make it easier for his class, he decides to pretend Charlie opened 200. Mr. Turkentine is played by British actor David Battley. Prince Pondicherry is a prince who lives in India. He appears in the third chapter of the novel when Grandpa Joe is telling Charlie a story. In the story, Willy Wonka makes him a chocolate palace in India, that melts in the hot weather, as he had rejected Willy Wonka 's advice to eat it before it melted in the heat. His name derives from the city of Pondicherry (officially spelled Puducherry since 2006) in southeastern India. He is absent from the 1971 film version, but makes a brief appearance in Tim Burton 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, where he is played by Nitin Ganatra. His story here matches that in the book, except in depicting his wife (Shelley Conn) and stating that the Prince demanded a second palace, but was refused due to Wonka dealing with problems of his own at the time that involved spies sent by his rivals. Oompa - Loompas are small humans who would end up being preyed upon by the various predators that also reside in Loompaland before Wonka invited them to work at his factory. They are paid in their favorite food, cocoa beans, which were extremely rare on their island. The Oompa - Loompas are also mischievous, loving practical jokes and singing songs which, according to Wonka, they are very good at improvising. They sing at the end of each child 's demise. In early editions of the novel, the Oompa - Loompas (originally called "Whipple - Scrumpets '' before publication) are shown as African pygmies before Dahl rewrote them to be white - skinned and golden haired. In both editions, despite working in the factory, Oompa - Loompas insist on maintaining their native clothing: men wear skins, women wear leaves, and children wear nothing. In the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, they were written to be played by actors with dwarfism and are portrayed as orange - skinned, green - haired men in striped shirts and baggy lederhosen - like pants. Prominent portrayers included Angelo Muscat, Rusty Goffe, George Claydon, Rudy Borgstaller, Jo Kilkenny, Andy Wilday, Malcolm Dixon, Ismed Hassan, Norman Mcglen, Pepe Poupee, Marcus Powell, and Albert Wilkinson. In the 2005 film, the Oompa - Loompas are all played by Deep Roy and are virtually identical. They wear their tribal clothing during their time in Loompaland, and typical factory worker uniforms in Wonka 's Factory. Some of the female Oompa - Loompas, like Doris, work in the administration offices. Vermicious Knids are a fictional species of amorphous aliens that invade the Space Hotel "U.S.A. '' in Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. They are also mentioned in the 1971 feature film adaptation, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, but here are mentioned only as predators of the Oompa - Loompas. In the book, Vermicious Knids are huge, dark, egg - shaped predators who swallow their victims whole, and are capable of surviving, operating, and traveling faster than light, in the vacuum of space. Although normally oviform, they can assume any shape at will, while retaining their native texture and features. They originate (according to Mr. Wonka) on the planet Vermes, a fictional planet located (in dialogue) 184,270,000,000 miles (2.9655 × 10 kilometres) from Earth (52 times Pluto 's distance). In the presence of victims, they can not resist shaping themselves to spell the word "SCRAM '' (the only word they know) before they attack. In Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, a swarm of Knids take possession of the new Space Hotel "U.S.A. ''. When the transport capsule brings the staff to the Space Hotel, the Knids consume some of the staff, and the survivors retreat to the capsule. There, the Knids bludgeon the capsule with their own bodies, until its retro - rockets are useless; whereupon Wonka, Charlie, and Grandpa Joe connect the capsule to the Elevator, in hope of towing it to Earth, and one Knid wraps itself around the Elevator while the others form a chain, intending to draw the Elevator and capsule to their home planet. The Elevator then returns to Earth, and the Knids are incinerated in Earth 's atmosphere. When Nestlé created its interpretation of Wonka 's world to sell chocolate bars under the name "Wonka '', they released a number of downloadable flash games, wherein Knids seemed to have entered the factory and had the appearance of flying green blobs with single red eyes. The etymology of the name was not provided by Dahl. Pronunciation of Knid is said in the book to approximate adding a schwa between the "K '' and "nid '', or in Dahl 's words, "K'nid ''. Cnidaria is the name of the taxonomic phylum containing stinging aquatic invertebrates such as jellyfish and coral, itself derived from the classical Greek word for nettle, κνίδη. Vermicious is a real word, meaning "worm like ''. The Vermicious Knids are also mentioned in other Dahl stories, including James and the Giant Peach (where the New York Police Department misidentify Miss Spider as one) and The Minpins.

who was the cm when the state of mysore was renamed as karnataka

Mysore state - Wikipedia Mysore State was a separate state within the Union of India from 1948 until 1956 with Mysore as its capital. The state was considerably enlarged in 1956 when it became a linguistically homogeneous Kannada - speaking state in 1956, within the Union of India. It was subsequently incorporated into the state of Karnataka. The Kingdom of Mysore / maɪˈsɔːr / was one of the three largest princely states within the former British Empire of India. Upon India 's gaining its independence in 1947, Maharaja of Mysore Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar signed the instrument of accession, incorporating his realm with the Union of India on 15 August 1947. The territories of the erstwhile princely state of Mysore were then reconstituted into a state within the Union of India. In 1956, the Government of India effected a comprehensive re-organisation of provincial boundaries, based upon the principle of shared language. As a result of the States Reorganisation Act on 1 November 1956, the Kannada - speaking districts of Belgaum (except Chandgad taluk), Bijapur, Dharwar, and North Canara were transferred from Bombay State to Mysore State. Bellary district was transferred from Andhra State. South Canara and Udupi districts were transferred from Madras State and the Koppal, Raichur, Gulbarga and Bidar districts from Hyderabad State. Also small Coorg State was merged, becoming a district of Mysore State.. The state was renamed as Karnataka on 1 November 1973. Coordinates: 12 ° 18 ′ N 76 ° 39 ′ E  /  12.30 ° N 76.65 ° E  / 12.30; 76.65

who is the only bowler to have taken a hattrick in both inning in test match

List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick. A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match. Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings. In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed. England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).

who plays laurel pride on ncis new orleans

List of NCIS: New Orleans characters - wikipedia NCIS: New Orleans is an American television series, executive produced by Gary Glasberg and Mark Harmon. The series features an extensive regular cast, including Scott Bakula as Dwayne Cassius Pride, Lucas Black as Christopher LaSalle, Zoe McLellan as Meredith Brody and Vanessa Ferlito as Tammy Gregorio... Recurring actors, including Shanley Caswell as Laurel Pride, Rocky Carroll as Leon Vance, and Derek Webster as Raymond Isler, appear intermittently. Dwayne Cassius "King '' Pride (Scott Bakula) is a Supervisory Special Agent. He is also a New Orleans native and former Jefferson Parish deputy sheriff. He is also a long - time friend of Leroy Jethro Gibbs, the main character of NCIS; both were part of a group of NCIS agents known as the "Fed Five '' who gained fame for apprehending Spencer Hanlon, aka "The Privileged Killer ''. (For years, the Privileged Killer was erroneously believed to be Victor Lourde, who had been framed by a member of the "Fed Five, '' Dan MacClain. When MacClain is murdered, the teams discover his frame - up and the reason for it. Their investigation leads them to the Hanlon father and son.) He was initially assigned to the Marine Corps Support Facility in Algiers, Louisiana. He and his now - estranged wife Linda used to live in the Lower Garden District. His daughter, Laurel, is a music major at Louisiana State University. In "Chasing Ghosts '' and "Le Carnivale de la Mort '', it is revealed that Pride 's father, Cassius (Stacy Keach), is incarcerated in the Gretna Correctional Facility. As of the beginning of season two, Dwayne and Linda officially divorced. With the money Dwayne got from selling their home he paid for Dr. Wade 's assistant Danny 's college, Laurel 's college, a place for his father (if he makes parole), as well as buying a fixer - upper bar. Pride has the second highest arrest record in the history of Jefferson Parish 's Sheriffs Office. In season three, Pride personally recruits Agent Gregorio to his team. Christopher LaSalle (Lucas Black) is a senior NCIS Special Agent. He is also a native of Alabama. LaSalle was first a detective out of the New Orleans Police Department 's Fifth District at the time of Hurricane Katrina and then spent seven years on the NOPD vice squad. He attended the University of Alabama, graduating magna cum laude with a 3.7 GPA. While in college he played the school mascot Big Al. He lives in the French Quarter. He has an older brother Cade who has bipolar disorder and an unnamed sister. He has received multiple commendations for his work at the New Orleans children 's hospital. During the first season, he begins a romantic relationship with his high school sweetheart Savannah, though she is later murdered. After this, LaSalle begins sleeping with numerous women, leaving the team concerned for his well - being. In season 3, LaSalle believes he has fathered a child, though the child is later revealed not to be his. In "Ties That Bind '', LaSalle 's father Beau passed away; he made Chris, with whom he had a contentious if not estranged relationship, executor of his estate and his successor at LaSalle Enterprises. Meredith Brody (Zoe McLellan) is a senior NCIS Special Agent. During NCIS season eleven, she transferred to Pride 's team from the Chicago field office. She has a background in interrogation and claims to have a black belt in aikido. She is a graduate of Michigan State University and had a twin sister, Emily Ann Brody, who was murdered. Brody was the youngest Special Agent in the history of NCIS Midwest. During the second season, Brody is alerted to the real circumstances behind her sister 's death, and working with Sebastian, she arrests the killer. At the end of season two, Brody begins a relationship with a Homeland Security Agent named Russo, who is revealed to be corrupt. Though Brody kills Russo, she resigns from NCIS after beginning to doubt her own abilities. Her resignation leads to an FBI investigation into the team, who are later cleared of all corruption charges at the behest of her replacement, Gregorio. Sebastian Lund (Rob Kerkovich) is originally a Jefferson Parish forensic specialist, and Dr. Wade 's lab assistant, though he later attends FLETC and joins Pride 's team as a Forensics Agent. Sebastian is a hardened conspiracy theorist, and is somewhat socially awkward. In season one, it is revealed that he is in a relationship with a woman named Melissa. In season two, Sebastian helps Meredith Brody uncover the conspiracy surrounding her sister 's death. Though the team initially resents Sebastian for enabling Brody, he is later proved to be correct. In 2015, it is revealed that he has been working with Loretta for five years. In season three, he becomes the fifth member of Pride 's team after graduating from FLETC. Pride, similarly, contacted Director Vance to note how worried he was about Sebastian 's abilities in the field, but also added that he believed he deserved a chance to prove himself. Loretta Wade (CCH Pounder) is the Coroner of Jefferson Parish. Wade 's office is contracted by NCIS for autopsies and forensics. She is a graduate of Harvard University and moved down to New Orleans after completing medical school. In season one, Loretta begins to foster two children who are involved in an NCIS case. Pride later starts a college fund for the children. Loretta is also Brody 's landlord during her tenure at NCIS. In season three, Loretta is hurt by Sebastian 's decision to leave the coroner 's office, though she later comes to accept his decision. In "Second Line '', it is mentioned that Loretta has more than once been asked to join the Orleans Parish Coroner 's Office or even run for the position of Orleans Parish Coroner. Sonja Percy (Shalita Grant) is a NCIS Special Agent and former Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) Special Agent. While an ATF agent, Percy helped Pride and the team on their pursuit for Baitfish. At the end of the season one finale "My City '', she noted a desire to join Pride 's team, a transfer that took place before season two. Despite working as an NCIS Special Agent, Sonja continues to participate in undercover operations for outside agencies, most recently the DEA. In season two, Pride tells Sonja that he will not support her if her secrecy begins to put Chris and Meredith at risk, suggesting she is somewhat expendable and that he will not hesitate to remove her from his team if the operation she 's part of endangers the team in any way. In season three, it is revealed that LaSalle was initially unsure of Percy 's addition to the team; similarly, Percy is hesitant of Gregorio 's arrival, though they come to respect each other. During season two, Percy and LaSalle begin a flirtation, and Gregorio initially believes they are in a relationship. Patton Plame (Daryl "Chill '' Mitchell) is an NCIS investigative computer specialist. According to Brody, he was previously employed by United States Cyber Command. LaSalle refers to Plame as a "hacker ''. Tammy Gregorio (Vanessa Ferlito) is a Washington FBI Special Agent who first appears as an investigator on a task force assigned to investigate Pride and his team. Brody 's unexpected departure increases the attention placed upon the team, and soon Gregorio is seconded to undertake a more thorough investigation. Following the completion of this, Pride requests that she stays on, replacing Brody on a semi-permanent basis. After she was dismissed from the FBI, Gregorio officially joins NCIS and is now on Pride 's team; with her former boss - Deputy Director Isler - lobbying for her approval. Gregorio 's ex-husband Ethan McKinley disappeared after embezzling $80 million in Katrina relief funds. However, in season 3 episode "Overdrive '', it was revealed that she had a relationship with Assistant U.S. Attorney Hannah Lee, making her the first main LGBT character in the franchise (though a recurring gay character, Ned Dorneget, had been previously introduced in the main series). When her ex-husband returns in episode 18, "Slay the Dragon '', she tells him that she is a lesbian. In season 3 episode 14 "Pandora 's Box (Part II) '' Gregorio reveals that she is a lawyer by profession, and joined the FBI after graduating from law school. Laurel Pride (Shanley Caswell) is Pride 's daughter who is currently a music major at Louisiana State University. Like her father, she plays piano, and is expected to graduate with Honors. Despite having an affectionate relationship with her father, she feels he is too nice to her boyfriends, and as such notes a desire for him to stop developing "bromances '' with them. In season one, her boyfriend Orion is injured in an explosion meant to kill Pride. In season two, she is attacked whilst jogging, though the man suffers cardiac arrest and dies. She is taken hostage shortly after, but is able to disarm her female attacker long enough for Sonja Percy to shoot the attacker dead. Rita Deveraux (Chelsea Field) is a New Orleans Assistant District Attorney and a Reserve Commander in the U.S. Navy 's Judge Advocate General Corps. She is a longtime friend, and occasional love interest, of Dwayne Pride. Field is Scott Bakula 's off - screen wife. Raymond Isler (Derek Webster) is the Executive Assistant Director of the FBI National Security Branch and Agent Tammy Gregorio 's direct superior. In this capacity, he leads a Department of Justice investigation into Pride 's New Orleans team following the resignation of Agent Brody and the death of Agent Russo. Though Isler initially appears stand - offish with Pride, the two cooperate on numerous occasions in order to halt the activities of the cartel. Isler later fires Gregorio for disobeying a direct order, though he lobbies the Department of Justice to install her on Pride 's team. After the takedown of Javier Garcia (Julian Acosta), EAD Isler was promoted to Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. However, when it is revealed that a member of his team was a double agent for the Russians, Isler was demoted to Special Agent. Sasha Broussard (Callie Thorne) is a former member of the New Orleans Broussard crime syndicate, though she claims she is trying to disassociate herself from her family. After she gains the trust of Pride, the team discover she has been assisting Baitfish in his quest to control the entirety of NOLA 's criminal enterprises. She is arrested and presumably convicted of her crimes. Douglas Hamilton (Steven Weber) first appeared as the New Orleans city councilman of District C. Though he shares a mutual dislike with Dwayne Pride, the two often reconcile their differences in the pursuit of safeguarding New Orleans. In season two, Hamilton ran for the office of the Mayor of New Orleans and was elected after the other candidate was arrested for funneling drugs into Hamilton 's district. He and Pride are later taken hostage after Hamilton is implicated in a Cold Case homicide, though he is later exonerated, and the real killer is arrested. In season three, a computer hacker leaks Hamilton 's sex - tape and emails to the media, jeopardizing his future as a public servant. He was arrested by Pride and removed from office at the end of season three. Paul Jenks (John Livingston) is a former member of the Broussard Syndicate and Confidential Informant for Dwayne Pride, known as Baitfish. During season one, he teams up with Sasha Broussard to take over the criminal underground of New Orleans left by the downfall of the Syndicate, and is responsible for multiple murders. He is later arrested by Pride 's team, but not before assassinating Savannah Kelly. In "How Much Pain Can You Take? '', Jenks tells the team that there 's a huge storm coming and is killed seconds later after being shot in the head by an unknown sniper who is later revealed to be Jim Messier, Captain with the New Orleans Police Department. Karen Izzo (Sharon Conley) is an Assistant United States Attorney assigned to investigate Pride 's team during NCIS: New Orleans 's third season. Savannah Kelly (Gillian Alexy) is a long - time love interest of LaSalle, and his "childhood sweetheart ''. The two reunite after she is revealed to be his brother 's therapist, and she and Chris later embark on a romantic relationship. She is murdered by Baitfish in "How Much Pain Can You Take? ''. Chris takes her death particularly hard, and begins drinking more and seeking affection from multiple women, much to dismay of the team. Agent Naomi Parsons (Kate Beahan) is an Australian ADFIS Agent seconded to New Orleans, and a romantic interest for Dwayne Pride. Jim Messier (Dylan Walsh) is a Captain with the New Orleans Police Department. In "My City '', it is revealed that he was seduced by Sasha Broussard into becoming a mole, which led to him assassinating Baitfish once he was captured by Special Agent Pride and his team. Pride and LaSalle eventually discover a badly beaten Messier at an abandoned motel area with Pride and LaSalle managing to get Messier to safety before the bomb goes off. After being placed under custody, Messier is presumably convicted of his crimes, stripped of his rank as Captain and jailed. Cade LaSalle (Clayne Crawford) is LaSalle 's brother who suffers from bi-polar disorder. Danny Malloy (Christopher Meyer) is Loretta 's elder foster son and C.J. 's older brother. In Season 3, Danny enlisted in the United States Navy rather than go to college, causing some friction between him and Loretta - and also between Loretta and Pride, who refused to talk Danny out of enlisting. C.J. Malloy (Dani Dare) is Loretta 's younger foster son and Danny 's younger brother. Cassius Pride (Stacy Keach) is Pride 's incarcerated father. Abigail Borin (Diane Neal) is a CGIS Special Agent in Charge based out of the capitol. Borin first works with Pride 's team when she is tasked with interrogating a smuggler whose crimes took place within Coast Guard jurisdiction. She later investigates a double homicide on - board a research vessel, during which she notes she has been temporarily assigned Agent Afloat status. Borin reunites with Pride to investigate the poisoning of a Naval Commander, and in "Rock - a-Bye Baby '', the kidnapping of a young child. Borin expresses a desire to join Pride 's team, though she had similarly inquired about the possibility of working with Leroy Jethro Gibbs, Pride 's friend who is stationed in Washington D.C. Leon Vance (Rocky Carroll) is the Director of the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, based out of Washington. Though he has little physical interaction with the New Orleans team, he often communicates with them via secure satellite conference. He regards Pride and his agents as one of NCIS ' most valuable assets (though he has previously praised both Gibbs ' NCIS team, and Callen 's Los Angeles team in the same manner). In season two, Vance orders a specialist unit to shadow Pride, who is in fear for his life. Leroy Jethro Gibbs (Mark Harmon) Gibbs is a Supervisory Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS. Anthony DiNozzo (Michael Weatherly) DiNozzo is a Senior Special Agent who was assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS. Timothy McGee (Sean Murray) McGee is a Senior Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS. Eleanor Bishop (Emily Wickersham) Bishop is a Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. She is a crossover character from NCIS. Nicholas Torres (Wilmer Valderrama) Torres is a Special Agent assigned to NCIS 's Major Case Response Team. He is a crossover character from NCIS. Abby Sciuto (Pauley Perrette) Abby is a forensic specialist assigned to NCIS Headquarters. She is a crossover character from NCIS. Donald "Ducky '' Mallard (David McCallum) Ducky is a medical examiner assigned to NCIS Headquarters. He is a crossover character from NCIS. Sarah Porter (Leslie Hope) Porter is the United States Secretary of the Navy. She is a crossover character from NCIS. Carol Wilson (Meredith Eaton) Carol works for the CDC. She is a crossover character from NCIS. Tobias C. Fornell (Joe Spano) Fornell is a Senior FBI Special Agent. He is a crossover character from NCIS.

who played the nurse in nightmare on elm street 3

A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors - wikipedia A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors is a 1987 American slasher film directed by Chuck Russell. It is the third installment in the Nightmare on Elm Street series. The film was written by original creator Wes Craven and stars Heather Langenkamp, Patricia Arquette, Larry Fishburne, Priscilla Pointer, Craig Wasson, and Robert Englund. The plot focuses on Freddy Krueger seeking to murder the last children of the parents that burned him. The kids are imprisoned at a mental hospital. Freddy does not know that Nancy Thompson is training the patients to control their dream powers in order to fight back against the undead killer. The film was followed by another sequel, A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master, a year later. Kristen Parker is a young girl who dreams herself into an abandoned house in Elm Street where she is chased by serial killer Freddy Krueger. She wakes up and goes to the bathroom, where she is attacked by Freddy again and slices her wrist with a straight razor. Believing her to be suicidal, her mother has her sent to Westin Hospital, run by Dr. Neil Gordon, where she fights against the orderlies who try to sedate her, for fear of falling asleep. She is eventually calmed by intern therapist Nancy Thompson who recites part of Freddy 's nursery rhyme and earns her trust. Nancy is introduced to the rest of the patients: Phillip, a habitual sleepwalker; Kincaid, a tough kid from the streets who is prone to violence; Jennifer, a hopeful television actress; Will, who is confined to a wheelchair after a suicide attempt; Taryn, a former drug addict; and Joey, who is too traumatized to speak. Later, Kristen is attacked by Freddy again (this time as a giant snake), and unwittingly pulls Nancy into her dream with her, allowing them both to escape. Kristen reveals she has had the ability to pull people into her dreams since she was a little girl. Over the next two nights, Freddy throws Phillip off a roof in what looks like a suicide attempt and kills Jennifer by smashing her head into a television that she was watching. In their next group session, Nancy reveals to the remaining patients that they are the last surviving children of the people who banded together and burned Krueger to death many years ago. Nancy and Neil encourage them to try group hypnosis so that they can experience a shared dream and discover their dream powers. In the dream, Joey wanders off and is captured by Freddy, leaving him comatose in the real world; Nancy and Neil are fired. Neil is told by a nun, Sister Mary Helena, that Freddy is the son of a young nun who was accidentally locked in a room with hundreds of mental patients who raped her continually, and that the only way to stop him is to lay his bones to rest. He and Nancy go to her father, Don Thompson, to discover where the bones are hidden, but he is uncooperative. Nancy rushes back to the hospital after she hears Kristen is going to be sedated, while Neil convinces Don to help them. Nancy and the others again go through group hypnosis so they can reunite with Kristen, but are all separated after Freddy interrupts them. Taryn and Will are subsequently killed by Freddy while Kristen, Nancy, and Kincaid find one another. The trio rescue Joey but are unable to defeat Freddy, who has become too powerful because of all the souls he has consumed. However, Freddy senses that his remains have been found in an auto salvage yard and possesses his own skeleton to kill Don and incapacitate Neil. He returns to attack the others, but Joey uses his dream power voice to send him away. Don appears to Nancy to tell her that he is "crossing over '', but he is revealed to be Freddy in disguise, who stabs and kills Nancy. As he is about to kill Kristen too, Neil awakens and consecrates the bones, finally destroying him. At Nancy 's funeral, Neil sees Mary Helena again and when he tries to follow her, finds her tombstone, revealing herself as Amanda Krueger, Freddy 's mother. Following the critical failure of A Nightmare on Elm Street 2, New Line Cinema was unsure if the series would continue. Elm Street creator Wes Craven, who did not participate in the first sequel and did not want the first film to evolve into a franchise, had intended for this film to end the series, but its success prompted a continuation. Craven 's very first concept for this film was to have Freddy Krueger invade the "real '' world, emerging to haunt the actors filming a new Elm Street sequel. New Line Cinema rejected this metacinematic idea at the time, but years later, Craven 's concept was finally brought to the screen with Wes Craven 's New Nightmare. In interviews with cast and crew in the DVD extras, it is revealed that the original idea for the film centered around the phenomenon of children traveling to a specific location to commit suicide, with dreams of Freddy Krueger eventually discovered to be a common link between the youths. Suicide, at the time, was a taboo social issue and this led to the abandonment of that storyline, though some aspects remained within the filmed version which still depicts suicide and self - mutilation, though they were deemed less controversial because these acts are committed with Freddy 's distinct influence, inserting enough fantasy into the acts to remove it from the supposed controversial exploitation of disturbed youths in America. In the original script by Wes Craven and Bruce Wagner the characters were somewhat different from what was eventually filmed. Nancy was not a dream expert nor any kind of mental health professional, Kristen stayed in the institution for only a while and had a father. Also her name was "Kirsten '' not "Kristen ''. Neil 's last name was Guinness and he was much younger, Dr. Simm 's last name was Maddalena, Taryn was African - American, Joey was the one who built the model of a house and had trouble getting around (although he did not use a wheelchair), and Philip was a thirteen - year - old. Will 's name was originally Laredo, he had long hair, did not use a wheelchair, and was the one who made the clay puppets. This script also showed the ranch house where Krueger was born, and is the house that shows up in their dreams rather than the Elm Street house. Contrary to the film, Lt. Donald Thompson knows from the start that Krueger is real and still alive. He had been missing and Nancy was intent on finding him, she finds him and learns that he was obsessed with finding the Krueger house and burning it down. In the original script, there is a romance between Nancy and Neil and they eventually have sex. There are scenes and lines that are very reminiscent of the first film. There is no talk of Krueger 's mother having been a nun or Freddy being "the bastard son of a hundred maniacs '', and both Joey and Kincaid are killed. The deaths in this script were much more grotesque, with Krueger not as talkative and more vulgar. Freddy is killed by Nancy by using his own glove, not by holy water. In Jeffrey Cooper 's novelization The Nightmares on Elm Street Parts 1, 2, 3: The Continuing Story (1987), the original Craven / Wagner version of the Nightmare 3 script is adapted, rather than the Russell / Darabont rewrite. Thus the book version of the story is fairly different from the finished film. One of the most memorable scenes in the film and a fan favorite is the sequence that takes place in the junkyard during the film 's climax. The junkyard sequence and the set itself were the product of art director Mick Strawn. Mick also handled some special effects sequences on the film, and became production designer on the sequel. The sequence was so popular that it appeared again in A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master. The junkyard sequence was filmed in Pacoima, California for both films. The theme song, "Dream Warriors '', was written and performed by the American heavy metal band Dokken. The success of the single led to the following sequels to include a heavy metal song in its soundtrack. In the original VHS release of the film, during the opening sequence, a hard rock instrumental version of the song "Quiet Cool '' is playing. The original version of that song, performed by Joe Lamont, was written for the movie with the same name in 1986. When Dream Warriors was released on DVD, the song that was on the original theatrical release, "Into the Fire '' by Dokken, was reinserted. In the Australian state of Queensland, Dream Warriors was banned by the then Bjelke - Petersen government due to its drug references, particularly the scene where Freddy 's glove becomes a number of syringes as he injects Taryn with an amphetamine overdose. In 1990, the newly elected Goss government abolished the Queensland Film Board of Review. Consequently, Dream Warriors became available to Queenslanders through normal market channels rather than just through sympathetic video rental stores. The Australian public at the time thought the ban was absurd, as the film was not very graphic. The film was released theatrically in the United States by New Line Cinema in February 1987. It opened in 1,343 theaters, grossing $8.9 million and debuting at No. 1 during its opening weekend. It eventually made $44,793,222 at the domestic box office, making it both the highest - grossing film for the studio that year and the 24th highest - grossing film of 1987. It is the third highest grossing of the original Nightmare films after Freddy vs. Jason and A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master. Dream Warriors has an approval rating of 74 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 professional reviews; the average rating is 6 / 10. Variety wrote that Russell 's poor direction makes the film 's intended and unintended humor difficult to differentiate. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times rated it 1.5 / 4 stars and called it a slick horror film that never generates enough sympathy for its characters. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote, "The film 's dream sequences are ingenious, and they feature some remarkable nightmare images and special effects. '' Although criticizing Langenkamp 's acting, Kim Newman wrote in Empire that "the film delivers amazing scenes in spades, bringing to life the sort of bizarre images which used to be found only on comic book covers ''.

where is the tabernacle mentioned in the bible

Tabernacle - wikipedia The Tabernacle (Hebrew: מִשְׁכַּן ‎, mishkan, "residence '' or "dwelling place ''), according to the Hebrew Bible, was the portable earthly dwelling place of God amongst the children of Israel from the time of the Exodus from Egypt through the conquering of the land of Canaan. Built of woven layers of curtains along with 48 boards overlaid with polished gold standing like vertical blinds held in place by five bars per side with the middle bar shooting through from end to end and furnished with items made from the gold, silver, brass, furs, jewels, and other valuable materials taken out of Egypt at Yahweh 's orders, and according to specifications revealed by Yahweh to Moses at Mount Sinai, it was transported by the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their conquest of the Promised Land. Solomon 's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it as the dwelling - place of God some 300 years later. The main source for the account of the construction of the Tabernacle is the biblical Book of Exodus, specifically Exodus 25 -- 31 and 35 -- 40. It describes an inner shrine, the Holy of Holies, which housed the Ark of the Covenant, which was held up under the veil of the covering suspended by four pillars and an outer chamber (the "Holy Place ''), containing a beaten gold reflector impressed into what is generally described as a lamp - stand or candlestick featuring a central shaft incorporating four almond - shaped bowls and six branches, each with three bowls shaped like almonds and blossoms, 22 in all. It was standing diagonally, partially covering a table for showbread and with its seven oil lamps over against it to give light along with the altar of incense. This description is generally identified as part of the Priestly source ("P ''), written in the sixth or fifth century BCE. However whilst the first Priestly source takes the form of instructions, the second is largely a repetition of the first in the past tense, i.e., it describes the execution of the instructions. Many scholars contend that it is of a far later date than the time of Moses, and that the description reflects the structure of Solomon 's Temple, while some hold that the description derives from memories of a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at Shiloh. Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter. According to historical criticism, an earlier, pre-exilic source, the Elohist ("E ''), describes the Tabernacle as a simple tent - sanctuary. The English word "tabernacle '' is derived from the Latin tabernāculum meaning "tent '' or "hut '', which in ancient Roman religion was a ritual structure. Other uses of this word include nautical usage, referring to a mast step, which by its arrangement of boards allows the mast to be raised and lowered, and textiles industry usage, referring to a similar wooden bar scaffold used for holding a large rug while weaving. The word sanctuary is also used for the biblical tabernacle, as is the phrase "tent of meeting ''. The Hebrew word mishkan implies "dwell '', "rest '', or "to live in '', that dwelt within this divinely ordained structure. Historical criticism has identified two accounts of the tabernacle in Exodus, a briefer Elohist account and a longer Priestly one. Traditional scholars believe the briefer account describes a different structure, perhaps Moses ' personal tent. The Hebrew nouns in the two accounts differ, one is most commonly translated as "tent of meeting, '' while the other is usually translated as "tabernacle. '' Exodus 33: 7 - 10 refers to "the Tabernacle of the congregation '', which was set up outside of camp with the "cloudy pillar '' visible at its door. The people directed their worship toward this center. Historical criticism attributes this description to the Elohist source (E), which is believed to have been written about 850 BCE or later. The more detailed description of a tabernacle, located in Exodus chapters 25 -- 27 and Exodus chapters 35 -- 40, refers to an inner shrine (the most holy place) housing the ark and an outer chamber (holy place), with a six - branch seven - lamp menorah (lampstand), table for showbread, and altar of incense. An enclosure containing the sacrificial altar and bronze laver for the priests to wash surrounded these chambers. This description is identified by historical criticism as part of the Priestly source (P), written in the 6th or 5th century BCE. Some scholars believe the description is of a far later date than Moses ' time, and that it reflects the structure of the Temple of Solomon; others hold that the passage describes a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at Shiloh, while traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter. This view is based on Exodus 36, 37, 38 and 39 that describe in full detail how the actual construction of the Tabernacle took place during the time of Moses. The detailed outlines for the tabernacle and its priests are enumerated in the Book of Exodus: In Exodus 31, the main builder, architect and maker of the priestly vestments is specified as Bezalel, son of Uri son of Hur of the tribe of Judah, who was assisted by Oholiab and a number of skilled artisans. There is a strict set of rules to be followed for the carriage of the Tabernacle laid out in the Hebrew Bible. For example: "You must put the Levites in charge of the Tabernacle of the Covenant, along with its furnishings and equipment. They must carry the Tabernacle and its equipment as you travel, and they must care for it and camp around it. Whenever the Tabernacle is moved, the Levites will take it down and set it up again. Anyone else who goes too near the Tabernacle will be executed. ' '' (Numbers 1: 48 - 51 NLT). As well, individuals with the Tzaraat skin affliction were not permitted entry to the tabernacle. The Tabernacle during the Exodus, the wandering in the desert and the conquest of Canaan was in part a portable tent, and in part a wooden enclosure draped with ten curtains, of indigo (tekhelet תְּכֵלֶת), purple (argaman אַרְגָּמָן), and scarlet (shani שָׁנִי) fabric. It had a rectangular, perimeter fence of fabric, poles and staked cords. This rectangle was always erected when the Israelite tribes would camp, oriented to the east as the east side had no frames. In the center of this enclosure was a rectangular sanctuary draped with goat - hair curtains, with the roof made from rams ' skins. Beyond this curtain was the cube - shaped inner room, the "Holy of Holies ''. This area housed the Ark of the Covenant, inside which were the two stone tablets brought down from Mount Sinai by Moses on which were written the Ten Commandments, a golden urn holding the manna, and Aaron 's rod which had budded and borne ripe almonds. (Hebrews 9: 2 - 5, Exodus 16: 33 - 34, Numbers 17: 1 - 11, Deuteronomy 10: 1 - 5.) Top view, parallel projection of tabernacle. Tabernacle Tent dimensions according to the Book of Exodus Tabernacle Tent and Courtyard dimensions according to the Book of Exodus Twice a day, a priest would stand in front of the golden prayer altar and burn fragrant incense (Exodus 30: 7 - 10). Other procedures were also carried out in the Tabernacle: The door of the Tabernacle marked a ritual boundary: an Israelite healed of tzaraath would be presented by the priest who had confirmed his healing ' at the door of the Tabernacle of Meeting ', and a woman healed of prolonged menstruation would present her offering (two turtledoves or two young pigeons) to the priest ' at the door of the Tabernacle of Meeting '. It was at the door of the Tabernacle that the community wept in sorrow when all the men who had joined in worship to Baal of Peor were condemned to death. Dust from the floor of the Tabernacle was mixed with water to create the ordeal of the bitter water for a suspected adulteress. During the conquest of Canaan, the main Israelite camp was at Gilgal, (Joshua 4: 19; 5: 8 - 10) and the Tabernacle was probably erected within the camp: Joshua 10: 43ESV "... and returned into the camp. '' (see Numbers 1: 52 - 2: 34 "... they shall camp facing the tent of meeting on every side. '') After the conquest and division of the land among the tribes, the Tabernacle was moved to Shiloh in Ephraimite territory (Joshua 's tribe) to avoid disputes among the other tribes (Joshua 18: 1; 19: 51; 22: 9; Psalm 78: 60). It remained there during the 300 - year period of the biblical judges (the rules of the individual judges total about 350 years (1 Kings 6: 1; Acts 13: 20), but most ruled regionally and some terms overlapped). According to Judges 20: 26 - 28, the Ark, and thus possibly the Tabernacle, was at Bethel while Phinehas, grandson of Aaron, was still alive. The subsequent history of the structure is separate from that of the Ark of the Covenant. After the Ark was captured by the Philistines, King Saul moved the Tabernacle to Nob, near his home town of Gibeah, but after he massacred the priests there (1 Samuel 21 - 22), it was moved to Gibeon. (1 Chronicles 16: 39; 21: 29; 2 Chronicles 1: 2 - 6, 13). Just prior to David 's moving the ark to Jerusalem, the ark was located in Kiriath - Jearim (1 Chronicles 13: 5 - 6). The Ark was eventually brought to Jerusalem, where it was placed "inside the tent David had pitched for it '' (2 Samuel 6: 17; 1 Chronicles 15: 1), not in the Tabernacle, which remained at Gibeon. The altar of the Tabernacle at Gibeon was used for sacrificial worship (1 Chronicles 16: 39; 21: 29; 1 Kings 3: 2 - 4), until Solomon finally brought the structure and its furnishings to Jerusalem to furnish and dedicate the Temple. (1 Kings 8: 4) There is no mention of the Tabernacle in the Tanakh after the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the Babylonians in c. 587 BCE. Some rabbis have commented on the proximity of the narrative of the Tabernacle with that of the episode known as the sin of the golden calf recounted in Exodus 32: 1 - 6. Maimonides asserts that the Tabernacle and its accoutrements, such as the golden Ark of the Covenant and the golden Menorah were meant as "alternates '' to the human weakness and needs for physical idols as seen in the golden calf episode. Other scholars, such as Nachmanides disagree and maintain that the Tabernacle 's meaning is not tied in with the golden calf, but instead symbolizes higher mystical lessons that symbolize God 's constant closeness to the Children of Israel. Synagogue construction over the last two thousand years has followed the outlines of the original Tabernacle. Every synagogue has at its front an ark, aron kodesh, containing the Torah scrolls, comparable to the Ark of the Covenant which contained the tablets with Ten Commandments. This is the holiest spot in a synagogue, equivalent to the Holy of Holies. There is also usually a constantly lighted lamp, Ner tamid, or a candelabrum, lighted during services, near a spot similar to the position of the original Menorah. At the center of the synagogue is a large elevated area, known as the bimah, where the Torah is read. This is equivalent to the Tabernacle 's altars upon which incense and animal sacrifices were offered. On the main holidays the priests, kohanim, gather at the front of the synagogue to bless the congregation as did their priestly ancestors in the Tabernacle from Aaron onwards (Numbers 6: 22 - 27). The Tabernacle is mentioned several times in the Epistle to the Hebrews in the New Testament. For example, according to Hebrews 8: 2 - 5 and 9: 2 - 26 Jesus serves as the true climactic high priest in heaven, the true tabernacle, to which its counterpart on earth was just a symbol and foreshadow of what was to come (Hebrews 8: 5). In the Islamic tradition, the tabernacle can relate to the Kaaba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Muslims claim this to be the House of God and the epicentre to which their entire population prays towards as one unified body.

which is the biggest mosque of the world

List of largest mosques - wikipedia This is a list of mosques that can accommodate at least 5,000 worshipers. A mosque, or masjid, is a place of worship for followers of Islam. Mosques listed here are of any religious branch which regards themselves as Muslim. The default listing is alphabetical; to sort using different criteria, click on the desired column headers. Whilst claims are made about the relative size of mosques many of these claims are not easily substantiated. "Largest '' is at best a vague term, which is often not qualified by claimants. Accepted measures of largeness could include area, volume, length, width, height, and / or capacity, although the last is far more subjective. It is important to note therefore that mosques may claim to be "the largest '' based on only one of these measurements; and thus that there may be several mosques that have equal claim to be "the largest mosque ''. Since there is no official body governing these claims, there is no generally accepted criterion for being "the largest mosque ''. Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـد الْـحَـرَام ‎, translit. Al - Masjid al - Ḥarām Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـد الـنَّـبَـوِي ‎, translit. Al - Masjid an - Nabawī Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـد الْاَقْـصَى ‎, translit. Al - Masjid al - Aqṣá Arabic: ٱلْـمَـسْـجِـد الْـكَـبِـيْـر 1 نـوْفـمْـبَـر 1954 ‎ Russian: Мечеть Ахмата Кадырова Russian: Кадыров Ахьмадан цӀарах дина маьждиг Arabic: جَـامِـع الْأَزْهَـر ‎, translit. Jami ' al - Azhar Arabic: مَـسْــجِـد الْـفَـاتِـح ‎ Indonesian: Masjid Al - Ittihad Jatibarang Javanese: ꦩꦼꦱ꧀ꦗꦶꦢ꧀ꦄꦭ꧀ꦆꦠ꧀ꦠꦶꦲꦢ꧀ꦗꦠꦶꦨꦫꦁ Jawi Arabic: مسجد الاتحاد جاتيبراڠ ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Al - Iṫṫiḥād Jāṫībarāng Indonesian: Masjid Al - Markaz Al - Islami Buginese: ᨆᨔᨍᨗᨉ ᨕᨒ - ᨆᨑᨀᨍ ᨕᨒ - ᨀᨗᨔᨒᨆᨗ Russian: Мечеть Аймани Кадырова Urdu: بادشاہی مسجد ‬ ‎ Bengali: জমিয়াতুল ফালাহ Bengali: বায়তুল মোকাররম Arabic: بَـيْـتُ الْـمُـكَـرَّم ‎, translit. Bayṫul - Mukarram Indonesian: Masjid Raya Baiturrahman Jawi Arabic: مسجد رايا بيتر الرحمن ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Rāyā Bayṫur - Raḥmān Hindi: बारा इमामबारा Urdu: بارہ امامباڑا ‬ ‎ Kazakh: орталық мешіті Алматы Hindi: छोटा इमामबाड़ा Arabic: چھوٹا امامباڑا ‬ ‎ French: Grande Mosquée de Conakry Indonesian: Masjid Dian Al - Mahri ᮙᮞ᮪ᮏᮤᮓ᮪ ᮃᮜ᮪ - ᮙᮂᮛᮤ Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الْأَمِـيْـر عَـبْـد الْـقَـادِر ‎, translit. Masjid al - Amîr ' Abd Al - Qâdir Turkmen: Ärtogrul Gazy Metjidi Urdu: فیصل مسجد ‬ ‎ Malayalam: Masjid Wilayah Persekutuan Jawi Arabic: مسجد ولايه ڤرسكوتوان ‬ ‎ 联邦 疆土 清真寺 Tamil: பெடரல் மண்டலம் மசூதி Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد أْوْغَـنْـدَا الْـوَطَـنِي ‎, translit. Masjid Ūghandā al - Waṭanī Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الـدَّوْلَـة الْـكَـبِـيْـر ‎, translit. Masjid ad - Dawlah al - Kabīr Urdu: گرینڈ جامع مسجد ‬ ‎ Indonesian: Masjid Raya Bandung ᮙᮞ᮪ᮏᮤᮓ᮪ ᮛᮚ ᮘᮔ᮪ᮓᮥᮀ French: Grande Mosquée d'Évry Indonesian: Masjid Raya Sumatera Barat Jawi Arabic: موساجيك رايا سومترا بارايق ‬ ‎ Indonesian: Masjid Agung Jawa Tengah Javanese: ꦩꦼꦱ꧀ꦗꦶꦢ꧀ꦲꦒꦸꦁꦠꦼꦔꦃ Jawi Arabic: ہاڠـت ݢوڠ جاوا مسجد ‬ ‎ Indonesian: Masjid Agung Makassar Buginese: ᨆᨔᨍᨗᨉ ᨕᨁᨘᨂ ᨆᨀᨔᨑ Indonesian: Masjid Agung Palembang Jawi Arabic: أݢوڠ ڤلامبڠ مسجد ‬ ‎, translit. Agūng Palāmbang Masjid Indonesian: Masjid Al - Akbar Javanese: ꦩꦼꦱ꧀ꦗꦶꦢ꧀ꦄꦭ꧀ꦄꦏ꧀ꦧꦂ Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الْأَكْـبَـر ‎, translit. Masjid Al - Akbar Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الْـحَـسَـن الـثَّـانِي ‎, translit. Masjid Al - Ḥasan Ath - Thānī Persian: ھېيتگاھ مەسچىتى ‬ ‎ 艾 提 尕 尔 清真寺 Arabic: حَـرَم الْإِمَـام عَـلِي ‎, translit. Ḥaram al - Imām ' Alī Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الْإِمَـام الْـحُـسَـيْـن ‎, translit. Masjid al - Imām Al - Ḥusayn Arabic: مَـقَـام الْإِمَـام الْـحُـسَـيْـن ابْـن عَـلِي ‎, translit. Maqām al - Imām Al - Ḥusayn ibn ' Alī Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد مُـحَـمَّـد ابْـن عَـبْـد الْـوَهَّـاب ‎, translit. Masjid Muḥammad ibn ' Abd Al - Wahhāb Persian: حرم امام رضا ‬ ‎, translit. Ḥaram Imām Riḍā Indonesian: Masjid Istiqlal Hindi: जामा मस्जिद Persian: مسجد جمکران ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Jamkarân Urdu: جامع مسجد سرینگر ‬ ‎, translit. Jāmi ' Masjid Srīnagar Arabic: جُـمُـعَـة مَـسْـجِـد ‎, translit. Jumu'ah Masjid Turkish: Kocatepe Camii Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد مَـحْـمُـوْد ‎, translit. Masjid Maḥmūd Hebrew: מסגד האחמדים ‎ Russian: Джума мечеть Махачкалы Arabic: مَـسْـجِـد الـذَّهَـب ‎, translit. Masjid Adh - Dhahab Moskeng Ginto Urdu: مسجدِ اقصی ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid - i Aqṣā Urdu: مسجدِ طوبٰی ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid - i Ṭawbá Hindi: मक्का मस्जिद Russian: Московская соборная мечеть Italian: Moschea di Roma Turkish: Muğdat Camisi Malayalam: Masjid Negara Malaysia Jawi Arabic: مسجد نݢارا مليسيا ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Negārā Malaysiyā 马来西亚 国家 清真寺 Tamil: மலேசியாவின் தேசிய மசூதி Нижегородская соборная мечеть Malayalam: Masjid Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin Jawi Arabic: مسجد توانكو ميزن زاينل عابدين ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Ṫuwānkū Mīzan Zaynal - ' Ābidīn 端 姑 米 占 再 納 阿 比 丁 清真寺 Tamil: டுங்கு மஸான் ஜைனல் அபிடின் மசூதி Malayalam: Masjid Putra Jawi Arabic: مسجد ڤوترا ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Pūṫrā 布 特 拉 清真寺 Tamil: புத்ரா மசூதி Turkish: Sabancı Merkez Camii Masjid Raya KH Hasyim Asy'ari Indonesian: Masjid Raya Sabilal Muhtadin Jawi Arabic: مسجد رايا سبيلَ المهتدين ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Rāyā Sabīlal - Muhṫadīn Indonesian: Masjid Islamic Centre Samarinda Jawi Arabic: مسجد الإسلام سينتر ساماریندا ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid al - Islām Sīnṫār Sāmārīndā Russian: Санкт - Петербу́ргская мече́ть Russian: Соборная мечеть "Ар - Рахим '' Bashkir: Әр - Рәхим мәсете Arabic: جَـامِـع الـصَّـالِـح ‎, translit. Jāmi ' Aṣ - Ṣāliḥ Turkmen: Saparmyrat Hajy Metjidi Persian: مسجد شاه ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Shâh Persian: مسجد شیخ لطفُ الله ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Shaykh Luṭfullâh Arabic: جَـامِـع الـشَّـيْـخ زَايِـد الْـكَـبِـيْـر ‎, translit. Jāmi ' Ash - Shaykh Zāyid Al - Kabīr Turkish: Sultan Ahmet Camii Filipino: Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Masjid Malayalam: Masjid Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Jawi Arabic: مسجد سلطان صلاحُ الدين عبدُ العزيز ‬ ‎, translit. Masjid Sulṭān Salāḥud - Dīn ' Abdul - ' Azīz 苏丹 沙拉 胡 汀 阿 都 阿 兹 沙 回 教堂 Tamil: சுல்தான் சலாஹுதின் அப்துல் அஸீஸ் மசூதி Arabic: جَـامِـع الـسُّـلْـطَـان قَـابُـوْس الْـكَـبِـيْـر ‎, translit. Jāmi ' As - Sulṭān Qābūs Al - Kabīr Hindi: ताज - उल - मस्जिद Turkmen: Türkmenbaşy Ruhy Metjidi Indonesian: Masjid Kampus UGM Javanese: ꦩꦼꦱ꧀ꦗꦶꦢ꧀ꦑꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦱ꧀ꦈꦤꦶꦥ꦳ꦼꦂꦱꦶꦠꦱ꧀ꦓꦗꦃꦩꦢ Arabic: جَـامِـع بَـنِي أُمَـيَّـة الْـكَـبِـيْـر ‎, translit. Jāmi ' Banī Umayyah al - Kabīr Russian: мечеть Кул - Шариф Turkish: Qol Şärif Mäçete

where does live bacteria in yogurts come from

Yogurt - wikipedia Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt (/ ˈjoʊɡərt / or / ˈjɒɡərt /; from Turkish: yoğurt; other spellings listed below) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as "yogurt cultures ''. Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cow 's milk is commonly available worldwide, and, as such, is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, and yaks is also used to produce yogurt where available locally. The milk used may be homogenized or not; each type produces substantially different results. Yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus bacteria. In addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. Some countries require yogurt to contain a certain amount of colony - forming units (CFU) of bacteria; in China, for example, the requirement for the number of lactobacillus bacteria is at least 1 × 10 CFU per milliliter. To produce yogurt, milk is first heated, usually to about 85 ° C (185 ° F), to denature the milk proteins so that they do not form curds. After heating, the milk is allowed to cool to about 45 ° C (113 ° F). The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a temperature of 45 ° C (113 ° F) is maintained for four to twelve hours to allow fermentation. The word is derived from Turkish: yoğurt, and is usually related to the verb yoğurmak, "to knead '', or "to be curdled or coagulated; to thicken ''. It may be related to yoğun, meaning thick or dense. The sound ğ was traditionally rendered as "gh '' in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615 -- 1625. In modern Turkish the letter ğ marks a diaeresis between two vowels, without being pronounced itself, which is reflected in some languages ' versions of the word (e.g. Greek γιαούρτι giaoúrti, French yaourt, Romanian iaurt). In English, the several variations of the spelling of the word include yogurt, yoghurt, and to a lesser extent yoghourt or yogourt. Analysis of the L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, or bacteria may have been transferred from the udder of domestic milk - producing animals. The origins of yogurt are unknown, but it is thought to have been invented in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. In ancient Indian records, the combination of yogurt and honey is called "the food of the gods ''. Persian traditions hold that "Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt ''. The cuisine of ancient Greece included a dairy product known as oxygala (οξύγαλα) which is believed to have been a form of yogurt. Galen (AD 129 -- c. 200 / c. 216) mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today. The oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain "barbarous nations '' knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity ''. The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Dīwān Lughāt al - Turk by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutadgu Bilig by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century. Both texts mention the word "yogurt '' in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks. The earliest yogurts were probably spontaneously fermented by wild bacteria in goat skin bags. Some accounts suggest that Indian emperor Akbar 's cooks would flavor yogurt with mustard seeds and cinnamon. Another early account of a European encounter with yogurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yogurt. Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food which had cured him. Until the 1900s, yogurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe / Balkans, Central Europe, and India. Stamen Grigorov (1878 -- 1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod - like lactic acid - producing bacteria. In 1907, the rod - like bacterium was called Bacillus bulgaricus (now Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The Russian Nobel laureate and biologist Ilya Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov 's work and hypothesized that regular consumption of yogurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing Lactobacillus to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularize yogurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe. Isaac Carasso industrialized the production of yogurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yogurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel '') after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanized version of the name: Dannon. Yogurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague. Yogurt was introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff 's The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing. It was popularized by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas, and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery '' in Andover, Massachusetts in 1929. Colombo Yogurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse - drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon '' which was later changed to "yogurt '', the Turkish name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities who were the main consumers at that time. Yogurt 's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food by scientists like Hungarian - born bacteriologist Stephen A. Gaymont. By the late 20th century, yogurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010. Yogurt (plain yogurt from whole milk) is 81 % water, 9 % protein, 5 % fat, and 4 % carbohydrates, including 4 % sugars (table). A 100 - gram amount provides 406 kilojoules (97 kcal) of dietary energy. As a proportion of the Daily Value (DV), a serving of yogurt is a rich source of vitamin B (31 % DV) and riboflavin (23 % DV), with moderate content of protein, phosphorus, and selenium (14 to 19 % DV; table). Tilde (~) represents missing or incomplete data. The above shows little difference exists between whole milk and yogurt made from whole milk with respect to the listed nutritional constituents. Although yogurt is often associated with probiotics having positive effects on immune, cardiovascular or metabolic health, high - quality clinical evidence is insufficient to conclude that consuming yogurt lowers risk of diseases or improves health. Dahi is a yogurt of the Indian subcontinent, known for its characteristic taste and consistency. The word dahi seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word dadhi, one of the five elixirs, or panchamrita, often used in Hindu ritual. Sweet yogurt (mishti doi or meethi dahi) is common in eastern parts of India, made by fermenting sweetened milk. While cow 's milk is considered sacred and is currently the primary ingredient for yogurt, goat and buffalo milk were widely used in the past, and valued for the fat content (see buffalo curd). Dadiah or dadih is a traditional West Sumatran yogurt made from water buffalo milk, fermented in bamboo tubes. Yogurt is common in Nepal, where it is served as both an appetizer and dessert. Locally called dahi, it is a part of the Nepali culture, used in local festivals, marriage ceremonies, parties, religious occasions, family gatherings, and so on. One Nepalese yogurt is called juju dhau, originating from the city of Bhaktapur. In Tibet, yak milk (technically dri milk, as the word yak refers to the male animal) is made into yogurt (and butter and cheese) and consumed. In Northern Iran, Mâst Chekide is a variety of kefir yogurt with a distinct sour taste. It is usually mixed with a pesto - like water and fresh herb purée called delal. Common appetizers are spinach or eggplant borani, Mâst - o - Khiâr with cucumber, spring onions and herbs, and Mâst - Musir with wild shallots. In the summertime, yogurt and ice cubes are mixed together with cucumbers, raisins, salt, pepper and onions and topped with some croutons made of Persian traditional bread and served as a cold soup. Ashe - Mâst is a warm yogurt soup with fresh herbs, spinach and lentils. Even the leftover water extracted when straining yogurt is cooked to make a sour cream sauce called kashk, which is usually used as a topping on soups and stews. Matsoni is a Georgian yogurt in the Caucasus and Russia. Tarator and Cacık are cold soups made from yogurt during summertime in eastern Europe. They are made with ayran, cucumbers, dill, salt, olive oil, and optionally garlic and ground walnuts. Tzatziki in Greece and milk salad in Bulgaria are thick yogurt - based salads similar to tarator. Khyar w Laban (cucumber and yogurt salad) is a dish in Lebanon and Syria. Also, a wide variety of local Lebanese and Syrian dishes are cooked with yogurt like "Kibbi bi Laban '' Rahmjoghurt, a creamy yogurt with much higher fat content (10 %) than many yogurts offered in English - speaking countries. Dovga, a yogurt soup cooked with a variety of herbs and rice, is served warm in winter or refreshingly cold in summer. Jameed, yogurt salted and dried to preserve it, is consumed in Jordan. Zabadi is the type of yogurt made in Egypt, usually from the milk of the Egyptian water buffalo. It is particularly associated with Ramadan fasting, as it is thought to prevent thirst during all - day fasting. To offset its natural sourness, yogurt is also sold sweetened, sweetened and flavored or in containers with fruit or fruit jam on the bottom. The two styles of yogurt commonly found in the grocery store are set - style yogurt and Swiss - style yogurt. Set - style yogurt is poured into individual containers to set, while Swiss - style yogurt is stirred prior to packaging. Either may have fruit added to increase sweetness. Lassi and moru are common beverages in India. Lassi is stirred liquified curd that is either salted or sweetened with sugar commonly, less commonly honey and often combined with fruit pulp to create flavored lassi. Mango lassi is a western favorite, as is coconut lassi. Consistency can vary widely, with urban and commercial lassis being of uniform texture through being processed, whereas rural and rustic lassi has curds in it, and sometimes has malai (cream) added or removed. Moru is a South Indian summer drink, meant to keep drinkers hydrated through the hot and humid summers of the South. It is prepared by considerably thinning down yogurt with water, adding salt (for electrolyte balance) and spices, usually green chili peppers, asafoetida, curry leaves and mustard. Large amounts of sugar -- or other sweeteners for low - energy yogurts -- are often used in commercial yogurt. Some yogurts contain added modified starch, pectin (found naturally in fruit), and / or gelatin to create thickness and creaminess artificially at lower cost. This type of yogurt is also marketed under the name Swiss - style, although it is unrelated to the way yogurt is eaten in Switzerland. Some yogurts, often called "cream line '', are made with whole milk which has not been homogenized so the cream rises to the top. In the UK, Ireland, France and United States, sweetened, flavored yogurt is common, typically sold in single - serving plastic cups. Common flavors include vanilla, honey, and toffee, and fruit such as strawberry, cherry, blueberry, blackberry, raspberry, mango and peach. In the early twenty - first century yogurt flavors inspired by desserts, such as chocolate or cheesecake, have been available. There is concern about the health effects of sweetened yogurt, due to its high sugar content. Strained yogurt has been strained through a filter, traditionally made of muslin and more recently of paper or non-muslin cloth. This removes the whey, giving a much thicker consistency. Strained yogurt is made at home, especially if using skimmed milk which results in a thinner consistency. Yogurt that has been strained to filter or remove the whey is known as Labneh in Middle Eastern countries. It has a consistency between that of yogurt and cheese. It may be used for sandwiches in Middle Eastern countries. Olive oil, cucumber slices, olives, and various green herbs may be added. It can be thickened further and rolled into balls, preserved in olive oil, and fermented for a few more weeks. It is sometimes used with onions, meat, and nuts as a stuffing for a variety of pies or kibbeh balls. Some types of strained yogurts are boiled in open vats first, so that the liquid content is reduced. The East Indian dessert, a variation of traditional dahi called mishti dahi, offers a thicker, more custard - like consistency, and is usually sweeter than western yogurts. Strained yogurt is also enjoyed in Greece and is the main component of tzatziki (from Turkish "cacık ''), a well - known accompaniment to gyros and souvlaki pita sandwiches: it is a yogurt sauce or dip made with the addition of grated cucumber, olive oil, salt and, optionally, mashed garlic. Srikhand, a dessert in India, is made from strained yogurt, saffron, cardamom, nutmeg and sugar and sometimes fruits such as mango or pineapple. In North America and Britain, strained yogurt is commonly called "Greek yogurt ''. Strained yogurt is sometimes marketed in North America as "Greek yogurt '' and in Britain as "Greek - style yoghurt ''. In Britain the name "Greek '' may only be applied to yogurt made in Greece. Ayran, doogh ("dawghe '' in Neo-Aramaic) or dhallë is a yogurt - based, salty drink. It is made by mixing yogurt with water and (sometimes) salt. Borhani (or burhani) is a spicy yogurt drink. It is usually served with kacchi biryani at weddings and special feasts. Key ingredients are yogurt blended with mint leaves (mentha), mustard seeds and black rock salt (Kala Namak). Ground roasted cumin, ground white pepper, green chili pepper paste and sugar are often added. Lassi is a yogurt - based beverage that is usually slightly salty or sweet, and may be commercially flavored with rosewater, mango or other fruit juice. Salty lassi is usually flavored with ground, roasted cumin and red chilies, may be made with buttermilk. An unsweetened and unsalted yogurt drink usually called simply jogurt is consumed with burek and other baked goods. Sweetened yogurt drinks are the usual form in Europe (including the UK) and the US, containing fruit and added sweeteners. These are typically called "drinkable yogurt ''. Also available are "yogurt smoothies '', which contain a higher proportion of fruit and are more like smoothies. A variety of plant - milk yogurts appeared in the 2000s, using soy milk, rice milk, and nut milks such as almond milk and coconut milk. So far the most widely sold variety of plant milk yogurts is soy yogurt. These yogurts are suitable for vegans, people with intolerance to dairy milk, and those who prefer plant milks. Yogurt is made by heating milk to a temperature that denaturates its proteins (scalding), essential for making yogurt, cooling it to a temperature that will not kill the live microorganisms that turn the milk into yogurt, inoculating certain bacteria (starter culture), usually Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus, into the milk, and finally keeping it warm for several hours. The milk may be held at 85 ° C (185 ° F) for a few minutes, or boiled (giving a somewhat different result). It must be cooled to 50 ° C (122 ° F) or somewhat less, typically 40 -- 46 ° C (104 -- 115 ° F). Starter culture must then be mixed in well, and the mixture must be kept undisturbed and warm for some time, anywhere between 5 to 12 hours. Longer fermentation times produces a more acidic yogurt. The starter culture may be a small amount of live (not sterilized) existing yogurt or commercially available dried starter culture. Milk with a higher concentration of solids than normal milk may be used; the higher solids content produces a firmer yogurt. Solids can be increased by adding dried milk. The yogurt - making process provides two significant barriers to pathogen growth, heat and acidity (low pH). Both are necessary to ensure a safe product. Acidity alone has been questioned by recent outbreaks of food poisoning by E. coli O157: H7 that is acid - tolerant. E. coli O157: H7 is easily destroyed by pasteurization (heating); the initial heating of the milk kills pathogens as well as denaturing proteins. The microorganisms that turn milk into yogurt can tolerate higher temperatures than most pathogens, so that a suitable temperature not only encourages the formation of yogurt, but inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Once the yogurt has formed it can, if desired, be strained to reduce the whey content and thicken it. Two types of yogurt are supported by the Codex Alimentarius for import and export, implemented similarly by the US Food and Drug Administration. Research suggests Homemade Yogurt and Live Yogurt are much more beneficial than ' Heat Treated Fermented Milk ' (Pasteurized Yogurt). European Food Safety Authority has confirmed the probiotic benefits of Yogurt containing 10 CFU ' live Lactobacilli ' Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people have symptoms due to the decreased ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. In 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) determined that lactose intolerance can be alleviated by ingesting live yogurt cultures (lactobacilli) that are able to digest the lactose in other dairy products. The scientific review by EFSA enabled yogurt manufacturers to use a health claim on product labels, provided that the "yoghurt should contain at least 10 CFU live starter microorganisms (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus) per gram. The target population is individuals with lactose maldigestion. '' Ayran is a Turkish savory yogurt - based beverage, traditionally served cold and is sometimes carbonated and seasoned with mint. Skyr is an Icelandic cultured dairy product, similar to strained yogurt traditionally served cold with milk and a topping of sugar Raita is a condiment made with yogurt in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh Dadiah in a market Plant - milk yogurt Home yogurt maker A drinkable yogurt made from water buffalo milk

when was voting age reduced to 18 in uk

Voting age - Wikipedia A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain before they become eligible to vote in a public election. Today, the most common voting age is 18 years; however, voting ages as low as 16 and as high as 25 exist (see list below). Most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set in their constitution. In a number of countries voting is compulsory for those eligible to vote, while in most it is optional. When the right to vote was being established in democracies, the voting age was generally set at 21 or higher. In the 1970s many countries reduced the voting age to 18. Debate is ongoing in a number of countries on proposals to reduce the voting age to or below 16. Before the Second World War, the voting age in almost all countries was 21 years or higher. Czechoslovakia was the first to reduce the voting age to 18 years in 1946, and by 1968 a total of 17 countries had lowered their voting age. Many countries, particularly in Western Europe, reduced their voting ages to 18 years during the 1970s, starting with the United Kingdom (1970), with the United States (26th Amendment) (1971), Canada, Australia (1974), France and others following soon afterwards. By the end of the 20th century, 18 had become by far the most common voting age. However, a few countries maintain a voting age of 20 years or higher. It was argued that 18 - year - old men could be drafted to go to war, and many people felt they should be able to vote at the age of 18. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries voting ages were lowered to 18 in India, Switzerland, Austria and Morocco. Japan was due to make the change to 18 in 2016. A dispute is continuing in the Maldives. Around the year 2000 a number of countries began to consider whether the voting age ought to be reduced further, with arguments most often being made in favour of a reduction to 16. The earliest moves came during the 1990s, when the voting age for municipal elections in some States of Germany was lowered to 16. Lower Saxony was the first state to make such a reduction, in 1995, and four other states did likewise. During the 2000s several proposals for a reduced voting age were put forward in U.S. states, including California, Florida and Alaska, but none was successful. A national reduction was proposed in 2005 in Canada and in the Australian state of New South Wales, but these proposals were not adopted. In May 2009, Danish Member of Parliament Mogens Jensen presented an initiative to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg to lower the voting age in Europe to 16. In 2007, Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes. The voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time a voting age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party, but was not adopted. The voting age for municipal elections in some states was lowered to 16 shortly after 2000. Three states had made the reduction by 2003 (Burgenland, Carinthia and Styria), and in May 2003 Vienna became the fourth. Salzburg followed suit, and so by the start of 2005 the total had reached at least five states out of nine. As a consequence of state law, reduction of the municipal voting age in the states of Burgenland, Salzburg and Vienna resulted in the reduction of the regional voting age in those states as well. After the 2006 election, the winning SPÖ - ÖVP coalition announced on 12 January 2007 that one of its policies would be the reduction of the voting age to 16 for elections in all states and at all levels in Austria. The policy was set in motion by a Government announcement on 14 March, and a bill proposing an amendment to the Constitution was presented to the legislature on 2 May. On 5 June the National Council approved the proposal following a recommendation from its Constitution Committee. During the passage of the bill through the chamber relatively little opposition was raised to the reduction, with four out of five parties explicitly supporting it; indeed, there was some dispute over which party had been the first to suggest the idea. Greater controversy surrounded the other provisions of the bill concerning the Briefwahl, or postal vote, and the extension of the legislative period for the National Council from four to five years. A further uncontroversial inclusion was a reduction in the candidacy age from 19 to 18. The Federal Council approved the Bill on 21 June, with no party voting against it. The voting age was reduced when the Bill 's provisions came into force on 1 July 2007. Austria thus became the first member of the European Union, and the first of the developed world democracies, to adopt a voting age of 16 for all purposes. Brazil lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 in the 1988 constitution. The presidential election of 1989 was the first with the lower voting age. People between the ages 18 and 70 are required to vote. On 20 November 2013, Malta lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 for local elections starting from 2015. The proposal had wide support from both the government and opposition, social scientists and youth organizations. The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, with effect from 1970 and remained in force until the Scottish Independence Referendum Act 2013 which allowed 16 year olds to vote for the first time, but only in Scotland and only in that particular referendum. The Scottish Parliament reduced the voting age to 16 for its own and Scottish local elections in 2015. Men in military service who turned 19 during the first world war were entitled to vote in 1918 irrespective of their age as part of the Representation of the People Act 1918 which also allowed some women over the age of 30 to vote. The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 brought the voting age for women down to 21. The reduction of the voting age to 16 in the United Kingdom was first given serious consideration on 15 December 1999, when the House of Commons considered in Committee an amendment proposed by Simon Hughes to the Representation of the People Bill. This was the first time the reduction of a voting age below 18 had ever been put to a vote in the Commons. The Government opposed the amendment, and it was defeated by 434 votes to 36. The Votes at 16 coalition, a group of political and charitable organisations supporting a reduction of the voting age to 16, was launched on 29 January 2003. At that time a Private Member 's Bill was also proposed in the House of Lords by Lord Lucas, and received a Second Reading on 9 January. In 2004, the UK Electoral Commission conducted a major consultation on the subject of the voting and candidacy ages, and received a significant response. In its conclusions it recommended that the voting age remain at 18. On 29 November 2005 the House of Commons voted 136 - 128 (on a free vote) against a Private Member 's Bill for a reduction in the voting age to 16 proposed by Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Williams. Parliament chose not to include a provision reducing the voting age in the Electoral Administration Act during its passage in 2006. On 27 February 2006, the report of the Power Inquiry called for a reduction of the voting age, and of the candidacy age for the House of Commons, to 16. On the same day the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, indicated in an article in The Guardian that he favoured a reduction provided it was made concurrently with effective citizenship education. The UK Ministry of Justice published on 3 July 2007 a Green Paper entitled The Governance of Britain, in which it proposed the establishment of a "Youth Citizenship Commission ''. The Commission would examine the case for lowering the voting age. On launching the Paper in the House of Commons, PM Gordon Brown said: "Although the voting age has been 18 since 1969, it is right, as part of that debate, to examine, and hear from young people themselves, whether lowering that age would increase participation. '' The Scottish National Party 's conference voted unanimously on 27 October 2007 for a policy of reducing the voting age to 16, as well as in favour of a campaign for the necessary power to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament. During the Youth Parliament debates of 30 October 2009 in the House of Commons, Votes at 16 was debated and young people of that age group voted for it overwhelmingly as a campaign priority. Since that debate the issue has been raised in Prime Minister 's Questions and has also gained the widespread support of the major political parties. In April 2015, Labour announced that it would support the policy if it won an overall majority in the 2015 general election. There was some criticism about not reducing the voting age to 16 years for the referendum on the membership in the European Union in 2016. In September 2011, it was announced that the voting age was likely to be reduced from 18 to 16 for the Scottish independence referendum. This was approved by the Scottish Parliament in June 2013. In June 2015, the Scottish Parliament voted unanimously to reduce the voting age to 16 for Scottish Parliament elections and Scottish local government elections. Moves to lower the voting age to 16 were successful in each of the three British Crown dependencies from 2006 to 2008. The Isle of Man was the first to amend its law, when in July 2006 it reduced the voting age to 16 for its general elections, with the House of Keys approving the move by 19 votes to 4. Jersey followed suit on 4 July 2007, when it approved in principle a reduction of the voting age to 16. The States of Jersey voted narrowly in favour, by 25 votes to 21, and the legislative amendments were adopted on 26 September. The law was sanctioned by Order in Council on 12 December, and was brought into force on 1 April, in time for the general elections in late 2008. On 31 October 2007, a proposal for a reduction made by the House Committee of the States of Guernsey, and approved by the States ' Policy Committee, was adopted by the assembly by 30 votes to 15. An Order in Council sanctioning the law was made on 12 December, and it was registered at the Court of Guernsey on 19 December. It came into force immediately, and the voting age was accordingly reduced in time for the Guernsey general election, 2008. Alderney and Sark, each part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, have autonomy in deciding the question. Both have yet to favour a reduction to 16. In the United States, the debate about lowering voting age from 21 to 18 began during World War II and intensified during the Vietnam War, when most of those subjected to the draft were too young to vote, and the image of young men being forced to risk their lives in the military without the privileges of voting successfully pressured legislators to lower the voting age nationally and in many states. (See also Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War # Draft.) By 1968, several states had lowered the voting age below 21 years: Alaska and Hawaii 's minimum age was 20, Kentucky 's was 19, and Georgia 's was 18. In 1970, the Supreme Court in Oregon v. Mitchell ruled that Congress had the right to regulate the minimum voting age in federal elections; however, not at local and state level. The 26th Amendment (passed and ratified in 1971) set the voting age for federal and state elections at 18 years, but does not prevent states from establishing a lower voting age. Except for the express limitations provided for in Amendments XIV, XV, XIX and XXVI, voter qualifications for House and Senate elections are largely delegated to the States under Article I, Section 2 and Amendment XVII of the United States Constitution, which respectively state that "The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. '' and "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. '' 21 states permit 17 - year - olds to vote in primary elections and caucuses if they will be 18 by election day: Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia, Vermont, and Washington. Alaska, Kansas, North Dakota and Washington allow 17 - year - olds to participate in Democrat caucuses, but not in the Republican caucus. Minnesota allows 17 - year - olds to participate in presidential caucuses, but may not vote in primary elections for other offices. Currently, the Maine Green Independent Party, the state branch of the Green Party of the United States, calls for the lowering of the voting age to 17. Youth suffrage appears to be gaining ground in Massachusetts; three of the four Democratic United States Senate candidates in 2010 supported lowering the voting age. In 2013, the City of Takoma Park, Maryland became the first place in the United States to lower its voting age to 16, for local (but not general) elections and referendums. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election. Iran had been unique in awarding suffrage at 15, but raised the age to 18 in January 2007 despite the opposition of the Government. In May 2007 the Iranian Cabinet proposed a bill to reverse the increase. On 6 May 2007, the Swiss Canton of Glarus reduced the voting age from 18 to 16 for cantonal and local elections. The New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Bradford announced on 21 June 2007 that she intended to introduce her Civics Education and Voting Age Bill on the next occasion upon which a place became available for the consideration of Members ' Bills. When this happened on 25 July Bradford abandoned the idea, citing an adverse public reaction. The Bill would have sought to reduce the voting age to 16 in New Zealand and make civics education part of the compulsory curriculum in schools. A request to lower the voting age to 16 was made during consideration of revisions to the Constitution of Venezuela in 2007. Cilia Flores, president of the National Assembly, announced that the Mixed Committee for Constitutional Reform had found the idea acceptable. Following approval in the legislature the amendment formed part of the package of constitutional proposals, and was defeated in the 2007 referendum. A report suggesting that consideration be given to reducing the voting age to 16 in the Australian Capital Territory in Canberra, Australia was tabled in the territorial legislature on 26 September 2007 and defeated. In 2015, federal Opposition Leader Bill Shorten said that the voting age should be lowered to 16. Luxembourg has compulsory voting from the age of 18. A proposal by the government to introduce optional voting for those aged 16 and 17 was rejected by 81 % of voters in a June 2015 referendum. Eighteen is the most common voting age, with a small minority of countries differing from this rule. Those with a national minimum age of 17 include East Timor, Greece, Indonesia, North Korea, South Sudan and Sudan. The minimum age is 16 in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (three self - governing British Crown Dependencies). People aged 16 -- 18 can vote in Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro if employed. The highest minimum voting age is 21 in several nations. Some countries have variable provision for the minimum voting age, whereby a lower age is set for eligibility to vote in state, regional or municipal elections. The only known maximum voting age is in the Holy See, where the franchise for electing a new Pope is restricted to Cardinals under the age of 80. The following is an alphabetical list of voting ages in the various countries of the world. The following is a chronological list of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 18; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 21. In some cases the age was lowered decrementally, and so the "staging points '' are also given. Some information is also included on the relevant legal instruments involved. This is a further list, similar to the above but of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 16; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 18. The following are political parties and other campaigning organisations that have either endorsed a lower voting age or who favour its removal. In 2013, the Constitutional Convention was asked to consider reducing the voting age to 17 and recommended lowering it to 16. The then government agreed to hold a referendum, but in 2015 postponed it indefinitely to give priority to other referendums. No political party had decreed that its members should all follow the party line about lowering voting age policy, resulting in public differences of view. Most parties had splits in their members and supporters, taking different sides.

which marine ecosystem requires living organisms to adapt to both land and sea environments

Marine mammal - wikipedia Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean and other marine ecosystems for their existence. They include animals such as seals, whales, manatees, sea otters and polar bears. They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but rather have a polyphyletic relation due to convergent evolution, as in they do not have an immediate common ancestor. They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle varies considerably between species. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers. Seals and sea - lions are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Their diet varies considerably as well; some may eat zooplankton, others may eat fish, squid, shellfish, sea - grass and a few may eat other mammals. While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their roles in various ecosystems are large, especially concerning the maintenance of marine ecosystems, through processes including the regulation of prey populations. This role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern as 23 % of marine mammal species are currently threatened. Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources. Many were also the target for commercial industry, leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species, such as whales and seals. Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of † Steller 's sea cow and the † Caribbean monk seal. After commercial hunting ended, some species, such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal, have rebounded in numbers; conversely, other species, such as the North Atlantic right whale, are critically endangered. Other than hunting, marine mammals can be killed as bycatch from fisheries, where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve. Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals. Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food. Noise pollution, for example, may adversely affect echolocating mammals, and the ongoing effects of global warming degrade arctic environments. Procaviidae Elephantidae Dugongidae (dugongs) Trichechus manatus (West Indian manatee) Trichechus senegalensis (African manatee) Trichechus inunguis (Amazonian manatee; freshwater species) Hippopotamidae Mysticeti (baleen whales) Odontoceti (toothed whales, except river dolphins) Ruminantia Perissodactyla Pholidota Feliformia Canidae Ursus maritimus (polar bear) all other ursids Enhydra lutris (sea otter) Lontra felina (marine otter) † Neovison macrodon (sea mink) all other mustelids Otariidae (eared seals) Odobenidae (walruses) Phocidae (earless seals) Marine mammals form a diverse group of 129 species that rely on the ocean for their existence. They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but instead have a polyphyletic relationship. They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. Despite the diversity in morphology seen between groups, improved foraging efficiency has been the main driver in their evolution. The level of dependence on the marine environment for existence varies considerably with species. For example, dolphins and whales are completely dependent on the marine environment for all stages of their life; seals feed in the ocean but breed on land; and polar bears must feed on land. Twenty three percent of marine mammal species are threatened. The cetaceans became aquatic around 50 million years ago (mya). Based on molecular and morphological research, the cetaceans genetically and morphologically fall firmly within the Artiodactyla (even - toed ungulates). The term "Cetartiodactyla '' reflects the idea that whales evolved within the ungulates. The term was coined by merging the name for the two orders, Cetacea and Artiodactyla, into a single word. Under this definition, the closest living land relative of the whales and dolphins is thought to be the hippopotamuses. Sirenians, the sea cows, became aquatic around 40 million years ago. The first appearance of sirenians in the fossil record was during the early Eocene, and by the late Eocene, sirenians had significantly diversified. Inhabitants of rivers, estuaries, and nearshore marine waters, they were able to spread rapidly. The most primitive sirenian, † Prorastomus, was found in Jamaica, unlike other marine mammals which originated from the Old World (such as cetaceans). The first known quadrupedal sirenian was † Pezosiren from the early Eocene. The earliest known sea cows, of the families † Prorastomidae and † Protosirenidae, were both confined to the Eocene, and were pig - sized, four - legged, amphibious creatures. The first members of Dugongidae appeared by the end of the Eocene. At this point, sea cows were fully aquatic. Pinnipeds split from other caniforms 50 mya during the Eocene. Their evolutionary link to terrestrial mammals was unknown until the 2007 discovery of † Puijila darwini in early Miocene deposits in Nunavut, Canada. Like a modern otter, † Puijila had a long tail, short limbs and webbed feet instead of flippers. The lineages of Otariidae (eared seals) and Odobenidae (walrus) split almost 28 mya. Phocids (earless seals) are known to have existed for at least 15 mya, and molecular evidence supports a divergence of the Monachinae (monk seals) and Phocinae lineages 22 mya. Fossil evidence indicates the sea otter (Enhydra) lineage became isolated in the North Pacific approximately two mya, giving rise to the now - extinct † Enhydra macrodonta and the modern sea otter, Enhydra lutris. The sea otter evolved initially in northern Hokkaidō and Russia, and then spread east to the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, and down the North American coast. In comparison to cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds, which entered the water approximately 50, 40, and 20 mya, respectively, the sea otter is a relative newcomer to marine life. In some respects though, the sea otter is more fully adapted to water than pinnipeds, which must haul out on land or ice to give birth. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears, Ursus arctos, that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene or from the eastern part of Siberia, (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula). The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000 - year - old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 150,000 years ago. Further, some clades of brown bear, as assessed by their mtDNA, are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear might not be considered a species under some species concepts. In general, terrestrial amniote invasions of the sea have become more frequent in the Cenozoic than they were in the Mesozoic. Factors contributing to this trend include the increasing productivity of near - shore marine environments, and the role of endothermy in facilitating this transition. Marine mammals are widely distributed throughout the globe, but their distribution is patchy and coincides with the productivity of the oceans. Species richness peaks at around 40 ° latitude, both north and south. This corresponds to the highest levels of primary production around North and South America, Africa, Asia and Australia. Total species range is highly variable for marine mammal species. On average most marine mammals have ranges which are equivalent or smaller than one - fifth of the Indian Ocean. The variation observed in range size is a result of the different ecological requirements of each species and their ability to cope with a broad range of environmental conditions. The high degree of overlap between marine mammal species richness and areas of human impact on the environment is of concern. Most marine mammals, such as seals and sea otters, inhabit the coast. Seals, however, also use a number of terrestrial habitats, both continental and island. In temperate and tropical areas, they haul - out on to sandy and pebble beaches, rocky shores, shoals, mud flats, tide pools and in sea caves. Some species also rest on man - made structures, like piers, jetties, buoys and oil platforms. Seals may move further inland and rest in sand dunes or vegetation, and may even climb cliffs. Most cetaceans live in the open ocean, and species like the sperm whale may dive to depths of − 1,000 to − 2,500 feet (− 300 to − 760 m) in search of food. Sirenians live in shallow coastal waters, usually living 30 feet (9.1 m) below sea level. However, they have been known to dive to − 120 feet (− 37 m) to forage deep - water seagrasses. Sea otters live in protected areas, such as rocky shores, kelp forests, and barrier reefs, although they may reside among drift ice or in sandy, muddy, or silty areas. Many marine mammals seasonally migrate. Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes, and seals migrate in response to these changes. In turn, polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as "ice - floe breakup ''), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze - up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year - round. Seals may also migrate to other environmental changes, such as El Niño, and traveling seals may use various features of their environment to reach their destination including geomagnetic fields, water and wind currents, the position of the sun and moon and the taste and temperature of the water. Baleen whales famously migrate very long distances into tropical waters to give birth and raise young, possibly to prevent predation by killer whales. The gray whale has the longest recorded migration of any mammal, with one traveling 14,000 miles (23,000 km) from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Baja Peninsula. During the winter, manatees living at the northern end of their range migrate to warmer waters. Marine mammals have a number of physiological and anatomical features to overcome the unique challenges associated with aquatic living. Some of these features are very species specific. Marine mammals have developed a number of features for efficient locomotion such as torpedo shaped bodies to reduce drag; modified limbs for propulsion and steering; tail flukes and dorsal fins for propulsion and balance. Marine mammals are adept at thermoregulation using dense fur or blubber, circulatory adjustments (counter-current heat exchangers); torpedo shaped bodies, reduced appendages, and large size to prevent heat loss. Marine mammals are able to dive for long periods of time. Both pinnipeds and cetaceans have large and complex blood vessel systems which serve to store oxygen to support deep diving. Other important reservoirs include muscles, blood, and the spleen which all have the capacity to hold a high concentration of oxygen. They are also capable of bradycardia (reduced heart rate), and vasoconstriction (shunting most of the oxygen to vital organs such as the brain and heart) to allow extended diving times and cope with oxygen deprivation. If oxygen is depleted, marine mammals can access substantial reservoirs of glycogen that support anaerobic glycolysis of the cells involved during conditions of systemic hypoxia associated with prolonged submersion. Sound travels differently through water, and therefore marine mammals have developed adaptations to ensure effective communication, prey capture, and predator detection. The most notable adaptation is the development of echolocation in whales and dolphins. Toothed whales emit a focused beam of high - frequency clicks in the direction that their head is pointing. Sounds are generated by passing air from the bony nares through the phonic lips. These sounds are reflected by the dense concave bone of the cranium and an air sac at its base. The focused beam is modulated by a large fatty organ known as the ' melon '. This acts like an acoustic lens because it is composed of lipids of differing densities. Marine mammals have evolved a wide variety of features for feeding, which are mainly seen in their dentition. For example, the cheek teeth of pinnipeds and odontocetes are specifically adapted to capture fish and squid. In contrast, baleen whales have evolved baleen plates to filter feed plankton and small fish from the water. Polar bears, otters, and fur seals have fur, one of the defining mammalian features, that is long, oily, and waterproof in order to trap air to provide insulation. In contrast, other marine mammals -- such as whales, dolphins, porpoises, manatees, dugongs, and walruses -- have lost long fur in favor of a thick, dense epidermis and a thickened fat layer (blubber) in response to hydrodynamic requirements. Wading and bottom - feeding animals (such as manatees) need to be heavier than water in order to keep contact with the floor or to stay submerged. Surface - living animals (such as sea otters) need the opposite, and free - swimming animals living in open waters (such as dolphins) need to be neutrally buoyant in order to be able to swim up and down the water column. Typically, thick and dense bone is found in bottom feeders and low bone density is associated with mammals living in deep water. Some marine mammals, such as polar bears and otters, have retained four weight - bearing limbs and can walk on land like fully terrestrial animals. All cetaceans are carnivorous and predatory. Toothed whales mostly feed on fish and cephalopods, followed by crustaceans and bivalves. Some may forage with other kinds of animals, such as other species of whales or certain species of pinnipeds. One common feeding method is herding, where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume, known as a bait ball. Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball, feeding on the stunned fish. Coralling is a method where dolphins chase fish into shallow water to catch them more easily. Killer whales and bottlenose dolphins have also been known to drive their prey onto a beach to feed on it. Other whales with a blunt snout and reduced dentition rely on suction feeding. Though carnivorous, they house gut flora similar to that of terrestrial herbivores, probably a remnant of their herbivorous ancestry. Baleen whales use their baleen plates to sieve plankton, among others, out of the water; there are two types of methods: lunge - feeding and gulp - feeding. Lunge - feeders expand the volume of their jaw to a volume bigger than the original volume of the whale itself by inflating their mouth. This causes grooves on their throat to expand, increasing the amount of water the mouth can store. They ram a baitball at high speeds in order to feed, but this is only energy - effective when used against a large baitball. Gulp - feeders swim with an open mouth, filling it with water and prey. Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale 's interest, be within a certain size range so that the baleen plates can filter it, and be slow enough so that it can not escape. Otters are the only marine animals that are capable of lifting and turning over rocks, which they often do with their front paws when searching for prey. The sea otter may pluck snails and other organisms from kelp and dig deep into underwater mud for clams. It is the only marine mammal that catches fish with its forepaws rather than with its teeth. Under each foreleg, sea otters have a loose pouch of skin that extends across the chest which they use to store collected food to bring to the surface. This pouch also holds a rock that is used to break open shellfish and clams, an example of tool use. The sea otters eat while floating on their backs, using their forepaws to tear food apart and bring to their mouths. Marine otters mainly feed on crustaceans and fish. Pinnipeds mostly feed on fish and cephalopods, followed by crustaceans and bivalves, and then zooplankton and warm - blooded prey (like sea birds). Most species are generalist feeders, but a few are specialists. They typically hunt non-schooling fish, slow - moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey when in groups. Solitary foraging species usually exploit coastal waters, bays and rivers. When large schools of fish or squid are available, pinnipeds hunt cooperatively in large groups, locating and herding their prey. Some species, such as California and South American sea lions, may forage with cetaceans and sea birds. The polar bear is the most carnivorous species of bear, and its diet primarily consists of ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded (Erignathus barbatus) seals. Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice, water, and air; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water. The polar bear 's most common hunting method is still - hunting: The bear locates a seal breathing hole using its sense of smell, and crouches nearby for a seal to appear. When the seal exhales, the bear smells its breath, reaches into the hole with a forepaw, and drags it out onto the ice. The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice. Upon spotting a seal, it walks to within 100 yards (90 m), and then crouches. If the seal does not notice, the bear creeps to within 30 to 40 feet (9 to 10 m) of the seal and then suddenly rushes to attack. A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow. They may also feed on fish. Sirenians are referred to as "sea cows '' because their diet consists mainly of sea - grass. When eating, they ingest the whole plant, including the roots, although when this is impossible they feed on just the leaves. A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents, and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce. West Indian manatees eat up to 60 different species of plants, as well as fish and small invertebrates to a lesser extent. Sea otters are a classic example of a keystone species; their presence affects the ecosystem more profoundly than their size and numbers would suggest. They keep the population of certain benthic (sea floor) herbivores, particularly sea urchins, in check. Sea urchins graze on the lower stems of kelp, causing the kelp to drift away and die. Loss of the habitat and nutrients provided by kelp forests leads to profound cascade effects on the marine ecosystem. North Pacific areas that do not have sea otters often turn into urchin barrens, with abundant sea urchins and no kelp forest. Reintroduction of sea otters to British Columbia has led to a dramatic improvement in the health of coastal ecosystems, and similar changes have been observed as sea otter populations recovered in the Aleutian and Commander Islands and the Big Sur coast of California However, some kelp forest ecosystems in California have also thrived without sea otters, with sea urchin populations apparently controlled by other factors. The role of sea otters in maintaining kelp forests has been observed to be more important in areas of open coast than in more protected bays and estuaries. An apex predator affects prey population dynamics and defense tactics (such as camouflage). The polar bear is the apex predator within its range. Several animal species, particularly Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) and glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), routinely scavenge polar bear kills. The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears, while polar bear predation in turn regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals. The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals. Compared to the Antarctic, where there is no major surface predator, Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual, appear more restless when hauled out on the ice, and rarely defecate on the ice. The fur of Arctic pups is white, presumably to provide camouflage from predators, whereas Antarctic pups all have dark fur. Killer whales are apex predators throughout their global distribution, and can have a profound effect on the behavior and population of prey species. Their diet is very broad and they can feed on many vertebrates in the ocean including salmon, rays, sharks (even white sharks), large baleen whales, and nearly 20 species of pinniped. The predation of whale calves may be responsible for annual whale migrations to calving grounds in more tropical waters, where the population of killer whales is much lower than in polar waters. Prior to whaling, it is thought that great whales were a major food source; however, after their sharp decline, killer whales have since expanded their diet, leading to the decline of smaller marine mammals. A decline in Aleutian Islands sea otter populations in the 1990s was controversially attributed by some scientists to killer whale predation, although with no direct evidence. The decline of sea otters followed a decline in harbor seal and Steller sea lion populations, the killer whale 's preferred prey, which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey, now reduced by industrial whaling. A 2010 study considered whales to be a positive influence to the productivity of ocean fisheries, in what has been termed a "whale pump ''. Whales carry nutrients such as nitrogen from the depths back to the surface. This functions as an upward biological pump, reversing an earlier presumption that whales accelerate the loss of nutrients to the bottom. This nitrogen input in the Gulf of Maine is more than the input of all rivers combined emptying into the gulf, some 25,000 short tons (23,000 t) each year. Whales defecate at the ocean 's surface; their excrement is important for fisheries because it is rich in iron and nitrogen. The whale feces are liquid and instead of sinking, they stay at the surface where phytoplankton feed off it. Upon death, whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life. Evidence of whale falls in present - day and fossil records shows that deep sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures, with a global diversity of 407 species, comparable to other neritic biodiversity hotspots, such as cold seeps and hydrothermal vents. Deterioration of whale carcasses happens though a series of three stages. Initially, moving organisms, such as sharks and hagfish, scavenge soft tissue at a rapid rate over a period of months to as long as two years. This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments (which contain organic matter) by enrichment opportunists, such as crustaceans and polychaetes, throughout a period of years. Finally, sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing hydrogen sulphide enabling the growth of chemoautotrophic organisms, which in turn, support other organisms such as mussels, clams, limpets, and sea snails. This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species, averaging 185 species per site. Marine mammals were hunted by coastal aboriginal humans historically for food and other resources. These subsistence hunts still occur in Canada, Greenland, Indonesia, Russia, the United States, and several nations in the Caribbean. The effects of these are only localized, as hunting efforts were on a relatively small scale. Commercial hunting took this to a much greater scale and marine mammals were heavily exploited. This led to the extinction of the † Steller 's sea cow (along with subsistence hunting) and the † Caribbean monk seal. Today, populations of species that were historically hunted, such as blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) and the North Pacific right whale (Eubalaena japonica), are much lower than their pre-whaling levels. Because whales generally have slow growth rates, are slow to reach sexual maturity, and have a low reproductive output, population recovery has been very slow. A number of whales are still subject to direct hunting, despite the 1986 moratorium ban on whaling set under the terms of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). There are only two nations remaining which sanction commercial whaling: Norway, where several hundred common minke whales are harvested each year; and Iceland, where quotas of 150 fin whales and 100 minke whales per year are set. Japan also harvests several hundred Antarctic and North Pacific minke whales each year, ostensibly for scientific research in accordance with the moratorium. However, the illegal trade of whale and dolphin meat is a significant market in Japan and some countries. The most profitable furs in the fur trade were those of sea otters, especially the northern sea otter which inhabited the coastal waters between the Columbia River to the south and Cook Inlet to the north. The fur of the Californian southern sea otter was less highly prized and thus less profitable. After the northern sea otter was hunted to local extinction, maritime fur traders shifted to California until the southern sea otter was likewise nearly extinct. The British and American maritime fur traders took their furs to the Chinese port of Guangzhou (Canton), where they worked within the established Canton System. Furs from Russian America were mostly sold to China via the Mongolian trading town of Kyakhta, which had been opened to Russian trade by the 1727 Treaty of Kyakhta. Commercial sealing was historically just as important as the whaling industry. Exploited species included harp seals, hooded seals, Caspian seals, elephant seals, walruses and all species of fur seal. The scale of seal harvesting decreased substantially after the 1960s, after the Canadian government reduced the length of the hunting season and implemented measures to protect adult females. Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers; for example, Antarctic fur seals may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting. The northern elephant seal was hunted to near extinction in the late 19th century, with only a small population remaining on Guadalupe Island. It has since recolonized much of its historic range, but has a population bottleneck. Conversely, the Mediterranean monk seal was extirpated from much of its former range, which stretched from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea and northwest Africa, and only remains in the northeastern Mediterranean and some parts of northwest Africa. Polar bears can be hunted for sport in Canada with a special permit and accompaniment by a local guide. This can be an important source of income for small communities, as guided hunts bring in more income than selling the polar bear hide on markets. The United States, Russia, Norway, Greenland, and Canada allow subsistence hunting, and Canada distributes hunting permits to indigenous communities. The selling of these permits is a main source of income for many of these communities. Their hides can be used for subsistence purposes, kept as hunting trophies, or can be bought in markets. By - catch is the incidental capture of non-target species in fisheries. Fixed and drift gill nets cause the highest mortality levels for both cetaceans and pinnipeds, however, entanglements in long lines, mid-water trawls, and both trap and pot lines are also common. Tuna seines are particularly problematic for entanglement by dolphins. By - catch affects all cetaceans, both small and big, in all habitat types. However, smaller cetaceans and pinnipeds are most vulnerable as their size means that escape once they are entangled is highly unlikely and they frequently drown. While larger cetaceans are capable of dragging nets with them, the nets sometimes remain tightly attached to the individual and can impede the animal from feeding sometimes leading to starvation. Abandoned or lost nets and lines cause mortality through ingestion or entanglement. Marine mammals also get entangled in aquaculture nets, however, these are rare events and not prevalent enough to impact populations. Vessel strikes cause death for a number of marine mammals, especially whales. In particular, fast commercial vessels such as container ships can cause major injuries or death when they collide with marine mammals. Collisions occur both with large commercial vessels and recreational boats and cause injury to whales or smaller cetaceans. The critically endangered North Atlantic right whale is particularly affected by vessel strikes. Tourism boats designed for whale and dolphin watching can also negatively impact on marine mammals by interfering with their natural behavior. The fishery industry not only threatens marine mammals through by - catch, but also through competition for food. Large scale fisheries have led to the depletion of fish stocks that are important prey species for marine mammals. Pinnipeds have been especially affected by the direct loss of food supplies and in some cases the harvesting of fish has led to food shortages or dietary deficiencies, starvation of young, and reduced recruitment into the population. As the fish stocks have been depleted, the competition between marine mammals and fisheries has sometimes led to conflict. Large - scale culling of populations of marine mammals by commercial fishers has been initiated in a number of areas in order to protect fish stocks for human consumption. Shellfish aquaculture takes up space so in effect creates competition for space. However, there is little direct competition for aquaculture shellfish harvest. On the other hand, marine mammals regularly take finfish from farms, which creates significant problems for marine farmers. While there are usually legal mechanisms designed to deter marine mammals, such as anti-predator nets or harassment devices, individuals are often illegally shot. Habitat degradation is caused by a number of human activities. Marine mammals that live in coastal environments are most likely to be affected by habitat degradation and loss. Developments such as sewage marine outfalls, moorings, dredging, blasting, dumping, port construction, hydroelectric projects, and aquaculture both degrade the environment and take up valuable habitat. For example, extensive shellfish aquaculture takes up valuable space used by coastal marine mammals for important activities such as breeding, foraging and resting. Contaminants that are discharged into the marine environment accumulate in the bodies of marine mammals when they are stored unintentionally in their blubber along with energy. Contaminants that are found in the tissues of marine mammals include heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, but also organochlorides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. For example, these can cause disruptive effects on endocrine systems; impair the reproductive system, and lower the immune system of individuals, leading to a higher number of deaths. Other pollutants such as oil, plastic debris and sewage threaten the livelihood of marine mammals. Noise pollution from anthropogenic activities is another major concern for marine mammals. This is a problem because underwater noise pollution interferes with the abilities of some marine mammals to communicate, and locate both predators and prey. Underwater explosions are used for a variety of purposes including military activities, construction and oceanographic or geophysical research. They can cause injuries such as hemorrhaging of the lungs, and contusion and ulceration of the gastrointestinal tract. Underwater noise is generated from shipping, the oil and gas industry, research, and military use of sonar and oceanographic acoustic experimentation. Acoustic harassment devices and acoustic deterrent devices used by aquaculture facilities to scare away marine mammals emit loud and noxious underwater sounds. Two changes to the global atmosphere due to anthropogenic activity threaten marine mammals. The first is increases in ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion, and this mainly affects the Antarctic and other areas of the southern hemisphere. An increase in ultraviolet radiation has the capacity to decrease phytoplankton abundance, which forms the basis of the food chain in the ocean. The second effect of global climate change is global warming due to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Raised sea levels, sea temperature and changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear 's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13 % per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two - thirds of the world 's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current rate. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (MMPA) was passed on October 21, 1972 under president Richard Nixon to prevent the further depletion and possible extinction of marine mammal stocks. It prohibits the taking ("the act of hunting, killing, capture, and / or harassment of any marine mammal; or, the attempt at such '') of any marine mammal without a permit issued by the Secretary. Authority to manage the MMPA was divided between the Secretary of the Interior through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), and the Secretary of Commerce, which is delegated to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The Marine Mammal Commission (MMC) was established to review existing policies and make recommendations to the Service and NOAA to better implement the MMPA. The Service is responsible for ensuring the protection of sea otters and marine otters, walruses, polar bears, the three species of manatees, and dugongs; and NOAA was given responsibility to conserve and manage pinnipeds (excluding walruses) and cetaceans. The 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) is the only global organization that conserves a broad range of animals, of which includes marine mammals. Of the agreements made, three of them deal with the conservation of marine mammals: ACCOBAMS, ASCOBANS, and the Wadden Sea Agreement. In 1982, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC) adopted a pollution prevention approach to conservation, which many other conventions at the time also adopted. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS), founded in 1996, specifically protects cetaceans in the Mediterranean area, and "maintains a favorable status '', a direct action against whaling. There are 23 member states. The Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS) was adopted alongside ACCOBAMS to establish a special protection area for Europe 's increasingly threatened cetaceans. Other anti-whaling efforts include a ten - year moratorium in 1986 by the IWC on all whaling, and an environmental agreement (a type of international law) the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling which controlled commercial, scientific, and subsistence whaling. The Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea, enforced in 1991, prohibits the killing or harassment of seals in the Wadden Sea, specifically targeting the harbor seal population. The 1973 Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears between Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), the United States, and the Soviet Union outlawed the unregulated hunting of polar bears from aircraft and icebreakers, as well as protecting migration, feeding, and hibernation sites. Various non-governmental organizations participate in marine conservation activism, wherein they draw attention to and aid in various problems in marine conservation, such as pollution, whaling, bycatch, and so forth. Notable organizations include the Greenpeace who focus on overfishing and whaling among other things, and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society who are known for taking direct - action tactics to expose illegal activity. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples of the Arctic have depended on whale meat. The meat is harvested from legal, non-commercial hunts that occur twice a year in the spring and autumn. The meat is stored and eaten throughout the winter. The skin and blubber (muktuk) taken from the bowhead, beluga, or narwhal is also valued, and is eaten raw or cooked. Whaling has also been practiced in the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic since about the time of the first Norse settlements on the islands. Around 1000 long - finned pilot whales are still killed annually, mainly during the summer. Today, dolphin meat is consumed in a small number of countries worldwide, which include Japan and Peru (where it is referred to as chancho marino, or "sea pork ''). In some parts of the world, such as Taiji, Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are traditionally considered food, and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts. There have been human health concerns associated with the consumption of dolphin meat in Japan after tests showed that dolphin meat contained high levels of methylmercury. There are no known cases of mercury poisoning as a result of consuming dolphin meat, though the government continues to monitor people in areas where dolphin meat consumption is high. The Japanese government recommends that children and pregnant women avoid eating dolphin meat on a regular basis. Similar concerns exist with the consumption of dolphin meat in the Faroe Islands, where prenatal exposure to methylmercury and PCBs primarily from the consumption of pilot whale meat has resulted in neuropsychological deficits amongst children. The Faroe Islands population was exposed to methylmercury largely from contaminated pilot whale meat, which contained very high levels of about 2 mg methylmercury / kg. However, the Faroe Islands populations also eat significant amounts of fish. The study of about 900 Faroese children showed that prenatal exposure to methylmercury resulted in neuropsychological deficits at 7 years of age Ringed seals were once the main food staple for the Inuit. They are still an important food source for the people of Nunavut and are also hunted and eaten in Alaska. Seal meat is an important source of food for residents of small coastal communities. The seal blubber is used to make seal oil, which is marketed as a fish oil supplement. In 2001, two percent of Canada 's raw seal oil was processed and sold in Canadian health stores. Various species of dolphins are kept in captivity. These small cetaceans are more often than not kept in theme parks and dolphinariums, such as SeaWorld. Bottlenose dolphins are the most common species of dolphin kept in dolphinariums as they are relatively easy to train and have a long lifespan in captivity. Hundreds of bottlenose dolphins live in captivity across the world, though exact numbers are hard to determine. The dolphin "smile '' makes them popular attractions, as this is a welcoming facial expression in humans; however the smile is due to a lack of facial muscles and subsequent lack of facial expressions. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society campaign against the practice of keeping cetaceans, particularly killer whales, in captivity. In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the dorsal fin collapse seen in 60 -- 90 % of male killer whales. Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only living into their 20s. In the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average, and up to 70 -- 80 years in rare cases. Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average, and up to 50 -- 60 years. Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat, and captive whales ' social groups are foreign to those found in the wild. Captive life is also stressful due the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild killer whale behavior, as well as restricting pool size. Wild killer whales may travel up to 100 miles (160 km) in a day, and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity. Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a result of stress. Dolphins are often trained to do several anthropomorphic behaviors, including waving and kissing -- behaviors wild dolphins would rarely do. The large size and playfulness of pinnipeds make them popular attractions. Some exhibits have rocky backgrounds with artificial haul - out sites and a pool, while others have pens with small rocky, elevated shelters where the animals can dive into their pools. More elaborate exhibits contain deep pools that can be viewed underwater with rock - mimicking cement as haul - out areas. The most common pinniped species kept in captivity is the California sea lion as it is abundant and easy to train. These animals are used to perform tricks and entertain visitors. Other species popularly kept in captivity include the grey seal and harbor seal. Larger animals like walruses and Steller sea lions are much less common. Pinnipeds are popular attractions because they are "disneyfied '', and, consequently, people often anthropomorphize them with a curious, funny, or playful nature. Some organizations, such as the Humane Society of the United States and World Animal Protection, object to keeping pinnipeds and other marine mammals in captivity. They state that the exhibits could not be large enough to house animals that have evolved to be migratory, and a pool could never replace the size and biodiversity of the ocean. They also oppose using sea lions for entertainment, claiming the tricks performed are "exaggerated variations of their natural behaviors '' and distract the audience from the animal 's unnatural environment. Sea otters can do well in captivity, and are featured in over 40 public aquariums and zoos. The Seattle Aquarium became the first institution to raise sea otters from conception to adulthood with the birth of Tichuk in 1979, followed by three more pups in the early 1980s. In 2007, a YouTube video of two cute sea otters holding paws drew 1.5 million viewers in two weeks, and had over 20 million views as of January 2015. Filmed five years previously at the Vancouver Aquarium, it was YouTube 's most popular animal video at the time, although it has since been surpassed. Otters are often viewed as having a "happy family life '', but this is an anthropomorphism. The oldest manatee in captivity was Snooty, at the South Florida Museum 's Parker Manatee Aquarium in Bradenton, Florida. Born at the Miami Aquarium and Tackle Company on July 21, 1948, Snooty was one of the first recorded captive manatee births. He was raised entirely in captivity, and died at the age of 69. Manatees can also be viewed in a number of European zoos, such as the Tierpark in Berlin, the Nuremberg Zoo, in ZooParc de Beauval in France, and in the Aquarium of Genoa in Italy. The River Safari at Singapore features seven of them. Bottlenose dolphins and California sea lions were used in the United States Navy Marine Mammal Program (NMMP) to detect mines, protect ships from enemy soldiers, and recover objects. The Navy has never trained attack dolphins, as they would not be able to discern allied soldiers from enemy soldiers. There were five marine mammal teams, each purposed for one of the three tasks: MK4 (dolphins), MK5 (sea lions), MK6 (dolphins and sea lions), MK7 (dolphins), and MK8 (dolphins); MK is short for mark. The dolphin teams were trained to detect and mark mines either attached to the seafloor or floating in the water column, because dolphins can use their echolocative abilities to detect mines. The sea lion team retrieved test equipment such as fake mines or bombs dropped from planes usually out of reach of divers who would have to make multiple dives. MK6 protects harbors and ships from enemy divers, and was operational in the Gulf War and Vietnam War. The dolphins would swim up behind enemy divers and attach a buoy to their air tank, so that they would float to the surface and alert nearby Navy personnel. Sea lions would hand - cuff the enemy, and try to outmaneuver their counter-attacks. The use of marine mammals by the Navy, even in accordance with the Navy 's policy, continues to meet opposition. The Navy 's policy says that only positive reinforcement is to be used while training the military dolphins, and that they be cared for in accordance with accepted standards in animal care. The inevitable stresses involved in training are topics of controversy, as their treatment is unlike the animals ' natural lifestyle, especially towards their confined spaces when not training. There is also controversy over the use of muzzles and other inhibitors, which prevent the dolphins from foraging for food while working. The Navy states that this is to prevent them from ingesting harmful objects, but conservation activists say this is done to reinforce the trainers ' control over the dolphins, who hand out food rewards. The means of transportation is also an issue for conservation activists, since they are hauled in dry carriers, and switching tanks and introducing the dolphin to new dolphins is potentially dangerous as they are territorial.

who is the blonde in little big town married to

Little Big Town - wikipedia Little Big Town is an American country music group. Founded in 1998, the group has comprised the same four members since its founding: Karen Fairchild, Kimberly Schlapman (formerly Kimberly Roads), Jimi Westbrook, and Phillip Sweet. Their musical style relies heavily on four - part vocal harmonies, with all four members alternating as lead vocalists; Westbrook and Sweet also play rhythm guitar. After a recording deal with the Mercury Nashville Records label which produced no singles or albums, Little Big Town released its self - titled debut on Monument Records in 2002. It produced two minor country chart singles before the group left the label. By 2005, the group had been signed to Equity Music Group, an independent record label owned by Clint Black. Their second album, The Road to Here, was released that year, and received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). A Place to Land, their third album, was released via Equity, then re-released via Capitol Nashville after Equity closed in 2008. Five more albums have followed for Capitol: The Reason Why (2010), Tornado (2012), Pain Killer (2014), Wanderlust (2016), and The Breaker (2017). All of their albums have accounted for 24 singles on Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay, including the No. 1 singles "Pontoon '', "Girl Crush '', and "Better Man '' along with the top 10 hits "Boondocks '', "Bring It On Home '', "Little White Church '', "Tornado '', and "Day Drinking ''. In the mid-1990s, Karen Fairchild sang with the Christian vocal group Truth and was featured as a lead singer in a few of their songs. She also formed a duo called KarenLeigh with Leigh Cappillino (from the group Point of Grace). KarenLeigh produced the singles, "Save it For a Rainy Day '' and "This Love Has ''. In 1997, while attending Samford University in Alabama, she met Kimberly Roads. Eventually, they moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where they reunited and began singing together. Jimi Westbrook joined Roads and Fairchild in 1998, followed by Phillip Sweet. Little Big Town 's first record deal was with Mercury Nashville Records, although the band was dropped from the label 's roster without releasing a single or album. In 2001, they sang backing vocals on Collin Raye 's album Ca n't Back Down, while Sweet and Roads co-wrote the song "Back Where I Belong '' on Sherrié Austin 's 2001 album Followin ' a Feelin '. A second contract, this time with Monument Records Nashville, began in 2002. The band 's first album, Little Big Town, was released that year. It produced the singles "Do n't Waste My Time '' and "Everything Changes '', which peaked at 33 and 42 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. Westbrook 's father died in 2002, just after the group 's first album was released. Fairchild and Sweet both divorced their spouses shortly afterward, and the group exited Monument when the label 's Nashville branch was dissolved. The four members all took up day jobs to earn additional money, although they continued to tour as well. In 2005, Little Big Town was signed to Equity Music Group, a label started and partially owned by country music singer Clint Black. Their third single, "Boondocks '', was released in May, peaking at No. 9 on the country charts in January 2006. It served as the first of four singles from the group 's second album, The Road to Here, which was released on October 4, 2005. "Bring It On Home '', the second single from the album, became Little Big Town 's first top 5 hit on Hot Country Songs. It was followed by "Good as Gone '' and "A Little More You '', both of which were top 20 hits. By the end of 2006, The Road to Here had been certified Platinum in the United States. Unlike their first album, the group 's members co-wrote the majority of the songs on The Road to Here along with Wayne Kirkpatrick, who also produced it. In 2007, the group sang backing vocals on John Mellencamp 's Freedom 's Road album. Little Big Town released A Place to Land, their third studio album and second with Equity, on November 6, 2007. Its lead - off single, "I 'm with the Band '', peaked at number 32 on the country chart. On April 23, 2008, Little Big Town announced it was leaving Equity for Capitol Nashville. Shortly afterward, they charted with Sugarland and Jake Owen on a live cover of The Dream Academy 's "Life in a Northern Town ''. Taken from Sugarland 's 2007 tour, it reached number 28 on the country chart based on unsolicited airplay. In October 2008, Capitol re-released A Place to Land, which added four new songs, and the label promoted two further singles from the album, "Fine Line '' and "Good Lord Willing ''. In the fall of 2008, Little Big Town opened up for Carrie Underwood on her Carnival Ride Tour. They began their first headlining tour in January 2009 in Jacksonville, Florida and continued through April. Fairchild recorded a duet with Mellencamp on his 2008 album, Life, Death, Love and Freedom. The song, "A Ride Back Home '', was released as the album 's third single and was accompanied by a music video. Fairchild also duetted with Mellencamp on "My Sweet Love '' and appears in its music video. Little Big Town was nominated for Vocal Group Of The Year for the fourth year in a row at the 2009 CMA Awards. In March 2010, the group released a new single titled "Little White Church '', as the lead - off single to their fourth studio album and first completely new album on Capitol Nashville, The Reason Why, which was released on August 24, 2010. "Little White Church '' peaked at number 6 on the country chart. The album produced two additional singles in "Kiss Goodbye '' and the title track, but both failed to reach the top 40 of Hot Country Songs. The album 's title track was released as a digital single on July 27, 2010, to begin an iTunes countdown to the album release on August 24, 2010. Three further digital singles -- "Kiss Goodbye '', "Why, Oh Why '', and "All the Way Down '' -- were released weekly leading up until the album release. Also, in promotion of The Reason Why, Little Big Town went on tour as an opening act for Sugarland on The Incredible Machine Tour, as well their own The Reason Why Tour. Little Big Town 's fifth studio album, Tornado, was released on September 11, 2012. It was also their first album to be produced by Jay Joyce. "Pontoon '' was released as the album 's lead single on April 30, 2012, and became their first number one hit on Hot Country Songs in September 2012. It was their first single to receive a Platinum certification. The title track was released as the album 's second single on October 1, 2012. It reached number 2 on the Country Airplay chart in 2013. At the 55th Grammy Awards, "Pontoon '' won the Grammy Award for Best Country Duo / Group Performance. The album was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2012. The band joined Rascal Flatts on their Changed Tour, along with Eli Young Band and Edens Edge, for dates spanning Summer 2012. They played at the C2C: Country to Country festival in London on March 16, 2013. The album 's third single, "Your Side of the Bed '', was a number 27 hit. The band sang background vocals on Ashley Monroe 's 2013 single, "You Got Me '', featured on her 2013 release, Like a Rose. Group member Karen Fairchild co-wrote the song with Monroe. It failed to chart. The album 's fourth single, "Sober '', was a number 31 hit. Little Big Town performed harmony vocals on David Nail 's 2014 album, I 'm a Fire, on the song "When They 're Gone (Lyle County) '', co-written by Brett Eldredge. They were also featured on Miranda Lambert 's 2014 album, Platinum, on "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' '', a song which the band was going to record themselves; it debuted on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart at number 38 after their performance at the CMA Awards in 2014. The band began recording their sixth studio album, Pain Killer, in early 2014. The lead single, "Day Drinking '', was released digitally June 3, and was sent to country radio on June 9. It debuted on the Country Airplay chart at number 32, their highest - ever debut, and went on to peak at number 2 on Country Airplay. It hit number 1 on the Canada Country chart, becoming their second number 1 single and first as songwriters. Pain Killer 's track listing was announced on July 14, and the album was released on October 21. On October 3, 2014, Reba McEntire invited the group to join the Grand Ole Opry. They accepted and were inducted by Vince Gill on October 17. The second single from the album, "Girl Crush '', was released December 15, 2014. Some radio stations were reported to have pulled "Girl Crush '' from their playlists, in response to concerns from listeners who interpreted the song 's lyrics to be about lesbianism. In response, Fairchild said, "That 's just shocking to me, the close - mindedness of that, when that 's just not what the song was about... But what if it were? It 's just a greater issue of listening to a song for what it is. '' In addition, the label created a short commercial in which the band discusses the song and its actual meaning. Billboard consulted several radio program directors on its panel and found only one who detailed a specific complaint from a listener. The song became their second No. 1 on a Billboard chart in May 2015 and their highest showing on the Billboard Hot 100 after gaining exposure on "The Voice '' and the 50th Annual ACM Awards. The album 's third single and the title track, "Pain Killer '', released to country radio on August 24, 2015. On September 9, 2015, the group was nominated for five CMA Awards: Vocal Group of the Year, Album of the Year for Pain Killer, Single of the Year for "Girl Crush '', Music Video of the Year for "Girl Crush '' and Musical Event of the Year for their collaboration on the Miranda Lambert single "Smokin ' and Drinkin ' ''. They tied Eric Church for most nominations that year. Additionally, the songwriters of "Girl Crush '' were recognized with a Song of the Year win. For the 58th Annual Grammy Awards Pain Killer was nominated for Best Country Album, "Girl Crush '' was nominated for Best Country Duo / Group Performance, Song of the Year and Best Country Song. Little Big Town only received nominations for Best Country Album and Best Country Duo / Group Performance since they did not write on "Girl Crush ''. The band will soon begin working on their first Christmas album. On January 24, 2016, the band sang the National Anthem before the Arizona / Carolina NFC Championship game. On July 4 of that year, they performed with the Boston Pops at their annual Independence Day concert. In February 2016, they appeared on "Take Me Down '', a track on Down to My Last Bad Habit, the fourteenth album by Vince Gill. In March 2016, Little Big Town returned to the UK as part of the C2C: Country to Country tour, becoming one of four acts at the time (the others being Brantley Gilbert, Sam Hunt and Carrie Underwood) to perform at the festival twice. They headlined the launch party in 2015 where they announced the full line - up, revealing that they would be supporting Underwood along with Hunt and Maddie & Tae. On May 24, 2016, the band announced their seventh studio album titled Wanderlust. The album contains eight tracks produced by Pharrell Williams and was released on June 10, 2016. Karen Fairchild describes the album as, "It 's not a country album '' "And it 's not like anything we 've ever done. It 's fun to be spontaneous and put it out there to the fans, because we want to, and not to overthink it, but just because it has brought us a lot of joy, and we think it will for them as well. So why not? We 're going with our gut and putting it out there. It 's just music, you know? '' Fairchild stated that they are also working on a country record with Jay Joyce. In July, they appeared on the 2000 -- 2005 episode of ABC 's Greatest Hits where they performed covers by Alicia Keys, Oasis and Sheryl Crow. They were also selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country '', a mash - up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads '', "On the Road Again '' and "I Will Always Love You '', which celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards. The band released "Better Man '', which was written by singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, on October 20, 2016, as the lead single to their upcoming eighth studio album, The Breaker, that was released on February 24, 2017. Initially masking the song 's writer, the band revealed that Swift wrote the song. The song 's music video, directed by Reid Long and Becky Fluke, was released November 1, 2016. The band would follow up with a new single "When Someone Stops Loving You, '' on February 17, 2017. The song was inspired by a story Sean Lynch detailed to the band during a tour stop in 2016. The band announced that they would be the first act in history to have a residency at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. The residency began on February 24, 2017 and will conclude in November. Little Big Town announced a six - date UK tour supported by Seth Ennis beginning on September 28 and concluding in London on October 5 before revealing that Kacey Musgraves and Midland would support them on the American leg of The Breakers Tour beginning in February 2018. On October 5 during their show at the Royal Albert Hall, the band revealed that they would be headlining the 2018 C2C: Country to Country festival, making history as the first act to play the event three times. Karen Fairchild and Jimi Westbrook married on May 31, 2006, although their marriage was not disclosed until two months later. The couple welcomed their first child, a son (Elijah Dylan Westbrook), on March 5, 2010, in Nashville. Kimberly Roads married Stephen Schlapman on November 28, 2006, and gave birth to a daughter (Daisy Pearl Schlapman) on July 27, 2007. In January 2017, Schlapman announced that she and her husband adopted a baby girl (Dolly Grace Schlapman). They welcomed her on December 31, 2016. She now goes by her husband 's last name, Schlapman. Kimberly was previously married to Steven Roads, who died from a heart attack in 2005. He was also the band 's lawyer. Phillip Sweet married Rebecca Arthur, a business owner and wardrobe stylist, on March 30, 2007. Arthur gave birth to a daughter (Penelopi Jane Sweet) on December 27, 2007, at Baptist Hospital in Nashville. Little Big Town 's musical stylings are defined by four - part vocal harmonies. Unlike most vocal groups, Little Big Town does not feature a definitive lead vocalist. Instead, their songs are either led by any one of the four members, or by all four in varying combinations (such as on "Boondocks '' and "Life in a Northern Town ''). Academy of Country Music Awards (ACM) American Country Awards (ACA) American Country Countdown Awards (ACC) American Music Awards (AMA) Billboard Music Awards British Country Music Association Awards Country Music Association Awards (CMA) CMT Artists of the Year CMT Music Awards Daytime Emmy Awards Grammy Awards People 's Choice Awards Teen Choice Awards

games that you can play on xbox 360 and xbox one

List of Backward compatible games for Xbox One - wikipedia The Xbox One gaming console has received updates from Microsoft since its launch in 2013 that enable it to play select games from its two predecessor consoles, Xbox and Xbox 360. On June 15, 2015, backward compatibility with supported Xbox 360 games became available to eligible Xbox Preview program users with a beta update to the Xbox One system software. The dashboard update containing backward compatibility was released publicly on November 12, 2015. On October 24, 2017, another such update added games from the original Xbox library. The following is a list of all backward compatible games on Xbox One under this functionality. At its launch in November 2013, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb suggested users could use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 or any other device with HDMI output through Xbox One. Senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities. During Microsoft 's E3 2015 press conference on June 15, 2015, Microsoft announced plans to introduce Xbox 360 backward compatibility on the Xbox One at no additional cost. Supported Xbox 360 games will run within an emulator and have access to certain Xbox One features, such as recording and broadcasting gameplay. Games do not run directly from discs. A ported form of the game is downloaded automatically when a supported game is inserted, while digitally - purchased games will automatically appear for download in the user 's library once available. As with Xbox One titles, if the game is installed using physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes. Not all Xbox 360 games will be supported; 104 Xbox 360 games were available for the feature 's public launch on November 12, 2015 with Xbox One preview program members getting early access. Microsoft stated that publishers will only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and they expect the list to grow significantly over time. Unlike the emulation of original Xbox games on the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not require game modification, since it emulates an exact replica of its predecessor 's environment -- both hardware and software operating systems. The downloaded game is a repackaged version of the original that identifies itself as an Xbox One title to the console. At Gamescom, Microsoft revealed it has plans to ensure "all future Xbox 360 Games with Gold titles will be playable on Xbox One. '' On December 17, 2015 Microsoft made another sixteen Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One, including titles such as Halo: Reach, Fable III and Deus Ex: Human Revolution. On January 21, 2016, Microsoft made another ten Xbox 360 games compatible, including The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. On May 13, 2016, Microsoft made Xbox 360 titles with multiple discs compatible, starting with Deus Ex: Human Revolution Director 's Cut. In January 2016, Microsoft announced that future titles would be added as they became available, instead of waiting until a specific day each month. During Microsoft 's E3 2017 press conference on June 11, 2017, Microsoft announced that roughly 50 % of Xbox One users had played an Xbox 360 game on Xbox One through the system 's backward - compatibility feature. Based on popular demand, Phil Spencer, Microsoft 's Head of Xbox, announced that Xbox One consoles would be able to play select games made for the original Xbox console, first released in 2001. The compatibility will work on all consoles in the Xbox One family, including the Xbox One X, and will be available as a free update planned for the fall of 2017. The functionality will be similar to that for back - compatibility with Xbox 360 games. Users insert the Xbox game disc into their Xbox One console to install the compatible version of the game. While players will not be able to access any old game saves or connect to Xbox Live on these titles, system link functions will remain available. Xbox games will not receive achievement support, although when asked about this component, Spencer responded that they had nothing to announce at the current time. Realizing that game discs for original Xbox consoles could be scarce, Spencer said that plans were in place to make compatible Xbox games available digitally. Spencer also said that such games may also be incorporated into the Xbox Game Pass subscription service. In a later interview, Spencer indicated that the potential library of Xbox titles being playable on Xbox One will be smaller than that currently available from the Xbox 360 library. Spencer noted two reasons for the more limited library were the availability of content rights for the games and the technical difficulties related to the conversion. Backwards compatible original Xbox and Xbox 360 titles will benefit from becoming Xbox One X enhanced with the following: There are currently 481 on this list out of 2097 games released for the Xbox 360. There are currently 32 on this list out of 1047 released for the Xbox. All Original Xbox games run at 4 times the original resolution on Xbox One and Xbox One S consoles (up to 960p), and 16 times on Xbox One X (up to 1920p).

who voices rocket in telltale's guardians of the galaxy

Guardians of the Galaxy: the Telltale series - wikipedia Guardians of the Galaxy: The Telltale Series is an episodic graphic adventure video game series developed and published by Telltale Games. Based on Marvel Comics ' Guardians of the Galaxy comic book series, the game 's first episode was released in April 18, 2017. The plot centers on the Guardians finding an artifact of great power that each individually covets, but must protect it from a malicious entity who wants it for themselves. Guardians of the Galaxy plays similar to other Telltale games, in which the player 's character talks to other characters, explore environments and interact with objects within it, and at times, complete action sequences made up of quick time events. Players make choices, such as dialog selection, that create determinants within the story affecting later actions within the episode and in future episodes. Within the series, the player primarily plays as Star - Lord, but may at times briefly take the role of another Guardian during action sequences. Telltale and Marvel partnered to develop the game, quickly establishing that they wanted to make an original story that used the character 's canon but was not tied to the 2014 film. Telltale decided to go against an origins story, and instead focused on the connections between each of the five Guardians. Described by Marvel 's Bil Rosemann, "A good Guardians story is about them as a family and showing how they 're all misfits, they 're all underdogs, they all feel like they do n't have a family anymore '' and coming together to form their own family that they depend on. Telltale saw this as well as elements from the established character histories to find "potentially surprising '' elements to include, according to Telltale producer Justin Lambros. To achieve this, they planned each episode to center around each Guardian and explore their past, though the player will primarily remain in the role of Star - Lord throughout the series. This approach was novel for Telltale, since the character interactions that the player opts for in earlier episodes can have a stronger impact on the later episodes, particularly in the relationship between the other Guardians. Telltale and Marvel 's goal was to make the story accessible to people who may not have read through the comic series but had seen the film, while still dropping in hints and Easter eggs referring the Guardians ' history in the comics to long - time fans. Telltale 's Guardians was first revealed during the December 2016 Game Awards, though rumors of the game had been previously found in material released by SAG - AFTRA actors as part of the 2016 video game voice actor strike in November. The game 's first of five episodes was released on April 18, 2017; in additional to digital downloads, a retail version will be available for the first episode release with an online pass to acquire the other episodes once released; this is expected to be released on May 2, 2017 in North America and May 5, 2017 in Europe. Telltale hosted a panel about the game at the 2017 PAX East event in Boston, MA in March 2017, as well as having the first episode available for a "crowd play '' session during the 2017 South by Southwest event. The game is based on the Marvel Comic series and the recent film with an exclusive storyline. It has a different set of voice actors from the film. The cast currently includes Scott Porter as Star - Lord, Emily O'Brien as Gamora, Nolan North as Rocket Raccoon, Brandon Paul Eells as Drax the Destroyer, and Adam Harrington as Groot. Star - Lord (Scott Porter) receives a distress - call from the Nova Corps requesting the assistance of the Guardians of the Galaxy on an unidentified planet that has an abandoned Kree outpost on it. The Guardians of the Galaxy find the Nova Corps ' forces being decimated by Thanos (Jake Hart). Thanos ' ship takes down the Milano, causing it to crash - land at the planet. The Guardians survive and Rocket Raccoon (Nolan North) reveals he 's constructed a new gun that can emit a highly powerful force, but can only shoot one shot. When a large building Thanos escaped to is held shut by two metal doors, Peter goes to the inside to open it from there, finding the corpses of multiple Nova Corps members along the way. The Guardians then confront Thanos, who has obtained an ancient artifact called the Eternity Forge. The team struggles to defeat the tyrant, but Peter uses Rocket 's new gun and shoots Thanos in the chest, successfully killing him. The Guardians celebrate their victory by spending the night at a bar in Knowhere. Rocket tries showing off the gun to some of the bar - goers. Star - Lord interacts with his teammates. He starts off with Drax the Destroyer (Brandon Paul Eells) about how he feels with being satisfied with Thanos ' revenge as Rocket Raccoon argues that Star - Lord killed Thanos with Groot (Adam Harrington) supporting him. Gamora states to Star - Lord that a small part of her wants to see her sister Nebula again. The next day, the team amassed a large tab that they need to pay and agree that a good way to make money is to sell Thanos ' body. Rocket suggests selling it to the Collector to get more credits while Gamora thinks they should give the body to the Nova Corps so they do n't have to deal with criminals. Both Gamora and Rocket Raccoon end up in argument until Star - Lord breaks it up and that they will figure out who to sell Thanos ' body to. After making his decision on who to sell it to, Star - Lord holds the Eternity Forge in his room and relives a flashback in which his mother Meredith Quill (Courtenay Taylor) gives a young Peter Quill (Jeremy Shada) advice on how to deal with bullies while having him promise that he will use his words and not his fists in the future. Gamora or Rocket will snap him out of it and tell him that he 's been standing there for hours. After the trade, the team is attacked by Hala the Accuser (Faye Kingslee), her second - in - command Jyn - Xar (Chris Cox), and their small Kree army. Hala manages to steal the Eternity Forge from Peter and escape on the Kree ship called the Revenant after damaging the Milano. Peter takes either Gamora or Drax with him to pursuit her. Star - Lord and his teammate arrive on the Kree ship and confront Hala the Accuser who plans to use the Eternity Forge to resurrect her son Bal - Dinn and the entire Kree race as the Kree and the entire planet were destroyed by Thanos. This apparently will require numerous sacrifices in the process. She critically wounds Peter with her lance. Rocket manages to get the ship running to allow the two to escape and Peter manages to obtain the Eternity Forge back in the process. While dying on the ship, Peter has a vision of his mother 's funeral and how he was adopted by Yondu (Mark Barbolak) shortly after. He comments that Meredith entrusted him to watch over Peter Quill. Afterwards, he meets his mother who places her hand on his chest and tells him to come find her. In the present, the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy are shocked as the Eternity Forge has successfully healed Peter 's wound. After Star - Lord is revived, the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy members are surprised at what the Eternity Forge did and thought he was possessed at first until Star - Lord clears things up. The rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy are unsure on how the Eternity Forge could bring Star - Lord back to life. Just then, the Revenant catches up to the Milano. After taking evasive maneuvers, the Guardians of the Galaxy suspect that Hala the Accuser would use the Eternity Forge on the pods containing the dead Kree to create an unlimited army. In order to lay low and for Rocket Raccoon to fix the Milano, Star - Lord states that he knows someone who could help them out. On the planet Rajak in its Neon District, the Guardians of the Galaxy arrive at a building where Yondu is. As Star - Lord introduces everyone to Yondu, he witnesses Rocket Raccoon pointing his gun at Yondu stating that he does n't trust Ravagers. Yondu then has his telekinetic arrow pointed at Rocket Raccoon. Regardless of the choice, the two of them laugh with Yondu stating that he 's been buying stuff from Rocket Raccoon for years. Star - Lord then shows Yondu the Eternity Forge that Hala the Accuser has been after. When both of them touch the Eternity Forge, Star - Lord flashes back to his childhood where Meredith Quill tells Peter that he is meant for more of this life where she claims that she is going to save the galaxy, kill Thanos, and change everything. Though Peter is surprised at what his mother said. Then the two of them stare at the constellations until Peter notices an hourglass constellation that has the same shape as the Eternity Forge. When his mother is no longer there, Peter hears her quote "Come find me Peter. '' After the flashback, Yondu comments that it 's been decades since he has seen Meredith 's face. Glyphs then appear where Gamora identifies it as part of an ancient Kree language. She thinks that Nebula might be able to read it. First, they would have to find Nebula and figure it out before Hala the Accuser does. As Yondu goes to obtain a device that would help repair the Milano, Rocket Raccoon steps outside as Star - Lord goes to check up on him. As both of them understand what the Eternity Forge can do so far, Rocket Raccoon thinks that it can help him with someone he lost. Even though Rocket Raccoon states that while Nebula is the top priority, he tells Star - Lord that they got to stop at Halfworld first. When Star - Lord touches the Eternity Forge on Rocket Raccoon 's hand depending on which choice was made, he experiences a memory of Rocket Raccoon 's past that involved his creation. He is placed in a cage across from the otter Lylla (Fryda Wolff) as the two of them plan their escape. As Rocket Raccoon assembles a device to help them, he finds information that the scientists are going to eliminate Lylla. When the two of them evade the robots, Rocket Raccoon finds that one of the Halfworld robots managed to land a lethal injection on Lylla. After closing the door on the scientist (Chris Cox) and the robots, Lylla opens the door as she plans to take some of them down with her before the lethal injection kicks in. She then advises Rocket Raccoon to get out. After the memory is experience, Rocket Raccoon states to Star - Lord that he had no right to see it. With Nebula on the Milano, Star - Lord states that they need to get Nebula to help them decipher the ancient Kree language. Gamora states that Rocket Raccoon would be able to get Nebula 's arm working again as leverage. Entering Gamora 's room which Nebula has been locked up in, Star - Lord and Gamora tell Nebula that they need her to translate the ancient Kree language which Nebula is reluctant to do. When Nebula tells Gamora that she still remembers Tar - Voll, Gamora draws her sword on her as Nebula orders for Gamora to leave. Drax the Destroyer later tells Star - Lord that there was a device found in Nebula 's skull. Star - Lord persuades Nebula into giving him the device where she states that it will tell him everything he 'll want to know while stating to Star - Lord that he owes her. While talking to Gamora and Drax the Destroyer, Star - Lord is told by Drax the Destroyer that the item is a Cypher Module where there is n't any left. Upon uploading it to the translator, Star - Lord uses his mask to read the ancient Kree language that quotes "Come find me in the temple. '' Star - Lord tells Gamora and Drax the Destroyer that they are going back to the temple. At the unidentified planet where the abandoned Kree outpost is, Star - Lord states that Rocket Raccoon will need some space after what happened on Halfworld and that someone will need to remain behind to guard Nebula. Both Gamora and Drax the Destroyer want the opportunity to guard Nebula. On the planet 's surface, Star - Lord, Groot, and whoever was n't chosen to guard Nebula enter the temple. Star - Lord uses his scanner to find that Hala the Accuser was here before them. Upon Star - Lord and the teammate with him activating the switches on the statues, a platform is raised as Star - Lord reads the translation on the wall stating the Eternity Forge can be wielded responsibly and that "she '' will remain entombed throughout the galaxy. In addition, Star - Lord states that the temple in question is at a place called Emnios. When Star - Lord contacts whoever was left guarding Nebula into having the Milano 's engines fired up for departure, he is told that Rocket Raccoon is in the engine room where sounds of destruction is heard. In the Milano 's engine room, Star - Lord confronts Rocket Raccoon who is still mourning the death of Lylla and claims that she is the only thing keeping him alive as well as the makeshift computer being what 's left of her that is no longer working. Rocket Raccoon states that he ca n't fix it this time. As a system failure on the Milano, Star - Lord leaves to deal with it as he tells Groot to help Rocket Raccoon. Star - Lord finds the ship under siege by the Kree soldiers. When the Revenant gets closer, Star - Lord heads down to the engine room where he gets shot in the leg by Jyn - Xar who has defeated Rocket Raccoon and Groot. With Jyn - Xar having the Eternity Forge in his hand which he plans to give to Hala the Accuser, Star - Lord rants toward Jyn - Xar about the attack. Depending on the advice Star - Lord gave him, Rocket Raccoon will either successfully put the makeshift computer back together to help electrify Jyn - Xar or hit some buttons that causes fire to Jyn - Xar. Hala the Accuser contacts Star - Lord telling him that he ca n't run forever and that the Eternity Forge will be hers. Gamora tells Star - Lord that the Revenant 's weapons are coming online. Rocket Raccoon works to get the engines back on as Star - Lord tells Gamora to set a course to Emnios while dropping off the stowaways on the way there. Closing in on Emnios, Star - Lord is certain that his mother is on Emnios. Star - Lord and Gamora head to Emnios and walk towards the opened doors into a bright light. They then see something. Following a figure into the white light from the previous episode, Star - Lord again relives a memory from his childhood. In it, the young Peter is dropped off at a music store by his mother so she can pick up a prescription from the pharmacy, having been experiencing painful headaches as of late. As the shopkeeper (Mark Barbolak) copies a mixtape for him to give him mom, Peter is harassed by the local bully Clarence (John Omohundro) who has been regularly attacking him and broke his cassette player. Clarence taunts Peter about his mother being unable to afford her medical bills and that there are rumors she has been going door - to - door begging for handouts. If left uninterrupted, Clarence says his dad is drinking buddies with Meredith 's doctor and claims that she 's dying, insulting her to her face when she returns to the shop. At the end of the flashback, Peter 's mother tells him he is "so close '' and tells him to find her, culminating in the adult Star - Lord waking up to find himself back on Earth in the middle of a forest. Walking through woods, he finds Gamora screaming into a field at nothing before muttering about her sister and reacting as if attacked. Confused, Star - Lord approaches Gamora only to have her start swiping at him with her sword, believing that he is Nebula. Getting pinned to the ground, Star - Lord struggles to keep Gamora 's blade away from his throat, he suddenly begins experiencing one of Gamora 's memories just like he had with Rocket Raccoon. In it, Gamora is training with the than - unaltered Nebula in a combat arena containing several floating platforms, advising Nebula on keeping her awareness at all times when Nebula expresses frustration with being confined. The two continue dueling until finally locking blades, Nebula pleading that Gamora is hurting her. Thanos muses that Nebula may be the greatest assassin in the galaxy and gives the sisters a mission; head to a Kree outpost on Phelion and locate General Tar - Voll who has obtained a device that Thanos requires. He instructs Gamora to recover the device while Nebula is to kill Tar - Voll, overjoying Nebula with his acknowledgment that she is ready to go out into the galaxy. Thanos than reveals to Gamora in private that his giving Nebula the mission is because he is losing faith in Gamora 's capabilities, intending for Nebula to "tighten the slack '' - regardless of if she 's actually capable enough yet - and that Nebula will in turn be the one who suffers if they fail. After Thanos speaks with Nebula in private, the sisters arrive on Phelion and split up to complete their goals. Infiltrating the command chamber, Gamora kills the guards obtains the device but Nebula is overpowered by Tar - Voll, forcing Gamora to step in and kill the General to save her. Enraged that Gamora took her kill, Nebula demands the device so that she does n't return a failure. Gamora can either comply or refuse, but Nebula will ultimately impale Gamora with her sword to keep her failure a secret, leaving her for dead. After the memory experience ends, Gamora reawakens and pins Star - Lord again, forcing her to slap her to snap her out of it. Realizing he saw her memories, Gamora reveals Nebula 's betrayal is the main reason for her bitterness towards her sister and that her sister resented her acts of protection, seeing it as pity and a lack of trust. However, Gamora reveals she also blames herself for not being more honest with Nebula about her doubts and that she still wants to repair their relationship, despite fearing that Nebula will never stop resenting her. Returning focus onto what the Temple is trying to show them, Star - Lord and Gamora hear music that the former recognizes as one of his mother 's favorites, drawing them to an old chapel in the middle of the forest. Gamora warns Star - Lord to be careful as the Temple is using their memories against them, entering the chapel to find it a recreation of Meredith 's funeral, albeit devoid of anybody else. As they approach the podium, the music intensifies and distorts until going quiet when Star - Lord reaches the casket and opens it, releasing a bright light that disperses the memory world and reveals the Temple on Emnios. Finding a large container in place of his mother 's casket, Star - Lord and Gamora watch the object open to reveal the body of a female figure, which tumbles onto the floor. Revealed to be a humanoid girl with a pair of antennae, the woman introduces herself as Mantis (Sumalee Montano) and reveals she knows Peter 's name, claiming they have met before - than asks to borrow Peter 's gun. Peter can either oblige her or refuse, though either way Mantis will force her prison container over the edge of the platform and destroy it, gladdened to finally be free of her "tomb ''. Proclaiming Peter to be "the Celestial One '', Mantis reveals she was the source of Peter 's visions through the Eternity Forge, calling for him to come find her - albeit unconsciously, with the message using Peter 's most vivid memories, and by extension Meredith 's form, on reflex to communicate it. Apologizing for her actions, Mantis holds Star - Lord 's hands and is able read his responses before he even speaks, revealing she is an empath that can read others ' emotions or transmit her own to them, explaining her duty is to help "the Celestial One '' decide the fate of the Eternity Forge. Returning Mantis to the Milano, Star - Lord and Gamora introduce her to the rest of the Guardians by way of showcasing her abilities on either Drax the Destroyer, Rocket Raccoon or Groot. Star - Lord explains Mantis was the one calling to them through their memories, to which Drax the Destroyer questions how Mantis is connected to the Eternity Forge, despite Rocket 's protests against a lengthy narration. If allowed to speak of her past, Mantis explains that the Eternity Forge was was brought into existence eons ago as a way to balance the Universe 's flow of life - energy, by allowing control over the cycles of life and death. Mantis herself was charged with serving as both it 's guardian and a guide for it 's wielder to ensure only someone worthy could use it - but when none came, the Kree separated Mantis from the Forge and locked them away separately, so that it 's power could n't be abused. Mantis than explains that there is a legend of "the Celestial One '' - a chosen hero with the wisdom and insight to use the Eternity Forge and decide both it 's use and it 's ultimate fate - and that Star - Lord is the one the legend speaks of. Rocket is skeptical of the Legend since the Forge was n't able to bring Lylla back, to which Mantis explains the Eternity Forge is only operating in a limited capacity - unless it is restored to full power, it can only resurrect intact and undamaged corpses, which in turn explains why Hala was preserving Kree bodies. However, Mantis reveals that as the Celestial One, Peter can restore the Forge to it 's full power if he returns it to the Sacred Shrine, which would allow it to resurrect any deceased being from any point, though at the cost of one life for another - or he can destroy it to keep it 's power forever out of evil hands. Rocket and Drax the Destroyer want to use it to bring back their loved ones, but Gamora and Groot wish it to be destroyed so that it 's power ca n't be abused, by Hala or anyone else. Star - Lord asks if Mantis can take them to the Shrine, to which she states she may be able to sense it 's location with his help. However, the unrest and division among the crew makes it too difficult for Mantis to try, asking Star - Lord to speak with them first and find it 's source. Star - Lord finds Groot caring for a potted seedling and Rocket drinking his sorrows away, while Drax the Destroyer feeling pensive over hope he 'll get his family back and anxiety over Mantis ' peering into people 's feelings - as well as sympathy for the kind of pain that insight causes. Finally, Star - Lord discovers the primary source of unrest is from Gamora and Nebula, the former voicing her frustration and uncertainty over failing to each her sister. Star - Lord can advise Gamora to either give up on Nebula or keep trying to reach her, before going to speak with Nebula himself. Expressing bitterness over Gamora 's attempts to speak with her, Nebula claims that her sister does n't know the full truth behind why she betrayed her, to which Star - Lord suggests she show him via Mantis ' empathic abilities. Agreeing, Nebula shows Star - Lord her memories of the sisters ' last mission, revealing that she had n't been trying to kill Gamora; Thanos had been listening in as he believed that Gamora was untrustworthy - and when Gamora disobeyed him and killed Tar - Voll, he ordered Nebula to kill Gamora lest he do so himself, albeit slowly and painfully, with Nebula complying in order to save Gamora from Thanos ' wrath. Gamora than walks in on Star - Lord viewing Nebula 's memories and interrupts, causing another argument between them over each - other 's trustworthiness despite them both wanting to reconnect. With the crew 's feelings now sorted out, Mantis is able to locate the Sacred Shrine and the crew readies to leave. Gamora talks with Star - Lord about the outcome of taking to Nebula, Rocket apologizes for his drunken rant at Peter and Mantis listens to music on Peter 's cassette player, voicing anxiety on how much the team is weighed down by their pasts rather than living in the present. Playing some music to help ease tension, Star - Lord helps Mantis acclimatize to the Guardian 's chaotic life on the Milano as they travel to the Shrine, which is located in a subterranean cavern on Drobino. Entering the Shrine, Mantis directs Star - Lord to place the Eternity Forge on the central pedestal and energize the temple, though damage to the statues forces them to manually re-adjust the lenses meant to focus power to the platform. Upon focusing the beams of light on the Eternity Forge, Star - Lord is given the choice of whether or not to fully empower it or destroy it, though Hala the Accuser enters immediately afterword with a group of Kree soldiers to try and claim it for herself, though Rocket disarms her of the remote for her lance. The game was separated into five episodes for release on mobile devices, personal computers, and PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles. The version of the series for the Nintendo Switch was announced in August 2017, though its release date is not yet known. Guardians of the Galaxy: The Telltale Series received favorable reviews from critics earning praise for its story, voice acting, action sequences, and portrayal of the titular characters, although its humor, animation, and technical issues have been criticized. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 70 / 100 based on 20 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 72 / 100 based on 29 reviews and the Xbox One version 74 / 100 based on 12 reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 72 / 100 based on 11 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 70 / 100 based on 8 reviews and the Xbox One version 79 / 100 based on 5 reviews.

all in the family season 9 episode 11

List of All in the family episodes - wikipedia This is a listing of all of the episodes of the television sitcom All in the Family, which originally aired on CBS from 1971 - 79. Edith 's cousin Maude (Bea Arthur) stops by the Bunker house when there 's a bout with the flu and clashes with Archie. The Bunkers have the honor of Sammy Davis, Jr. visiting their home to retrieve a briefcase he accidentally left in Archie 's cab. The neighborhood butcher falls for Edith due to her words of kindness.

who fought against each other in world war 1

World War I - wikipedia Allied victory World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. Over nine million combatants and seven million civilians died as a result of the war (including the victims of a number of genocides), a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents ' technological and industrial sophistication, and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare. It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. Unresolved rivalries still extant at the end of the conflict contributed to the start of the Second World War only twenty - one years later. The war drew in all the world 's economic great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria - Hungary. Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria - Hungary, it did not join the Central Powers, as Austria - Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the Allies, while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria - Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia, and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July the Austro - Hungarians declared war on Serbia. Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Being outnumbered on the Eastern Front, Russia urged its Triple Entente ally France to open up a second front in the west. Over forty years earlier in 1870, the Franco - Prussian War had ended the Second French Empire and France had ceded the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to a unified Germany. Bitterness over that defeat and the determination to retake Alsace - Lorraine made the acceptance of Russia 's plea for help an easy choice, so France began full mobilisation on 1 August and, on 3 August, Germany declared war on France. The border between France and Germany was heavily fortified on both sides so, according to the Schlieffen Plan, Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France from the north, leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 4 August due to their violation of Belgian neutrality. After the German march on Paris was halted in the Battle of the Marne, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army led a successful campaign against the Austro - Hungarians, but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers; Romania joined the Allies in 1916, as did the United States in 1917. The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and a revolution in November followed by a further military defeat brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest Litovsk, which granted the Germans a significant victory. After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. On 4 November 1918, the Austro - Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice, and Germany, which had its own trouble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro - Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four (Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation (particularly in Germany) eventually contributed to the start of World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, the First World War was called simply the World War or the Great War and thereafter the First World War or World War I. At the time, it was also sometimes called "the war to end war '' or "the war to end all wars '' due to its then - unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Maclean 's magazine in October 1914 wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War. '' During the interwar period (1918 -- 1939), the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English - speaking countries. The term "First World War '' was first used in September 1914 by the German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared ' European War '... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word, '' citing a wire service report in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914. After the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms World War I or the First World War became standard, with British and Canadian historians favouring the First World War, and Americans World War I. During the 19th century, the major European powers went to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the continent by 1900. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria. When Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of Austria - Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement failed because Austria - Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria - Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian influence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken. This alliance expanded in 1882 to include Italy, in what became the Triple Alliance. Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germany 's side in an effort to avoid a two - front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For example, the Kaiser refused, in 1890, to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Two years later, the Franco - Russian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo - Russian Convention. While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia a possibility, and the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became known as the Triple Entente. German industrial and economic power had grown greatly after unification and the foundation of the Empire in 1871 following the Franco - Prussian War. From the mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this base to devote significant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy), established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy. As a result, each nation strove to out - build the other in capital ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, the British Empire expanded on its significant advantage over its German rival. The arms race between Britain and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe, with all the major powers devoting their industrial base to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a pan-European conflict. Between 1908 and 1913, the military spending of the European powers increased by 50 %. Austria - Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908 -- 1909 by officially annexing the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron, the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire. Russian political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords that were already fracturing in the Balkans, which came to be known as the "powder keg of Europe. '' In 1912 and 1913, the First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating an independent Albanian state while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33 - day Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region. The Great Powers were able to keep these Balkan conflicts contained, but the next one would spread throughout Europe and beyond. On 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six assassins (Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Trifko Grabež, Vaso Čubrilović) from the Yugoslavist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the Serbian Black Hand, had gathered on the street where the Archduke 's motorcade would pass, with the intention of assassinating him. Čabrinović threw a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby were injured by the blast, but Ferdinand 's convoy carried on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars drove past them. About an hour later, when Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the convoy took a wrong turn into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indifferent. As historian Zbyněk Zeman later wrote, "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened. ''. Nevertheless, the political impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant and has been described as a "9 / 11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna. And although they were not personally close, the Emperor Franz Joseph was profoundly shocked and upset. The Austro - Hungarian authorities encouraged the subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks killed two Bosnian Serbs and damaged numerous Serb - owned buildings. Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organized outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro - Hungarian - controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro - Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria - Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain, called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian officials (especially the officers of the Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the Archduke, and wanting to finally end Serbian interference in Bosnia, Austria - Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23 July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were made intentionally unacceptable, in an effort to provoke a war with Serbia. The next day, after the Council of Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo, Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa, Kiev, Kazan and Moscow military districts, and fleets of the Baltic and the Black Sea. They also asked other regions to accelerate preparations for general mobilization. Serbia decreed general mobilization on the 25th. The Serbs drafted their reply to the ultimatum in such a way as to give the impression of making significant concessions but, as Christopher Clark states, "this was a highly perfumed rejection on most points ''. This included article six, which demanded that Austrian delegates be allowed in Serbia for the purpose of participation in the investigation into the assassination. Following this, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia and, the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914, Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia. On 25 July, Russia, in support of its Serb protégé, unilaterally declared -- outside of the conciliation procedure provided by the Franco - Russian military agreements -- partial mobilization against Austria - Hungary. On the 30th, Russia ordered general mobilization against Germany. German Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg waited until the 31st for an appropriate response, when Germany declared a "state of danger of war ''. Kaiser Wilhelm II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany issued an ultimatum demanding its mobilization be stopped, and a commitment not to support Serbia. Another was sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war on Russia. This also led to the general mobilization in Austria - Hungary on 4 August. The German government issued demands to France that it remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment plan to implement, it being difficult if not impossible to change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modified German Schlieffen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would deploy 80 % of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60 % in the west and 40 % in the east as this was the maximum that the East Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French did not respond, but sent a mixed message by ordering their troops to withdraw 10 km (6 mi) from the border to avoid any incidents, and at the same time ordered the mobilisation of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West. On 1 August Wilhelm ordered General Moltke to "march the whole of the... army to the East '' after he had been wrongly informed that the British would remain neutral as long as France was not attacked. The General convinced the Kaiser that improvising the redeployment of a million men was unthinkable and that making it possible for the French to attack the Germans "in the rear '' might prove disastrous. Yet Wilhelm insisted that the German army should not march into Luxembourg until he received a telegram sent by his cousin George V, who made it clear that there had been a misunderstanding. Eventually the Kaiser told Molkte, "Now you can do what you want. '' Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August, and on 3 August declared war on France. On 4 August, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany at 19: 00 UTC on 4 August 1914 (effective from 11 pm), following an "unsatisfactory reply '' to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral. The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support Austria - Hungary 's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro - Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria - Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro - Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts. Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August. Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro - Hungarian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its efforts against Russia. Serbia 's defeat of the Austro - Hungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the twentieth century. At the outbreak of World War I, 80 % of the German army was deployed as seven field armies in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II West. However, they were then assigned to execute the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West, also known as the Schlieffen Plan. This would march German armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the ' second defensive area ' of the fortresses of Verdun and Paris and the Marne river. Aufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Staff in 1914. Each plan favoured certain operations, but did not specify exactly how those operations were to be carried out, leaving the commanding officers to carry those out at their own initiative and with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch I West, designed for a one - front war with France, had been retired once it became clear it was irrelevant to the wars Germany could expect to face; both Russia and Britain were expected to help France, and there was no possibility of Italian nor Austro - Hungarian troops being available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it retained a certain allure due to its offensive nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected offensive operations to be short - lived, costly in casualties, and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the offensive of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insufficient forces Germany had available for decisive success. Moltke took Schlieffen 's plan and modified the deployment of forces on the western front by reducing the right wing, the one to advance through Belgium, from 85 % to 70 %. In the end, the Schlieffen plan was so radically modified by Moltke, that it could be more properly called the Moltke Plan. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to bypass the French armies concentrated on the Franco - German border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle of the Frontiers (14 -- 24 August). By 12 September, the French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September) and pushed the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi). The French offensive into southern Alsace, launched on 20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success. In the east, Russia invaded with two armies. In response, Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg, defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August -- 2 September). While the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German troops to the east, allowing the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne. This meant Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long, two - front war. However, the German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France 's supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome. New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized Germany 's Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro - Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Germany, but also on Austria - Hungary; the ship participated in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific; only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea remained. Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6 -- 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South - West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow - Vorbeck, fought a guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Germany attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, instigating uprisings in India, and sending a mission that urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central powers. However, contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards Britain. Indian political leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups were eager to support the British war effort, since they believed that strong support for the war effort would further the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army in fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the central government and the princely states sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self - government to India after the end of hostilities, bred disillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full independence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and others. Military tactics developed before World War I failed to keep pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of strong defensive systems, which out - of - date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began to produce new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and the tank. Just after the First Battle of the Marne (5 -- 12 September 1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted manoeuvring to the north in an effort to outflank each other: this series of manoeuvres became known as the "Race to the Sea ''. When these outflanking efforts failed, the opposing forces soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from Lorraine to Belgium 's coast. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories. Consequently, German trenches were much better constructed than those of their enemy; Anglo - French trenches were only intended to be "temporary '' before their forces broke through the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Convention) used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides, and though it never proved a decisive, battle - winning weapon, poison gas became one of the most - feared and best - remembered horrors of the war. Tanks were developed by Britain and France, and were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers -- Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial success. However, their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design, supplemented by captured Allied tanks. Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years. Throughout 1915 -- 17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines. In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before French counter-attacks returned matters to near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties suffered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self - sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo - French offensive of July to November 1916. The opening of this offensive (1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead, on the first day alone. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suffered another estimated 200,000 casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000. Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts using frontal assault came at a high price for both the British and the French and led to the widespread French Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of April -- May 1917. The concurrent British Battle of Arras was more limited in scope, and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value. A smaller part of the Arras offensive, the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly significant to that country: the idea that Canada 's national identity was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in military and general histories of Canada. The last large - scale offensive of this period was a British attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July -- November 1917). This offensive opened with great promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly equal, at some 200,000 -- 400,000 per side. These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this period, British, French, and German tactics constantly evolved to meet new battlefield challenges. At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East - Asia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, most of the German East - Asia squadron -- consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships -- did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it met British warships. The German flotilla and Dresden sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra these too had been destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic of the British, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak '') developed into the largest naval battle of the war. It was the only full - scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The Kaiserliche Marine 's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, fought the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand off, as the Germans were outmanoeuvred by the larger British fleet, but managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules '', which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety '' (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but after initial successes eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia, Austria - Hungary could spare only one - third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria - Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro - Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro - Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria - Hungary, in the fight with Serbia, Russia and Italy. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, 12 October and joined in the attack by the Austro - Hungarian army under Mackensen 's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 6 -- 7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to Greece. After conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro - Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco - British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which effectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica. After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then officially joined the war on the side of the Allies. In the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Offensive, which brought stabilization of the front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918, after most of the German and Austro - Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians suffered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of Dobro Pole. Bulgaria capitulated two weeks later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these forces were far too weak to reestablish a front. The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendorff concluded that the strategic and operational balance had now shifted decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace settlement. The Ottomans threatened Russia 's Caucasian territories and Britain 's communications with India via the Suez Canal. As the conflict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers ' preoccupation with the war and conducted large - scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian Christian populations, known as the Armenian Genocide, Greek Genocide, and Assyrian Genocide. The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914). In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the defeat of the British defenders in the Siege of Kut by the Ottomans (1915 -- 16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes. Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, an Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the border between the Egyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in January 1917. Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus. Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously. He was, however, a poor commander. He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops, insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost 86 % of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish. The Ottoman Empire, with German support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in December 1914 in an effort to cut off British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs around Baku near the Caspian Sea. Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British and Russian influence. The Ottomans and Germans were aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai, Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians and British had the support of Armenian and Assyrian forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies. However the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inflicted a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and their allies, being cut off from supply lines, outnumbered, outgunned and isolated, forcing them to fight and flee towards British lines in northern Mesopotamia. General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. However, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart. The Arab Revolt, instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Office, started June 1916 with the Battle of Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than two and half years during the Siege of Medina before surrendering. The Senussi tribe, along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small - scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916. Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted 650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000 (325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded). Italy had been allied with the German and Austro - Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume (Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its part in the Triple Alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that Austria - Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro - Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Southern Tyrol, Austrian Littoral and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria - Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria - Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy declared war on Germany. The Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which the fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. On the Trentino front, the Austro - Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand - to - hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro - Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress. Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo (Soča) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro - Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of Doberdò, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives, centred on the Banjšice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia. The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government called to arms the so - called ' 99 Boys (Ragazzi del ' 99): that is, all males born 1899 and prior, and so were 18 years old or older. In 1918, the Austro - Hungarians failed to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and were finally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro - Hungarian fleet stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3 November, the Italians invaded Trieste from the sea. On the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed. By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied the entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy 's Governor of Dalmatia. Austria - Hungary surrendered on 11 November 1918. Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since 1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria - Hungary had itself declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania Transylvania and Banat, large territories of eastern Hungary, in exchange for Romania 's declaring war on the Central Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality. On 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army launched an attack against Austria - Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian offensive was initially successful, against the Austro - Hungarian troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces of the Central Powers drove them back. As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916. Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a costly stalemate for the Central Powers. Russian withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917. In January 1918, Romanian forces established control over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks between 5 and 9 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March 1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, formally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly of that territory on its unification with Romania. Romania officially made peace with the Central Powers by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Under that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with the Central Powers and make small territorial concessions to Austria - Hungary, ceding control of some passes in the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re-entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, the Treaty of Bucharest was nullified by the terms of the Armistice of Compiègne. Total Romanian deaths from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000. While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in East Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East Prussia. Although Russia 's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at the Battle of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Russia 's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership were instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland 's southern frontiers. On 5 August, they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland. Despite Russia 's success with the June 1916 Brusilov Offensive in eastern Galicia, dissatisfaction with the Russian government 's conduct of the war grew. The offensive 's success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romania 's entry into the war on 27 August. German forces came to the aid of embattled Austro - Hungarian units in Transylvania while a German - Bulgarian force attacked from the south, and Bucharest was retaken by the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra 's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916. In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective. Following the Tsar 's abdication, Vladimir Lenin was ushered by train from Switzerland into Russia 16 April 1917. He was financed by Jacob Schiff. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution of November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. At first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across Ukraine unopposed, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk on 3 March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the Central Powers war effort. With the adoption of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small - scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites '' (as opposed to the "Reds '') in the Russian Civil War. Allied troops landed in Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention. The Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente; their goal was to win support for the independence of Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established in September 1914, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak Legion troops defeated the Austro - Hungarian army at the Ukrainian village of Zborov, in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legionaries increased, as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the Battle of Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced them to make a truce. In Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil War, siding with the Whites against the Bolsheviks, at times controlling most of the Trans - Siberian railway and conquering all the major cities of Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of the motivations for the Bolshevik execution of the Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries arrived less than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because Russia 's European ports were not safe, the corps was evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heffron in September 1920. In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle of Verdun and a successful offensive against Romania, the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the U.S. President, Woodrow Wilson, attempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd George 's War Cabinet considered the German offer to be a ploy to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilson 's note as a separate effort, signalling that the United States was on the verge of entering the war against Germany following the "submarine outrages ''. While the Allies debated a response to Wilson 's offer, the Germans chose to rebuff it in favour of "a direct exchange of views ''. Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs, Romanians, Czecho - Slovaks, and the creation of a "free and united Poland ''. On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace settlement. The negotiations failed and the Entente powers rejected the German offer, because Germany did not state any specific proposals. The Entente powers stated to Wilson that they would not start peace negotiations until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied territories and provided indemnities for all damage that had been done. Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918. The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann - Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping loss of 600,000 tons. The General Staff acknowledged that the policy would almost certainly bring the United States into the conflict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the newly re-introduced convoy system became effective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe from starvation, while German industrial output fell and the United States joined the war far earlier than Germany had anticipated. On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, the French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately implemented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to a further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in further offensive action. Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced by General Philippe Pétain, who suspended bloody large - scale attacks. The victory of the Central Powers at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo Conference at which they formed the Supreme War Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands. In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia, thus freeing large numbers of German troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for success based on a final quick offensive. Furthermore, both sides became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory. In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through his wife 's brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany, resulting in a diplomatic catastrophe. In March and April 1917, at the First and Second Battles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani. At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby 's XXth Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the Battle of Beersheba. Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem (1917). About this time, Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the Eighth Army 's commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha, and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders. In early 1918, the front line was extended and the Jordan Valley was occupied, following the First Transjordan and the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces in March and April 1918. In March, most of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force 's British infantry and Yeomanry cavalry were sent to the Western Front as a consequence of the Spring Offensive. They were replaced by Indian Army units. During several months of reorganisation and training of the summer, a number of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions for the Entente in preparation for an attack and to acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It was not until the middle of September that the integrated force was ready for large - scale operations. The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the break in the front line created by the infantry and, during virtually continuous operations by Australian Light Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and New Zealand Mounted Rifle brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin, along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytor 's Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted rifles, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire). The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October, ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when fighting was continuing north of Aleppo. On or shortly before 15 August 1917 Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal suggesting: At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that "America is too proud to fight '' but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as "piracy ''. Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as his supporters emphasized "he kept us out of war ''. In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany 's ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico 's war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the U.S. embassy in the U.K. From there it made its way to President Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the U.S. had to have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven U.S. merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on 6 April 1917. The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self - styled "Associated Power ''. The United States had a small army, but, after the passage of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men, and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the U.S. Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans to allow them to be drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones -- Shafroth Act. If Germany believed it would be many more months before American soldiers would arrive and that their arrival could be stopped by U-boats, it had miscalculated. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of U.S. Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as filler material. As an exception, he did allow African - American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château - Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted. Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to end the war before significant U.S. forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near Saint - Quentin. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi). British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive of 1918, Ludendorff used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise. The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. The problems of re-supply were also exacerbated by increasing distances that now stretched over terrain that was shell - torn and often impassable to traffic. General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to field American units as an independent force. These units were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain, and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and U.S. commands operated largely independently. Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, pushing broadly towards Paris. Germany launched Operation Marne (Second Battle of the Marne) 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims. The resulting counterattack, which started the Hundred Days Offensive, marked the first successful Allied offensive of the war. By 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne to their starting lines, having achieved little, and the German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained storm troopers. Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches became frequent and morale in the army fell. Industrial output was half the 1913 levels. In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian - British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917 -- 18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked for and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full - fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks before defeating them at the Battle of Sardarabad. The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by the end of its first day a gap 24 kilometres (15 mi) long had been created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendorff to refer to this day as the "Black Day of the German army ''. After an advance as far as 23 kilometres (14 mi), German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on 12 August. Rather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of initial success, as had been done so many times in the past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of successful advances on the flanks, then broke them off when each attack lost its initial impetus. British and Dominion forces launched the next phase of the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August. The assault was widened by French and then further British forces in the following days. During the last week of August the Allied pressure along a 110 - kilometre (68 mi) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on - storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines. '' Faced with these advances, on 2 September the German Supreme Army Command issued orders to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a fight the salient seized the previous April. According to Ludendorff "We had to admit the necessity... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle. September saw the Allies advance to the Hindenburg Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued to fight strong rear - guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and those only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the last week of September. On 24 September an assault by both the British and French came within 3 kilometres (2 mi) of St. Quentin. The Germans had now retreated to positions along or behind the Hindenburg Line. In nearly four weeks of fighting beginning on 8 August, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken. As of "The Black Day of the German Army '', the German High Command realised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendorff said: "We can not win the war any more, but we must not lose it either. '' On 11 August he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, "I see that we must strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended. '' On 13 August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, the Chancellor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the German Crown Council decided that victory in the field was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December, and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden: "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. '' On 10 September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Both peace offers were rejected, and on 24 September Supreme Army Command informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse - Argonne Offensive, launched by French and American troops on 26 September. The following week, cooperating French and American units broke through in Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing the Germans off the commanding heights, and closing towards the Belgian frontier. On 8 October the line was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the Battle of Cambrai. The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear - guard actions as it fell back towards Germany. When Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 September, Ludendorff, having been under great stress for months, suffered something similar to a breakdown. It was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence. News of Germany 's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour '' of the German Navy. Knowing the government of Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. Many, refusing to be part of a naval offensive, which they believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendorff took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. Its reserves had been used up, even as U.S. troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. The Americans supplied more than 80 % of Allied oil during the war, and there was no shortage. With the military faltering and with widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the German military. There was no resistance when the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born as the Weimar Republic. The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice, on 29 September 1918 at Saloniki. On 30 October, the Ottoman Empire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros. On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro - Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October, declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 October, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice, but the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria - Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an armistice (Armistice of Villa Giusti). The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg Monarchy. In the following days the Italian Army occupied Innsbruck and all Tyrol with 20 to 22,000 soldiers. On 11 November, at 5: 00 am, an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. At 11 am on 11 November 1918 -- "the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month '' -- a ceasefire came into effect. During the six hours between the signing of the armistice and its taking effect, opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, but fighting continued along many areas of the front, as commanders wanted to capture territory before the war ended. The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American, Belgian, British and French forces. In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontier; the Western Front was still some 720 kilometres (450 mi) from Berlin; and the Kaiser 's armies had retreated from the battlefield in good order. These factors enabled Hindenburg and other senior German leaders to spread the story that their armies had not really been defeated. This resulted in the stab - in - the - back legend, which attributed Germany 's defeat not to its inability to continue fighting (even though up to a million soldiers were suffering from the 1918 flu pandemic and unfit to fight), but to the public 's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling '' and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks. The Allies had much more potential wealth they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 U.S. dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion. In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: the German, Austro - Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian. Numerous nations regained their former independence, and new ones were created. Four dynasties, together with their ancillary aristocracies, all fell as a result of the war: the Romanovs, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France, with 1.4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it, and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the Knox -- Porter Resolution was signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding. For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the Termination of the Present War (Definition) Act 1918 with respect to: After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife, and a final peace treaty between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923, at Lausanne. Some war memorials date the end of the war as being when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was when many of the troops serving abroad finally returned to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the war 's end concentrate on the armistice of 11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne, was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces left Constantinople on 23 August 1923. After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers officially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and, building on Wilson 's 14th point, brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by '' their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this statement was Article 231. This article became known as the War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful. Overall the Germans felt they had been unjustly dealt with by what they called the "diktat of Versailles ''. Schulze said the Treaty placed Germany "under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated. '' Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in German politics in the 1920s and 1930s: Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made widespread revision of the meaning and memory of the war problematic. The legend of the "stab in the back '' and the wish to revise the "Versailles diktat '', and the belief in an international threat aimed at the elimination of the German nation persisted at the heart of German politics. Even a man of peace such as (Gustav) Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As for the Nazis, they waved the banners of domestic treason and international conspiracy in an attempt to galvanize the German nation into a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany sought to redirect the memory of the war to the benefit of its own policies. Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive neighbors. The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done to civilians. However, owing to economic difficulties and Germany being the only defeated power with an intact economy, the burden fell largely on Germany. Austria - Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint - Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54 % of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32 % of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation '' and the country with the most casualties per capita, became the backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East. In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations ' "Baptism of Fire ''. It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment. After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire ''. Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries '' had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence. When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles. The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli -- Palestinian conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War I. Before the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be problematic in the 21st - century struggles for national identity. While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab - Israeli conflict, the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources. The war had profound consequences on the health of soldiers. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized from 1914 to 1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1 % of its active male population, Austria - Hungary lost 17.1 %, and France lost 10.5 %. In Germany, civilian deaths were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease. By the end of the war, starvation caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. Between 5 and 10 million people died in the Russian famine of 1921. By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920 -- 1922. Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States. In Australia, the effects of the war on the economy were no less severe. The Australian prime minister, Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd George, "You have assured us that you can not get better terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some way may be found of securing agreement for demanding reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrifices made by the British Empire and her Allies. '' Australia received ₤ 5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost of the war to Australia had been ₤ 376,993,052, and, by the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were ₤ 831,280,947. Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. Diseases flourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In 1914 alone, louse - borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000 in Serbia. From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus. In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years. In addition, a major influenza epidemic spread around the world. Overall, the 1918 flu pandemic killed at least 50 million people. Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government 's Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in Austria - Hungary and 450,000 in Tsarist Russia. The social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in Ukraine. An estimated 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities. In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war that eventually resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the Greek Genocide. World War I began as a clash of 20th - century technology and 19th - century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100 - man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured. Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone. Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries. Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy indirect fire. The German Army employed 150 mm (6 in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105 mm (4 in). The British had a 6 - inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. The Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench warfare. In 1917, on 27 June the Germans used their biggest gun of the world Batterie Pommern, nicknamed "Lange Max ''. This gun from Krupp was able to shoot 750 kg shells from Koekelare to Dunkirk, which is about 50 km away. Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which hundreds often died for each metre gained. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during World War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans employed the Haber process of nitrogen fixation to provide their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite the British naval blockade. Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today. Gas! GAS! Quick, boys! -- An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas, as effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. The use of chemical warfare and small - scale strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of limited effectiveness, though they captured the public imagination. The most powerful land - based weapons were railway guns, weighing dozens of tons apiece. The German ones were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb). Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British and the French sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds, and they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced the first tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT, which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conflict also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning automatic rifle, and the Bergmann MP18. Another new weapon, the flamethrower, was first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Although not of high tactical value, the flamethrower was a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the battlefield. Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for automobiles and trucks / lorries eventually rendered trench railways obsolete. Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche Marine employed them to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter - killer submarines (HMS R - 1, 1917), forward - throwing anti-submarine weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need. Fixed - wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo - Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914, their military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes, so that if there was an enemy air attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output), and smaller versions were not developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice. Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To defend them against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air - to - air rockets were tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps and balloons contributed to the development of air - to - air combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of fighters from France. On 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was sunk by the British Q - ship HMS Baralong. All German survivors were summarily executed by Baralong 's crew on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia, a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident. On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. According to Karl Goetz, the submarine 's commander, Baralong continued to fly the U.S. flag after firing on U-41 and then rammed the lifeboat -- carrying the German survivors -- sinking it. The Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on 27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 of the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew survived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and ran down the lifeboats, machine - gunning survivors in the water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged with war crimes in Germany following the war, but escaped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, beyond the jurisdiction of German courts. The first successful use of poison gas as a weapon of warfare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (22 April -- 25 May 1915). Gas was soon used by all major belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the use of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout the war had inflicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons casualties during the war, and up to one - third of American casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suffered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I. The use of chemical weapons in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited their use. The effect of poison gas was not limited to combatants. Civilians were at risk from the gases as winds blew the poison gases through their towns, and rarely received warnings or alerts of potential danger. In addition to absent warning systems, civilians often did not have access to effective gas masks. An estimated 100,000 -- 260,000 civilian casualties were caused by chemical weapons during the conflict and tens of thousands more (along with military personnel) died from scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage in the years after the conflict ended. Many commanders on both sides knew such weapons would cause major harm to civilians but nonetheless continued to use them. British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig wrote in his diary, "My officers and I were aware that such weapons would cause harm to women and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were overly concerned at all. '' The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire 's Armenian population, including mass deportations and executions, during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide. The Ottomans carried out organized and systematic massacres of the Armenian population at the beginning of the war and portrayed deliberately provoked acts of Armenian resistance as rebellions to justify further extermination. In early 1915, a number of Armenians volunteered to join the Russian forces and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation), which authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Empire 's eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1918. The Armenians were intentionally marched to death and a number were attacked by Ottoman brigands. While an exact number of deaths is unknown, the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates 1.5 million. The government of Turkey has consistently denied the genocide, arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine, or disease during World War I; these claims are rejected by most historians. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. Many pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000 -- 200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement in present - day Ukraine). The German invaders treated any resistance -- such as sabotaging rail lines -- as illegal and immoral, and shot the offenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were potential francs - tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500 French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near - random large - scale shootings of civilians ordered by junior German officers. The German Army destroyed 15,000 -- 20,000 buildings -- most famously the university library at Louvain -- and generated a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents. Thousands of workers were shipped to Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful and necessary because of the threat of franc - tireurs like those in France in 1870. The British and French magnified the reports and disseminated them at home and in the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany. The British soldiers of the war were initially volunteers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves. Grouping together, they formed "veterans ' associations '' or "Legions ''. A small number of personal accounts of American veterans have been collected by the Library of Congress Veterans History Project. About eight million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally much higher than that of their peers at the front. Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usually surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Offensive about 325,000 to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, and at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (February -- March 1915) 14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, and at the First Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered to the Allies. 25 -- 31 % of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria - Hungary 32 %, for Italy 26 %, for France 12 %, for Germany 9 %; for Britain 7 %. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million (not including Russia, which lost 2.5 -- 3.5 million men as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to Russians. Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.2 -- 2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice. The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. Once prisoners reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15 -- 20 % of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment -- 8 % of Russians. In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5 % died. The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. Although many were in a poor condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: "We were driven along like beasts; to drop out was to die. '' The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains. In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro - Hungarian army were released in 1917, they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council. German prisoners were still being held in Russia as late as 1924. Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern "embedded '' positions within the opposing land and naval forces. In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader, Ante Trumbić, strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria - Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London; Trumbić led the Committee. In April 1918, the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, including Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self - determination for the peoples residing within Austria - Hungary. In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman - controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence. In East Africa, Iyasu V of Ethiopia was supporting the Dervish state who were at war with the British in the Somaliland Campaign. Von Syburg, the German envoy in Addis Ababa, said, "now the time has come for Ethiopia to regain the coast of the Red Sea driving the Italians home, to restore the Empire to its ancient size. '' The Ethiopian Empire was on the verge of entering World War I on the side of the Central Powers before Iyasu 's overthrow due to Allied pressure on the Ethiopian aristocracy. A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for war. Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries ' intervention in the war. Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Alighieri Society to promote Italian nationalism. Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati. However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week. The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian - populated regions of Austria - Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action '') in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, the origin of fascism. Mussolini 's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. Once war was declared, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany. Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months into World War I, made the war and its consequences the main focus of his early pontificate. In stark contrast to his predecessor, five days after his election he spoke of his determination to do what he could to bring peace. His first encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1 November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves towards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication of Benedict 's proposed seven - point Peace Note of August 1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except Austria - Hungary. In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Officers ' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of the war prevented him. General Horace Smith - Dorrien was sent instead. He surprised the two - or - three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present), that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust -- probably not more than one - quarter of us -- learned how right the General 's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it. Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith - Dorrien 's career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War I to the best of his abilities. Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal crime to oppose military recruitment or make any statements deemed "disloyal ''. Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors, and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to. Although the vast majority of Irish people consented to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part. The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914, there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland. Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland to stir unrest in Britain. The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising; although, once the immediate threat of revolution had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions to nationalist feeling. However, opposition to involvement in the war increased in Ireland, resulting in the Conscription Crisis of 1918. Other opposition came from conscientious objectors -- some socialist, some religious -- who refused to fight. In Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. Some of them, most notably prominent peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both military and alternative service. Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply ''. The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned. In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people (including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800 people arrested. In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace ''. The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest - Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions. In northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919. Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large - scale operation in a war they saw as good as lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors ' revolt, which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel, spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Conscription was common in most European countries. However it was controversial in English speaking countries. It was especially unpopular among minority ethnic groups -- especially the Irish Catholics in Ireland and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada. In Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that permanently alienated the Francophiles. It opened a political gap between French Canadians, who believed their true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the war as a duty to their British heritage. In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes, the Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics successfully opposed Hughes ' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites. In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly every physically fit man in Britain -- six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition in isolated rural areas. The non-military diplomatic and propaganda interactions among the nations were designed to build support for the cause, or to undermine support for the enemy. For the most part, wartime diplomacy focused on five issues: propaganda campaigns; defining and redefining the war goals, which became harsher as the war went on; luring neutral nations (Italy, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania) into the coalition by offering slices of enemy territory; and encouragement by the Allies of nationalistic minority movements inside the Central Powers, especially among Czechs, Poles, and Arabs. In addition, there were multiple peace proposals coming from neutrals, or one side or the other; none of them progressed very far. ... "Strange, friend, '' I said, "Here is no cause to mourn. '' "None, '' said the other, "Save the undone years ''... The War was an unprecedented triumph for natural science. (Francis) Bacon had promised that knowledge would be power, and power it was: power to destroy the bodies and souls of men more rapidly than had ever been done by human agency before. This triumph paved the way to other triumphs: improvements in transport, in sanitation, in surgery, medicine, and psychiatry, in commerce and industry, and, above all, in preparations for the next war. The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities, and is still underway, more than a century later. Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our understanding of five major topics that historians have long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horrors of trench warfare? To what extent did the civilian homefront accept and endorse the war effort? Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. Close to battlefields, those buried in improvised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal graveyards under the care of organisations such as the Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves Commission, and Le Souvenir français. Many of these graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or unidentified dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme. In 1915 John McCrae, a Canadian army doctor, wrote the poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. Published in Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day. National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is a memorial dedicated to all Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more than 100,000 people. The UK Government has budgeted substantial resources to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014 to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum. On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande and German President Joachim Gauck together marked the centenary of Germany 's declaration of war on France by laying the first stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand, known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French and German soldiers killed in the war. World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period, and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed. Historian Samuel Hynes explained: A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance. This has become the most common perception of World War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stories published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country have perpetuated the idea, while war - time films including Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. Likewise, the art of Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war - time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. Several historians like John Terraine, Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheffield have challenged these interpretations as partial and polemical views: These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of World War I. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a ' fight about nothing ', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory. Though these views have been discounted as "myths '', they are common. They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as "aimless '' following the contrasting Second World War and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected. The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate. The optimism of la belle époque was destroyed, and those who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost Generation. For years afterwards, people mourned the dead, the missing, and the many disabled. Many soldiers returned with severe trauma, suffering from shell shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to posttraumatic stress disorder). Many more returned home with few after - effects; however, their silence about the war contributed to the conflict 's growing mythological status. Though many participants did not share in the experiences of combat or spend any significant time at the front, or had positive memories of their service, the images of suffering and trauma became the widely shared perception. Such historians as Dan Todman, Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions of the war are factually incorrect. The rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab - in - the - back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The widespread acceptance of the "stab - in - the - back '' theory delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized the system, opening it to extremes of right and left. Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity by utilising German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles. World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore, it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the victors of World War I. American historian William Rubinstein wrote that: The ' Age of Totalitarianism ' included nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and its allies, and also the Armenian Genocide of 1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of World War I, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots. One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many have lasted to this day. Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austria - Hungary and Germany. Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and the United States), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30 % and 40 %. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at war 's end there was no meat. In all nations, the government 's share of GDP increased, surpassing 50 % in both Germany and France and nearly reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great increase in U.S. government lending to the Allies. After 1919, the U.S. demanded repayment of these loans. The repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations that, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United States $4.4 billion of World War I debt in 1934, and this money was never repaid. Macro - and micro-economic consequences devolved from the war. Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women. World War I further compounded the gender imbalance, adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million: from 670,000 to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demobilised men displaced many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of the wartime factories. In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine), but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply from traditional sources had become difficult. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so - called "war guilt '' clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for "all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. '' It was worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and a similar clause was inserted in the treaties with Austria and Hungary. However neither of them interpreted it as an admission of war guilt. '' In 1921, the total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks. However, "Allied experts knew that Germany could not pay '' this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being "deliberately designed to be chimerical '' and its "primary function was to mislead public opinion... into believing the "total sum was being maintained. '' Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion dollars) "represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay '' and "therefore... represented the total German reparations '' figure that had to be paid. This figure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lost -- via the treaty of Versailles -- was credited towards the reparation figure as were other acts such as helping to restore the Library of Louvain. By 1929, the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos throughout the world. In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community, by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent of 20.598 billion gold marks in reparations. With the rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s were cancelled. David Andelman notes "refusing to pay does n't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the agreement, still exist. '' Thus, following the Second World War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the final payment on these bonds. The war contributed to the evolution of the wristwatch from women 's jewelry to a practical everyday item, replacing the pocketwatch, which requires a free hand to operate. Military funding of advancements in radio contributed to the postwar popularity of the medium.

where does the water from niagara river come from

Niagara Falls - wikipedia Niagara Falls is the collective name for three waterfalls that straddle the international border between the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of New York. They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls. The Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the United States ' side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the United States ' side, separated from the American Falls by Luna Island. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, the combined falls form the highest flow rate of any waterfall in North America that has a vertical drop of more than 165 feet (50 m). During peak daytime tourist hours, more than six million cubic feet (168,000 m) of water goes over the crest of the falls every minute. Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by flow rate. The falls are 17 miles (27 km) north - northwest of Buffalo, New York, and 75 miles (121 km) south - southeast of Toronto, between the twin cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York. Niagara Falls was formed when glaciers receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (the last ice age), and water from the newly formed Great Lakes carved a path through the Niagara Escarpment en route to the Atlantic Ocean. Niagara Falls is famed both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet (57 m), while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet (21 and 30 m) because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, while the American Falls are 1,060 feet (320 m) wide. The distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet (1,039 m). The peak flow over Horseshoe Falls was recorded at 225,000 cubic feet (6,400 m) per second. The average annual flow rate is 85,000 cubic feet (2,400 m) per second. Since the flow is a direct function of the Lake Erie water elevation, it typically peaks in late spring or early summer. During the summer months, at least 100,000 cubic feet (2,800 m) per second of water traverses the falls, some 90 % of which goes over the Horseshoe Falls, while the balance is diverted to hydroelectric facilities. This is accomplished by employing a weir -- the International Control Dam -- with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls ' flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, remains a minimum of 50,000 cubic feet (1,400 m) per second. Water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control (IJC). The verdant green colour of the water flowing over the Niagara Falls is a byproduct of the estimated 60 tonnes / minute of dissolved salts and "rock flour '' (very finely ground rock) generated by the erosive force of the Niagara River itself. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes, and damming others with debris. Scientists argue there is an old valley, St David 's Buried Gorge, buried by glacial drift, at the approximate location of the present Welland Canal. When the ice melted, the upper Great Lakes emptied into the Niagara River, which followed the rearranged topography across the Niagara Escarpment. In time, the river cut a gorge through the north - facing cliff, or cuesta. Because of the interactions of three major rock formations, the rocky bed did not erode evenly. The top rock formation was composed of erosion - resistant limestone and Lockport dolostone. That hard layer of stone eroded more slowly than the underlying materials. The aerial photo on the right clearly shows the hard caprock, the Lockport Formation (Middle Silurian), which underlies the rapids above the falls, and approximately the upper third of the high gorge wall. Immediately below the hard - rock formation, comprising about two thirds of the cliff, lay the weaker, softer, sloping Rochester Formation (Lower Silurian). This formation was composed mainly of shale, though it has some thin limestone layers. It also contains ancient fossils. In time, the river eroded the soft layer that supported the hard layers, undercutting the hard caprock, which gave way in great chunks. This process repeated countless times, eventually carving out the falls. Submerged in the river in the lower valley, hidden from view, is the Queenston Formation (Upper Ordovician), which is composed of shales and fine sandstones. All three formations were laid down in an ancient sea, their differences of character deriving from changing conditions within that sea. About 10,900 years ago, the Niagara Falls was between present - day Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York, but erosion of their crest has caused the waterfalls to retreat approximately 6.8 miles (10.9 km) southward. The Horseshoe Falls, which are approximately 2,600 feet (790 m) wide, have also changed their shape through the process of erosion; evolving from a small arch, to a horseshoe bend, to the present day gigantic V. Just upstream from the falls ' current location, Goat Island splits the course of the Niagara River, resulting in the separation of the mostly Canadian Horseshoe Falls to the west from the American and Bridal Veil Falls to the east. Engineering has slowed erosion and recession. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot (0.30 m) per year, down from a historical average of 3 feet (0.91 m) per year. According to the timeline of the far future, in roughly 50,000 years Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 20 miles (32 km) to Lake Erie and ceased to exist. Theories differ as to the origin of the name of the falls. According to Iroquoian scholar Bruce Trigger, Niagara is derived from the name given to a branch of the local native Neutral Confederacy, who are described as being called the Niagagarega people on several late - 17th - century French maps of the area. According to George R. Stewart, it comes from the name of an Iroquois town called Onguiaahra, meaning "point of land cut in two ''. Henry Schoolcraft reported: Niagara Falls. This name is Mohawk. It means, according to Mrs. Kerr, the neck; the term being first applied to the portage or neck of land, between lakes Erie and Ontario. By referring to Mr. Elliott 's vocabulary, (chapter xi) it will be seen that the human neck, that is, according to the concrete vocabulary, his neck, is onyara. Red Jacket pronounced the word Niagara to me, in the spring of 1820, as if written O - ne - au - ga - rah. A number of figures have been suggested as first circulating a European eyewitness description of Niagara Falls. The Frenchman Samuel de Champlain visited the area as early as 1604 during his exploration of Canada, and members of his party reported to him the spectacular waterfalls, which he described in his journals. The Finnish - Swedish naturalist Pehr Kalm explored the area in the early 18th century and is credited with the first scientific description of the falls. The consensus honoree for the first description is the Belgian missionary Louis Hennepin, who observed and described the falls in 1677, earlier than Kalm, after traveling with the explorer René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, thus bringing the falls to the attention of Europeans. Further complicating matters, there is credible evidence the French Jesuit missionary Paul Ragueneau visited the falls some 35 years before Hennepin 's visit, while working among the Huron First Nation in Canada. Jean de Brébeuf also may have visited the falls, while spending time with the Neutral Nation. In 1762, Captain Thomas Davies, a British Army officer and artist, surveyed the area and painted the watercolor, An East View of the Great Cataract of Niagara, the first eyewitness painting of the falls. During the 19th century, tourism became popular, and by mid-century, it was the area 's main industry. Theodosia Burr Alston (daughter of Vice President Aaron Burr) and her husband Joseph Alston were the first recorded couple to honeymoon there in 1801. Napoleon Bonaparte 's brother Jérôme visited with his bride in the early 19th century. In 1837 during the Caroline affair, a rebel supply ship, the Caroline, was burned and sent over the falls. In March 1848, ice blockage caused the falls to stop; no water (or at best a trickle) fell for as much as 40 hours. Waterwheels stopped, mills and factories shut down for having no power. Later that year, demand for passage over the Niagara River led to the building of a footbridge and then Charles Ellet 's Niagara Suspension Bridge. This was supplanted by German - born John Augustus Roebling 's Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge in 1855. After the American Civil War, the New York Central Railroad publicized Niagara Falls as a focus of pleasure and honeymoon visits. With increased railroad traffic, in 1886, Leffert Buck replaced Roebling 's wood and stone bridge with the predominantly steel bridge that still carries trains over the Niagara River today. The first steel archway bridge near the falls was completed in 1897. Known today as the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge, it carries passenger vehicles and trains between Canada (through Canadian Customs Border Control) and the U.S.A. just downstream of the falls. In about 1840, the English industrial chemist Hugh Lee Pattinson travelled to Canada, stopping at the Niagara Falls long enough to make the earliest known photograph of the falls, a daguerreotype in the collection of Newcastle University. It was once believed that the small figure standing silhouetted with a top hat was added by an engraver working from imagination as well as the daguerreotype as his source, but the figure is clearly present in the photograph. Because of the very long exposure required, of ten minutes or more, the figure is assumed by Canada 's Niagara Parks agency to be Pattinson himself. The image is left - right inverted, and taken from the Canadian side. Pattinson made other photographs of the Horseshoe Falls as well as of Rome and Paris. These were then transferred to engravings to illustrate Noël Marie Paymal Lerebours ' Excursions Daguerriennes (Paris, 1841 -- 1864). After the First World War, tourism boomed again, as automobiles made getting to the falls much easier. The story of Niagara Falls in the 20th century is largely that of efforts to harness the energy of the falls for hydroelectric power, and to control the development on both sides that threaten the area 's natural beauty. In 1941, the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission completed the third current crossing in the immediate area of Niagara Falls with the Rainbow Bridge, carrying both pedestrian and vehicular traffic between the two countries and Canadian and U.S. customs for each country. A team from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers created a dam on the American Falls in June 1969 to clear rock from the base of the falls. Rock slides caused a significant buildup of rock at the bottom of the American side of the falls, and the engineers were to clean up the rock and repair some faults to prevent eventual erosion of the American side of the waterfall. A temporary dam was built to divert the flow of water to the Canadian side; the dam measured 600 ft (180 m) across and was made of nearly 30,000 tons of rock. The engineers cleared the rock debris and tested for safety, finishing the project in November of that year. Water flow was restored on November 25, 1969. Before the late 20th century, the northeastern end of the Horseshoe Falls was in the United States, flowing around the Terrapin Rocks, which were once connected to Goat Island by a series of bridges. In 1955, the area between the rocks and Goat Island was filled in, creating Terrapin Point. In the early 1980s, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers filled in more land and built diversion dams and retaining walls to force the water away from Terrapin Point. Altogether, 400 ft (120 m) of the Horseshoe Falls were eliminated, including 100 ft (30 m) on the Canadian side. According to author Ginger Strand, the Horseshoe Falls is now entirely in Canada. Other sources say "most of '' Horseshoe Falls is in Canada. The only recorded freeze up of the river and falls was due to an ice jam on March 29, 1848. Although the falls commonly ices up most winters, the river and the falls do not freeze completely. The years 1885, 1902, 1906, 1911, 1932, 1936, 2014 and 2017 are noted for the falls icing up. In 1912, much of the water coming over the American Falls froze, though a trickle still ran and the falls ran at the other two sites. The enormous energy of Niagara Falls has long been recognized as a potential source of power. The first known effort to harness the waters was in 1759, when Daniel Joncaire built a small canal above the falls to power his sawmill. Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery. In 1853, the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Mining Company was chartered, which eventually constructed the canals that would be used to generate electricity. In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob F. Schoellkopf, the Niagara River 's first hydroelectric generating station was built. The water fell 86 feet (26 m) and generated direct current electricity, which ran the machinery of local mills and lit up some of the village streets. The Niagara Falls Power Company, a descendant of Schoellkopf 's firm, formed the Cataract Company headed by Edward Dean Adams, with the intent of expanding Niagara Falls ' power capacity. In 1890, a five - member International Niagara Commission headed by Sir William Thomson among other distinguished scientists deliberated on the expansion of Niagara hydroelectric capacity based on seventeen proposals, but could not select any as the best combined project for hydraulic development and distribution. In 1893, Westinghouse Electric (which had built the smaller - scale Ames Hydroelectric Generating Plant near Ophir, Colorado, two years earlier) was hired to design a system to generate alternating current on Niagara Falls, and three years after that this large - scale AC power system was created (activated on August 26, 1895). The Adams Power Plant Transformer House remains as a landmark of the original system. By 1896, financing from moguls including J.P. Morgan, John Jacob Astor IV, and the Vanderbilts had fueled the construction of giant underground conduits leading to turbines generating upwards of 100,000 horsepower (75 MW), sent as far as Buffalo, 20 miles (32 km) away. Some of the original designs for the power transmission plants were created by the Swiss firm Faesch & Piccard, which also constructed the original 5,000 hp waterwheels. Private companies on the Canadian side also began to harness the energy of the falls. The Government of Ontario eventually brought power transmission operations under public control in 1906, distributing Niagara 's energy to various parts of the Canadian province. Other hydropower plants were also being built along the Niagara River. But in 1956, disaster struck when the region 's largest hydropower station was partially destroyed in a landslide. This drastically reduced power production and put tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs at stake. In 1957, Congress passed the Niagara Redevelopment Act, which granted the New York Power Authority the right to fully develop the United States ' share of the Niagara River 's hydroelectric potential. In 1961, when the Niagara Falls hydroelectric project went online, it was the largest hydropower facility in the Western world. Today, Niagara is still the largest electricity producer in New York state, with a generating capacity of 2.4 gigawatts (million kilowatts). Up to 375,000 U.S. gallons (1,420 m) of water a second is diverted from the Niagara River through conduits under the city of Niagara Falls to the Lewiston and Robert Moses power plants. Currently between 50 % and 75 % of the Niagara River 's flow is diverted via four huge tunnels that arise far upstream from the waterfalls. The water then passes through hydroelectric turbines that supply power to nearby areas of Canada and the United States before returning to the river well past the falls. This water spins turbines that power generators, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. When electricity demand is low, the Lewiston units can operate as pumps to transport water from the lower bay back up to the plant 's reservoir, allowing this water to be used again during the daytime when electricity use peaks. During peak electrical demand, the same Lewiston pumps are reversed and actually become generators, similar to those at the Moses plant. To preserve Niagara Falls ' natural beauty, a 1950 treaty signed by the U.S. and Canada limited water usage by the power plants. The treaty allows higher summertime diversion at night when tourists are fewer and during the winter months when there are even fewer tourists. This treaty, designed to ensure an "unbroken curtain of water '' flowing over the falls, states that during daylight time during the tourist season (April 1 to October 31) there must be 100,000 cubic feet per second (2,800 m / s) of water flowing over the falls, and during the night and off - tourist season there must be 50,000 cubic feet per second (1,400 m / s) of water flowing over the falls. This treaty is monitored by the International Niagara Board of Control, using a NOAA gauging station above the falls. During winter, the Power Authority of New York works with Ontario Power Generation to prevent ice on the Niagara River from interfering with power production or causing flooding of shoreline property. One of their joint efforts is an 8,800 - foot - long (2,700 m) ice boom, which prevents the buildup of ice, yet allows water to continue flowing downstream. In addition to minimum water volume, the crest of the Horseshoe falls was reduced to maintain an uninterrupted "curtain of water. '' The most powerful hydroelectric stations on the Niagara River are the Sir Adam Beck 1 and 2 on the Canadian side and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant and the Lewiston Pump Generating Plant on the American side. Together, Niagara 's generating stations can produce about 4.4 gigawatts of power. In August 2005 Ontario Power Generation, which is responsible for the Sir Adam Beck stations, started a major civil engineering project, called the Niagara Tunnel Project, to increase power production by building a new 12.7 - metre (42 ft) diameter, 10.2 - kilometre - long (6.3 mi) water diversion tunnel. It was officially placed into service in March 2013, helping to increase the generating complex 's nameplate capacity by 150 megawatts. It did so by tapping water from farther up the Niagara River than was possible with the preexisting arrangement. The tunnel provided new hydroelectricity for approximately 160,000 homes. Ships can bypass Niagara Falls by means of the Welland Canal, which was improved and incorporated into the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the mid-1950s. While the seaway diverted water traffic from nearby Buffalo and led to the demise of its steel and grain mills, other industries in the Niagara River valley flourished with the help of the electric power produced by the river. However, since the 1970s the region has declined economically. The cities of Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada, and Niagara Falls, New York, United States, are connected by two international bridges. The Rainbow Bridge, just downriver from the falls, affords the closest view of the falls and is open to non-commercial vehicle traffic and pedestrians. The Whirlpool Rapids Bridge lies one mile (1.6 km) north of the Rainbow Bridge and is the oldest bridge over the Niagara River. Nearby Niagara Falls International Airport and Buffalo Niagara International Airport were named after the waterfall, as were Niagara University, countless local businesses, and even an asteroid. Niagara Falls have long been a source of inspiration for explorers, travelers, artists, authors, filmmakers, residents and visitors, few of whom realize the falls were nearly devoted solely to industrial and commercial use. In the 1870s, sightseers had limited access to Niagara Falls and often had to pay for a glimpse, and industrialization threatened to carve up Goat Island to further expand commercial development. Other industrial encroachments and lack of public access led to a conservation movement in the U.S. known as Free Niagara, led by such notables as Hudson River School artist Frederic Edwin Church, landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted, and architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Church approached Lord Dufferin, governor - general of Canada, with a proposal for international discussions on the establishment of a public park. Goat Island was one of the inspirations for the American side of the effort. William Dorsheimer, moved by the scene from the island, brought Olmsted to Buffalo in 1868 to design a city park system and helped promote Olmsted 's career. In 1879, the New York state legislature commissioned Olmsted and James T. Gardner to survey the falls and to create the single most important document in the Niagara preservation movement, a Special Report on the preservation of Niagara Falls. The report advocated for State purchase, restoration and preservation through public ownership of the scenic lands surrounding Niagara Falls. Restoring the former beauty of the falls was described in the report as a "sacred obligation to mankind. '' In 1883, New York Governor Grover Cleveland drafted legislation authorizing acquisition of lands for a state reservation at Niagara, and the Niagara Falls Association, a private citizens group founded in 1882, mounted a great letter - writing campaign and petition drive in support of the park. Professor Charles Eliot Norton and Olmsted were among the leaders of the public campaign, while New York Governor Alonzo Cornell opposed. Preservationists ' efforts were rewarded on April 30, 1885, when Governor David B. Hill signed legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York 's first state park. New York State began to purchase land from developers, under the charter of the Niagara Reservation State Park. In the same year, the province of Ontario established the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park for the same purpose. On the Canadian side, the Niagara Parks Commission governs land usage along the entire course of the Niagara River, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. In 1887, Olmsted and Calvert Vaux issued a supplemental report detailing plans to restore the falls. Their intent was "to restore and conserve the natural surroundings of the Falls of Niagara, rather than to attempt to add anything thereto, '' and the report anticipated fundamental questions. How would preservationists provide access without destroying the beauty of the falls? How would they restore natural landscapes damaged by man? They planned a park with scenic roadways, paths and a few shelters designed to protect the landscape while allowing large numbers of visitors to enjoy the falls. Commemorative statues, shops, restaurants, and a 1959 glass and metal observation tower were added later. Preservationists continue to strive to strike a balance between Olmsted 's idyllic vision and the realities of administering a popular scenic attraction. Preservation efforts continued well into the 20th century. J. Horace McFarland, the Sierra Club, and the Appalachian Mountain Club persuaded the United States Congress in 1906 to enact legislation to preserve the falls by regulating the waters of the Niagara River. The act sought, in cooperation with the Canadian government, to restrict diversion of water, and a treaty resulted in 1909 that limited the total amount of water diverted from the falls by both nations to approximately 56,000 cubic feet (1,600 m) per second. That limitation remained in effect until 1950. Erosion control efforts have always been of extreme importance. Underwater weirs redirect the most damaging currents, and the top of the falls has also been strengthened. In June 1969, the Niagara River was completely diverted from the American Falls for several months through construction of a temporary rock and earth dam (clearly visible in the photo at right). During this time, two bodies were removed from under the falls, including a man who had been seen jumping over the falls, and the body of a woman, which was discovered once the falls dried. While the Horseshoe Falls absorbed the extra flow, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the riverbed and mechanically bolted and strengthened any faults they found; faults that would, if left untreated, have hastened the retreat of the American Falls. A plan to remove the huge mound of talus deposited in 1954 was abandoned owing to cost, and in November 1969, the temporary dam was dynamited, restoring flow to the American Falls. Even after these undertakings, Luna Island, the small piece of land between the main waterfall and the Bridal Veil, remained off limits to the public for years owing to fears that it was unstable and could collapse into the gorge. Commercial interests have continued to encroach on the land surrounding the state park, including the construction of several tall buildings (most of them hotels) on the Canadian side. The result is a significant alteration and urbanisation of the landscape. One study indicated it has caused the airflow near the falls to change direction. Students at the University of Guelph demonstrated, using scale models, that as air passes over the top of the new hotels it causes a breeze to roll down the south sides of the buildings and spill into the gorge below the falls, where it feeds into a whirlpool of moisture and air. The inference was that a documented rise in the number of "mist days '' was a result of these breezes, where mist days refers to the mist plume of the falls reaching landside. In 1996 there were 29 mist days recorded, but by 2003 that number had risen to 68. Another study has discounted this opinion and linked mist production to the difference in air and water temperature at the falls. However, this study does not offer opinion as to why mist days have been increasing, just that the hotel breezes are an unlikely cause. In 2013, New York State began an effort to renovate The Sisters Islands located on Goat Island. New York State used funds from the re-licensing of the New York Power Authority hydroelectric plant downriver in Lewiston, New York, to rebuild walking paths on the Three Sisters Islands and to plant native vegetation on the islands. The state also renovated the area around Prospect Point at the brink of the American Falls in the state park. In October 1829, Sam Patch, who called himself "the Yankee Leapster '', jumped from a high tower into the gorge below the falls and survived; this began a long tradition of daredevils trying to go over the falls. On October 24, 1901, 63 - year - old Michigan school teacher Annie Edson Taylor became the first person to go over the falls in a barrel as a publicity stunt; she survived, bleeding, but otherwise unharmed. Soon after exiting the barrel, she said, "No one ought ever do that again. '' Before Taylor 's attempt, on October 19 her domestic cat named Iagara was sent over the Horseshoe Falls in her barrel to test its strength. Contrary to rumours at the time, the cat survived the plunge unharmed and later posed with Taylor in photographs. Since Taylor 's historic ride, 14 people have intentionally gone over the falls in or on a device, despite her advice. Some have survived unharmed, but others have drowned or been severely injured. Survivors face charges and stiff fines, as it is illegal, on both sides of the border, to attempt to go over the falls. In 1918, there was a near disaster when a barge, known locally as the Niagara Scow, working upriver broke its tow, and almost plunged over the falls. Fortunately, the two workers on board saved themselves by grounding the vessel on rocks just short of the falls, where it has remained ever since. Englishman Captain Matthew Webb, the first man to swim the English Channel, drowned in 1883 trying to swim the rapids downriver from the falls. In the "Miracle at Niagara '', Roger Woodward, a seven - year - old American boy, was swept over the Horseshoe Falls protected only by a life vest on July 9, 1960, as two tourists pulled his 17 - year - old sister Deanne from the river only 20 feet (6.1 m) from the lip of the Horseshoe Falls at Goat Island. Minutes later, Woodward was plucked from the roiling plunge pool beneath the Horseshoe Falls after grabbing a life ring thrown to him by the crew of the Maid of the Mist boat. On July 2, 1984, Canadian Karel Soucek from Hamilton, Ontario, plunged over the Horseshoe Falls in a barrel with only minor injuries. Soucek was fined $500 for performing the stunt without a license. In 1985, he was fatally injured while attempting to re-create the Niagara drop at the Houston Astrodome. His aim was to climb into a barrel hoisted to the rafters of the Astrodome and to drop 180 feet (55 m) into a water tank on the floor. After his barrel released prematurely, it hit the side of the tank and he died the next day from his injuries. In August 1985, Steve Trotter, an aspiring stuntman from Rhode Island, became the youngest person ever (age 22) and the first American in 25 years to go over the falls in a barrel. Ten years later, Trotter went over the falls again, becoming the second person to go over the falls twice and survive. It was also the second - ever "duo ''; Lori Martin joined Trotter for the barrel ride over the falls. They survived the fall but their barrel became stuck at the bottom of the falls, requiring a rescue. On September 28, 1989, Niagara natives Peter DeBernardi (age 42) and Jeffery James Petkovich (age 25) became the first "team '' to make it over the falls in a two - person barrel. The stunt was conceived by DeBenardi, who wanted to discourage youth from following in his path of addictive drug use. The pair emerged shortly after going over with minor injuries and were charged with performing an illegal stunt under the Niagara Parks Act. On June 5, 1990, Jesse Sharp, a whitewater canoeist from Tennessee paddled over the falls in a closed deck canoe. He neglected to wear a helmet to make his face more visible for photographs of the event. He also did not wear a life vest because he believed it would hinder his escape from the hydraulics at the base of the falls. His boat flushed out of the falls, but his body was never found. On September 27, 1993, John "David '' Munday, of Caistor Centre, Ontario, completed his second journey over the falls. On October 1, 1995, Robert Douglas "Firecracker '' Overacker went over the falls on a Jet Ski to raise awareness for the homeless. His rocket - propelled parachute failed to open and he plunged to his death. Overacker 's body was recovered before he was pronounced dead at Niagara General Hospital. Kirk Jones of Canton, Michigan, became the first known person to survive a plunge over the Horseshoe Falls without a flotation device on October 20, 2003. Though Jones had attempted to commit suicide, he survived the 16 - story fall with only battered ribs, scrapes, and bruises. Jones died in another attempt to go over the falls in an inflatable ball in 2017. A second person survived an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls on March 11, 2009, and when rescued from the river, was reported to be suffering from severe hypothermia and a large wound to his head. His identity has not been released. Eyewitnesses reported seeing the man intentionally enter the water. On May 21, 2012, an unidentified man in his early 40s became the third person to survive an unprotected trip over the Horseshoe Falls. Eyewitness reports show he "deliberately jumped '' into the Niagara River after climbing over a railing. Other daredevils have made crossing the gorge their goal, starting with the successful passage by Jean François "Blondin '' Gravelet, who crossed Niagara Gorge in 1859. Between 1859 and 1896 a wire - walking craze emerged, resulting in frequent feats over the river below the falls. One inexperienced walker slid down his safety rope. Only one man fell to his death, at night and under mysterious circumstances, at the anchoring place for his wire. These tightrope walkers drew huge crowds to witness their exploits. Their wires ran across the gorge, near the current Rainbow Bridge, not over the waterfall itself. Among the many was Ontario 's William Hunt, who billed himself as "The Great Farini '' and competed with Blondin in performing outrageous stunts over the gorge. On three occasions Blondin carried his manager, Harry Colcord, on his back -- on the final time being watched by the Prince of Wales. In 1876, 23 - year - old Italian Maria Spelterini was the only woman ever to cross the Niagara Gorge on a tightrope, making four crossings over 18 days. On July 12, she crossed wearing peach baskets strapped to her feet, on July 19 blind - folded, on July 22 with her ankles and wrists manacled and finally on July 26. Tightrope crossings of the falls ended -- by law -- in 1896, when James Hardy crossed. On June 15, 2012, high wire artist Nik Wallenda became the first person to walk across the falls in 116 years, after receiving special permission from both governments. The full length of his tightrope was 1,800 feet (550 m). Wallenda crossed near the brink of the Horseshoe Falls, unlike walkers who had crossed farther downstream. According to Wallenda, it was the longest unsupported tightrope walk in history. He carried his passport on the trip and was required to present it upon arrival on the Canadian side of the falls. Already a huge tourist attraction and favorite spot for honeymooners, Niagara Falls visits rose sharply in 1953 after the release of Niagara, a movie starring Marilyn Monroe and Joseph Cotten. In 1956, the Woody Woodpecker series released the episode Niagara Fools. The 1974 ABC Movie of the Week, The Great Niagara, featuring Richard Boone and Randy Quaid and filmed on location, told the story of a family of daredevils who challenged the falls. The falls was a featured location in the 1980 movie Superman II, and was itself the subject of a popular IMAX movie, Niagara: Miracles, Myths and Magic. Much of the episode "Return of the Technodrome '' in the 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon series takes place near the Niagara Falls and its hydroelectric plant. Illusionist David Copperfield performed a trick in which he appeared to travel over the Horseshoe Falls in 1990. The falls, or more particularly, the tourist - supported complex near the falls, was the setting of the short - lived Canadian - shot US television show Wonderfalls in early 2004. Location footage of the falls was shot in October 2006 to portray "World 's End '' of the movie Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End. Professional kayaker Rafa Ortiz 's preparation to paddle over the falls in a kayak is documented in the 2015 film Chasing Niagara. Composer Ferde Grofé was commissioned by the Niagara Falls Power Generation project in 1960 to compose the Niagara Falls Suite in honor of the completion of the first stage of hydroelectric work at the falls. Each movement is dedicated to the falls, or to the history of the greater Buffalo region. In 1997, composer Michael Daugherty composed Niagara Falls, a piece for concert band inspired by the falls. The Niagara Falls area features as the base camp for a German aerial invasion of the United States in the H.G. Wells novel The War in the Air. Many poets have been inspired to write about the falls. Among them was the Cuban poet José Maria Heredia, who wrote the poem "Niagara ''. There are commemorative plaques on both sides of the falls recognising the poem. In the original 1920s and 1930s Buck Rogers stories and newspaper cartoons, Buck Rogers, in his adventures in the 25th century that take place on Earth, helps in the fight for a free Northern America from the liberated zone around Niagara, New York (which by then has grown to a large metropolis -- the capital of the liberated zone -- that includes Niagara Falls, New York, Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York), against the Red Mongol Empire, a Chinese empire of the future which in the 25th century rules most of North America. Part of Mark Twain 's 1893 short story, "Extract from Adam 's Diary '' is set at Niagara Falls. The Bulgarian writer Aleko Konstantinov portrays the impressiveness of the Niagara Falls in his book, "To Chicago and back ''. In 2014, the writer Alessandro Baricco published the book ' Smith & Wesson ' counting the story of Rachel Green going over the falls. Niagara Fälle. Les chûtes du Niagara. Niagara Falls (circa 1832): aquatint by Karl Bodmer Albert Bierstadt 's (1830 -- 1902) oil painting of Niagara Falls Arthur Parton, Niagara Falls (Brooklyn Museum) View of Niagara Falls, by Ferdinand Richardt Underneath Niagara Falls, by Richardt at the Met, 1862 Louis Rémy Mignot, Niagara, Brooklyn Museum Thomas Cole, Distant View of Niagara Falls 1830, Art Institute of Chicago Alvan Fisher, A General View of the Falls of Niagara, 1820, Smithsonian Institution Frederic Edwin Church, Niagara Falls, 1857, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. William Morris Hunt, Niagara Falls, 1878 Peak visitor traffic occurs in the summertime, when Niagara Falls are both a daytime and evening attraction. From the Canadian side, floodlights illuminate both sides of the falls for several hours after dark (until midnight). The number of visitors in 2007 was expected to total 20 million, and by 2009 the annual rate was expected to top 28 million tourists. The oldest and best known tourist attraction at Niagara Falls is the Maid of the Mist boat cruise, named for an ancient Ongiara Indian mythical character, which has carried passengers into the rapids immediately below the falls since 1846. Cruise boats operate from boat docks on both sides of the falls, with the Maid of the Mist operating from the American side and Hornblower Cruises from the Canadian side. From the U.S. side, the American Falls can be viewed from walkways along Prospect Point Park, which also features the Prospect Point Observation Tower and a boat dock for the Maid of the Mist. Goat Island offers more views of the falls and is accessible by foot and automobile traffic by bridge above the American Falls. From Goat Island, the Cave of the Winds is accessible by elevator and leads hikers to a point beneath Bridal Veil Falls. Also on Goat Island are the Three Sisters Islands, the Power Portal where a huge statue of Nikola Tesla (the inventor whose patents for the AC induction motor and other devices for AC power transmission helped make the harnessing of the falls possible) can be seen, and a walking path that enables views of the rapids, the Niagara River, the gorge, and all of the falls. Most of these attractions lie within the Niagara Falls State Park. The Niagara Scenic Trolley offers guided trips along the American Falls and around Goat Island. Panoramic and aerial views of the falls can also be viewed by helicopter. The Niagara Gorge Discovery Center showcases the natural and local history of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge. A casino and luxury hotel was opened in Niagara Falls, New York, by the Seneca Indian tribe. The Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel occupies the former Niagara Falls Convention Center. The new hotel is the first addition to the city 's skyline since completion of the United Office Building in the 1920s. On the Canadian side, Queen Victoria Park features manicured gardens, platforms offering views of both the American and Horseshoe Falls, and underground walkways leading into observation rooms that yield the illusion of being within the falling waters. The observation deck of the nearby Skylon Tower offers the highest view of the falls, and in the opposite direction gives views as far as Toronto. Along with the Minolta Tower (formerly the Seagrams Tower and the Konica Minolta Tower, and since 2010 called the Tower Hotel), it is one of two towers in Canada with a view of the falls. Along the Niagara River, the Niagara River Recreational Trail runs 35 miles (56 km) from Fort Erie to Fort George, and includes many historical sites from the War of 1812. The Whirlpool Aero Car, built in 1916 from a design by Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres y Quevedo, is a cable car that takes passengers over the Niagara Whirlpool on the Canadian side. The Journey Behind the Falls consists of an observation platform and series of tunnels near the bottom of the Horseshoe Falls on the Canadian side. There are two casinos on the Canadian side of Niagara Falls, the Niagara Fallsview Casino Resort and Casino Niagara.

when does the new season of marco polo come out

Marco Polo (TV series) - wikipedia Marco Polo is an American drama web television series inspired by Marco Polo 's early years in the court of Kublai Khan, the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271 -- 1368). The show premiered on Netflix on December 12, 2014. The series was written and created by John Fusco and stars Lorenzo Richelmy in the title role with Benedict Wong as Kublai Khan. The series is produced by The Weinstein Company. On January 7, 2015, Marco Polo was renewed by Netflix for a 10 - episode second season, which premiered on July 1, 2016. On December 12, 2016, Netflix announced they had canceled Marco Polo after two seasons. Sources told The Hollywood Reporter that the series ' two seasons resulted in a $200 million loss for Netflix, and the decision to cancel the series was jointly taken by Netflix and The Weinstein Company. + Luthi portrays Ling Ling in season 1, Chew in season 2. The series was originally developed at Starz, which had picked up the series in January 2012. After attempts to film in China failed, the project was released back to The Weinstein Company. Netflix then picked up the series for a 10 - episode season, for approximately $90 million, making it one of the most expensive TV shows in the world, second to Game of Thrones. The project was officially announced at Netflix in January 2014. Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg serve as executive producers and directed the pilot and second episodes, "The Wayfarer '' and "The Wolf and the Deer '', respectively. The series was filmed in Italy, Kazakhstan, and at Pinewood Studios in Malaysia. Stuntman Ju Kun was working on the show alongside fight choreographer Brett Chan, but went missing with the disappearance of Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 during pre-production. To prepare for her role as Chabi, Joan Chen read the book The Secret History of the Mongol Queens by Jack Weatherford, as she wanted her performance to reflect the culture of the time period. During his extensive research, show creator John Fusco traveled the Silk Road by horseback and also crossed the Ming Sha Dunes of Western China on camel. In Venice, Italy he sought out and studied the Last Will and Testament of Marco Polo. While some Mongolian viewers and experts view it as "riddled with historical errors '', many have praised the series. Orgil Narangerel, who played Genghis Khan in a BBC documentary, said it was more accurate than any previous foreign portrayal of Mongolian culture. "As a Mongol and an artist, Marco Polo makes me feel like our dreams are coming true, '' he told AFP. "I watched all 10 episodes in just one day. '' The series featured music by Mongolian bands Altan Urag and Batzorig Vaanchig of Asia 's Got Talent, who cameoed as a singer. Daniele Luppi composed the main theme, whilst Peter Nashel and Eric V. Hachikian are composers of the original score. Much of the second season premiere is about getting reoriented in this world, establishing who these characters are and where they stand. After flashing back to a young Kublai Khan taking lessons from his grandfather, we see Kublai at home in his role, attending to trade issues while also preparing for his son 's wedding. Jingim is set to marry the Blue Princess, the former love interest of Marco Polo, securing more heirs to the throne. It is n't long before the day of celebrations is spoiled though. Khan 's bastard child Byamba shows up with a message from Kaidu, Kublai 's cousin. Kaidu is still angry about not being handed the lead during the sack of Xiangyang, and he 's prepared a form of retaliation. He 's going to challenge the Kublai 's rule as Khan in an attempt to secure the position for himself. Kublai, of course, does not accept such a ridiculous claim, but that 's not the news Byamba brings back to Kaidu. There 's a confrontation on the horizon this season, and it 's taking place within filial boundaries. Marco Polo and Mei Lin are traveling through the jungle with the boy emperor in their care. They 're delivering the boy to Kublai, as Marco has been instructed, but their travel is n't so easy. The boy 's protector, who 's known only as The Handmaiden, is still chasing after them, somehow able to keep up with them despite traveling on foot. Meanwhile, Kaidu is doing everything he can to secure support in his claim to Kublai 's throne. While on the one hand it 's not a difficult sell because many believe Kublai stole the election long ago, there are also those who see going against Kublai as a dangerous act. Back in the new capital of Cambulac, Kublai is taking advice from his wife. She says that he needs to accept the challenge to his throne because Kaidu is operating within the law and any other approach would suggest weakness or deceit. Then, Marco and Mei Lin return with the boy emperor. The return sparks all kinds of intriguing relationships and power struggles. There 's Kublai asserting his power over Mei Lin, even as Marco asks for leniency. There 's Marco being "introduced '' to the Blue Princess by Jingim, and the appropriate awkwardness that follows from the former secret romantic partners. Then there 's the issue of what to do with the boy emperor. While Jingim and Marco suggest letting the boy fade from the public 's memory by stashing him in a safe place, Ahmad suggests killing him and parading his head through the streets to send a message. Of course, this is the same man who 's working with Mei Lin to overthrow Kublai, even telling her that she could see her daughter in exchange for bringing the boy emperor to the capital. The Blue Princess has a miscarriage, but Jingim is forgiving and understanding. Kaidu has his meeting with Nayan, who 's preaching Christianity to the Mongolian masses, but they ca n't come to an agreement for him to back Kaidu 's claim to the throne. And of course there 's Marco telling Kublai of the many people in south China killing themselves, as they see the Mongolian presence not as liberation but as occupation. As the boy emperor hangs from the capital, and the Handmaiden takes the sight in, Kublai awakes from another nightmare, his wife still lambasting him for his decision to kill a child. Marco is n't too happy with him either, and with both in crisis, Kublai takes his Venetian friend on a hike in order to decide what to do about Kaidu 's claim to the throne. Meanwhile, the Blue Princess is having one hell of a time. Not only does the Handmaiden confront her (though they both agree they have a common enemy), there 's also the pressure to produce an heir before Kaidu 's claim comes to pass. That pressure leads to a truly sadistic moment from the Empress. During the night, she holds the Blue Princess down and forces a stable boy to have sex with her since Jingim has yet to impregnate her. "The baby will have no royal blood, '' she says, with pure menace. While this is happening Jingim goes to Karakorum to help persuade people to side with his father. That means taking down a huge dude in a wrestling match and earning some respect, though that does n't stop Kaidu 's two children from attacking them on their way home. Furthermore, Kaidu makes a bold decision and insists that his daughter Khutulun, rather than his son, will be the next heir. Nayan is in Northern Israel, along with Marco 's father, to talk about Kublai. The discussion is rather simple. The Pope sees Kublai 's rule as a threat, especially since he 's so accepting of many religions, and vows to confront his forces should they move West. Nayan is less enthused about this idea, but when he proves his religious value to the Pope and the two agree to work together, he 's swayed, washing away his sins and preparing for battle. Meanwhile, the hunt is on for Jingim and Ahmad. Kaidu is pissed at his son because of his actions, which have brought Kublai to his doorstep. Together they all go out to search for the Khan 's missing sons. Along the way, Kaidu and Kublai connect with memories of their childhood but also remain divided on the prospects of the Mongol empire. Things get particularly heated when the insults start flying and Kaidu pulls his sword on Kublai. Ultimately, nothing comes of the moment, as Jingim and Ahmad are found, but certainly the challenge to the throne will not go so smoothly. Five rebels execute five different attacks and kill 300 Mongolians, as Ahmad informs the Khan. Kublai states that while he 'll still travel to Xanadu to challenge Kaidu, he gives Ahmad control of his forces to strike back. Meanwhile, Khutulun makes it clear to Kaidu that she 's not happy about being the heir because it would mean sacrificing her own goals, and Byamba, who she 's now separated from, is demoted to a foot soldier by Ahmad, who 's still working on his own plans to dethrone Kublai. Ahmad gains even more control when a guard tells him about the Empress leading a stableboy into Princess Kokachin 's chambers. That whole situation is about to get even more complicated because the real Princess Kokachin shows up, apparently not dead like we all believed, and wants her life back. At the same time, Marco continues to grow suspicious of Ahmad, especially as he decides to send nearly 60,000 troops to battle the uprising and only 7,000 with Kublai to Xanadu. "Lullaby '' also spends a bit of time filling in Ahmad 's backstory. He was once simply a tax collector for the Khan, wanting to travel and learn about the people in Kublai 's empire. Before long though he becomes jaded; a prostitute he shares a bed with, and ends up killing when she hums the same song his mother did when he was a child, signals his turn as he returns to Kublai and takes a position as his finance minister and begins to take control of his future. First, as the episode opens, we see Kaidu and his mother secretly finding their way to Cambulac. They arrive in the middle of the night shrouded in hoods. The purpose of their meeting in the capital is to discuss the overthrow of the Khan with Ahmad. The Khan 's Vice Regent has made it clear that he wants Kublai gone, and he sees Kaidu as his own tool. Along with Kaidu he invites Nayan for the meeting, securing both in opposition to Kublai, the offer of Mei Lin 's daughter to the sinful Nayan helping to sway him. Meanwhile, Kublai is in Xanadu petitioning for votes, bringing a vision of empirical expansion, complete with cool fireworks, to the people there. There are harbingers of death all around though. Horses that were gifted to Kublai are attacked, found with their eyes carved out. Marco and Jingim believe it 's the work of Kaidu, but Kublai does n't seem worried. Eventually, after a night of passion with an exotic dancer who 's traveled the world, the Blue Princess visits Marco and the mystery of the horses seems solved. You see, the fake Blue Princess believes it was the real Blue Princess who attacked the horses, sending a message to Kublai and, more importantly the impostor Blue Princess, that she wanted her life back. When she goes to Marco with this theory though it 's revealed that she has blood all over her hands. The real Blue Princess seems to be a figment of her imagination, perhaps brought on by her guilt over her child and the dead stableboy. We see that Hundred Eyes and the Handmaiden, who he refers to as Lotus, were once friends and lovers, until the Mongolians attacked them, Hundred Eyes believing he watched Lotus die at the hands of an archer. That bit of backstory makes their reunion here that much sweeter, and their separation at the end of the episode all the more heartbreaking. The second attack is undertaken by Khutulun and Orus on the order of Kaidu. He 's conducting murderous raids under the banner of Kublai, having his children and warriors wear masks to conceal their identities. Essentially he 's framing Kublai in the hopes of drumming up support for his ascension to the throne. Meanwhile, the Blue Princess is truly losing it, and her visions threaten to reveal the true nature of the baby. Jingim is upset by his wife 's condition, but, after Kublai finds out about Kaidu 's attacks under his own banner, he 's ordered to ride East to engage in their own attacks. That 's all part of Ahmad 's grand scheme though: send Jingim East to die while Nayan and Kaidu amass troops in the West. There 's a twist that Ahmad does n't expect though: Mei Lin turns on him after he fails to deliver on his promise for her to see her daughter. That sends her to Marco, who gives her time with her daughter, and in return she tells him everything. Marco goes to the Khan and asks for his permission to head West even though he ca n't reveal why. He 's asking for trust and Kublai gives it. First, Ahmad lies to Kublai about Jingim 's attacks in the East -- remember, Marco and Jingim actually headed West -- and when Mei Lin goes missing, Kublai questions his Vice Regent 's connection to her. At the same time, Niccolò goes missing from Nayan 's camp near the Twin Rivers, captured by Marco and Byamba. They spend the entirety of "Whitehorse '' hiding in the woods, Marco questioning his father about where they will attack the Khan, and his father returning fire by essentially calling him a traitor to his Christian people. For a while it looks like Marco has no choice but to kill his father, but a last - minute attack leaves the elder Polo 's fate hanging in the balance. As for Mei Lin, she 's escaped her entrapment with Ahmad, daughter in tow, and when Mongols attack her on the road, Lotus comes to her aid. That forces Mei Lin to accept that the Mongols will keep coming after her and her daughter until she ends this feud, so she leaves her daughter in the care of Lotus, the same woman who could n't protect the boy emperor. The opening credits of Marco Polo do n't come until 20 minutes into "Heirs '' because the show is too busy pulling off quite the battle scene. The episode opens with Kublai showing up at Nayan and Kaidu 's camp in the dead of night. He has quite the plan in store: He lights all of his white horses on fire and sends them running into the camp, where they light the tents ablaze and ignite the black powder, causing huge explosions. That fiery backdrop is also the stage for a number of individual moments. Kaidu is sent to safety by Niccolò so as to keep the hope of dethroning the Khan alive. Byamba and Marco fight side by side. Hundred Eyes comes face to face with a huge man covered in chain mail, but destroys him with a quick jab to the neck. Then, there are the big moments. Khutulun saves Byamba, showing that her love trumps her allegiance to her father. Jingim bashes Orus ' skull in, which Khutulun witnesses. Then Marco lets his father escape as Kublai watches from a distance. There 's a lot of sitting around, as Kublai and Kaidu await the outcome of the Kurultai, and Ahmad sits on the Khan 's throne in Cambulac, hoping that his plan unfolds in a timely fashion. Essentially, the episode is a lot of setup for a few moments that change the course of the show, and set up a number of stories for the third season. There 's basically two stories that make up "The Fellowship. '' First there 's Kaidu and Kublai giving speeches and hoping to be selected as the Khan of Khans. It looks as if the vote is all but settled, with the people siding with Kublai and protesting Kaidu 's aggressive tactics. Of course, the Kurultai does n't go down without a hitch. Ahmad, backed into a corner by the presence of Jingim, Byamba, and Hundred Eyes, sends word to Kaidu revealing the truth about Jingim 's son and Kublai 's heir. Kaidu uses that knowledge to blackmail the Khan and the Empress, but they 're more determined than Kaidu gives them credit for. First, the Empress helps the Blue Princess drown herself, and Kublai attempts to poison Kaidu, hoping to stop the potential leak of the information. Kaidu gets the upper hand though and is moments away from killing Kublai when Marco saves him, coming back from his banishment to inform the Khan about an approaching Christian army, killing Kaidu and proving his loyalty to Kublai in the process. Back at Cambulac, Jingim, Hundred Eyes, and Byamba expertly pull off a raid that sees them take back control of the capital as Ahmad runs and hides. Unfortunately for him, Mei Lin is waiting for him in his room. She kills him and, in return, Jingim allows her to leave the capital freely, with Hundred Eyes offering to escort her back to her daughter. The first season of Marco Polo was met with negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a rating of 24 %, based on 33 reviews, with a rating average of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "An all - around disappointment, Marco Polo is less entertaining than a round of the game that shares its name. '' On Metacritic, the show 's first season has a score of 48 out of 100 based on 21 reviews by critics, indicating "mixed reviews ''. In his review for Entertainment Weekly, Jeff Jensen gave the first season a "B − '' rating, calling the premise "stale '', but added "Somewhere in the middle of episode 2, though, Marco Polo becomes surprisingly watchable. The filmmaking becomes bolder. '' Writing for People, Tom Gliatto praised the series, calling it "... a fun, body - flinging, old - fashioned epic ''. USA Today reviewer Robert Bianco gave the series 1 ​ ⁄ stars out of 4, saying, "Clearly what Netflix hopes you 'll see a (sic) big - bucks, prestige entertainment along the lines of that HBO fantasy epic, but in truth, Marco is far closer to one of those cheesy international syndicated adventures. '' In 2015, the President of Mongolia Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj presented John Fusco and the Marco Polo creative team with an award, honoring their positive portrayal and global presentation of Mongolian subject matter. Fusco, himself, has described the series as historical fiction, based on the accounts of the Venetian traveler Marco Polo.

travis tritt i am going to be somebody

I 'm Gonna be Somebody - wikipedia "I 'm Gonna Be Somebody '' is a song written by Jill Colucci and Stewart Harris, and recorded by American country music artist Travis Tritt. It released in May 1990 as the third single from his debut album Country Club. It reached number 2 in the United States, behind Shenandoah 's "Next to You, Next to Me '', while it became his second number - one hit in Canada. The song is a moderate up - tempo describing a young male named Bobby, who lives in a lower - class community with rather difficult economical issues. Bobby is an aspiring young singer and musician whose lifelong dream is to have a successful career in the music business; however, people in his community beg to differ and advise Bobby to instead choose a more realistic source of income, as they believe a career in music is not a good option; Bobby ignores their advice and continues his quest to pursue his dreams and prove all of the nonbelievers wrong. A decade passes before Bobby finally achieves those dreams; he is now the most successful recording artist (presumably in country music) with a top concert tour and number - one radio singles to his credit. Bobby subsequently performs a homecoming concert at the height of his career; and during his performance, he happens to hear a singing voice coming from the front row of the audience, which is revealed to be another young male who has the exact same dreams and ambitions that Bobby once had long ago. The following musicians play on this track:

where does the last name davidson originate from

Davidson (name) - wikipedia Davidson is a patronymic surname, meaning "son / descendant of David '' (or "Beloved Son / Descendent ''; ' David ' lit. "Beloved One ''). There are alternate spellings called septs, including those common in the British Isles and Scandinavia: Davidsen, Davisson, Davison, Daveson, Davidsson. While the given name comes from the Hebrew "David '', meaning beloved, Davidson is rarely used as a masculine given name or nickname. It is also an anglicised version of the Ashkenazi Jewish surname Davidovitch, Slavic for "son of David '' and Davidoff. Notable people with the surname Davidson include:

where is brahmaputra river located on a map

Brahmaputra river - wikipedia The Brahmaputra (/ ˌbrɑːməˈpuːtrə / is one of the major rivers of Asia, a trans - boundary river which flows through China, India and Bangladesh. As such, it is known by various names in the region: Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ নদ (' নদ ' nôd, masculine form of ' নদী ' nôdi "river '') Brôhmôputrô (bɹɔɦmɔputɹɔ); Sanskrit: ब्रह्मपुत्र, IAST: Brahmaputra; Tibetan: ཡར ་ ཀླུངས ་ གཙང ་ པོ ་, Wylie: yar klung gtsang po Yarlung Tsangpo; simplified Chinese: 布 拉 马 普 特 拉 河; traditional Chinese: 布 拉 馬 普 特 拉 河; pinyin: Bùlāmǎpǔtèlā Hé. It is also called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra (when referring to the whole river including the stretch within Tibet). The Manas River, which runs through Bhutan, joins it at Jogighopa, in India. It is the tenth largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest. With its origin in the Angsi glacier, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River, it flows across southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh (India). It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges Delta, it merges with the Padma, the popular name of the river Ganges in Bangladesh, and finally the Meghna and from here it is known as Meghna before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. About 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and transportation. The average depth of the river is 38 m (124 ft) and maximum depth is 120 m (380 ft). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when Himalayas snow melts. The average discharge of the river is about 19,800 m / s (700,000 cu ft / s), and floods can reach over 100,000 m / s (3,500,000 cu ft / s). It is a classic example of a braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion. It is also one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. It is navigable for most of its length. The river drains the Himalaya east of the Indo - Nepal border, south - central portion of the Tibetan plateau above the Ganga basin, south - eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai - Bum hills, the northern slopes of the Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains, and the northern portion of Bangladesh. The basin, especially south of Tibet, is characterized by high levels of rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is the only peak above 8,000 m, hence is the highest point within the Brahmaputra basin. The Brahmaputra 's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884 -- 86. This river is often called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra river. The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma '' in Sanskrit (putra means "son ''). Assam govt is set to celebrate the pristine beauty of the mighty river as "Namami Brahmaputra '' - the event will be organised across 21 districts of Assam from 31 March to April 4, 2017. The Brahmaputra River, also called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet. The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about 97 km (60 mi) southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. The river is 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, and its drainage area is 712,035 km (274,918 sq mi) according to the new findings, while previous documents showed its length varied from 2,900 to 3,350 km and its drainage area between 520,000 and 1.73 million km. This finding has been given by Liu Shaochuang, a researcher with the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications under the analysis using expeditions and satellite imagery from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). From its source, the river runs for nearly 1,100 km (680 mi) in a generally easterly direction between the main range of the Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. Throughout its upper course, the river is generally known as the Tsangpo ("Purifier ''); it is also known by its Chinese name (Yarlung Zangbo) and by other local Tibetan names. In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left - bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü. The Nyang Qu (Gyamda) River joins the river from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On the right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê. After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through a deep gorge (the "Grand Canyon '' of the Tsangpo) across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for 5,000 m (16,000 ft) and more on each side. During that stretch, the river enters northern Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern India, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly. The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet, and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km (22 mi) and is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra and Burlung - Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide -- as wide as 20 km (12 mi) in parts of Assam. The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns toward the southeast and descends into a low - lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km (900 mi) from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma ''). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km (5.0 mi) apart. As the river follows its braided 700 m (2,300 ft) course through the valley, it receives several rapidly rushing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili. Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels -- the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world. At Guwahati, near the ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo, the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau, and is at its narrowest at 1 km (1,100 yd) bank - to - bank. Because of the river 's narrow width, the Battle of Saraighat was fought here in March 1671. The first combined rail / road bridge across the Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at Saraighat. The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion. In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains the majority of the river 's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna (Jomuna) to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River (Pôdda). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or old Brahmaputra (Brommoputro). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into the Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna. The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150 - mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves the left bank of the main stream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral, Atrai, and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga ("Old Ganga ''), flows past Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj. The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km (75 mi). After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga - Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes. The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is 59,570 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) the largest river deltas in the world. The basin of the Brahmaputra river is 651 334 km and it is a good example of a braided river and meanders quite a bit and frequently forms temporary sand bars. A region of significant tectonic activity has developed in the Jamuna River and is associated with the Himalayan uplift and development of the Bengal foredeep. Several researchers has hypothesized that the underlying structural control on the location of the major river systems of Bangladesh. A zone of ' structural weakness ' along the present course of the Ganga - Jamuna - Padma Rivers due to either a subsiding trough or a fault at depth has been observed by Morgan and Melntire. (1959). Scijmonsbergen (1999) contends that width changes in the Jamuna may respond to these faults and they may also cause increased sedimentation upstream of the fault. He presented a few images to argue that a fault downstream of the Bangabandhu Multipurpose Bridge has affected channel migration. Huge accumulations of sediment that have been fed from Himalayan erosion has been produced due to the deepening of the Bengal Basin, with the thickness of sediment above the Precambrian basement increasing from a few hundred metres in the shelf region to over 18 km in the Bengal foredeep to the south. The tectonic and climatic context for the large water and sediment discharges in the rivers of Bangladesh was set by the ongoing subsidence in the Bengal Basin, combined with high rates of Himalayan uplift. The control of uplift and subsidence is, however, clear. The courses of the Jamuna and Ganga Rivers are first - order controls due to the fact that they are most influenced by the uplifted Plcistoccnc terraces of the Barind and Madhupur tracts. The hydrology of the Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time, the deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will results in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km in the Bengal fore - deep to the south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1 % clay, in the Brahmaputra River. Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high - water seasons, one in early summer caused by snow melt in the mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27 %, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9 m and 19,830 m3 / s of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in the Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m3 / s August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m3 / s in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for the dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems. The Ganga - Brahmaputra system has the third - greatest average discharge of the world 's rivers -- roughly 30,770 m (1,086,500 ft) per second; and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 19,800 m (700,000 ft) per second of the total discharge. The rivers ' combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world 's highest. In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In a 7.5 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762, however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract. Rising temperature is one of the major cause of snow - melting at the upper Brahmaputra catchment. The discharge of the river Brahmaputra is highly affected by the melting of snow at the upper part of its catchment. The attenuation of river flow due to the melting of snow in the river Brahmaputra basin affects the downstream discharge of the river. This increase in discharge due to significant retreat of snow gives rise to severe catastrophic problems such as flood and erosion. The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about 80 km (50 mi), leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on the operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil - forming process, which include acidification, breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, coating arounds Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance localised breakwaters, that increase flood - plain water depths outside the water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1m - 2m. Furthermore, flooding over history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from overbank flow. The height difference between the levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1m along small channels and 2 - 3m along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto the adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers. The lives of many millions of Indian and Bangladeshi citizens are reliant on the Brahmaputra river. Its delta is home to 130 million people and 600 000 people live on the riverine islands. These people rely on the annual ' normal ' flood to bring moisture and fresh sediments to the floodplain soils, hence providing the necessities for agricultural and marine farming. In fact, two of the three seasonal rice varieties (aus and aman) can not survive without the floodwater. Furthermore, the fish caught both on the floodplain during flood season and from the many floodplain ponds are the main source of protein for many rural populations. During the monsoon season (June -- October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected. The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock and fisheries. During the 1998 flood, over 70 % of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 16 00 and 6000 km of roads and embankments respectively, and affecting 6000 km of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25 % of the population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, was affected by the floods; 800 lives were lost; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tubewells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 M ha of rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7 % of the yearly aus (early season) rice crop lost; 270 000 ha of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 MT of lost fish production. Flood - control measures are taken by water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now the flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government. Recently the Central Government approved the construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways. The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large - scale avulsion, in the period 1776 -- 1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra ''. The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river 's erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land. Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing a diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel. The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra 's bankline migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with the contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank. The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was repeated speculation that mentioned Chinese plans to build a dam at the Great Bend, with a view to divert the waters to the north of the country. This has been denied by the Chinese government for many years. At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which brought together in a rare development leading hydrologists from the basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for China to undertake such a diversion. However, on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra in Tibet, but assured India that the project would not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India. This claim has also been reiterated by the Government of India, in an attempt to assuage domestic criticism of Chinese dam construction on the river, but is one that remains hotly debated. Recent years have seen an intensification of grassroots opposition, especially in the state of Assam, against Chinese upstream dam building, as well as growing criticism of the Indian government for its perceived failure to respond appropriately to Chinese hydropower plans. In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the basin countries issued a Dhaka Declaration on Water Security calling for exchange of information in low - flow periods, and other means of collaboration. Even though the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention does not prevent any of the basin countries from building a dam upstream, customary law offers some relief to the lower riparian countries. There is also potential for China, India, and Bangladesh to cooperate on transboundary water navigation. Early accounts give its name as Dyardanes. In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel. A question about the river system in Bangladesh is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the "Old Brahmaputra '' fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s. The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum, switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene. One idea about the most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista. It is, however, well known that the Tista has always been a wandering river, sometimes joining the Ganga, sometimes being shifted westwards by the superior strength of that river and forced to join the Brahmaputra. In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair - sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault 's time, the Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave the Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault 's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred - mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision. In 1809, Buchanan Hamilton wrote that the new channel between Bhawanipur and Dewanranj "was scarcely inferior to the mighty river, and threatens to sweep away the intermediate country ''. By 1830, the old channel had been reduced to its present insignificance. It was navigable by country boats throughout the year and by launches only during rains, but at the point as low as Jamalpur it was formidable throughout the cold weather. Similar was the position for two or three months just below Mymensingh also. The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of river bank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit the river 's erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have ' just failed '. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge, the only bridge to span the river 's major distributary, the Jamuna, was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km long with a platform 18.5 m wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, prediction of the river 's future course is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge. China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015. The main purpose of the dam was to generate electricity for China and its operation has caused concerns for downstream neighbours like India as the presence of dams in the upper course of the river will mean unpredictability in the dynamics of downstream flows.

who wrote the song forever young one direction

Forever Young (Alphaville song) - wikipedia "Forever Young '' is a song from German rock group Alphaville 's 1984 debut album of the same name. The single was a strong hit in Scandinavia and in the European German - speaking countries in the same year. Although it was not the group 's highest - charting European hit, and it failed to reach the American top 40 despite three separate U.S. single releases (nevertheless, the single achieved more success in the United States than in the United Kingdom), "Forever Young '' became one of the signature songs of the band and it has subsequently been covered by numerous artists. Originally released by Alphaville as a single in 1984, "Forever Young '' was available in both its original mix and also in a dance version titled the "Special Dance Mix ''. Over the years the band has released several remixes and demo versions of the song. The single reached the number 65 spot on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and the top 40 on the U.S. Hot Dance Music / Club Play Singles. The song 's music video shows the band performing in one of the halls at Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water, Surrey, England. A number of ragged people ranging from children to the elderly awake to observe the band, then walk through a diamond - shaped glowing portal. The original album version has also appeared on the following official Alphaville releases: The "Special Dance Version '' and the B - side "Welcome to the Sun '' were both included on 2014 's so80s presents Alphaville. This song has been released several times in various forms, including remixes and demos, on: shipments figures based on certification alone In 2001, Alphaville released a new set of remixes in a "limited fan edition '' called "Forever Young 2001 ''. This single contained three music tracks, one spoken word track, and a PC - only track. This CD was released to fans for free, only postage needed to be paid. The names of every fan who had requested a copy were printed on the inside cover. Copies were hand - signed by the band. The remixes that appear on the single have not appeared on other releases. The cover is a still image from the video, which was created by The Cartoon Saloon. Released in 2006, this CD contains two new remixes by notable remix artist Bill Hamel. It also includes a digitally remastered version of the original album version of the song. The remix hit number 31 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart. In 2005 Australian rock band Youth Group were asked by the producers of the American television series The O.C. to record a version of "Forever Young '' for use in the show, following a positive response to the use of their single "Shadowland '' in a previous episode. Their version of "Forever Young '' was used in the show and the show 's trailers, and was included on the soundtrack album Music from the OC: Mix 5. A single release in Australia reached number 1 on the ARIA Charts. The song was included on their album Casino Twilight Dogs, released later that year.

describe the characteristics of traditional and contemporary indian social structure caste

Caste system in India - Wikipedia The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early - modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj. It is today the basis of educational and job reservations in India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and the British colonial regime in India. The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless social groups into differentiated caste communities. The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. Caste - based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and also by present - day Indian Buddhism. New developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste - based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Since 1950, the country has enacted many laws and social initiatives to protect and improve the socioeconomic conditions of its lower caste population. These caste classifications for college admission quotas, job reservations and other affirmative action initiatives, according to the Supreme Court of India, are based on heredity and are not changeable. Discrimination against lower castes is illegal in India under Article 15 of its constitution, and India tracks violence against Dalits nationwide. Varna literally means type, order, colour or class. and was a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in Vedic Indian society. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts. The four classes were the Brahmins (priestly people), the Kshatriyas (also called Rajanyas, who were rulers, administrators and warriors), the Vaishyas (merchants and tradesmen), and Shudras (artisans, farmers and labouring classes). The varna categorisation implicitly had a fifth element, being those people deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as tribal people and the untouchables. Jati, meaning birth, is mentioned much less often in ancient texts, where it is clearly distinguished from varna. There are four varnas but thousands of jatis. The jatis are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definition or characteristic, and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed. Some scholars of caste have considered jati to have its basis in religion, assuming that in India the sacred elements of life envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist Louis Dumont described the ritual rankings that exist within the jati system as being based on the concepts of religious purity and pollution. This view has been disputed by other scholars, who believe it to be a secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics, and sometimes also geography. Jeaneane Fowler says that although some people consider jati to be occupational segregation, in reality the jati framework does not preclude or prevent a member of one caste from working in another occupation. A feature of jatis has been endogamy, in Susan Bayly 's words, that "both in the past and for many though not all Indians in more modern times, those born into a given caste would normally expect to find marriage partner '' within his or her jati. Jatis have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and tribal people, and there is no clear linear order among them. The term caste is not originally an Indian word, though it is now widely used, both in English and in Indian languages. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is derived from the Portuguese casta, meaning "race, lineage, breed '' and, originally, "' pure or unmixed (stock or breed) ''. There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but varna and jati are the two most proximate terms. The sociologist G.S. Ghurye wrote in 1932 that, despite much study by many people, we do not possess a real general definition of caste. It appears to me that any attempt at definition is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. On the other hand, much literature on the subject is marred by lack of precision about the use of the term. Ghurye offered what he thought was a definition that could be applied across British India, although he acknowledged that there were regional variations on the general theme. His model definition for caste included the following six characteristics, The above Ghurye 's model of caste thereafter attracted scholarly criticism for relying on the British India census reports, the "superior, inferior '' racist theories of Risley, and for fitting his definition to then prevalent colonial orientalist perspectives on caste. Ghurye added, in 1932, that the colonial construction of caste led to the livening up, divisions and lobbying to the British officials for favourable caste classification in India for economic opportunities, and this had added new complexities to the concept of caste. Graham Chapman and others have reiterated the complexity, and they note that there are differences between theoretical constructs and the practical reality. Ronald Inden, the Indologist, agrees that there has been no universally accepted definition. For example, for some early European documenters it was thought to correspond with the endogamous varnas referred to in ancient Indian scripts, and its meaning corresponds in the sense of estates. To later Europeans of the Raj era it was endogamous jatis, rather than varnas, that represented caste, such as the 2378 jatis that colonial administrators classified by occupation in the early 20th century. Arvind Sharma, a professor of comparative religion, notes that caste has been used synonymously to refer to both varna and jati but that "serious Indologists now observe considerable caution in this respect '' because, while related, the concepts are considered to be distinct. In this he agrees with the Indologist Arthur Basham, who noted that the Portuguese colonists of India used casta to describe ... tribes, clans or families. The name stuck and became the usual word for the Hindu social group. In attempting to account for the remarkable proliferation of castes in 18th - and 19th - century India, authorities credulously accepted the traditional view that by a process of intermarriage and subdivision the 3,000 or more castes of modern India had evolved from the four primitive classes, and the term ' caste ' was applied indiscriminately to both varna or class, and jati or caste proper. This is a false terminology; castes rise and fall in the social scale, and old castes die out and new ones are formed, but the four great classes are stable. There are never more or less than four and for over 2,000 years their order of precedence has not altered. '' The sociologist Andre Beteille notes that, while varna mainly played the role of caste in classical Hindu literature, it is jati that plays that role in present times. Varna represents a closed collection of social orders whereas jati is entirely open - ended, thought of as a "natural kind whose members share a common substance. '' Any number of new jatis can be added depending on need, such as tribes, sects, denominations, religious or linguistic minorities and nationalities. Thus, "Caste '' is not an accurate representation of jati in English. Better terms would be ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic group. Sociologist Anne Waldrop observes that while outsiders view the term caste as a static phenomenon of stereotypical tradition - bound India, empirical facts suggest caste has been a radically changing feature. The term means different things to different Indians. In the context of politically active modern India, where job and school quotas are reserved for affirmative action based on castes, the term has become a sensitive and controversial subject. Sociologists such as M.N. Srinivas and Damle have debated the question of rigidity in caste and believe that there is considerable flexibility and mobility in the caste hierarchies. There are at least two perspectives for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which focus on either ideological factors or on socio - economic factors. The first school has focused on religious anthropology and disregarded other historical evidence as secondary to or derivative of this tradition. The second school has focused on sociological evidence and sought to understand the historical circumstances. The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory, claiming that it has dehistoricised and decontextualised Indian society. According to Samuel, referencing George L. Hart, central aspects of the later Indian caste system may originate from the ritual kingship system prior to the arrival of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism in India. The system is seen in the South Indian Tamil literature from the Sangam period, dated to the third to sixth centuries CE. This theory discards the Indo - Aryan varna model as the basis of caste, and is centred on the ritual power of the king, who was "supported by a group of ritual and magical specialists of low social status, '' with their ritual occupations being considered ' polluted '. According to Hart, it may be this model that provided the concerns with "pollution '' of the members of low status groups. The Hart model for caste origin, writes Samuel, envisions "the ancient Indian society consisting of a majority without internal caste divisions and a minority consisting of a number of small occupationally polluted groups ''. The varnas originated in Vedic society (ca. 1500 -- 500 BCE). The first three groups, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishya have parallels with other Indo - European societies, while the addition of the Shudras is probably a Brahmanical invention from northern India. The varna system is propounded in revered Hindu religious texts, and understood as idealised human callings. The Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda and Manusmriti 's comment on it, being the oft - cited texts. Counter to these textual classifications, many revered Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with this system of social classification. Scholars have questioned the varna verse in Rigveda, noting that the varna therein is mentioned only once. The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Rigveda, probably as a charter myth. Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, professors of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much - subdivided and overarching caste system '', and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality ''. In contrast to the lack of details about varna system in the Rigveda, the Manusmriti includes an extensive and highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions ''. Susan Bayly summarises that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmins in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste '' in India. Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the jatis came in existence. Susan Bayly, on the other hand, states that jati system emerged because it offered a source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity. According to social anthropologist Dipankar Gupta, guilds developed during the Mauryan period and crystallised into jatis in post-Mauryan times with the emergence of feudalism in India, which finally crystallised during the 7 -- 12th centuries. However, other scholars dispute when and how jatis developed in Indian history. Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, both professors of History, write, "One of the surprising arguments of fresh scholarship, based on inscriptional and other contemporaneous evidence, is that until relatively recent centuries, social organisation in much of the subcontinent was little touched by the four varnas. Nor were jati the building blocks of society. '' According to Basham, ancient Indian literature refers often to varnas, but hardly if ever to jatis as a system of groups within the varnas. He concludes that "If caste is defined as a system of group within the class, which are normally endogamous, commensal and craft - exclusive, we have no real evidence of its existence until comparatively late times. '' The Vedic texts neither mention the concept of untouchable people nor any practice of untouchability. The rituals in the Vedas ask the noble or king to eat with the commoner from the same vessel. Later Vedic texts ridicule some professions, but the concept of untouchability is not found in them. The post-Vedic texts, particularly Manusmriti mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised. Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature, and in Dumont 's structural theory on caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma - sutras and Dharma - sastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity - impurity premise implicit in the Dumont theory. According to Olivelle, purity - impurity is discussed in the Dharma - sastra texts, but only in the context of the individual 's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, going to bathroom). Olivelle writes in his review of post-Vedic Sutra and Shastra texts, "we see no instance when a term of pure / impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste ''. The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people '' and considered impure in the medieval Indian texts. The texts declare that these sinful, fallen people be ostracised. Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity / impurity in the Dharma - sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation '' and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance (acts by children), stipulations, and ritualistic behaviors. Dumont, in his later publications, acknowledged that ancient varna hierarchy was not based on purity - impurity ranking principle, and that the Vedic literature is devoid of the untouchability concept. During the time of the Rigveda, there were two varnas: arya varna and dasa varna. The distinction originally arose from tribal divisions. The Vedic tribes regarded themselves as arya (the noble ones) and the rival tribes were called dasa, dasyu and pani. The dasas were frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society, giving rise to a class distinction. Many dasas were however in a servile position, giving rise to the eventual meaning of dasa as servant. The Rigvedic society was not distinguished by occupations. Many husbandmen and artisans practised a number of crafts. The chariot - maker (rathakara) and metal worker (karmara) enjoyed positions of importance and no stigma was attached to them. Similar observations hold for carpenters, tanners, weavers and others. Towards the end of the Atharvaveda period, new class distinctions emerged. The erstwhile dasas are renamed Shudras, probably to distinguish them from the new meaning of dasa as slave. The aryas are renamed vis or Vaishya (meaning the members of the tribe) and the new elite classes of Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) are designated as new varnas. The Shudras were not only the erstwhile dasas but also included the aboriginal tribes that were assimilated into the Aryan society as it expanded into Gangetic settlements. There is no evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage during the Vedic period. In an early Upanishad, Shudra is referred to as Pūşan or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were the tillers of the soil. But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax - payers and they are said to be given away along with the lands when it is gifted. The majority of the artisans were also reduced to the position of Shudras, but there is no contempt indicated for their work. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas are given a special position in the rituals, distinguishing them from both the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Vaishya is said to be "oppressed at will '' and the Shudra "beaten at will. '' Our knowledge of this period is supplemented by Pali Buddhist texts. Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold varna system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along the lines of jati, kula and occupation. It is likely that the varna system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society. In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as jatis rather than varnas. They were in fact the jatis of high rank. The jatis of low rank were mentioned as chandala and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot - makers and sweepers. The concept of kulas was broadly similar. Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called gahapatis (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high kulas. The people of high kulas were engaged in occupations of high rank, viz., agriculture, trade, cattle - keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low kulas were engaged in low - ranked occupations such as basket - weaving and sweeping. The gahapatis were an economic class of land - holding agriculturists, who employed dasa - kammakaras (slaves and hired labourers) to work on the land. The gahapatis were the primary taxpayers of the state. This class was apparently not defined by birth, but by individual economic growth. While there was an alignment between kulas and occupations at least at the high and low ends, there was no strict linkage between class / caste and occupation, especially among those in the middle range. Many occupations listed such as accounting and writing were not linked to jatis. Peter Masefield, in his review of caste situation in India states that anyone could in principle perform any profession. The texts state that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated. The contestations of the period are evident from the texts describing dialogues of Buddha with the Brahmins. The Brahmins maintain their divinely ordained superiority and assert their right to draw service from the lower orders. Buddha responds by pointing out the basic facts of biological birth common to all men and asserts that the ability to draw service is obtained economically, not by divine right. Using the example of the northwest of the subcontinent, Buddha points out that aryas could become dasas and vice versa. This form of social mobility was endorsed by Buddha. The Mahabharata, whose final version is estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century, discusses the varna system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes varna as a colour - based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras ' black ''. This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the varnas, he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of varnas. This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts. '' The epic then recites a behavioral model for varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshtriya varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya varna; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra varna. The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct. In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, varna is nongenealogical. The four varnas are not lineages, but categories. '' Adi Purana, an 8th - century text of Jainism by Jinasena, is the first mention of varna and jati in Jainism literature. Jinasena does not trace the origin of varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha, but to the Bharata legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an "ahimsa - test '' (test of non-violence), and during that test all those who refused to harm any living beings were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them dvija, twice born. Jinasena states that those who are committed to the principle of non-harming and non-violence to all living beings are deva - Brahmaṇas, divine Brahmins. The text Adipurana also discusses the relationship between varna and jati. According to Padmanabh Jaini, a professor of Indic studies, in Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi Purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but divisions arise on account of their different professions ''. The caste of Kshatriya arose, according to Jainism texts, when Rishabha procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra castes arose from different means of livelihood they specialised in. Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of varna and jati in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of varna and jati systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged. Varna is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of Andhra Pradesh, for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether varna was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of jati is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest. Richard Eaton, a professor of History, writes, "anyone could become warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the jati - another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society - appear as features of people 's identity. Occupations were fluid. '' Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited '' in the Hindu Kakatiya population in the Deccan region between the 11th and 14th centuries. In Tamil Nadu region of India, studied by Leslie Orr, a professor of Religion, "Chola period inscriptions challenge our ideas about the structuring of (south Indian) society in general. In contrast to what Brahmanical legal texts may lead us to expect, we do not find that caste is the organising principle of society or that boundaries between different social groups is sharply demarcated. '' In Tamil Nadu the Vellalar were during ancient and medieval period the elite caste who were major patrons of literature. They ranked higher in the social hierarchy than the Brahmins. For northern Indian region, Susan Bayly writes, "until well into the colonial period, much of the subcontinent was still populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste were of only limited importance; Even in parts of the so - called Hindu heartland of Gangetic upper India, the institutions and beliefs which are now often described as the elements of traditional caste were only just taking shape as recently as the early eighteenth century - that is the period of collapse of Mughal period and the expansion of western power in the subcontinent. '' For western India, Dirk Kolff, a professor of Humanities, suggests open status social groups dominated Rajput history during the medieval period. He states, "The omnipresence of cognatic kinship and caste in North India is a relatively new phenomenon that only became dominant in the early Mughal and British periods respectively. Historically speaking, the alliance and the open status group, whether war band or religious sect, dominated medieval and early modern Indian history in a way descent and caste did not. '' Early and mid 20th century Muslim historians, such as Hashimi in 1927 and Qureshi in 1962, proposed that "caste system was established before the arrival of Islam '', and it and "a nomadic savage lifestyle '' in the northwest Indian subcontinent were the primary cause why Sindhi non-Muslims "embraced Islam in flocks '' when Arab Muslim armies invaded the region. According to this hypothesis, the mass conversions occurred from the lower caste Hindus and Mahayana Buddhists who had become "corroded from within by the infiltration of Hindu beliefs and practices ''. This theory is now widely believed to be baseless and false. Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence does not support this theory, whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim institutions in north - west India legitimised and continued any inequalities that existed, and that neither Buddhists nor "lower caste '' Hindus converted to Islam because they viewed Islam to lack a caste system. Conversions to Islam were rare, states MacLein, and conversions attested by historical evidence confirms that the few who did convert were Brahmin Hindus (theoretically, the upper caste). MacLein states the caste and conversion theories about Indian society during the Islamic era are not based on historical evidence or verifiable sources, but personal assumptions of Muslim historians about the nature of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism in northwest Indian subcontinent. Richard Eaton, a professor of History, states that the presumption of a rigid Hindu caste system and oppression of lower castes in pre-Islamic era in India, and it being the cause of "mass conversion to Islam '' during the medieval era suffers from the problem that "no evidence can be found in support of the theory, and it is profoundly illogical ''. Peter Jackson, a professor of Medieval History and Muslim India, writes that the speculative hypotheses about caste system in Hindu states during the medieval Delhi Sultanate period (~ 1200 to 1500) and the existence of a caste system as being responsible for Hindu weakness in resisting the plunder by Islamic armies is appealing at first sight, but "they do not withstand closer scrutiny and historical evidence ''. Jackson states that, contrary to the theoretical model of caste where Kshatriyas only could be warriors and soldiers, historical evidence confirms that Hindu warriors and soldiers during the medieval era included other castes such as Vaishyas and Shudras. Further, there is no evidence, writes Jackson, that there ever was a "widespread conversion to Islam at the turn of twelfth century '' by Hindus of lower caste. Jamal Malik, a professor of Islamic studies, extends this observation further, and states that "at no time in history did Hindus of low caste convert en masse to Islam ''. Jamal Malik states that caste as a social stratification is a well - studied Indian system, yet evidence also suggests that hierarchical concepts, class consciousness and social stratification had already occurred in Islam before Islam arrived in India. The concept of caste, or ' qaum ' in Islamic literature, is mentioned by a few Islamic historians of medieval India, states Malik, but these mentions relate to the fragmentation of the Muslim society in India. Zia al - Din al - Barani of Delhi Sultanate in his Fatawa - ye Jahandari and Abu al - Fadl from Akbar 's court of Mughal Empire are the few Islamic court historians who mention caste. Zia al - Din al - Barani 's discussion, however, is not about non-Muslim castes, rather a declaration of the supremacy of Ashraf caste over Ardhal caste among the Muslims, justifying it in Quranic text, with "aristocratic birth and superior genealogy being the most important traits of a human ''. Irfan Habib, an Indian historian, states that Abu al - Fadl 's Ain - i Akbari provides a historical record and census of the Jat peasant caste of Hindus in northern India, where the Taluqdars and Zamindars (tax collecting noble classes), the armed cavalry and infantry (warrior class) doubling up as the farming peasants (working class), were all of the same Jat caste in the 16th century. These occupationally diverse members from one caste served each other, writes Habib, either because of their reaction to taxation pressure of Muslim rulers or because they belonged to the same caste. Peasant social stratification and caste lineages were, states Habib, tools for tax revenue collection in areas under the Islamic rule. The origin of caste system of modern form, in the Bengal region of India, may be traceable to this period, states Richard Eaton. The medieval era Islamic Sultanates in India utilised social stratification to rule and collect tax revenue from non-Muslims. Eaton states that, "Looking at Bengal 's Hindu society as a whole, it seems likely that the caste system -- far from being the ancient and unchanging essence of Indian civilisation as supposed by generations of Orientalists -- emerged into something resembling its modern form only in the period 1200 -- 1500 ''. Susan Bayly, an anthropologist, notes that "caste is not and never has been a fixed fact of Indian life '' and the caste system as we know it today, as a "ritualised scheme of social stratification, '' developed in two stages during the post-Mughal period, in 18th and early 19th century. Three sets of value played an important role in this development: priestly hierarchy, kingship, and armed ascetics. With the Islamic Mughal empire falling apart in the 18th century, regional post-Mughal ruling elites and new dynasties from diverse religious, geographical and linguistic background attempted to assert their power in different parts of India. Bayly states that these obscure post-Mughal elites associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, deploying the symbols of caste and kinship to divide their populace and consolidate their power. In addition, in this fluid stateless environment, some of the previously casteless segments of society grouped themselves into caste groups. However, in 18th century writes Bayly, India - wide networks of merchants, armed ascetics and armed tribal people often ignored these ideologies of caste. Most people did not treat caste norms as given absolutes writes Bayly, but challenged, negotiated and adapted these norms to their circumstances. Communities teamed in different regions of India, into "collective classing '' to mold the social stratification in order to maximise assets and protect themselves from loss. The "caste, class, community '' structure that formed became valuable in a time when state apparatus was fragmenting, was unreliable and fluid, when rights and life were unpredictable. In this environment, states Rosalind O'Hanlon, a professor of Indian History, the newly arrived colonial East India Company officials, attempted to gain commercial interests in India by balancing Hindu and Muslim conflicting interests, by aligning with regional rulers and large assemblies of military monks. The British Company officials adopted constitutional laws segregated by religion and caste. The legal code and colonial administrative practice was largely divided into Muslim law and Hindu law, the latter including laws for Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs. In this transitory phase, Brahmins together with scribes, ascetics and merchants who accepted Hindu social and spiritual codes, became the deferred - to - authority on Hindu texts, law and administration of Hindu matters. While legal codes and state administration were emerging in India, with the rising power of the colonial Europeans, Dirks states that the late 18th - century British writings on India say little about caste system in India, and predominantly discuss territorial conquest, alliances, warfare and diplomacy in India. Colin Mackenzie, a British social historian of this time, collected vast numbers of texts on Indian religions, culture, traditions and local histories from south India and Deccan region, but his collection and writings have very little on caste system in 18th - century India. Although the varnas and jatis have pre-modern origins, the caste system as it exists today is the result of developments during the post-Mughal period and the British colonial regime, which made caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Jati were the basis of caste ethnology during the British colonial era. In the 1881 census and thereafter, colonial ethnographers used caste (jati) headings, to count and classify people in what was then British India (now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma). The 1891 census included 60 sub-groups each subdivided into six occupational and racial categories, and the number increased in subsequent censuses. The British colonial era census caste tables, states Susan Bayly, "ranked, standardised and cross-referenced jati listings for Indians on principles similar to zoology and botanical classifications, aiming to establish who was superior to whom by virtue of their supposed purity, occupational origins and collective moral worth ''. While bureaucratic British officials completed reports on their zoological classification of Indian people, some British officials criticised these exercises as being little more than a caricature of the reality of caste system in India. The British colonial officials used the census - determined jatis to decide which group of people were qualified for which jobs in the colonial government, and people of which jatis were to be excluded as unreliable. These census caste classifications, states Gloria Raheja, a professor of Anthropology, were also used by the British officials over the late 19th century and early 20th century, to formulate land tax rates, as well as to frequently target some social groups as "criminal '' castes and castes prone to "rebellion ''. The population then comprised about 200 million people, across five major religions, and over 500,000 agrarian villages, each with a population between 100 and 1,000 people of various age groups, which were variously divided into numerous castes. This ideological scheme was theoretically composed of around 3,000 castes, which in turn was claimed to be composed of 90,000 local endogamous sub-groups. The strict British class system may have influenced the British colonial preoccupation with the Indian caste system as well as the British perception of pre-colonial Indian castes. British society 's own similarly rigid class system provided the British with a template for understanding Indian society and castes. The British, coming from a society rigidly divided by class, attempted to equate India 's castes with British social classes. According to David Cannadine, Indian castes merged with the traditional British class system during the British Raj. Colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, an exponent of race science, used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indians into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes. The role of the British Raj on the caste system in India is controversial. The caste system became legally rigid during the Raj, when the British started to enumerate castes during their ten - year census and meticulously codified the system. Between 1860 and 1920, the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to the upper castes. Starting with the 19th century, the British colonial government passed a series of laws that applied to Indians based on their religion and caste identification. These colonial era laws and their provisions used the term "Tribes '', which included castes within their scope. This terminology was preferred for various reasons, including Muslim sensitivities that considered castes by definition Hindu, and preferred Tribes, a more generic term that included Muslims. The British colonial government, for instance, enacted the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871. This law declared everyone belonging to certain castes to be born with criminal tendencies. Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in Indian subcontinent, states that the criminal - by - birth castes under this Act included initially Ahirs, Gurjars and Jats, but its enforcement expanded by the late 19th century to include most Shudras and untouchables, such as Chamars, as well as Sannyasis and hill tribes. Castes suspected of rebelling against colonial laws and seeking self - rule for India, such as the previously ruling families Kallars and the Maravars in south India and non-loyal castes in north India such as Ahirs, Gurjars and Jats, were called "predatory and barbarian '' and added to the criminal castes list. Some caste groups were targeted using the Criminal Tribes Act even when there were no reports of any violence or criminal activity, but where their forefathers were known to have rebelled against Mughal or British authorities, or these castes were demanding labour rights and disrupting colonial tax collecting authorities. The colonial government prepared a list of criminal castes, and all members registered in these castes by caste - census were restricted in terms of regions they could visit, move about in or people with whom they could socialise. In certain regions of colonial India, entire caste groups were presumed guilty by birth, arrested, children separated from their parents, and held in penal colonies or quarantined without conviction or due process. This practice became controversial, did not enjoy the support of all colonial British officials, and in a few cases this decades - long practice was reversed at the start of the 20th century with the proclamation that people "could not be incarcerated indefinitely on the presumption of (inherited) bad character ''. The criminal - by - birth laws against targeted castes was enforced until the mid-20th century, with an expansion of criminal castes list in west and south India through the 1900s to 1930s. Hundreds of Hindu communities were brought under the Criminal Tribes Act. By 1931, the colonial government included 237 criminal castes and tribes under the act in the Madras Presidency alone. While the notion of hereditary criminals conformed to orientalist stereotypes and the prevailing racial theories in Britain during the colonial era, the social impact of its enforcement was profiling, division and isolation of many communities of Hindus as criminals - by - birth. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of History and Religions in India, states that the colonial government hardened the caste - driven divisions in British India not only through its caste census, but with a series of laws in early 20th century. The British colonial officials, for instance, enacted laws such as the Land Alienation Act in 1900 and Punjab Pre-Emption Act in 1913, listing castes that could legally own land and denying equivalent property rights to other census - determined castes. These acts prohibited the inter-generational and intra-generational transfer of land from land - owning castes to any non-agricultural castes, thereby preventing economic mobility of property and creating consequent caste barriers in India. Khushwant Singh a Sikh historian, and Tony Ballantyne a professor of History, state that these British colonial era laws helped create and erect barriers within land - owning and landless castes in northwest India. Caste - based discrimination and denial of human rights by the colonial state had similar impact elsewhere in British India. Nicholas Dirks has argued that Indian caste as we know it today is a "modern phenomenon, '' as caste was "fundamentally transformed by British colonial rule. '' According to Dirks, before colonialism caste affiliation was quite loose and fluid, but the British regime enforced caste affiliation rigorously, and constructed a much more strict hierarchy than existed previously, with some castes being criminalised and others being given preferential treatment. De Zwart notes that the caste system used to be thought of as an ancient fact of Hindu life and that contemporary scholars argue instead that the system was constructed by the British colonial regime. He says that "jobs and education opportunities were allotted based on caste, and people rallied and adopted a caste system that maximized their opportunity ''. De Zwart also notes that post-colonial affirmative action only reinforced the "British colonial project that ex hypothesi constructed the caste system ''. Sweetman notes that the European conception of caste dismissed former political configurations and insisted upon an "essentially religious character '' of India. During the colonial period, caste was defined as a religious system and was divorced from political powers. This made it possible for the colonial rulers to portray India as a society characterised by spiritual harmony in contrast to the former Indian states which they criticised as "despotic and epiphenomenal '', with the colonial powers providing the necessary "benevolent, paternalistic rule by a more ' advanced ' nation ''. Assumptions about the caste system in Indian society, along with its nature, evolved during British rule. Corbridge concludes that British policies of divide and rule of India 's numerous princely sovereign states, as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the 10 - year census, particularly with the 1901 and 1911 census, contributed towards the hardening of caste identities. Social unrest during 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. In the round table conference held on August 1932, upon the request of Ambedkar, the then Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay Macdonald made a Communal Award which awarded a provision for separate representation for the Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo - Indians, Europeans and Dalits. These depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from special constituencies in which voters belonging to the depressed classes only could vote. Gandhi went on a hunger strike against this provision claiming that such an arrangement would split the Hindu community into two groups. Years later, Ambedkar wrote that Gandhi 's fast was a form of coercion. This agreement, which saw Gandhi end his fast and Ambedkar drop his demand for a separate electorate, was called the Poona Pact. After India achieved independence, the policy of caste - based reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Smelser and Lipset propose in their review of Hutton 's study of caste system in colonial India the theory that individual mobility across caste lines may have been minimal in British India because it was ritualistic. They state that this may be because the colonial social stratification worked with the pre-existing ritual caste system. The emergence of a caste system in the modern form, during the early British colonial rule in the 18th and 19th century, was not uniform in South Asia. Claude Markovits, a French historian of colonial India, writes that Hindu society in north and west India (Sindh), in late 18th century and much of 19th century, lacked a proper caste system, their religious identities were fluid (a combination of Saivism, Vaisnavism, Sikhism), and the Brahmins were not the widespread priestly group (but the Bawas were). Markovits writes, "if religion was not a structuring factor, neither was caste '' among the Hindu merchants group of northwest India. Societal stratification, and the inequality that comes with it, still exists in India, and has been thoroughly criticised. Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by reservation, quota for backward classes, but paradoxically also have created an incentive to keep this stratification alive. The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes, and certain economically backward castes as Other Backward Class. Leonard and Weller have surveyed marriage and genealogical records to study patterns of exogamous inter-caste and endogamous intra-caste marriages in a regional population of India in 1900 -- 1975. They report a striking presence of exogamous marriages across caste lines over time, particularly since the 1970s. They propose education, economic development, mobility and more interaction between youth as possible reasons for these exogamous marriages. A 2003 article in The Telegraph claimed that inter-caste marriage and dating were common in urban India. Indian societal and family relationships are changing because of female literacy and education, women at work, urbanisation, the need for two - income families, and global influences through television. Female role models in politics, academia, journalism, business, and India 's feminist movement have accelerated the change. Independent India has witnessed caste - related violence. According to a 2005 UN report, approximately 31,440 cases of violent acts committed against Dalits were reported in 1996. The UN report claimed 1.33 cases of violent acts per 10,000 Dalit people. For context, the UN reported between 40 and 55 cases of violent acts per 10,000 people in developed countries in 2005. One example of such violence is the Khairlanji massacre of 2006. Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on caste and Article 17 declared the practice of untouchability to be illegal. In 1955, India enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act (renamed in 1976, as the Protection of Civil Rights Act). It extended the reach of law, from intent to mandatory enforcement. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act was passed in India in 1989. The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and certain economically backward Shudra castes as Other Backward Class. The Scheduled Castes are sometimes referred to as Dalit in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits comprised 16.2 percent of India 's total population. Of the one billion Hindus in India, it is estimated that Hindu Forward caste comprises 26 %, Other Backward Class comprises 43 %, Hindu Scheduled Castes (Dalits) comprises 22 % and Hindu Scheduled Tribes comprises 9 %. In addition to taking affirmative action for people of schedule castes and scheduled tribes, India has expanded its effort to include people from poor, backward castes in its economic and social mainstream. In 1990, the government reservation of 27 % for Backward Classes on the basis of the Mandal Commission 's recommendations. Since then, India has reserved 27 percent of job opportunities in government - owned enterprises and agencies for Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs). The 27 percent reservation is in addition to 22.5 percent set aside for India 's lowest castes for last 50 years. The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward '' and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission 's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law, whereby additional members of lower castes -- the other backward classes -- were given exclusive access to another 27 percent of government jobs and slots in public universities, in addition to the 23 percent already reserved for the Dalits and Tribals. When V.P. Singh 's administration tried to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash in on caste - based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes. Many political parties in India have indulged in caste - based votebank politics. Parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support, to win elections. There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India; it is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey. The reservation system has led to widespread protests, such as the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the Forward Castes (the castes that do not qualify for the reservation). In May 2011, the government approved a poverty, religion and caste census to identify poverty in different social backgrounds. The census would also help the government to re-examine and possibly undo some of the policies which were formed in haste such as the Mandal Commission in order to bring more objectivity to the policies with respect to contemporary realities. Critics of the reservation system believe that there is actually no social stigma at all associated with belonging to a backward caste and that because of the huge constitutional incentives in the form of educational and job reservations, a large number of people will falsely identify with a backward caste to receive the benefits. This would not only result in a marked inflation of the backward castes ' numbers, but also lead to enormous administrative and judicial resources being devoted to social unrest and litigation when such dubious caste declarations are challenged. In 20th century India, the upper - class (Ashraf) Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include the Muslim untouchable and lower castes among the groups eligible for affirmative action in India under SC and STs provision act and have been given additional reservation based on the Sachar Committee report. In a 2008 study, Desai et al. focussed on education attainments of children and young adults aged 6 -- 29, from lowest caste and tribal populations of India. They completed a national survey of over 100,000 households for each of the four survey years between 1983 and 2000. They found a significant increase in lower caste children in their odds of completing primary school. The number of dalit children who completed either middle -, high - or college - level education increased three times faster than the national average, and the total number were statistically same for both lower and upper castes. However, the same study found that in 2000, the percentage of dalit males never enrolled in a school was still more than twice the percentage of upper caste males never enrolled in schools. Moreover, only 1.67 % of dalit females were college graduates compared to 9.09 % of upper caste females. The number of dalit girls in India who attended school doubled in the same period, but still few percent less than national average. Other poor caste groups as well as ethnic groups such as Muslims in India have also made improvements over the 16 - year period, but their improvement lagged behind that of dalits and adivasis. The net percentage school attainment for Dalits and Muslims were statistically the same in 1999. A 2007 nationwide survey of India by the World Bank found that over 80 percent of children of historically discriminated castes were attending schools. The fastest increase in school attendance by Dalit community children occurred during the recent periods of India 's economic growth. A study by Darshan Singh presents data on health and other indicators of socio - economic change in India 's historically discriminated castes. He claims: The life expectancy of various caste groups in modern India has been raised; but the International Institute for Population Sciences report suggests that poverty, not caste, is the bigger differentiation in life expectancy in modern India. While identified with Hinduism, caste systems are found in other religions on the Indian subcontinent, including other religions such as Buddhists, Christians and Muslims. Social stratification is found among the Christians in India based on caste as well as by their denomination and location. The caste distinction is based on their caste at the time that they or their ancestors converted to Christianity since the 16th century, they typically do not intermarry, and sit separately during prayers in Church. The earliest reference to caste among Indian Christians comes from Kerala. Duncan Forrester observes that "Nowhere else in India is there a large and ancient Christian community which has in time immemorial been accorded a high status in the caste hierarchy... Syrian Christian community operates very much as a caste and is properly regarded as a caste or at least a very caste - like group. '' Amidst the Hindu society, the Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala had inserted themselves within the Indian caste society by the observance of caste rules and were regarded by the Hindus as a caste occupying a high place within their caste hierarchy. Their traditional belief that their ancestors were high - caste Hindus such as Nambudiris and Nairs, who were evangelised by St. Thomas, has also supported their upper - caste status. With the arrival of European missionaries and their evangelistic mission among the lower castes in Kerala, two new groups of Christians, called Latin Rite Christians and New Protestant Christians, were formed but they continued to be considered as lower castes by higher ranked communities, including the Saint Thomas Christians. Islam forbids distinction based on caste or creed. The following words from the last sermon of Muhammad, show that racial or tribal bias is forbidden in Islam: Despite this caste system has been observed among Muslims in India. They practice endogamy, hypergamy, hereditary occupations, avoid social mixing and have been stratified. There is some controversy if these characteristics make them social groups or castes of Islam. Indian Muslims are a mix of Sunni (majority), Shia and other sects of Islam. From the earliest days of Islam 's arrival in South Asia, the Arabic, Persian and Afghan Muslims have been part of the upper, noble caste. Some upper caste Hindus converted to Islam and became part of the governing group of Sultanates and Mughal Empire, who along with Arabs, Persians and Afghans came to be known as Ashrafs (or nobles). Below them are the middle caste Muslims called Ajlafs, and the lowest status is those of the Arzals. Anti-caste activists like Ambedkar called the Arzal caste among Muslims as the equivalent of Hindu untouchables, as did the controversial colonial British ethnographer Herbert Hope Risley. In Bengal, some Muslims refer to the social stratification within their society as qaum (or Quoms), a term that is found among Muslims elsewhere in India, as well as in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Qaums have patrilineal hereditary, with ranked occupations and endogamy. Membership in a qaum is inherited by birth. Barth identifies the origin of the stratification from the historical segregation between pak (pure) and paleed (impure) - - defined by the family 's social or religious status, occupation and involvement in sexual crimes. Originally, Paleed / Paleet qaum included people running or working at brothels, prostitution service providers or professional courtesan / dancers (Tawaif) and musicians. There is history of skin color defining Pak / Paleed, but that does not have historical roots, and was adopted by outsiders using analogy from Hindu Caste system. Similarly, Christians in Pakistan are called "Isai '', meaning followers of Isa (Jesus). But the term originates from Hindu Caste system and refers to the demeaning jobs performed by Christians in Pakistan out of poverty. Efforts are being made to replace the term with "Masihi '' (Messiah), which is preferred by the Christians citizens of Pakistan. Endogamy is very common in Muslims in the form of arranged consanguineous marriages among Muslims in India and Pakistan. Malik states that the lack of religious sanction makes qaum a quasi-caste, and something that is found in Islam outside South Asia. Some assert that the Muslim castes are not as acute in their discrimination as those of the Hindus, while critics of Islam assert that the discrimination in South Asian Muslim society is worse. Although the Sikh Gurus criticised the hierarchy of the caste system, one does exist in Sikh community. According to Sunrinder S, Jodhka, the Sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy. In 1953, the Government of India acceded to the demands of the Sikh leader, Tara Singh, to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low - caste Sikhs. The Sikh literature from the Islamic rule and British colonial era mention Varna as Varan, and Jati as Zat or Zat - biradari. Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and author of books on Sikhism, states that the Varan is described as a class system, while Zat has some caste system features in Sikh literature. In theory, Nesbitt states Sikh literature does not recognise caste hierarchy or differences. In practice, states Nesbitt, widespread endogamy practice among Sikhs has been prevalent in modern times, and poorer Sikhs of disadvantaged castes continue to gather in their own places of worship. Most Sikh families, writes Nesbitt, continue to check the caste of any prospective marriage partner for their children. She notes that all Gurus of Sikhs married within their Zat, and they did not condemn or break with the convention of endogamous marriages for their own children or Sikhs in general. Caste system in Jainism has existed for centuries, primarily in terms of endogamy, although, per Paul Dundas, in modern times the system does not play a significant role. This is contradicted by Carrithers and Humphreys who describe the major Jain castes in Rajasthan with their social rank. Table 1 is the distribution of population of each Religion by Caste Categories, obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of available data from the National Sample Survey Organisation 55th (1999 -- 2000) and 61st Rounds (2004 -- 05) Round Survey The Other Backward Class (OBCs) were found to comprise 52 % of the country 's population by the Mandal Commission report of 1980, a figure which had shrunk to 41 % by 2006 when the National Sample Survey Organisation 's survey took place. There has been criticism of the caste system from both within and outside of India. Since the 1980s, caste has become a major issue in the politics of India. The caste system has been criticised by many Indian social reformers. Basava (1105 -- 1167) Arguably one of the first social reformers, Basava championed devotional worship that rejected temple worship and rituals, and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as individually worn icons and symbols like a small linga. This approach brought Shiva 's presence to everyone and at all times, without gender, class or caste discrimination. His teachings and verses such as Káyakavé Kailása (Work is the path to Kailash (bliss, heaven), or Work is Worship) became popular. Jyotirao Phule (1827 -- 1890) vehemently criticised any explanations that the caste system was natural and ordained by the Creator in Hindu texts. If Brahma wanted castes, argued Phule, he would have ordained the same for other creatures. There are no castes in species of animals or birds, so why should there be one among human animals. In his criticism Phule added, "Brahmins can not claim superior status because of caste, because they hardly bothered with these when wining and dining with Europeans. '' Professions did not make castes, and castes did not decide one 's profession. If someone does a job that is dirty, it does not make them inferior; in the same way that no mother is inferior because she cleans the excreta of her baby. Ritual occupation or tasks, argued Phule, do not make any human being superior or inferior. Vivekananda similarly criticised caste as one of the many human institutions that bars the power of free thought and action of an individual. Caste or no caste, creed or no creed, any man, or class, or caste, or nation, or institution that bars the power of free thought and bars action of an individual is devilish, and must go down. Liberty of thought and action, asserted Vivekananda, is the only condition of life, of growth and of well - being. In his younger years, Gandhi disagreed with some of Ambedkar 's observations, rationale and interpretations about the caste system in India. "Caste, '' he claimed, has "saved Hinduism from disintegration. But like every other institution it has suffered from excrescences. '' He considered the four divisions of Varnas to be fundamental, natural and essential. The innumerable subcastes or Jatis he considered to be a hindrance. He advocated to fuse all the Jatis into a more global division of Varnas. In the 1930s, Gandhi began to advocate for the idea of heredity in caste to be rejected, arguing that "Assumption of superiority by any person over any other is a sin against God and man. Thus caste, in so far as it connotes distinctions in status, is an evil. '' He claimed that Varnashrama of the shastras is today nonexistent in practice. The present caste system is theory antithesis of varnashrama. Caste in its current form, claimed Gandhi, had nothing to do with religion. The discrimination and trauma of castes, argued Gandhi, was the result of custom, the origin of which is unknown. Gandhi said that the customs ' origin was a moot point, because one could spiritually sense that these customs were wrong, and that any caste system is harmful to the spiritual well - being of man and economic well - being of a nation. The reality of colonial India was, Gandhi noted, that there was no significant disparity between the economic condition and earnings of members of different castes, whether it was a Brahmin or an artisan or a farmer of low caste. India was poor, and Indians of all castes were poor. Thus, he argued that the cause of trauma was not in the caste system, but elsewhere. Judged by the standards being applied to India, Gandhi claimed, every human society would fail. He acknowledged that the caste system in India spiritually blinded some Indians, then added that this did not mean that every Indian or even most Indians blindly followed the caste system, or everything from ancient Indian scriptures of doubtful authenticity and value. India, like any other society, can not be judged by a caricature of its worst specimens. Gandhi stated that one must consider the best it produced as well, along with the vast majority in impoverished Indian villages struggling to make ends meet, with woes of which there was little knowledge. B.R. Ambedkar was born in a caste that was classified as untouchable, became a leader of human rights in India, a prolific writer, and a key person in drafting modern India 's constitution in the 1940s. He wrote extensively on discrimination, trauma and what he saw as the tragic effects of the caste system in India. In his writings "Castes in India: Their mechanism, genesis and development '', Ambedkar traces the origin of caste system to origin of the practise of endogamy. Later the custom spread among other groups too due to imitation. He wrote that initially, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras existed as classes wherein choice of occupation was not restricted by birth and exogamy was prevalent. But Brahmins started the custom of endogamy and enclosed themselves. Thus Ambedkar defines caste as "enclosed class ''. After Brahmins enclosed themselves, they had to deal with the problem of surplus women and surplus men. He says that, roughly the population of both the sexes is distributed equally across age groups. So, surplus women is the one who lost her husband. If she tries to remarry, she will be a competition for other girls of marriageable age. If she tries to marry outside the caste, it will violate endogamy and end the caste system. Thus the customs of Sati and enforced widowhood were created to take care of surplus women. Likewise surplus men is the one whose wife has died. Men are considered as an asset to the group and hence ca n't be isolated or burnt. Hence the custom of child marriage was created in which men were given a girl of lesser than marriageable age. Alternatively, they were made to choose celibacy. Thus the 3 main customs Sati, enforced widowhood and child marriages originated among the Brahmin caste. Shastras were used to glorify these practices so that they are observed without being questioned. Later, other caste groups imitated these customs. Thus Ambedkar, uses the psychological approach of psychologist Gabriel Tarde to indicate how caste system spread. But he also explains in the same article that, Brahmins or Manu ca n't be blamed for the origin of the caste system. He also discredits theories which trace the origin of caste system in races and emphasizes that Endogamy is the main and peculiar feature of the caste system. Economic inequality seems to be related to the influence of inherited social - economic stratification. A 1995 study notes that the caste system in India is a system of exploitation of poor low - ranking groups by more prosperous high - ranking groups. A report published in 2001 note that in India 36.3 % of people own no land at all, 60.6 % own about 15 % of the land, with a very wealthy 3.1 % owning 15 % of the land. A study by Haque reports that India contains both the largest number of rural poor, and the largest number of landless households on the planet. Haque also reports that over 90 percent of both scheduled castes (low - ranking groups) and all other castes (high - ranking groups) either do not own land or own land area capable of producing less than $1000 per year of food and income per household. However, over 99 percent of India 's farms are less than 10 hectares, and 99.9 percent of the farms are less than 20 hectares, regardless of the farmer or landowner 's caste. Indian government has, in addition, vigorously pursued agricultural land ceiling laws which prohibit anyone from owning land greater than mandated limits. India has used this law to forcibly acquire land from some, then redistribute tens of millions of acres to the landless and poor of the low - caste. Haque suggests that Indian lawmakers need to reform and modernise the nation 's land laws and rely less on blind adherence to land ceilings and tenancy reform. In a 2011 study, Aiyar too notes that such qualitative theories of economic exploitation and consequent land redistribution within India between 1950 and 1990 had no effect on the quality of life and poverty reduction. Instead, economic reforms since the 1990s and resultant opportunities for non-agricultural jobs have reduced poverty and increased per capita income for all segments of Indian society. For specific evidence, Aiyar mentions the following Critics believe that the economic liberalisation has benefited just a small elite and left behind the poor, especially the lowest Hindu caste of dalits. But a recent authoritative survey revealed striking improvements in living standards of dalits in the last two decades. Television ownership was up from zero to 45 percent; cellphone ownership up from zero to 36 percent; two - wheeler ownership (of motorcycles, scooters, mopeds) up from zero to 12.3 percent; children eating yesterday 's leftovers down from 95.9 percent to 16.2 percent... Dalits running their own businesses up from 6 percent to 37 percent; and proportion working as agricultural labourers down from 46.1 percent to 20.5 percent. Cassan has studied the differential effect within two segments of India 's Dalit community. He finds India 's overall economic growth has produced the fastest and more significant socio - economic changes. Cassan further concludes that legal and social program initiatives are no longer India 's primary constraint in further advancement of India 's historically discriminated castes; further advancement are likely to come from improvements in the supply of quality schools in rural and urban India, along with India 's economic growth. The maltreatment of Dalits in India has been described by some authors as "India 's hidden apartheid ''. Critics of the accusations point to substantial improvements in the position of Dalits in post-independence India, consequent to the strict implementation of the rights and privileges enshrined in the Constitution of India, as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955. They also argue that the practise had disappeared in urban public life. Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman and Angela Bodino, while critical of caste system, conclude that modern India does not practice apartheid since there is no state - sanctioned discrimination. They write that casteism in India is presently "not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as well as tribal people and members of the lowest castes in India benefit from broad affirmative action programmes and are enjoying greater political power. '' A hypothesis that caste amounts to race has been rejected by some scholars. Ambedkar, for example, wrote that "The Brahmin of Punjab is racially of the same stock as the Chamar of Punjab. The Caste system does not demarcate racial division. The Caste system is a social division of people of the same race. '' Various sociologists, anthropologists and historians have rejected the racial origins and racial emphasis of caste and consider the idea to be one that has purely political and economic undertones. Beteille writes that "the Scheduled Castes of India taken together are no more a race than are the Brahmins taken together. Every social group can not be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination '', and that the 2001 Durban conference on racism hosted by the U.N. is "turning its back on established scientific opinion ''. Mulk Raj Anand 's debut novel, Untouchable (1935), is based on the theme of untouchability. The Hindi film Achhut Kannya (Untouchable Maiden, 1936), starring Ashok Kumar and Devika Rani, was an early reformist film. The debut novel of Arundhati Roy, The God of Small Things (1997), also has themes surrounding the caste system across religions. A lawyer named Sabu Thomas filed a petition to have the book published without the last chapter, which had graphic description of sexual acts between members of different castes. Thomas claimed the alleged obscenity in the last chapter deeply hurts the Syrian Christian community, the basis of the novel.

when does the next episode of marvel agents of shield air

List of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Episodes - wikipedia Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is an American television series created for ABC by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen, based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division), a fictional peacekeeping and spy agency in a world populated with superheroes and numerous supernatural phenomena. The series is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy and is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, sharing continuity with the films in that franchise. It revolves around the character of Phil Coulson, with Clark Gregg reprising his role from the film series. The first season sees S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson putting together a small team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents to handle strange new cases. They investigate Project Centipede and its leader, "The Clairvoyant '', eventually uncovering that Project Centipede is backed by the organization Hydra, which has infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D. In the second season, following the destruction of S.H.I.E.L.D., now - Director Coulson and his team look to restore trust from the government and public while dealing with Hydra and the newly revealed Inhumans, people who possess special abilities. Coulson 's work is further complicated by the appearance of another faction of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents who do not trust his leadership. During the third season, Coulson begins a secret mission to assemble a team of Inhumans to deal with new threats to the world, while Hydra returns its ancient, banished Inhuman leader, Hive, to Earth. After the defeat of Hive and with Hydra destroyed, S.H.I.E.L.D. is made a legitimate organization once again for the fourth season, with the signing of the Sokovia Accords. Coulson returns to being a field agent, due to the world believing he is dead, and is tasked with tracking down more enhanced people -- including Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider -- while Agent Leo Fitz and Dr. Holden Radcliffe complete their work on Life Model Decoys. The fifth season sees Coulson and members of his team abducted to deep space in the future, where they must try to save humanity while figuring out how to get home. Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, 2017, which began airing on December 1, 2017. As of February 2, 2018, 98 episodes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. have aired.

who do you play as in red dead redemtion 2

Red Dead Redemption 2 - Wikipedia Red Dead Redemption 2 is a Western - themed action - adventure video game developed and published by Rockstar Games. The game is a prequel to the 2010 game Red Dead Redemption, and the third entry in the Red Dead series. Set in 1899, it follows the story of outlaw Arthur Morgan, a member of the Van der Linde gang and also details the time of a young John Marston in the same gang. Red Dead Redemption 2 was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on October 26, 2018. It was universally acclaimed by critics, who praised the story, characters, open world and considerable level of detail. The game generated $725 million in sales after its opening weekend, standing behind only Rockstar 's own Grand Theft Auto V as the most profitable entertainment product launch. Red Dead Redemption 2 is a Western - themed action - adventure game set in an open world environment. It is played from either a third or first - person perspective and the player controls Arthur Morgan, an outlaw and a member of the Van der Linde gang. The game features both single - player and online multiplayer components. The game brings back and deeply refines mechanics from the previous game, such as the combat, gunplay, honor system and more. It also has many new features, including dual - wielding and swimming. The game focuses heavily on player choice for the story and missions. During IGN 's first look preview on the topic of how player choices can affect interactions and missions, Rob Nelson, Co-Studio Head at Rockstar North said: "We try to give you options within a lot of these missions to choose how you approach it, whether you 'll send your buddies in first or whether you 'll go in first. '' Players can communicate with any non-player characters (NPC) in dynamic ways new to the series. Morgan can choose different dialogue trees with NPCs as having a simple friendly chat with an individual, or threaten them for the player 's own personal interest, or they can kill them and loot the corpse. Red Dead Redemption 2 features item degradation, with equipment such as weapons requiring cleaning and oiling. The player can visit a barber to change hairstyles, however, styles are only available to players depending on how much hair their character has, with hair growing realistically throughout the title over time. Morgan can also gain or lose weight depending on how much he eats, a feature absent from previous Rockstar games since Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. Characters have different sets of clothes for different weather conditions and also have to regularly eat and bathe. Some actions that were once more automatic have been greatly expanded upon in detail, including skinning a kill and examining objects. Redemption 2 features both hunting and fishing, which provide food, income and materials for crafting items. When hunting an animal, players will need to move slowly and carefully and watch the wind direction to avoid alerting their prey. Choice of weapon and shot placement are also important and will affect the quality of the meat and pelt, which in turn affects the price that traders will pay for them. If prey are injured, they will try to escape. After a successful hunt, players can either skin and butcher the animal on the spot or take it with them whole. Animal skins and carcasses will rot over time if not properly tended to, and this both decreases their value while making them stink, and makes the character a target for wild animals when out of town. Skins, parts, meat, and entire carcasses can all be loaded onto horses to be sold to the butchers or the general store in town, taken back to camp for the stew pot, or crafted into clothing or other items. Trappers can craft more exotic goods for players. The world of Red Dead Redemption 2 spans five fictitious states of the United States. The states of New Hanover, Ambarino and Lemoyne are new to the series, and are located to the immediate north and east of Red Dead Redemption 's world. The states of New Austin and West Elizabeth return from Red Dead Redemption. West Elizabeth is also been expanded to include new regions. The states are centered on the San Luis and Lannahechee Rivers and the shores of Flat Iron Lake. Ambarino is a mountain wilderness, with the largest settlement being an Indian reservation; New Hanover is a wide valley that has become a hub of industry; and Lemoyne is made up of bayous and plantations and is home to the former French colony of Saint Denis. West Elizabeth consists of wide plains, dense forests, and the modern town of Blackwater, while New Austin is an arid region centered on the frontier town of Armadillo. The player takes on the role of Arthur Morgan, a lieutenant in the Van der Linde gang. Among the returning characters from Red Dead Redemption are John Marston, protagonist from the previous game; antagonists Dutch van der Linde, Bill Williamson and Javier Escuella, who, along with Marston, are Morgan 's allies; Abigail, Marston 's partner; Jack, Marston 's and Abigail 's son; elderly member of the gang Uncle and federal Agent Edgar Ross. In 1899, after a botched ferry heist, Dutch Van Der Linde and his gang, which includes Arthur Morgan and a young John Marston, are forced to flee their hideout in Blackwater and attempt to cross the mountains West to evade law enforcement. In order to fund their escape, Dutch has the gang rob a train belonging to the wealthy oil magnate Leviticus Cornwall. A furious and vengeful Cornwall then hires the Pinkerton Detective Agency, who send Agents Milton and Ross to apprehend the gang. As a result, the gang is forced to be constantly on the move to stay one step ahead of them. All the while, Morgan and the rest of the gang continually have to perform numerous jobs and heists to keep the gang funded as Dutch continually promises one last, big heist that will secure their freedom. However, their heists soon begin to become more dangerous and less successful, with several of the gang members being killed in the process and Marston being arrested. Morgan saves Marston, but begins growing increasingly disillusioned with Dutch 's leadership as he becomes more violent and paranoid. Dutch 's decline is also helped along by one of the newer recruits, the ambitious and unscrupulous Micah Bell, who convinces Dutch to take on these more dangerous heists. In addition, Morgan contracts tuberculosis, giving him only a short time to live. Morgan 's loyalty to Dutch finally breaks when Dutch murders Cornwall, instigates a war between a local Native American tribe and the US Army, leaves Marston to die, and refuses to rescue Marston 's girlfriend Abigail when she is captured by Agent Milton. Morgan disobeys Dutch 's orders and rescues Abigail, killing Agent Milton and learning that Bell has been working as a mole for the Pinkertons. Other gang members start becoming uncomfortable at the direction Dutch is going and quietly leave the gang while Morgan convinces Marston to leave and start a new life. However, Morgan stays behind and has a brutal fight with Bell. Dutch, realizing Bell is a rat, parts ways with both him and Morgan, and Morgan is either killed by Bell or succumbs to his tuberculosis. Years later, Marston is attempting to lead an honest life and provide a living for Abigail and his son Jack. In order to convince Abigail he 's changed, Marston buys a plot of land with the intention of turning it into a ranch. He reunites with several surviving gang members, who help Marston build his ranch and provide him with jobs to pay off his bank loans. Eventually, Marston comes across information leading to Bell 's location. In revenge for Morgan 's death, Marston tracks down and confronts Bell, only to be shocked to see Dutch is with him. Upon seeing Marston, Dutch kills Bell and leaves in silence. Marston finds the gang 's old money stash and uses it to fully pay off his loan. Afterwards, he formally marries Abigail, and they both look forward to living a new life on their ranch. The mid-credits scenes show the fate of some of the surviving members of the gang, while Agent Ross follows Marston 's trail. Eventually, Agent Ross ' search leads him straight to Marston 's ranch, leading into the events of the original Red Dead Redemption. Red Dead Redemption 2 was developed by Rockstar Studios, a collaborative effort between all of Rockstar Games ' studios functioning as a single team, using the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE). Woody Jackson, who co-composed the score of Red Dead Redemption, reprises his role. The game was announced in October 2016. In the two days prior, the company had used various social media platforms as well as their own website to release two teaser images in the color and theme of Red Dead Redemption. The teaser images led to considerable attention and raised the stock price of its parent company Take - Two Interactive by nearly six percent. On the day of its announcement for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, some fans started petitioning Rockstar Games for the game to be made available on Microsoft Windows as well. Per an exclusivity agreement with Sony Interactive Entertainment, certain online game content will be timed exclusives for the PlayStation 4. Originally due for release in the second half of 2017, the game has been delayed twice: first to Q1 / Q2 2018, and later to October 26, 2018. The game 's debut trailer was released on October 20, 2016, depicting the open world environment, and the second and third trailers -- released on September 28, 2017, and May 2, 2018, respectively -- introduced the game 's characters and story. A trailer released on August 9 features the first gameplay footage. It demonstrates the shooting and horse mechanics, and the ability to maintain the player 's gang and camps. To spur pre-order sales, Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game. The "Special Edition '' includes exclusive single - player content, while the "Ultimate Edition '' features additional online content. The "Collector 's Box '' is a collection of physical merchandise relating to the game. An online multiplayer portion of the game called Red Dead Online is also in the works and is planned to release as a public beta in November 2018. During an IGN Q&A session with various Rockstar developers, when asked why it will not be available simultaneously with the base game, design director Imran Sarwar answered "Red Dead Redemption 2 is an absolutely massive story - based game that we hope people will be lost in for a long time and we want people to experience everything that world has to offer before we build on that with the Online experience '' while also stating that "we (at Rockstar) see them essentially as separate products that will grow and evolve independently of each other '' and saying that the team has learned after launching online games that there are bound to be a few issues and that they wish to roll out the game as smoothly as possible. It is also mentioned that the game takes many of the favorite elements of Grand Theft Auto Online while also further expanding the original game 's ideas. Red Dead Redemption 2 received "universal acclaim '' from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. It is the highest rated PlayStation 4 and Xbox One game on Metacritic along with Rockstar 's Grand Theft Auto V. Game Informer awarded the game a perfect score writing: "Rockstar Games has outdone itself again with Red Dead Redemption II. The up - close portrayal of the outlaw Van der Linde gang 's unraveling is a compelling companion story that blends seamlessly with the original game, and depth and breadth of the open world is a technical triumph that every gamer should experience. '' IGN also awarded the game full marks, commenting "Red Dead Redemption 2 stands shoulder - to - shoulder with Grand Theft Auto V as one of the greatest games of the modern age. It 's a gorgeous depiction of an ugly period that 's patient, polished, and a huge amount of fun to play, and it 's combined with Rockstar 's best storytelling to date. Even after finishing the lengthy story I ca n't wait to go back and play more. '' In another full score review, Electronic Gaming Monthly wrote: "Criticisms often come easier than compliments, but in the case of Red Dead Redemption 2, I am at a loss. This is one of the most gorgeous, seamless, rootinest, tootinest games ever made, and if you voluntarily miss out on it, you 're either not a gamer or in a coma. '' USgamer said, "(i) s Red Dead Redemption 2 better than the first game? Very much so. Is Red Dead Redemption 2 perfect? No. Rockstar Games has crafted this huge, beautiful world with an attention to detail that 's astounding... '' and summarised by saying "Red Dead Redemption 2 is a fantastic game that should keep players satisfied for another eight years. '' Alessandro Fillari of GameSpot praised the story, characters and animation and said "Red Dead Redemption 2 is an excellent prequel, but it 's also an emotional, thought - provoking story in its own right, and it 's a world that is hard to leave when it 's done. '' Some minor criticism focused on the game 's control system, which was described as "clunky '' and "outdated ''. Push Square called the controls "serviceable '' but at their worst "infuriating '', and that the button layouts for various actions were too convoluted. Forbes criticized the game for having a noticeable input lag and wrote that "things are n't as tight as they need to be ''. US Gamer was disappointed that the game fundamentally used the same control scheme that Rockstar had first developed for their release of Grand Theft Auto IV in 2008, and questioned why it had not been sufficiently improved upon in that time. Since the previous installment in the series was among the best - selling games of the seventh generation of video game consoles, many analysts believed that Red Dead Redemption 2 would be one of the highest - selling games of 2018 and would have a great effect on other game sales during the fourth quarter. When discussing the delay until October 2018, a writer from Forbes said "A huge arrival for (Red Dead Redemption 2) could be a crater that dampens sales of all competitors in that window, so I have to imagine this shockwave is being felt pretty hard right now around the industry. '' In July 2018, The NPD Group, a market research company, published an article titled "Video Game Industry Predictions for Holiday 2018 '', where author and industry analyst Mat Piscatella predicted that Red Dead Redemption 2 would be the best - selling game of 2018, outselling other blockbuster titles like Call of Duty: Black Ops 4, Battlefield V, and Fallout 76. Red Dead Redemption 2 is the best - selling retail game in its first week of release and the second - fastest - selling game of 2018 in the UK, behind FIFA 19. The game 's opening week UK physical sales were doubled from its predecessor 's with 68 % of sales being the PS4 version and the remainder on the Xbox One. Red Dead Redemption 2 is also the third - fastest - selling non-FIFA game released this generation, behind Call of Duty: Black Ops 3 and Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare. On October 30, 2018, Rockstar Games announced that Red Dead Redemption 2 has the largest opening weekend in history of entertainment, managing to sell over $725 million in copies worldwide in just over three days since its release. Although Rockstar Games did not share the exact unit sales, the sell - through numbers suggest over 10 million copies of the game have been sold. Additionally, Red Dead Redemption 2 is also the second highest - grossing entertainment launch (the first being Grand Theft Auto V) and had the largest launch sales on Playstation Network. In an interview with Harold Goldberg of the New York magazine published on October 14, 2018, Dan Houser, Rockstar Games ' co-founder and vice-president for creative, and head writer for Red Dead Redemption 2, stated that they had been working 100 - hour weeks "several times in 2018 ''. Many sources interpreted this statement as "crunch time '' for the entire development staff of the game, comparable to similar accusations made by wives of Rockstar San Diego employees in regards to the development of the game 's predecessor, with Rockstar Games receiving strong criticism. In a statement sent by Rockstar to various media outlets that same day, it was clarified that the work duration mentioned by Houser only affected the senior writing staff for Red Dead Redemption 2, which comprised himself, Mike Unsworth, Rupert Humphries and Lazlow Jones, and that the duration had only been the case for three weeks during the entire development. Houser also added that the company would never expect or force any employee to work as long as was stated, and if anyone was staying late at the development studios, it would be due to their passion for the project. However, other Rockstar employees have come out arguing that Houser 's statements were broad, and do not give an accurate picture of the "crunch - time culture '' at the company that many employees work under.

what was the costliest natural disaster in u.s. history

List of disasters by cost - wikipedia Disasters can be particularly notable for the high costs associated with responding to and recovering from them. This page lists the economic costs of relatively recent disasters. The costs of disasters vary considerably depending on a range of factors, such as the geographical location where they occur. When a disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a wealthy country, the financial damage might be huge, but when a comparable disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a poorer country, the actual financial damage might be relatively small, in part due to a lack of insurance. For example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, with a death toll of over 230,000 people, cost a ' mere ' $15 billion, whereas in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in which 11 people died, the damages were six-fold.

yume miru kusuri - a drug that makes you dream

Yume Miru Kusuri: a drug that makes You Dream - wikipedia Yume Miru Kusuri: A Drug That Makes You Dream (ユメミルクスリ) is an adult visual novel for the PC developed by Rúf. The visual novel was initially released in Japanese on December 22, 2005 and translated into English by Peach Princess. It was written by Romeo Tanaka and illustrated by Kiyotaka Haimura, the female characters were designed (off credit by request) by Marko Genjutsu. According to Peter Payne, founder of Jast USA, it is believed the writers were trying to explore themes relevant in Japan for high - school students. Kouhei Kagami is a Japanese student with excellent grades and a fairly normal social life, but feels empty and transparent inside. The story revolves a pivotal moment in Kouhei 's life where three girls, that have more problems than himself, meet him for the first time and soon make his life a roller coaster of emotions. Kouhei must choose to save one of them from their own despair. The plot follows the same basic route for the first half of the game. Kouhei goes about his life and makes friends with three main girls: Aeka, Mizuki, and Nekoko. Rúf initially released the game in Japanese on December 25, 2005 and was later reprinted on March 19, 2009. The game was translated into English by Peach Princess and released April 25, 2007. Voiced by: Shiho Kawaragi Voiced by: Ryoko Tanaka Voiced by: Kayo Nagata Voiced by: Riko Hirai Voiced by: Michihiko Hagi Voiced by: Kaori Suzumoto Voiced by: Kisho Taniyama If the player follows this story arc, Kouhei begins to pay closer attention to Aeka Shiraki, a girl in his class who is mistreated by her classmates. He begins a friendship with her, not thinking much of the situation, but after she almost commits suicide, Kouhei agrees to begin a sexual relationship with her and help her with her troubles. They eventually develop feelings for each other, and Kouhei distances himself from his classmates, choosing not to let her be mistreated alone. With Kouhei 's help, Aeka becomes stronger and overcomes the situation, eventually attacking (and almost killing) the bullying leader, Antoinette, after an incident where Antoinette 's group tries to rape her in front of Kouhei. After this incident, both lovers abandon the school, and Aeka ends up adopted by Kouhei 's parents, working part - time at a bakery. They plan on continuing their education, and moving away, and becoming more independent in the future. One day, Aeka will simply disappear. Kouhei will learn through gossiping that she eventually tried to commit suicide by jumping. She survives, but at the end of the game her condition is critical. Furthermore, now that the player has snubbed Antoinette 's minions, Kouhei becomes the new target of their bullying. If the player follows this story arc, Kouhei begins a troubled relationship with the high school student council president, Mizuki Kirimiya. After going to Hong Kong, snorting cocaine and practicing strangulation sex with Mizuki, Kouhei returns to Japan, faces the consequences of his actions, and struggles to maintain his relationship with Mizuki. After a final night of passion, Mizuki disappears. Kouhei becomes the new head of the Student Council, and nobody but him seems to care about the former president. One day, Kouhei comes back home and finds Mizuki waiting for him, visibly pregnant. Disinherited by her family, but still rich and talented, she 's adopted by Kouhei 's parents. She moves to Kouhei 's house and gives birth to their daughter. After a final night of passion, Mizuki disappears. Kouhei becomes the new head of the Student Council, and nobody but him seems to care about the former president. Kouhei even paid a private detective to look for her, but the results were unfortunate; Mizuki had died of pre-eclampsia, or pregnancy toxemia. She was buried alone, on a nameless grave, and thus erased from the collective memory. If the player follows this story arc, Kouhei becomes involved with a girl calling herself Cat Sidhe Nekoko and claiming to be looking for the home of the fairies. Kouhei, who has been forcefully asked to help her, believes Nekoko is crazy, but after ingesting some of the powder she claims is fairy dust, he realizes that she is addicted to a new type of drug. Kouhei attempts to help her with her addiction. Near the ending, Nekoko 's supply of the drug becomes depleted; during a difficult withdrawal, Nekoko believes that Kouhei is a monster. Two years pass. Suddenly, Kouhei sees on TV an ad about a new amusement park called Cat Sidhe Wonderland. Even more, he receives by mail two invitations to the inauguration. Kouhei goes, thinking he may learn about Nekoko, but she 's nowhere to be found. The intercom tells him to go to the Ferris Wheel. There, Nekoko and Kouhei meet again, and promise eternal love. Despite Kouhei 's best efforts, he 's unable to convince Nekoko to get off drugs. Drugged, she climbs a tree and tries to reach the home of the fairies alone. Months pass, and there is still no sign of Nekoko. The police investigate and question Kouhei a few times, but to no avail as Kouhei has no new information. One day, when he 's out shopping he recognizes a familiar voice in the crowd, and manages to catch a glimpse of Nekoko. Nekoko soon vanishes leaving Kouhei to wonder if seeing her was just a dream. Yume Miru Kusuri: A Drug That Makes You Dream on IMDb

​which of the following is primarily an excitatory neurotransmitter

Excitatory synapse - wikipedia An excitatory synapse is a synapse in which an action potential in a presynaptic neuron increases the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell. Neurons form networks through which nerve impulses travel, each neuron often making numerous connections with other cells. These electrical signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, and, if the total of excitatory influences exceeds that of the inhibitory influences, the neuron will generate a new action potential at its axon hillock, thus transmitting the information to yet another cell. This phenomenon is known as an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). It may occur via direct contact between cells (i.e., via gap junctions), as in an electrical synapse, but most commonly occurs via the vesicular release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic axon terminal into the synaptic cleft, as in a chemical synapse. The excitatory neurotransmitters, the most common of which is glutamate, then migrate via diffusion to the dendritic spine of the postsynaptic neuron and bind a specific transmembrane receptor protein that triggers the depolarization of that cell. Depolarization, a deviation from a neuron 's resting membrane potential towards its threshold potential, increases the likelihood of an action potential and normally occurs with the influx of positively charged sodium (Na) ions into the postsynaptic cell through ion channels activated by neurotransmitter binding.

who did the voice of velma in scooby doo

Velma Dinkley - wikipedia Velma Dinkley is a fictional character in the Scooby - Doo franchise. She is prone to losing her glasses. She is usually seen wearing a baggy orange turtleneck, short pleated skirt (or in later episodes an A-line skirt, or sometimes shorts), knee socks, and Mary Janes. She is seen as the brains of the group. Throughout her various incarnations, Velma is usually portrayed as a highly intelligent young woman with highly specific interests in science (which in the Scooby and Scrappy Doo series leads her to pursue a career as a NASA research scientist) or merely being very well read on obscure fields, such as Viking writing (as in the third Scooby - Doo series The New Scooby - Doo Mysteries). In Scooby - Doo! Abracadabra - Doo, Velma is described by her younger sister Madelyn as being "born with a mystery book in her hand ''. Consequently, Velma is usually the one to figure out the mystery, sometimes with the help of Fred and Daphne. Velma Dinkley was inspired by the brainy tomboy Zelda Gilroy, as played by Sheila James, from the late 1950s / early 1960s American sitcom The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis. A running gag in Scooby - Doo, Where Are You! and The New Scooby - Doo Movies is Velma 's severe nearsightedness and her trouble with keeping her glasses on her face (often resulting in them falling off while she is being chased by the villain). Another running gag is that despite the fact that she is the smallest of the Scooby - Doo gang she can actually carry away the whole gang in her arms from a villain. When Scooby - Doo is too afraid to volunteer to help with a mission, Velma often offers him a dog treat called a "Scooby Snack '' as a bribe. Her catchphrases are: "Jinkies! '' and "My glasses! I ca n't see without my glasses! '' (when she accidentally loses her glasses). Like all of the Scooby - Doo kids, later ret - conned as Mystery Incorporated members, Velma has differing personal backgrounds and histories depending on which series one is referring to. In the original flagship Scooby - Doo, Where Are You! series, Velma attended the same high school as the rest of the gang (as stated in the inaugural episode "What a Night for a Knight ''). However, by The New Scooby - Doo Movies, Velma is said to have graduated from a different high school than her friends (as stated in the episode "Spirited Spooked Sports Show ''). In 2010 film Scooby - Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster was revealed that her middle name is Daisy. Relatives of Velma shown during the series ' run include: Velma has been voiced by several actresses. From 1969 to 1974, Nicole Jaffe voiced Velma; from 1976 to 1979, Pat Stevens voiced the character. From 1979 to 1980, Marla Frumkin provided her voice. Velma did not speak in the Scooby - Doo and Scrappy - Doo final episode, "The Ransom of Scooby Chief ''. After the character 's absence from 1980 to 1983 series, Marla Frumkin reprised the role of Velma as a guest star in The New Scooby - Doo Mysteries. Velma was absent again until A Pup Named Scooby - Doo when Christina Lange voiced the role. B.J. Ward voiced Velma in a Johnny Bravo crossover episode. From the animated movie, Scooby - Doo on Zombie Island, B.J. Ward reprised her role in all movies through Scooby - Doo and the Cyber Chase, as well as an episode of the Adult Swim animated series, Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law. Nicole Jaffe returned temporarily to voice Velma in the movies, Scooby - Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire and Scooby - Doo! and the Monster of Mexico. From 2002 until 2015, Velma was voiced by Mindy Cohn of The Facts of Life fame. In Scooby - Doo! Adventures: The Mystery Map, Velma is voiced by Stephanie D'Abruzzo. On July 8, 2015, it was announced that Kate Micucci would take over the role of Velma in the upcoming series Be Cool, Scooby - Doo!. In the 2002 and 2004 live - action movies, Velma is played by Linda Cardellini, who then voiced her for the Scooby - Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed video game and Robot Chicken. Lauren Kennedy portrayed young Velma in a flashback sequence in Scooby - Doo 2: Monsters Unleashed. Velma is portrayed by Hayley Kiyoko in the 2009 live - action movie Scooby - Doo! The Mystery Begins and its 2010 sequel Scooby - Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster. The character has a considerable fan base among real - life lesbians, who see her as one of their own, although the Scooby - Doo series and direct - to - video films depict her as presumably heterosexual.

why gfc field is not included in nni header

Asynchronous transfer Mode - wikipedia Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is, according to the ATM Forum, "a telecommunications concept defined by ANSI and ITU (formerly CCITT) standards for carriage of a complete range of user traffic, including voice, data, and video signals ''. ATM was developed to meet the needs of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network, as defined in the late 1980s, and designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It was designed for a network that must handle both traditional high - throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real - time, low - latency content such as voice and video. The reference model for ATM approximately maps to the three lowest layers of the ISO - OSI reference model: network layer, data link layer, and physical layer. ATM is a core protocol used over the SONET / SDH backbone of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), but its use is declining in favour of all IP. ATM provides functionality that is similar to both circuit switching and packet switching networks: ATM uses asynchronous time - division multiplexing, and encodes data into small, fixed - sized packets (ISO - OSI frames) called cells. This differs from approaches such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet that use variable sized packets and frames. ATM uses a connection - oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. These virtual circuits may be "permanent '', i.e. dedicated connections that are usually preconfigured by the service provider, or "switched '', i.e. set up on a per - call basis using signalling and disconnected when the call is terminated. Use of ATM technology was eventually largely superseded by Internet Protocol (IP) - only technology. Wireless and mobile ATM never established a significant foothold. In the ISO - OSI reference model data link layer (layer 2), the basic transfer units are generically called frames. In ATM these frames are of a fixed (53 octets or bytes) length and specifically called "cells ''. If a speech signal is reduced to packets, and it is forced to share a link with bursty data traffic (traffic with some large data packets) then no matter how small the speech packets could be made, they would always encounter full - size data packets. Under normal queuing conditions the cells might experience maximum queuing delays. To avoid this issue, all ATM packets, or "cells, '' are the same small size. In addition, the fixed cell structure means that ATM can be readily switched by hardware without the inherent delays introduced by software switched and routed frames. Thus, the designers of ATM utilized small data cells to reduce jitter (delay variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of data streams. Reduction of jitter (and also end - to - end round - trip delays) is particularly important when carrying voice traffic, because the conversion of digitized voice into an analogue audio signal is an inherently real - time process, and to do a good job, the decoder (codec) that does this needs an evenly spaced (in time) stream of data items. If the next data item is not available when it is needed, the codec has no choice but to produce silence or guess -- and if the data is late, it is useless, because the time period when it should have been converted to a signal has already passed. At the time of the design of ATM, 155 Mbit / s Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) with 135 Mbit / s payload was considered a fast optical network link, and many plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit / s in the USA, and 2 to 34 Mbit / s in Europe. At this rate, a typical full - length 1,500 byte (12,000 - bit) data packet would take 77.42 μs to transmit. In a lower - speed link, such as a 1.544 Mbit / s T1 line, a 1,500 byte packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queuing delay induced by several such data packets might exceed the figure of 7.8 ms several times over, in addition to any packet generation delay in the shorter speech packet. This was clearly unacceptable for speech traffic, which needs to have low jitter in the data stream being fed into the codec if it is to produce good - quality sound. A packet voice system can produce this low jitter in a number of ways: The design of ATM aimed for a low - jitter network interface. However, "cells '' were introduced into the design to provide short queuing delays while continuing to support datagram traffic. ATM broke up all packets, data, and voice streams into 48 - byte chunks, adding a 5 - byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. The choice of 48 bytes was political rather than technical. When the CCITT (now ITU - T) was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64 - byte payload because this was felt to be a good compromise in larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real - time applications like voice; parties from Europe wanted 32 - byte payloads because the small size (and therefore short transmission times) simplify voice applications with respect to echo cancellation. Most of the European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few others held out for a shorter cell length. With 32 bytes, France would have been able to implement an ATM - based voice network with calls from one end of France to the other requiring no echo cancellation. 48 bytes (plus 5 header bytes = 53) was chosen as a compromise between the two sides. 5 - byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10 % of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information. ATM multiplexed these 53 - byte cells instead of packets which reduced worst - case cell contention jitter by a factor of almost 30, reducing the need for echo cancellers. An ATM cell consists of a 5 - byte header and a 48 - byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was chosen as described above. ATM defines two different cell formats: User -- network interface (UNI) and Network - to - network interface (NNI). Most ATM links use UNI cell format. Diagram of a UNI ATM cell Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes) Diagram of an NNI ATM cell Payload and padding if necessary (48 bytes) ATM uses the PT field to designate various special kinds of cells for operations, administration and management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some ATM adaptation layers (AAL). If the most significant bit of the PT field is 0, this is a user data cell, and the other two bits are used to indicate network congestion and as a general purpose header bit available for ATM adaptation layers. If the msbit of the PT bit is 1, this is a management cell, and the other two bits indicate the type. (Network management segment, network management end - to - end, resource management, and reserved for future use.) Several ATM link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC - based framing algorithm, which allows locating the ATM cells with no overhead beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8 - bit CRC is used to correct single - bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found. A UNI cell reserves the GFC field for a local flow control / submultiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection, in the same way that two Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default. The NNI cell format replicates the UNI format almost exactly, except that the 4 - bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 2 VPs of up to almost 2 VCs each (in practice some of the VP and VC numbers are reserved). ATM supports different types of services via AALs. Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. Synchronization is also maintained at AAL1. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bitrate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per - virtual - connection basis. Following the initial design of ATM, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000 - bit) full - size Ethernet frame takes only 1.2 μs to transmit on a 10 Gbit / s network, reducing the need for small cells to reduce jitter due to contention. Some consider that this makes a case for replacing ATM with Ethernet in the network backbone. However, it should be noted that the increased link speeds by themselves do not alleviate jitter due to queuing. Additionally, the hardware for implementing the service adaptation for IP packets is expensive at very high speeds. Specifically, at speeds of OC - 3 and above, the cost of segmentation and reassembly (SAR) hardware makes ATM less competitive for IP than Packet Over SONET (POS); because of its fixed 48 - byte cell payload, ATM is not suitable as a data link layer directly underlying IP (without the need for SAR at the data link level) since the OSI layer on which IP operates must provide a maximum transmission unit (MTU) of at least 576 bytes. SAR performance limits mean that the fastest IP router ATM interfaces are STM16 - STM64 which actually compares, while as of 2004 POS can operate at OC - 192 (STM64) with higher speeds expected in the future. On slower or congested links (622 Mbit / s and below), ATM does make sense, and for this reason most asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) systems use ATM as an intermediate layer between the physical link layer and a Layer 2 protocol like PPP or Ethernet. At these lower speeds, ATM provides a useful ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium, although other techniques exist, such as Multi-link PPP and Ethernet VLANs, which are optional in VDSL implementations. DSL can be used as an access method for an ATM network, allowing a DSL termination point in a telephone central office to connect to many internet service providers across a wide - area ATM network. In the United States, at least, this has allowed DSL providers to provide DSL access to the customers of many internet service providers. Since one DSL termination point can support multiple ISPs, the economic feasibility of DSL is substantially improved. ATM operates as a channel - based transport layer, using virtual circuits (VCs). This is encompassed in the concept of the virtual paths (VP) and virtual channels. Every ATM cell has an 8 - or 12 - bit virtual path identifier (VPI) and 16 - bit virtual channel identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. The VCI, together with the VPI, is used to identify the next destination of a cell as it passes through a series of ATM switches on its way to its destination. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the user - network interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network - network interface (inside the network). As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching takes place by changing the VPI / VCI values (label swapping). Although the VPI / VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). ATM switches use the VPI / VCI fields to identify the virtual channel link (VCL) of the next network that a cell needs to transit on its way to its final destination. The function of the VCI is similar to that of the data link connection identifier (DLCI) in frame relay and the logical channel number and logical channel group number in X. 25. Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits comes with the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, frame relay, n * 64 channels, IP). The VPI is useful for reducing the switching table of some virtual circuits which have common paths. Another key ATM concept involves the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch on the circuit is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts form part of the mechanism by which "quality of service '' (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection. VBR has real - time and non-real - time variants, and serves for "bursty '' traffic. Non-real - time is sometimes abbreviated to vbr - nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT), which defines the "clumping '' of cells in time. To maintain network performance, networks may apply traffic policing to virtual circuits to limit them to their traffic contracts at the entry points to the network, i.e. the user -- network interfaces (UNIs) and network - to - network interfaces (NNIs): Usage / Network Parameter Control (UPC and NPC). The reference model given by the ITU - T and ATM Forum for UPC and NPC is the generic cell rate algorithm (GCRA), which is a version of the leaky bucket algorithm. CBR traffic will normally be policed to a PCR and CDVt alone, whereas VBR traffic will normally be policed using a dual leaky bucket controller to a PCR and CDVt and an SCR and Maximum Burst Size (MBS). The MBS will normally be the packet (SAR - SDU) size for the VBR VC in cells. If the traffic on a virtual circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, as determined by the GCRA, the network can either drop the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as potentially redundant). Basic policing works on a cell by cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic (as discarding a single cell will invalidate the whole packet). As a result, schemes such as Partial Packet Discard (PPD) and Early Packet Discard (EPD) have been created that will discard a whole series of cells until the next packet starts. This reduces the number of useless cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full packets. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the end of packet marker: the ATM User - to - ATM User (AUU) Indication bit in the Payload Type field of the header, which is set in the last cell of a SAR - SDU. Traffic shaping usually takes place in the network interface card (NIC) in user equipment, and attempts to ensure that the cell flow on a VC will meet its traffic contract, i.e. cells will not be dropped or reduced in priority at the UNI. Since the reference model given for traffic policing in the network is the GCRA, this algorithm is normally used for shaping as well, and single and dual leaky bucket implementations may be used as appropriate. ATM can build virtual circuits and virtual paths either statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the circuit is composed of a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes. PVPs and PVCs, though conceptually simple, require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service "contract '') and the two end points. Finally, ATM networks create and remove switched virtual circuits (SVCs) on demand when requested by an end piece of equipment. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are inter-connected using ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM. Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network Node Interface or the Private Network - to - Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. PNNI uses the same shortest - path - first algorithm used by OSPF and IS - IS to route IP packets to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI also includes a very powerful summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm which determines the availability of sufficient bandwidth on a proposed route through a network in order to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP. A network must establish a connection before two parties can send cells to each other. In ATM this is called a virtual circuit (VC). It can be a permanent virtual circuit (PVC), which is created administratively on the end points, or a switched virtual circuit (SVC), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is managed by signaling, in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and whatever traffic parameters may be applicable to the selected service. "Call admission '' is then performed by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available and that a route exists for the connection. ATM defines three layers: ATM became popular with telephone companies and many computer makers in the 1990s. However, even by the end of the decade, the better price / performance of Internet Protocol - based products was competing with ATM technology for integrating real - time and bursty network traffic. Companies such as FORE Systems focused on ATM products, while other large vendors such as Cisco Systems provided ATM as an option. After the burst of the dot - com bubble, some still predicted that "ATM is going to dominate ''. However, in 2005 the ATM Forum, which had been the trade organization promoting the technology, merged with groups promoting other technologies, and eventually became the Broadband Forum. Wireless ATM, or mobile ATM refers to a high speed broadband multimedia wireless communication network that consists of an ATM core network with a wireless access network. ATM cells are transmitted from base stations to mobile terminals. Mobility functions are performed at an ATM switch in the core network, known as "crossover switch '', which is similar to the MSC (mobile switching center) of GSM networks. The advantage of wireless ATM is its high bandwidth and very high speed handoffs done at layer 2. In the early 1990s, Bell Labs and NEC research labs worked actively in this field. Andy Hopper from Cambridge University Computer Laboratory also worked in this area. There was a wireless ATM forum formed to standardize the technology behind wireless ATM networks. The forum was supported by several telecommunication companies, including NEC, Motorola, Fujitsu and AT&T. Mobile ATM aimed to provide high speed multimedia communications technology, capable of delivering broadband mobile communications beyond that of GSM and WLANs.

what is a shilling worth in american money

Shilling - wikipedia The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in Austria, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. Currently the shilling is used as a currency in four east African countries: Kenya (Kenyan shilling), Tanzania (Tanzanian shilling), Uganda (Ugandan shilling), and Somalia ((Somali shilling)), as well as in the autonomous Somali region of Somaliland (Somaliland Shilling). It is also the proposed currency that the east African community plans to introduce (east African shilling). The word shilling comes from old English "Scilling '', a monetary term meaning twentieth of a pound, and from the Proto - Germanic root * skiljaną meaning ' to separate. ' The word "Scilling '' is mentioned in the earliest recorded Germanic law codes those of Æthelberht of Kent. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include "bob '' and "hog ''. While the derivation of "bob '' is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was "bobstick '' and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s (for solidus, see £ sd). Often it was represented by a solidus symbol ("/ ''), which may have originally stood for a long s or s, thus 1 / 9 would be one shilling and ninepence (and equivalent to 21 d; the shilling itself was equal to 12 d). A price with no pence was sometimes written with a solidus and a dash: 11 / --. The solidus symbol is still used for the Kenyan shilling (one of the successors to East African shilling), rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound (weighing 5760 grains or 373 g) of standard (0.925 fine) silver into 66 shillings, or its equivalent in other denominations. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, when a new smaller 5p coin was introduced. In the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere. A shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII (or Edward VI around 1550). The shilling continued in use after the Acts of Union of 1707 created a new United Kingdom from the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and under Article 16 of the Articles of Union, a common currency for the new United Kingdom was created. The term shilling (Scots: schilling) was in use in Scotland from early Middle Ages. The common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, and thus there were 240 pence in a pound. Three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. They were: At decimalisation in 1971, the shilling coin was superseded by the new five - pence piece, which initially was of identical size and weight and had the same value, and inherited the shilling 's slang name of a bob. Shillings remained in circulation until the five pence coin was reduced in size in 1991. Between 1701 and the unification of the currencies in 1825, the Irish shilling was valued at 13 pence and known as the "black hog '', as opposed to the 12 - pence English shillings which were known as "white hogs ''. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling coin was issued as scilling in Irish. It was worth 1 / 20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side. The first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75 % silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin (retained after decimalisation)) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, when a smaller five pence coin was introduced. Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new ram 's head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963. In 1966, Australia 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin (Australian), where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a shilling coin in Australia was "deener ''. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was "bob '', the same as in the United Kingdom. After 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10 - cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933 and featured the image of a Maori warrior carrying a taiaha "in a warlike attitude '' on the reverse. In 1967, New Zealand 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight. Smaller 10 - cent coins were introduced in 2006. Shillings were used in Malta, prior to decimalisation in 1972, and had a face value of five Maltese cents. In British Ceylon, a shilling (Sinhalese: Silima, Tamil: Silin) was equivalent to eight fanams. With the replacement of the rixdollar by the rupee in 1852, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to half a rupee. On the decimalisation of the currency in 1869, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to 50 Ceylon cents. The term continued to be used colloquially until the late 20th century. The East African shilling was in use in the British colonies and protectorates of British Somaliland, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda and Zanzibar from 1920, when it replaced the rupee, until after those countries became independent, and in Tanzania after that country was formed by the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Upon independence in 1960, the East African shilling in the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) and the Somali somalo in the Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) were replaced by the Somali shilling. In 1966.5, the East African Monetary Union broke up, and the member countries replaced their currencies with the Kenyan shilling, the Ugandan shilling and the Tanzanian shilling, respectively. Though all these currencies have different values at present, there were plans to reintroduce the East African shilling as a new common currency by 2009, although this has not come about. In the thirteen British colonies that became the United States in 1776, British money was often in circulation. Each colony issued its own paper money, with pounds, shillings, and pence used as the standard units of account. Some coins were minted in the colonies, such as the 1652 pine - tree shilling in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. After the United States adopted the dollar as its unit of currency and accepted the gold standard, one British shilling was worth 24 US cents. Due to ongoing shortages of US coins in some regions, shillings continued to circulate well into the 19th century. Shillings are described as the standard monetary unit throughout the autobiography of Solomon Northup (1853) and mentioned several times in the Horatio Alger, Jr. story, Ragged Dick (1868). The Somali shilling is the official currency of Somalia. It is subdivided into 100 cents (English), senti (Somali, also سنت) or centesimi (Italian). The Somali shilling has been the currency of parts of Somalia since 1921, when the East African shilling was introduced to the former British Somaliland protectorate. Following independence in 1960, the somalo of Italian Somaliland and the East African shilling (which were equal in value) were replaced at par in 1962 by the Somali shilling. Names used for the denominations were cent, centesimo (plural: centesimi) and سنت (plurals: سنتيمات and سنتيما) together with shilling, scellino (plural: scellini) and شلن. That same year, the Banca Nazionale Somala issued notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 scellini / shillings. In 1975, the Bankiga Qaranka Soomaaliyeed (Somali National Bank) introduced notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 shilin / shillings. These were followed in 1978 by notes of the same denominations issued by the Bankiga Dhexe Ee Soomaaliya (Central Bank of Somalia). 50 shilin / shillings notes were introduced in 1983, followed by 500 shilin / shillings in 1989 and 1000 shilin / shillings in 1990. Also in 1990 there was an attempt to reform the currency at 100 to 1, with new banknotes of 20 and 50 new shilin prepared for the redenomination. Following the breakdown in central authority that accompanied the civil war, which began in the early 1990s, the value of the Somali shilling was disrupted. The Central Bank of Somalia, the nation 's monetary authority, also shut down operations. Rival producers of the local currency, including autonomous regional entities such as the Somaliland territory, subsequently emerged. Somalia 's newly established Transitional Federal Government revived the defunct Central Bank of Somalia in the late 2000s. In terms of financial management, the monetary authority is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy. Owing to a lack of confidence in the Somali shilling, the US dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fueled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. This inflationary environment, however, is expected to come to an end as soon as the Central Bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector. The Somaliland shilling is the official currency of Somaliland, a self - declared republic that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. The currency is not recognised as legal tender by the international community, and it currently has no official exchange rate. It is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the territory 's central bank. Although the authorities in Somaliland have attempted to bar usage of the Somali shilling, Somalia 's official currency is still the preferred means of exchange for many peoples in the region. Elsewhere in the former British Empire, forms of the word shilling remain in informal use. In Vanuatu and Solomon Islands, selen is used in Bislama and Pijin to mean "money ''; in Malaysia, syiling (pronounced like shilling) means "coin ''. In Egypt and Jordan the shillin (Arabic: شلن ‎) is equal to 1 / 20th (five qirshes -- Arabic: قرش ‎, English: piastres) of the Egyptian pound or the Jordanian dinar. In Belize, the term shilling is commonly used to refer to twenty - five cents. The Austrian schilling was the currency of Austria between March 1, 1924 and 1938 and again between 1945 and 2002. It was replaced by the euro at a fixed parity of € 1 = 13.7603 schilling. The schilling was divided into 100 groschen. Shillings were issued in the Scandinavian countries (skilling) until the Scandinavian Monetary Union of 1873, and in the city of Hamburg, Germany. In Poland szeląg was used. In the principalities covering present Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg, the cognate term schelling was used as an equivalent ' arithmetic ' currency, a ' solidus ' representing 12 ' denarii ' or 1 / 20 ' pound ', while actual coins were rarely physical multiples of it, but still expressed in these terms. The sol, later the sou, both also derived from the Roman solidus, were the equivalent coins in France, while the (nuevo) sol (PEN) remains the currency of Peru. As in France, the Peruvian sol was originally named after the Roman solidus, but the name of the Peruvian currency is now much more closely linked to the Spanish word for the sun (sol). This helps explain the name of its temporary replacement, the inti, named for the Incan sun god.

who sings while my guitar gently weeps with santana

While My Guitar Gently Weeps - wikipedia "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 double album The Beatles (also known as "the White Album ''). It was written by George Harrison, partly as an exercise in randomness after he consulted the Chinese I Ching. The song also serves as a comment on the disharmony within the Beatles at the time. The recording includes a lead guitar part played by Eric Clapton, although he was not formally credited for his contribution. "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' ranks 136th on Rolling Stone 's "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time '', seventh on the magazine 's list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time '', and tenth on its list of "The Beatles 100 Greatest Songs ''. Guitar World magazine 's February 2012 online poll voted "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' the best of George Harrison 's Beatles - era songs. Clapton 's performance ranked 42nd in Guitar World 's October 2008 list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos ''. Inspiration for the song came to Harrison when reading the I Ching, which, as Harrison put it, "seemed to me to be based on the Eastern concept that everything is relative to everything else, as opposed to the Western view that things are merely coincidental ''. Taking this idea of relativism to his parents ' home in northern England, Harrison committed to write a song based on the first words he saw upon opening a random book. He later explained the process: I wrote "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' at my mother 's house in Warrington. I was thinking about the Chinese I Ching, ' The Book of Changes ". The Eastern concept is that whatever happens is all meant to be, and that there 's no such thing as coincidence -- every little item that 's going down has a purpose. "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' was a simple study based on that theory. I decided to write a song based on the first thing I saw upon opening any book -- as it would be relative to that moment, at that time. I picked up a book at random, opened it, saw "gently weeps '', then laid the book down again and started the song. The initial incarnation was not final, as Harrison said: "Some of the words to the song were changed before I finally recorded it. '' A demo recorded at George 's home in Esher includes an unused verse: As well as an unused line in the very beginning: This line was eventually omitted in favour of the one appearing on The Beatles. An early acoustic guitar and organ demo of the song featured a slightly different third verse: This version was released on the 1996 compilation Anthology 3 and was used as the basis of the 2006 Love remix, with a string arrangement by George Martin. The band recorded the song several times. Take 1 on 25 July 1968 involved Harrison on his Gibson J - 200 acoustic guitar and an overdubbed harmonium. Sessions on 16 August and 3 and 5 September included a version with a backward (or "backmasked '') guitar solo (as Harrison had done for "I 'm Only Sleeping '' on Revolver), but Harrison was not satisfied. On 6 September 1968, during a ride from Surrey into London, Harrison asked friend Eric Clapton to contribute lead guitar to the song. Clapton was reluctant, saying later, "Nobody ever plays on the Beatles ' records ''; but Harrison convinced him, and Clapton 's guitar parts, using Harrison 's Gibson Les Paul electric guitar "Lucy '' (a recent gift from Clapton), were recorded that evening. Harrison later said that in addition to his contribution, Clapton 's presence had another effect on the band: "It made them all try a bit harder; they were all on their best behaviour. '' Clapton wanted a more "Beatley '' sound, so the sound was run through an ADT circuit with "varispeed, '' with engineer Chris Thomas manually ' waggling ' the oscillator: "apparently Eric said that he did n't want it to sound like him. So I was just sitting there wobbling the thing, they wanted it really extreme, so that 's what I did. '' "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' was one of three songs on The Beatles where Paul McCartney experimented with the Fender Jazz Bass (the others being "Glass Onion '' and "Yer Blues '') instead of his Hofner and Rickenbacker basses. According to Walter Everett 's book The Beatles as Musicians, John Lennon 's electric guitar is audible only in the coda with the tremolo switched on. The song is in Am, with a shift to a ♭ 7 (Am / G) on "all '' (bass note G) and a 6 (D (major 3rd F ♯)) after "love '' (bass note F ♯) to a ♭ 6 (Fmaj) on "sleeping '' (bass note F). This 8 -- ♭ 7 -- 6 -- ♭ 6 progression has been described as an Aeolian / Dorian hybrid. Everett notes that the change from the minor mode verse (A -- B) to the parallel major for the bridge might express hope that "unrealized potential '' described in the lyrics is to be "fulfilled '', but that the continued minor triads (III, VI and II) "seem to express a strong dismay that love is not to be unfolded ''. Clapton 's guitar contribution has been described as making this a "monumental '' track; particularly notable features include the increasing lengths of thrice - heard first scale degrees (0: 17 -- 0: 19), the restraint showed by rests in many bars then unexpected appearances (as at 0: 28 -- 0: 29), commanding turnaround phrases (0: 31 -- 0: 33), expressive string bends marking modal changes from C to C ♯ (0: 47 -- 0: 53), power retransition (1: 21 -- 1: 24), emotive vibrato (2: 01 -- 2: 07), and a solo (1: 55 -- 2: 31) with a "measured rise in intensity, rhythmic activity, tonal drive and registral climb ''. Anthology 3 version Love version On The Concert for Bangladesh, Clapton performed the song on a Gibson Byrdland hollow body guitar, and later acknowledged that a solid - body guitar would have been more appropriate. The version in the Prince 's Trust Rock Concert 1987 (released on DVD by Panorama) reunited Harrison, Starr and Clapton, and features an extended coda with the guitars of Harrison and Clapton interweaving. Mark King (of Level 42) played McCartney 's bass line. On their 1991 tour of Japan, Harrison and Clapton performed a live version of "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' with additional background vocals. An edit combining parts of the 14 December and 17 December Tokyo performances of the song is included on the album Live in Japan. On 3 June 2002, within the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II concert at Buckingham Palace Garden, Paul McCartney performed the song with Clapton, as a tribute to George Harrison who had died the year before. They were introduced by George Martin. The performance appears on the DVD release Party at the Palace. On 29 November the same year, McCartney, Starr, Dhani Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Marc Mann, and Clapton performed "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' at the Concert for George in memory of Harrison. This version showcased Clapton singing the lead vocal and playing his original guitar solo while McCartney provided background vocals and piano; Mann played Clapton 's original fills during the verses. In 2004, Harrison was inducted posthumously into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist. "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' was played in tribute by Tom Petty vocals / guitar, Jeff Lynne vocals / guitar, Steve Winwood Hammond organ, Billy Preston keyboards, Scott Thurston Bass Guitar, Steve Ferrone Drums, Jim Capaldi percussion and tambourine, Marc Mann lead guitar, Dhani Harrison vocals / guitar, concluding with the guitar solo by fellow inductee Prince. Canadian guitarist Jeff Healey covered "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' on his 1990 album Hell to Pay. Harrison participated in the recording, contributing on acoustic guitar and backing vocals. Also issued as a single, Healey 's version peaked at number 27 in Canada, number 85 in the UK and number 25 in New Zealand. American musician Todd Rundgren covered "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' for the 2003 album Songs from the Material World: A Tribute to George Harrison. Rundgren said of his contribution to the multi-artist tribute: "(Before the Beatles), I 'd never heard the term ' lead guitarist. ' George created the job description for my first paying gig, the vocation that I 'm still lucky enough to practice today... '' Johnny Loftus of AllMusic views the recording as one of the collection 's highlights, saying that Rundgren "effortlessly replicates the grandeur '' of the Beatles ' track. As his personal tribute to Harrison, Peter Frampton released a version of the song on his 2003 album Now. Among other cover versions, the song has also been recorded by guitarists such as Marc Ribot, Phish and Charlie Byrd, and on ukulele by Jake Shimabukuro. Toto did a cover version for their album Through the Looking Glass and in a live performance in Live in Amsterdam. Santana did a cover for his twentieth album Guitar Heaven: The Greatest Guitar Classics of All Time, in 2010, featuring singer India Arie and cellist Yo - Yo Ma. Released as a single, it charted on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary. In 2016, Regina Spektor performed the song for the soundtrack to the film Kubo and the Two Strings, accompanied by Kevin Kmetz on a shamisen. In 2016 a music video was created by Apple Corps Ltd. and Cirque du Soleil. The video is based on a 10th anniversary re-staging of the song for Love, Cirque du Soleil 's theatrical production. The video was directed by Dandypunk, André Kasten and Leah Moyer. Ryan reed, describing the clip in rollingstone.com, wrote that "Dandypunk 's hand - drawn illustrations depict Harrison 's lyrics falling off the page into the air, transporting LOVE performer Eira Glover into a series of fantastical locations. Projection mapping -- and no CGI -- was used to create the clip. ''

which grey's anatomy episode does derek die

Derek Shepherd - Wikipedia Derek Christopher Shepherd, M.D., also referred to as "McDreamy '', is a fictional surgeon from the ABC medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actor Patrick Dempsey. He made his first appearance during "A Hard Day 's Night '', which was broadcast on March 27, 2005. Derek was married to Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) for 12 years, before their divorce in 2006. Before his death in 2015, Derek was happily married to his longtime girlfriend Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). The couple are often referred to as "Mer & Der '' and they have three children together. Shepherd was formerly the Chief of Surgery at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, but abruptly resigned as chief in season 7 following the shooting. For his portrayal of Shepherd, Dempsey was nominated in 2006 and 2007 Golden Globe for the Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series Drama for the role, and the 2006 SAG Award for the Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Drama Series award. Derek arrives at Seattle Grace Hospital as the new Head of Neurosurgery from New York City. He is a Bowdoin College graduate and attended Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons alongside his childhood best friend Mark Sloan and ex-wife Addison Montgomery and Private Practice characters Naomi Bennett and Sam Bennett. Derek was a student of Dr. Richard Webber and was enticed to come with an "offer he could n't refuse '' -- the position of Chief of Surgery, which he eventually turned down. He specializes in highly complex tumors and conditions of the brain and spine and came to Seattle Grace with a reputation for taking on "lost causes '' and "impossible '' cases that most of his peers would turn down. As an attending he is both well - liked and feared -- well - liked by patients and his scrub nurses for his compassion and gentlemanly bedside manner and feared by interns and residents who are intimidated by his reputation and high standards. He is passionate about his job and has been known to expel staff or remove interns and residents (or at least threaten them) from his service for being disrespectful about patients or if he deems their attitude to be detrimental to his patient 's well - being. Derek first meets Meredith Grey at a bar, and soon finds out that she is an intern at Seattle Grace. They begin to have feelings for one another and it causes some awkwardness at work, particularly after her supervising resident Dr. Miranda Bailey discovers their relationship. Meredith 's housemates and fellow interns George O'Malley and Izzie Stevens both antagonized her for some time as they felt she was using her relationship with Derek to further her career. He generally tolerated them despite his dislike of sharing his living space with the interns who worked under him. While most of his family members accepted Meredith, his sister, Nancy, particularly disliked her and repeatedly called her "the slutty intern ''; as of season nine she still refuses to speak to Meredith or acknowledge her as her sister - in - law. His mother Carolyn approved as she felt Meredith 's gray perspective of life complemented Derek 's tendency to see everything in black and white. Derek 's background was generally a mystery for the first season and source of speculation amongst his colleagues due to his sudden departure from an established and highly respected practice in New York. In the season one finale, his past eventually catches up with him when his estranged wife Addison moves to Seattle and is offered a position by Dr. Webber. Shortly thereafter, his childhood best friend Mark joins Seattle Grace as the new head of plastic surgery. Derek and Addison attempt to repair their marriage but attempts were futile. Since their divorce they have remained on amicable terms, with Addison even admonishing Meredith for breaking up with Derek in season three. In the Private Practice episode "Ex-Life '' Derek finally tells Addison that his mother never liked her in the first place. He admits to Meredith that Addison cheating on him with Mark was partly his fault as an absentee husband. Addison eventually leaves Seattle for a private practice in Los Angeles, spawning the spin - off Private Practice. In the season eight episode "If / Then '', Meredith dreams of an alternate universe where her mother never had Alzheimer 's; Derek and Addison are still married but their strained relationship and Shepherd 's disillusionment causes his career to stagnate, earning him the nicknames "Bad Shepherd '' and "McDreary ''. When Derek is offered the Chief of Surgery position for the second time, he persuades the board to keep Dr. Webber on the staff. During the merger of Seattle Grace with Mercy West their relationship sours when Derek disagreed with Richard 's handling of the merger and Richard begins to display uncharacteristic behavior, not unnoticed by his fellow surgeons. Derek learns from Meredith that Richard has since resumed drinking and feels forced to have him removed as Chief of Surgery. With mixed feelings, Derek offers him an ultimatum: go into rehab and possibly pick up where he left off after, or quit completely. In seasons three and four, Meredith and Derek 's relationship becomes rocky and they each take time to date other people. Derek 's plans to propose were ruined by a series of unfortunate events in season five. In the season finale, they decide to give their planned wedding to Alex and Izzie. Due to their tight schedule, they instead informally marry and Derek writes down their "promises '' on a post-it note. They legalize their marriage in season seven in order to adopt Zola, a young African orphan treated for spina bifida. They briefly separate after Meredith tampers with their Alzheimer 's trial, jeopardizing her career and tarnishing Derek 's reputation. Zola is taken away from Meredith after a social worker finds out she and Derek are living separately. In later seasons, Derek often griped about how his subsequent interns and residents -- mainly Lexie Grey, Shane Ross and Heather Brooks -- did not quite measure up to Meredith. The social worker comes back and announces they are the official parents of Zola. As Meredith nears the end of her fifth year of residency, she and Derek are torn between staying at Seattle Grace Mercy West or leaving for Boston where Derek would work at Harvard while Meredith would be at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital. Following his rescue from the plane crash that killed Mark and Lexie, Derek learns that he may only regain 80 percent of his hand 's function. He comes to terms with the fact that his career as a surgeon may be over and is grateful that he is alive. When Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez), head of orthopedic surgery, tells him a more risky surgery could give him back full function of his hand or reduce its function if it goes wrong, he agrees, accepting the possibility of never again holding a scalpel. Derek recovers well and Callie clears him to return to work, but it is still weeks later that he feels ready to operate. Derek, Callie and fellow resident Jackson Avery decide to do nerve transplant for his hand. Meredith, newly pregnant with their second child, goes behind his back and calls his sisters so they can donate a nerve to him. Lizzie (Neve Campbell), Derek 's younger sister, agrees to donate a nerve and the surgery is a success. Derek and Meredith 's marriage is strained after he accepted an invitation from the President to participate in the Brain - Mapping Initiative. He went back on his promise to her that he would not add to his current workload in order to devote time to their two young children and allow her the chance to establish her career as a full - fledged attending. Eventually he was offered a position at the National Institutes of Health in Washington, D.C., but Meredith puts her foot down and refuses to leave her hometown and uproot their young family. His youngest sister Amelia (Caterina Scorsone) takes over his position at Grey Sloan. Meanwhile, he and Meredith fight bitterly on and off over whether they should move. After a bad argument, he accepts the job in the heat of the moment and leaves for Washington. While there, he and Meredith talk things out over the phone and come to a mutual conclusion that they both did not want to end their marriage. He tells her that just being with her, raising their children and operating on patients was more satisfying than "saving the world ''. In season 11, Derek is involved in a fatal car accident while driving to the airport for his final trip to Washington. He is able to hear and process auditory input, but unable to speak. He is recognized by Winnie, one of the victims of a crash he assisted in earlier, who tells the surgeons that their patient 's name is Derek and that he is a surgeon as well. The hospital he was taken to was understaffed and his head injury was not detected quickly enough by the interns on duty that night. Although the neurosurgeon on call is paged multiple times, he takes too long to arrive and Derek is declared brain dead. Police arrive at Meredith 's door and take her to see Derek, where she consents to removing him from life support. At the time of his death, Meredith was pregnant with their third child. She gives birth to a daughter whom she names Ellis after her mother. Derek was mentioned or referenced to a number of times in season 12 as the other characters struggle to cope with his sudden death. In the episode "My Next Life '', Meredith had a flashback of their first ever surgery together when a patient named Katie Bryce was admitted to the hospital with a brain aneurysm. Amelia took his death especially hard as he was the sibling she was closest to. At the end of the season, prior to her wedding to Derek 's long - time colleague Owen Hunt, Amelia goes on a nervous rant about how Derek was supposed to be the one to give her away, him having given away their three other sisters at their weddings. When Patrick Dempsey auditioned for the role of Derek Shepherd, he was afraid that he was not going to get the part. Creator Shonda Rhimes ' first reaction was: "The very first time I met him, I was absolutely sure that he was my guy. Reading the lines of Derek Shepherd, Patrick had a vulnerable charm that I just fell for. And he had amazing chemistry with Ellen Pompeo. '' Rhimes admitted that Dempsey 's dyslexia threw her at first, particularly at the first few table readings: "I did not know about Patrick 's dyslexia in the beginning. I actually thought that he did n't like the scripts from the way he approached the readings. When I found out, I completely understood his hesitation. Now that we all know, if he is struggling with a word, the other actors are quick to step up and help him out. Everyone is very respectful. '' Isaiah Washington also auditioned for the part and when he did not get it, he said his reaction was like "I 'd been kicked in the stomach by 14 mules. '' Washington was, however, later cast as Preston Burke. Rob Lowe was also considered to portray Shepherd but turned the role down. Some of the character 's medical cases were inspired by real - life patients of Steve Giannotta, Chair of Neurological Surgery at the University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, whom Rhimes had consulted in writing for Shepherd 's storylines and patients. In January 2014, Dempsey signed a two - year contract to remain on Grey 's Anatomy (then in its tenth season) that would ensure his presence for potential 11th and 12th seasons. However, in April 2015, Dempsey 's character was killed off while his contract was not over yet. Dempsey explained: "it just sort of evolved. It 's just kind of happened. It really was something that was kind of surprising that unfolded, and it just naturally came to be. Which was pretty good. I like the way it has all played out. '' In August 2015, Rhimes commented: The character was later written to be a graduate of Bowdoin College, a liberal arts college in Brunswick, Maine, after an alumnus led a petition signed by over 450 students to "adopt '' the character as an alumnus. Dempsey is from Lewiston, about 18 miles (29 km) away from Brunswick, and was awarded an honorary doctorate by Bowdoin in 2013. Rhimes describes Shepherd as typical "Prince Charming ''. He was planned to be a doctor who does n't really care about anything, who lives in his "own '' universe and has a big sex appeal. A man who is charming, devilishly handsome and the type of guy every girl dreams of, and a man that often makes the wrong decisions, and is often known as a jerk or the ultimate heartbreaker. Rhimes planned to have this kind of character from the beginning, because he was the kind of guy whom girls fall in love with and a character whose storylines could easily be changed. USA Today writer Robert Bianco said: "Derek could, at times, seem like two people, warm and funny one minute, cold and self - involved the next. Dempsey 's gift was in making those two sides seem like part of the same person, while keeping us rooting for that person as a whole. '' With the show concluding its second season, Robert Bianco of USA Today said that Emmy voters could consider him because of the "seemingly effortless way he humanizes Derek 's ' dreamy ' appeal with ego and vanity ''. In the third season, Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger wrote that "the attempt to give the moral high ground back to McDreamy was bad. Dude, whatever happened in New York ceased to count in any kind of grievance tally once you agreed to take Addison back and give things another try. You 're the dick who cheated on her, you 're the one who knew that she found the panties, and still you act like her getting back together with Mark justifies what you did? Wow. I did n't think it was possible for me to dislike anyone on this show more than Meredith, but congratulations, big guy. '' Debbie Chang of BuddyTV noted the character 's immaturity in the fourth season, saying: "The only character who did not make me love him was Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey). How this character is still Shonda 's golden child is beyond me. Yes, we get it. He 's tormented by his love for Meredith, but that does not give him the right to lash out at her when his clinical trial patients are dying. If things do n't go absolutely the way he wants them to, then he refuses to cooperate. How immature can this man possibly be? No amount of heavily styled hair or blue - blue - blue eyes is going to make me warm up to him unless he admits to being the needy, desperate one in the relationship. '' Entertainment Weekly placed Shepherd in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses ''. The character was also listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Male Doctors on TV '' and in BuzzFeed 's "16 Hottest Doctors On Television ''. His relationship with Meredith was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time ''. Victor Balta of Today listed Shepherd and Sloan 's friendship in its "TV 's best bromances ''. He called them "the most exciting couple on Grey 's, '' explaining "they 've demonstrated an easy chemistry that makes for some of the great comic relief around Seattle Grace Hospital with their banter, sage wisdom on each other 's lives, and locker room - style teasing. '' Their bromance was furthermore included in lists by About.com, BuddyTV, Cosmopolitan, Wetpaint. However, following the announcement of Dane 's upcoming departure from the show, Mark Perigard of the Boston Herald felt he and Derek "never clicked like you 'd expect friends would. Any scene they had together ranged from uncomfortable to forced. ''

what does bx stand for in bx cable

BX - wikipedia BX, Bx, and similar may refer to:

who sings the song i want to get next to you

I Wanna get next to you - wikipedia "I Wanna Get Next to You '' is a 1976 soul single written, composed and produced by American songwriter and producer Norman Whitfield, and most famously sung by American R&B band Rose Royce. It is the third official single from the Car Wash soundtrack. The song has also become a staple on oldies radio and on adult contemporary stations. The song talks about how a narrator pleads love for a beautiful woman, except that the young woman is unkind, and does not understand his affection for her, as he wastes his own money calling her, but she does not respond, regardless, he still wants to "get next '' to her. The song became the group 's second top 10 single on the US Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 10, and peaking at number 3 on the Hot Soul Singles chart. The song was also successful worldwide, becoming their second Top 40 hit in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was sung on the popular sitcom in 1995, Martin, in the season three episode, "All the Players Came '', where Martin Lawrence 's character, Jerome, the pimp, sings the song to guest star Pam Grier as part of a competition, facing off with Dolemite and Huggy Bear (played by Rudy Ray Moore and Antonio Fargas) for Detroit 's "Player of the Year '' award, as part of the competition he sings the song poorly which attracts Pam Grier, which he later in the episode wins unanimously. In the same year, the sound was also featured on the soundtrack to the popular movie Friday. In 1997, this song was covered by R&B singer Cherrelle, and the R&B duo Christión. The song was also featured on the movie Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle.